The scientific bases of faith

Front matter

Boston

Medical Library

8 The Fenway

Introduction

PAGE

It is not possible to harmonize the words of Scripture with the facts

of Science ; nor is it to be desired ...... 1

Science prospers only when free from theological control . Many infer that Science and Faith have no connexion whatever Proposed treaty of peace on this basis .....

"Why this is impossible to be kept ......

Probability of a connexion from the religious point of view, and

from the scientific ........

It is too early to pronounce it impossible ....

The transformation of scientific ideas must colour religious ones Butler's Analogy : influence of Bacon and Locke in it "We have at the least to adapt its reasoning to our science Religion will be ultimatel3T recognized as not the basis of Science

but the crown .........

Sense in which Science can be a basis for Religion .

The lower is always the basis of the higher : Matter of Life, and

Life of Mind .........

Objection that Religion is older than Science ....

Answer, that the relation of two sciences is not manifest till both

are advanced .........

Science is the basis of Religion, but does not contain its germ . Illustration from the relation of Matter to Life The peculiar truths of Religion are known only by Revelation Contrast of Science and Religion ......

Similar contrast of the abstract and the physical sciences This involves no antagonism .......

The antagonism of science and religion is imaginary ; that of their

teachers is but temporary ......

I aim not at harmonizing or reconciling, but at showing logical and organic connexion ......

Common fundamental conception of Science and Faith

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CONTENTS.

due to the

Similarity of religious and scientific spirits

Love of truth the same in Religion and in Science

Intellectual humility .....

Intellectual independence ....

The scientific spirit may regenerate theology .

Various effects of science in modifying our conceptions of the

universe, moral as well as physical .

Possibility of natural science .....

Discovery of an order in the universe Astronomical discoveries .....

Things are not what they seem ....

Our earth is one of many worlds . . . .

Moral bearing of this truth .....

It has not had the influence it merits. This may be

dogma of the Fall, which is now no longer credible Science has become historical ....

The nebular theory .....

The evolution of living forms, and of human society Continuity of all history ....

All evidence is against a Fall ....

Science has changed our ideas of the relation between

Two causes of this ......

Prominence now given to dynamic conceptions in physical science These are not altogether new, but are more obvious now than

formerly .......

Progress of mental science ....

Psychology gives no ground for the belief in a distinct mental

substance ; but shows mind as a concomitant of nervous action Summary ...

Note.

Explanation of the word Energy as distinguished from Force .

matter and

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Chapter I. Metaphysical And Positive Philosophy

The Positive Philosophy . . . . . . . .17

Better called negative 17

Comte's fundamental dogma, that all knowledge is only phenomenal 18 Inference that theology and metaphysics are impossible ... 18 Revelation possibly consistent with Comte's dogma. ... 18

Statement of his view . . . . . . . . .19

l.'i I igi< hi and Philosophy are attempts to explain the universe . . 19 Three kinds of attempted explanations : theological or mythological,

metaphysical, and inductive ....... 19

CONTENTS. Xlll

PAGE

These have been successively developed . . . . . .21

Difficulty of proving such an historical theory from the indeiinite-

ness of the facts ......... 21

The three modes of philosophizing are in some degree mutually

Contrast of theology and science, and of metaphysical and inductive

Comte rejected theology and metaphysics, because only inductive

science throws light on the facts of the universe ... 22 Syllogistic statement of his argument . . . . . .22

I admit one premise, but deny the other . . . . • . .23

We cannot reason from God to nature, but we may reason from

If theology is true, it is all-important . . . . .23

Inductive Science is the same as Positive Science, except that mathematics is not inductive : it begins from observation ; it includes

mental science, and the science of language and of history . 24 What is the province of metaphysics ? . . . . .24

Metaphysics defined . . . . . . . . .24

Inductive Science begins from Observation, Metaphysics from

Consciousness . . . . . . . . . .24

They are opposite, and mutually supplementary .... 25

Their problems are different ........ 25

Metaphysical error of Descartes, that what is clearly conceived is true 25 Converse, error of applying inductive methods to metaphysical

Mr. Buckle on moral freedom ........ 26

Metaphysical and Inductive philosophy in ancient Greece . . 26 Eleatics and Ionians . * . . . . . . .26

Plato and Aristotle . . - 26

Quotation from Browning's Paracelsus ...... 26

What are the metaphysical problems ? . . . .26

They are distinct from the inductive ones ..... 27

The inductive problems are to ascertain the laws of nature . . 27 The problems of inductive science may be regarded as equations, and

its results as the discovery of their roots ..... 27

Roots may be found, while their interpretation remains unknown . 27 The solutions of inductive science are of this kind .... 28

To interpret the roots is the work of Metaphysics .... 28

Illustration from Chemistry ........ 28

Matter and Force are explicable by Inductive Science only in terms

Metaphysics has to interpret them as functions of known terms . 29 Inductive Science inquires into the laws of nature, Metaphysics

into the underlying reality ....... 29

Space and Time . - . . . . . . . .30

Sensations can only be known directly ...... 30

Science can tell, not what they are, but how they are produced . 30

Optics and Acoustics . . . . . . . . .30

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PAOE

The sensations of light and sound are functions of physical circumstances .......... 31

Luminous undulations interpretable only in terms of the sensation

of light 31

Matter is interpretable only in terms of sensation .... 32

This does not exhaust the question ....... 32

Double meaning of light and sound ...... 32

Cause of sensation inexplicable ....... 33

Sensation from the Inductive and from the Metaphysical points of

view 33

Physical facts from the same two points of view .... 33

Mind from the same two points of view ■. .... 33

Inductive Psychology ......... 33

Metaphysical Psychology i it affirms Personality, Freedom, and

Kesponsibility . . i . . . . . . .34

The Moral Sense 35

Eelation of Mind to Matter:— the form of the question has been

Illustration from the magnet . . . . . . . .35

"Why men believe in distinct substances of mind and matter . . 36

Summary: — Contrasted results of Inductive and Metaphysical science 36 Both are true . . . . . . . . . .36

Why are the points of view of Observation and of Consciousness

different ? 37

Because the centre of our consciousness does not coincide with that

of the universe . . . . . . . . .37

Our consciousness is developed out of seusatioli t ... 37

But with Divine consciousness it is otherwise . .... 37

To what purpose are these inquiries ?....«. 38

In what sense metaphysics is unpractical . .. . . .38

Its value in the formation of character , . . . 39

Note A.

Eelation of Logic and Mathematics to the Inductive and Metaphysical sciences ......... 40

Classification of the Sciences ........ 40

Position of Logic .......... 40

Position of Mathematics ........ 40

Alternative classification ........ 41

Position of Ethics and Psychology 41

Note B.

Apparent contradiction explained ... ... 41

CONTENTS. XV

Chapter II. The Metaphysical Interpretation Op Nature

Problem of the underlying reality of the physical world, apart from our perceptions of it .......

Mill's reply : why unsatisfactory . „ * ,

Berkeley's reply ; why unsatisfactory ,

No ful repiy is possible . .....

Another line of inquiry ....<. ,

Statical and dynamical properties of matter . *

The statical were formerly most attended to ;

The dynamical are now seen to be as important

The statical haye no analogies with mind : but the dynamical have

Force is a fact of both matter and mind ....

Force is co-extensive with matter, and as indestructible .

The forces of the universe circulate in our bodily and mental life

Is mind then material ?..... k , .

Physical forces rather are spiritual ......

The conception of matter is resolvable into that of force . Matter is consequently spiritual ......

Conclusions of the preceding chapter and of this The question, What is force ? is still insoluble ■.

Sympathy with nature ........

Had the universe a beginning ?......

The affirmative and negative answers equally inconceivable The affirmative is proved by inductive science ....

The nebular theory ........

" Dissipation of energy " . . . . . . „

A change in the laws of nature would be an absolute beginning Question of the origin of the universe .....

If any answer is possible, it must be that it is of God Summary ..........

Belief in a Divine Creator .......

Chapter III. The Meaning Of The Moral Sense

Two distinct questions : What is Duty ? and What is Conscience ? Deontology ..........

Ethics

These may be treated inductively ......

Further metaphysical question ......

The morality of actions is tested by their tendency .

But this will not explain the moral sense ....

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XVI CONTENTS.

PAGE

Utilitarian or experience theory of the moral sense . . . .54

Origin of the love of money by association ..... 55

The only test of .such a theory is whether the alleged causes exist

and are adequate ......... 55

In this case the causes exist, but it is not certain that they are

Analogy to the question of the nature of life ..... 56

Utilitarian and Ethical theories . . . . . . .56

Ethics treats of character, Deontology of actions . . 56

The question stated . . . . . . . . .56

The charge of selfishness against the utilitarian' theory is unjust, but it is unfavourable to moral elevation. It is not false, but insufficient ... . . . . . . .57

On the utilitarian theory, happiness is the only absolute end ; on

the Ethical, goodness is one also ...... 57

The question is to be decided by the moral sense itself ... 58 On the utilitarian theory, moral admiration ought to resemble the ■

admiration of useful things . . . . . . .58

But it does resemble the admiration of beautiful things ... 59 The beautiful is not the useful ....... 59

Beauty is that which gives a peculiar and elevated pleasure . .60 Mill distinguishes pleasures as higher and lower . . . .60

This admits an ethical principle and surrenders the utilitarian . 60

The value of the pleasure of self-approbation does not depend on

duration for its value .. . . . . . ..61

Martyrdom to duty .... . . . . .61

Care for the dead : not resolvable into loVe of happiness . . 62

Rationality of the moral sense . . . . . . .62

On the utilitarian theory, the love of moral good is like the love

Actual contrast between the two . . . . . . .63

Utilitarianism will not justify the sacrifice of happiness to duty . 64 Case of the virtue of kindness ....... 64

Belief based on experience may be changed by experience . . 65 This is most recognized by the most cultivated minds ... 65 This is not true of belief in logical axioms, nor in moral principles 65 Belief in the unchangeableness of moral truth is weak in the ignorant, strong in the cultivated ...... 66

We believe it of a future life ........ 66

This has no basis in logic, nor in experience . . . . .66

Double contrast of moral and physical beliefs .... 67

We believe in moral law because we arc part of the spiritual universe 68 Happiness is not the ground of goodness, though its result . . 68 Objection answered ......... 68

Results of the two theories in the spiritual region .... 69

Illustration from mathematics ....... 69

Effect of the two theories on the formation of character ... 69 Independent value of holiness 70

CONTENTS.

.TV J I

Note.

the sinfulness of suicide.

Why suicide is condemned by utilitarianism . Christian condemnation of suicide ....

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Chapter IV. The Freedom Of The Will

Our idea of "Will is given by our consciousness

Will is a case of Causation .......

What is Causation ?........

Inductive science alone cannot answer this ■ .

It defines causes as ouly conditions, and the law of universal causa

tion as synonymous with the uniformity of nature . From the inductive point of view, causation is known by generaliza

tion ; from the metaphysical, it is known by consciousness

mental process ........

Further question : What is the connexion between the fact Causation and the law of Uniformity ? . . . .

Belief in the uniformity of nature is due to experience . It is not specially connected with the idea of causation . Uniformities of succession and of co-existence Summary ...........

Agency a better word than Causation for the present purpose . Reason asserts that Action implies an Agent, but it tells nothing of

the uniformity of causation ......

The effect of a cause acting on the mind from without is capable of

being predicted ........

But is the same true of voluntary determination ? .

The uniformity of causation is known by experience only

Is the will of man an exception ?......

Obvious analogies are against this : but they mislead Illustration ;.........

Life is an exception to the universality of physico-chemical laws

why not will to the uniformity of causation ? . The Creator has self-determining power : may not this reappea

in Man ?

Freedom is more mysterious than Necessity ....

But the doctrine of Necessity only changes, not solves, the difficulty

Verbal ambiguity cleared up .

The question stated ........

The will of man is not an originating cause. The question is

whether it is able to alter the direction of causation Self-determination is higher than determination by motives, and is

developed out of it .

Can the will do anything more than weigh motives ?

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CONTENTS.

PAGR

Freedom begins with the conflict of motives . .... 82

The a priori arguments on both sides are indecisive ; but the burden

of proof is on the advocates of freedom ..... 82

The proportion of life to matter is infinitesimal, and so is the proportion of the sphere of freedom to that of necessity . . 83 Matter exists for the sake of life, and so necessary law may exist

for the sake of free beings ....... 83

Argument for necessity from statistical regularity, inconclusive . 84

May not many freedoms make one necessity ] ..... 84

Argument from consciousness, on the side of freedom, inconclusive . 85 Guilt and Merit not identical with Sin and Holiness . . .85 Ground of the distinction . . . . . , . .86

Guilt is voluntary sin ......... 86

The distinction is made by consciousness . . . . .86

Self-disapprobation and self-condemnation . . . 86

On this ground I conclude moral freedom to be a reality . . 86

Sense in which the cpiestion of freedom is unpractical ... 87

Effect of belief on this subject on the formation of character . . 87 Eational conceptions of the universe are possible only to a religious

Force, Intelligence, Consciousness, and Freedom are divine . . 88

Note A.

Quotations from Newman's " Grammar of Assent " ... 89

Note B.

God's Omnipotence does not exclude freedom ; nor does His Foreknowledge .......... 90

Chapter V. The Bases Of Knowledge

Faith is the proof of things not seen ... ... 91

Example : belief in a future life 91

Paradoxical nature of Faith ........ 92

Defence of the paradox ......... 92

The capacity for belief is an ultimate fact ..... 92

Belief is of something external to consciousness . . . .92

Science also is the proof of things not seen . . . . ,93

Demand for verification ......... 94

There may be proof which cannot be reduced to scientific form .. 94 Verification rests on assumptions that neither need nor admit of

verification .......... 94

Natural beliefs 94

Logical and mathematical beliefs are self-justified, and do not

approach to faith . . . . . . . .94

CONTENTS.

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Belief in the past, the future, and the external, approaches to faith Belief in the trustworthiness of memory ..... Belief in personal identity involved in this, and made known by

consciousness only .......

Belief in the uniformity of the order of nature

All reasoning respecting that which has existence implies this

It does not refer only to the future .....

It is not due to experience ......

Association of ideas alone cannot produce belief

Should we expect to find nature uniform if it were not so ?

In that case the mind would have been developed under different

laws .....

Belief cannot originate in experience The beliefs in the veracity of memory and in the order of nature do

not justify themselves They may be imagined untrue They are not absolute, only preponderant They are consequently without verification, yet on them all verifica

tion rests Consistent scepticism is impossible Argument for Scepticism, that we are fallible, and cannot be sure of

Reply, that natural beliefs belong not to the individual, but to the race Objection, that to trust other men is to trust our own judgment of

their trustworthiness ........

This is not the fact .........

We think with the intelligence not of the individual but of the race Mysticism . ...

Practical scepticism is impossible, but speculative scepticism is not so Statement of the argument for the latter .....

Kant's so-called Idealism

The mind in thought is not isolated from the universe

The laws of mind are so because they are laws of the universe

This cannot be proved : but it harmonizes and rationalizes our

knowledge ........

"We end the inquiry where we began, but not as we began Transcendent element in thought and belief . The logical intelligence is not untrustworthy but limited Summary ....

Three bases of knowledge

Immediate consciousness

Logical intelligence

Instinctive intelligence .

[My theory is due to the physiological school of psychology

It is a better basis for faith than the rival idealist theory

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Note.

.'Extract from Mozley's Bampton Lectures on Miracles

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C( INTENTS.

Chapter VI

the roof

THE MEANING OF FAITH.

Evidence without demonstration may be as good as demonstration . This suggests that there may be reasonable certitude without verification : though not without proof .

Relation of verification to original proof . Its position in mathematics ....

Relation of faith to proof ....

Faith in principles .

Instances : free trade : conical refraction

Effort of faith

Unobvious verification .....

Faith was needed to believe in the earth's motion

Avas new .

In what sense science rests on faith Science and faith are from the same root Their root in the instinctive life .

In their rudimentary form, they are shared by animals Faith in man . . . . . .

Faith expects and anticipates verification Ethical judgments are independent of formal proof The same is apparently true of other judgments Difference of the cases . . . . .

In ethical judgments, there is not always any common measure

between minds . . . .

The same is true of moral judgments Proof in morals is impossible ....

All depends on insight .....

Questions as to the trustworthiness of insight Logical difficulty

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Note.

Extracts from Motley's Bampton Lectures on Miracles

CHAPTER VII. Summary of two preceding chapters

Faith is not lowered by referring it to its root in the instinctive

trust of man in man ........

The objects of our faith are generally superior beings to ourselves . Formation of character is mainly due to the influences of higher

nature?! acting through faith .......

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CONTENTS.

XXI ill as f the

Justification by faith rather than by verification

Logical difficulty as to the possibility of faith

We do not judge of character by results ....

Certitude is possible respecting the character of superior as

equal natures to our own . . . . .

Such certitude is reasonable, though without logical basis Logical difficult}'" about knowing God .... How can an object of worship be anything but the ideal

worshipper ?........

How can God reveal Himself ? .....

Eeply : the objection is refuted by facts ....

Quotation from "EcceHomo" .....

Analogy is in favour of the possibility of a revelation of God to man Re-statement of the difficulty: How is faith possible ? Reply, that it is in fact possible .....

Faith is only a higher form of the power of ordinary belief

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