Habit and intelligence: a series of essays on the laws of life and mind

Preface To The Second Edition

This second edition is so nearly re-written as to be practically a new work.

It is now nearly ten years since the first edition was published. Knowledge has been rapidly increasing since then, and, though much occupied with various other matters of deep interest, I have been thinking, reading, and conversing on the subjects of this work, with the result, that while I have seen reason to change my opinions on many subordinate questions, I am as deeply convinced as ever of the necessity for recognising the action in all life, both organic and mental, of an intelligent agency which cannot be explained as a resultant from unintelligent forces.

The Introduction to the first edition, which consisted of an essay on historical methods in science, is not republished ; and the Preface to the first edition is printed, with no important change, as the Introduction to this,

I have omitted all the chapters of the first edition which treated of merely physical science, as distinguished from the science of Life and Mind, as well as those whicli consist of mere resumds of generally known facts and laws bearing

VI

Preface

on the doctrine of Evolution. I have also omitted the chapter on the Senses, and the three chapters on the Classification, the History, and the Logic of the Sciences. Witli the exception of that on the Senses, which does not seem worth repuhlication, the purpose of these omissions has been merely to avoid making the work too bulky with material which is not directly relevant to its main subject.

On the other hand, chapters have been inserted on the Facts of Variation, on the Effect of Change of Conditions, and on Mimicry, Colour, and Sexual Selection. These are mostly abstracted from the enormous mass of detail noted in Darwin’s works; and I hope that they may be not only serviceable in illustrating the reasonings of this work, but useful in themselves as constituting an accurate and readable summary of interesting and important facts. The following chapters are also altogether new, and are the most original in the work: —

Classification and Parallel Variation. (Chapter XIII.)

Classification and the lixation of Characters. (Chapter XIV.)

Structure in Anticipation of Function. (Chapter XVIII.)

The Origin of Man. (Chapter XIX.)

Automatism. (Chapter XXXII.)

The chapter on hletamorphosis and Metagenesis is mostly new. The p.sychological chapters are re-written and much improved; and there are few chapters which are not in a considerable degree re-written.

PEEFACE.

Vll

I have to express my obligation to my friend Dr. Cunningham, Professor of Natural History at Queen’s College, Belfast, for much valuable information, and for his kindness in revising the proofs of the zoological chapters ; and to my friend Frederic Purser for his kindness in doing the same for the psychological chapters. This does not however make either of those gentlemen in any way responsible for the opinions I have expressed.

Joseph John Murphy.

Old Foege, Dunmdeky, Co. Anteim, 29/7i October, 1878.

Chapter II. The Dynamics Of Life

Energy defined as that which does work . . . . . . .10

Difference between Force and Energy . . . . . . . .10

Potential and Actual Energy . .10

Energy may be stored. — The Hydraulic Accumulator . . . .11

The Conservation of Energy and its Transformations . . . . 12

Chemical Energies transformed into Heat during Combination ... 13

Compounds that take up Energy in their formation . . . . .14

Organic compounds belong to this class . . . . . . .14

Opposite relations of Vegetables and Animals to Matter . . . .15

Opposite relations of Vegetables and Animals to Energy .... 16

Dynamic action of Vegetables in decomposing Carbonic Acid . . .16

h

X

CONTENTS.

Vegetables have a double, Animals only a single, relation to the Inorganic

World 18

Animal Motor Energy is derived from the Oxidation of the Food . . 18

All Organisms transform both Matter and Energy 18

Energy of Organization 19

Energy of Life depends on Supply of Oxygen 20

Vital Energy . S' 21

The Nutritive System transforms Matter : the Nervo-muscular transforms

Energy 21

All Organisms produce Motion 21

Motive Powers of Vegetables 22

Production of Light and Electricity by Animals 23

Energy stored by the Organism illustrated by the Hydraulic Accumulator . 24

Vital Energy does not explain Life 25

Muscular Heat in Healthy Action 25

Abnormal Production of Heat in Disease ....... 26

Heat produced at Death 26

hlotor Energy produced at Death . 27

Heat produced by Animals during Starvation .27

Experiments on the Nervo-m oscular System of Animals .... 28

Heat-producing Power of the Nervous System 29

The Source of Animal Heat is Chemical 30

Pick and Wislicenus on Muscular Work 30

hluscles charged with Energy are Relaxed 30

Restoration of Vital Energy in Sleep 31

Hybernating Animals 31

Buoyancy and Fatigue 31

Generality of the Law of Fatigue ........ 32

Relation of Muscular Contraction to Electric Stimulus .... 32

The Nature of Vital Energy is Inexplieable 32

Assimilation of Energy .......... 33

General Definition of Life 33

Note A.

NATURE OF VITAL EXEnOV.

Question as to the Nature of Vital Energy 34

Dr. Radclifie’s Electric Tlieory of Muscular Action ..... 34

Hermann’s Chemical Theoiy of Muscular Action . • • ■ .34

Note B.

EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON BODILY TEMrERATURES.

The Relation between the Storing of Energy in the Organism and the production of Heat

CONTENTS.

xi

Chapter III. The Origin Of Life

PAGE

Question whether Life can be evolved from Matter

Experimental evidence seems in the negative ...... 36

Such evidence cannot be conclusive either way ...... 36

All alleged Chemical Production of Life is from Organic Substances . . 37

The Distinction between Living and Dead Matter appears to be perfectly

Definite ... 38

The Vital Principle and the “ Watch -principle ” 38

Huxley on “Aquosity” .......... 39

Reply ; Difference between Crystallization and Life 40

Probable conclusion that Life, like the Universe, was created at a definite

time 41

Clerk Maxwell on the Origin of the Universe 42

Clerk Maxwell on the Origin of Matter 43

Possibility of Successive Creative Acts ....... 44

The Origin of Species is a Distinct Question from that of Life ... 45

Seed-bearing Meteors. .......... 45

Chapter IV. Organization

Life is the Cause, not the Effect, of Organization . . . . .46

lUustration from Inorganic Nature . . . . . . . .46

Formative Power of Germinal Matter ....... 46

All the Germinal Matter of the same Organism is probably Alike . . 47

AU Germs are perfectly Simple and visibly Alike ..... 47

Their Different Properties cannot be accounted for by Differences of Molecular Structure .47

Organization defined as Adaptation of Structure to Function ... 48

Three Chief Relations in Physical Science : Cause, Resemblance, Purpose . 48

Cause Predominates in the Dynamical Sciences ...... 49

Chemistry, how far Classificatory . . . . . . . .49

Crystallography is a Classificatoiy Science . . . . . . .49

Morphology, the Classificatory Part of Biology ...... 50

Physiology, the Functional Part of Biology ...... 60

Distinction of Purpose from all other Relations ...... 60

Purpose is most Traceable where Cause is least so ; . . . .61

Inaccuracy of the expression Final Cause ....... 62

The Purposes in Organization arc only Relative ...... 62

h 2

CONTENTS.

xii

Chapter V. D E V E L 0 P M E N T

PAGE

Development and Repair 5.3

Germinal Matter and Formed Material 64

Instance in Gromia . . ^. . . . 54

Germinal Matter in the Higher Organisms .54

Propagation among the Lower and the Higher Organisms .... 55

CeUular Structure and Muscular Fibre . ... . . . .65

Chapter VI. The Direction Of Development

High Organization consists in Distinctness of Dissimilar Parts ... 67

Physiological Division of Labour 57

Interchange of Functions between Organs 58

Physiological Centralization 58

Morphological Definiteness 59

Separation of Hard External from Soft Internal Parts . . . .59

Separation of the Reproductive from the Nutritive Organs . ... 60

Vascular Structure ... .... .... 60

The Nervo-muscular System is the peculiar Animal Character ... 61

Classificatory Distinctions are seldom Absolute . ... . . 61

Analogy between the Nervous and the Vascular Systems . . . .61

What Nerves Transmit is Stimuli ........ 63

Electric Action on Nerve .......... 63

Parallelism between the Nervous and the Vascular Systems ... 63

Action of the Nervous on the Vascular System . . . . . .64

The Action is not Reciprocal ......... 65

Contrast between the Relations of Blood and Nerve to Muscle ... 65

Nerve-Fibres and Ganglia .......... 66

Note.

The Contractility of the Filaments of the Thistle 67

Chapter VII. Oroanic Subordination

Organic Differentiation and Integration 68

Organic Dependence and Subordination 68

Similar Relations in the Inorganic World 68

COIS TENTS.

xiii

PAQE

DjTiamics the Basis of Physical Science 69

Basis of Biology in Physics and Chemistry 70

Series of Sciences 70

Dependence of one Science on another . 70

The Dependence is not Eeciprocal . . . . . . . .71

Obligation to Comte ........... 71

Dependence of Mental on Animal, and of Animal on Yegetative Life . 71

The Series continued . . .72

Subordination of Organic Functions . . . . . . . .73

Matter Subordinate to Life, and Life to Mind . ... . . .73

Dependence necessary ; Subordination not so 75

Chapter VIII. Organic Functions

Classification of Organic Functions 76

Different Classifications for Different Purposes 76

Chemical Functions . . .76

Structural Functions. — Formation of Tissue 77

Growth and Development 78

Formation of Organs 79

Classification of the Vegetative Functions 79

Animal Functions 79

Four Grades of the Motor Function 80

Spontaneous Motion . • 80

Reflex Action or Motion in Response to a Stimulus ..... 81

Consensual Action 82

Difference between Sentient and Insentient GangUa . . . . .83

Voluntary Action 83

Sensory Fimctions 84

Tabular Summary .85

Development of Functions by Differentiation 85

Gradation between the Formative and the Motor Functions ... 86

Chapter IX. Habit And Variation

Definition of Habit 87

All Vital Actions become Habitual 87

Habit and Instinct ........... 87

Fonnative Habits 88

XIV

CONTENTS.

I'Aur.

Apparent cases of Habit in the Inorganic World . . . . .89

Difference between these and True or Organic Habits : Hereditary Transmission 90

Inherited Characters appear sometimes at the same Age as in the Parent,

soihetimes Earlier . . . . 91

Instance of Inherited Character ........ 91

Habits are Changeable .......... 91

Habits are Spontaneously Variable 92

Laws of Variation : Habits of Varying : Instance of acquiring Languages 92 Habits are Weakened and Destroyed by Disuse ...... 93

This is a case of the general Law 93

Prominence and Tenacity of Habits 93

Latent Habits : Reversion 95

The Laws of Habit are Elementary Laws of Life ..... 96

Active Habits Strengthen, Passive Impressions Weaken, by Repetition:

Instance of the effect of an Unaccustomed Sound .... 96

The same is true of the Unconscious Life. Effect of Medicines and

Stimulants. Action of the Heart under a Stimulus .... 97

General Law respecting Passive Impressions : Instance of Climbing Plants 98 Organs Grow with Exercise ......... 99

The Laws of Habit are true of both Mind and Body ..... 99

The Laws of Habit do not account for every particular Habit . . .99

Summary. Elementary Laws of Habit, with their Corollaries . . .100

Great and Sudden Changes in the Circumstances of Life are Destructive . 101

Great Changes of Habit are Possible only by being Gradual. Connexion

between these Two Laws . 102

Adaptation, how Effected. Active and Passive Habits .... 103

Beneficial effect of Slight Changes . . . . . . . .105

Benefit of Slight Mixtures of Race . . ...... 105

Mixtures of Unlike Races lf*5

Slight Changes are Agreeable, Great Ones Disagreeable . . . .106

Injurious efifect of Close Breeding ........ 106

Sexuality . . . 107

Generation is only a Modification of the General Vital Process . . .107

Reproduction of Algrn ^0^

Simplest Form of Sexual Reproduction in the Lowest Organisms — Separate

Evolution of the Sexes in Animals and in Vegetables . . . .108

Simplest Form of Sexual Distinction ....... 108

Purijose of Sexual Distinction 100

Universal Necessity of Bisexual Generation . . . . . .109

Apparent Exceptions— Plants which do not Seed 109

Hermaphrodite Animals not always Self-fertilizing 110

Hindrances to Self-fertilization in Flowers HO

Diniorjihic Flowers ... .111

CONTENTS.

XV

Note.

GROWTH OF ORGANS WITH EXERCISE.

Why do Organs Grow with Exercise ? Herbert Spencer’s Theory. — Woody Fibre

Possible Nervous Action in Increasing Nutrition in exercised parts . Increased Flow of Blood to exercised parts possibly due to Eelaxatiou of the Nerves of the Arteries . ......