The Science of Education: And Art of Teaching

Front matter

Google to make the world's books discoverable online.

It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject

to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books

Preface

The only apology we make, in offering to the public text-books on Education and Teaching, is, that necessity has driven us to it. A combination of unforeseen events and circumstances, over which we could have but little control, and from whose pressure it was almost impossible to escape, has, as it were, forced the publication of these works, pn the one hand, the entire absence of a text-book of the kind these profess to be, and the universal conviction of. the necessity and practicability of such works; and on the other, the importunities and encouragements of Teachers, and of friends of Education, have led us to undertake a work which, under other circumstances, would have been regarded as the hight of presumption. Under these circumstances, we have written ; but it has been with a conscious sense of insufficiency. What has been written, must, therefore, be veri/ imperfect ; but we have simply done our duty, as we best could.

But we beg leave to say here, that ^e have not written for those who know a great deal more than we do on these subjects ; nor for those who may feel they have no need of help ; but for those who are struggling into the light, and for those who may never, as yet, have felt the responsibilities of their labors. There . are thousands of such teachers ; and for these, and also for parents (for without their cooperation no ade-

IV PREFACE.

quate reform can be effected), we, with the dangers and difficulties, to which they are exposed, constantly before our eyes, have prepared the following pages. ' To awaken a proper sense of responsibility and duty in such, and to give them a knowledge of those technical details so necessary to their success and usefulness, are the specific objects of this book.

We have not the vanity to suppose, however, that we are an oracle to the profession; nor have we the ambition to become one; neither have we the presumption to dictate special modes, nor to offer our plans to the exclusion of all others. This would be traveling out of the line of policy, as well as of good sense. It would be downright empiricism. But we have endeavored so to present the whole subject of Human Culture, and so to lay open and enforce the principles of right Education and Teaching, that the humblest may understand; so that by a careful study of these principles, every teacher and parent may be able rather to build up his own system, and exercise his own judgment in the special application of them, than to adopt, entirely, the measures of another ; for any one can see that to attempt to develop the Teaching Talent by cumbering it with, the real or supposed excellencies of special methods exclusively, would be like prescribing special modes of treatment for the cure of all diseases, irrespective of their character or the constitutional peculiarities of the patient. This would be empiricism indeed; since it would deny the privilege of individual judgment, investigation and discovery. So, to palm off upon teachers as qualifications, the plans and specialities (and too frequently the errors and whims) that m«y Jiave been successful in the hands of others, without developing native ability,

PREFACE. V

would tend only to circumscribe the limits of improvement, and to cripple individual talent and enterprise. And on the otheir hand, to discuss general theories, and to enlarge upon the importance and advantage of Education, without reducing the theories to practice, would be equally objectionable.

We have tried to guard carefully against these two extremes; and we entertain the hope that the merits of the subjects presented, aside from the manner in which they are treated, will be a sufficient passport to public favor. With this hope, and claiming only that indulgence which is the common right of mortals, and which we know a courteous public will grant, we present this book to the candid consideration of Teachors and friends of Education.

Cincinnati, July, 1879.

Article I. Objective Period 88

Article II. Transition Period 97

Article III. Subjective Period 106

Chapter Fifth— Physical Education 117

Article I. Hand Culture 122

Article II. Excursion and Labor 133

Article III. Gymnastics 141

(vi)

• •

CONTEOTS. VU

Pagre.

Article I. Observ||||on and Experiment 169

Article II. Lan^iage nnd Description 163

Article IIJ* Investigation and Generalization 172

Article I. The Affections 188

Article II. The Conscience 221

Article III. The Will 228

THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION.

r Obfeclive.

f CA-PACITT and I T^„,t,{^

SUSCEPTIBILITY. S TratuUion.

^ DI8CDBSIVB. J Forces and in THEOBBTICAL. "^ strumxntalities "^ A SCIENCE.

PS

P &

>i3 P Q a 1

o

P Q r

Home duties

DIDACTIC.

PRACTICAL LAN ART.

School-room duties.

r I

BulgecHve.

Oflfeetine.

^aiuition.

Subjective.

Otgective.

Processes and ^ iVaii»««<m.

MODES.

SubjeiUive

Labor.

Jteereation.

Beit.

Prclhtunaries,

Study.

RecitaUon.

Buain«$$.

RecretUioH.

GovemmenL

Physical.

Intellectual.

Moral.

Physical.

Intellectual.

Moral.

Physical.

Intellectual.

Moral.

Physical.

Intellectual.

Moral.

Physical.

Intellectual.

Moral.

Physical.

Physical.

Intellectual.

Moral.

Physical.

Intellectual.

PhyHical.

Moral.

Miscellaneous ^ s. duties. 1

SCIENCE OF EDDCATION.

Introduction

The Science of Education is based upon immutable principles ; and, so far as these principles relate to human beings, they are no less established thAn when they relate to other beings. They exist in the very nature of things, and are co-extensive with man's existence.

The Philosophy of Education is therefore the philosophy of man. The Science of Human Culture is that which relates to his nature, laws of growth, and modes of treatment.

Man is created with Educational Susceptibility j with the undeveloped or latent capacity to know and to do. His powers of feeling and motion, at birth, though in a feeble state, are, nevertheless, more perfect than those of knowing^ willing and doing. His sentient organism constitutes the medium through which, in their nascent state, these faculties of the mind are reached.

Now, these knowing and doing capacities — for they can scarcely be called powers at this stage of their growth — would for ever remain in an undeveloped state, were either the avenues leading to them closed, or were there no instrumentalities employed to reach down to them, to excite them to activity, and to bring them out. (ix)

This presupposes Educational Instrumentalities or Forces, as well as educational capacity, which, in their nature and. constitution, must be adapted to the educational susceptibility, or want. These, again, must be brought in contact with the faculties, in order to excite them to activity and develop them. For, if man possess, originally, educational capacity undeveloped, it would be unwise, if not wicked, to suppose there are no instrumentalities or forces suited to these wants. But on the contrary, for every educational want there is an educational supply precisely tiuited to that want. To argue the opposite of this proposition, would not only lead to infidelity, but would charge God with folly in bringing human beings into the world, with educational wants to torment them, and a capacity to mock them.

The bringing out, the developing atid cultivation of these faculties, presuppose Modes or Processes; for it would be equally unwise to suppose — there being latent capacity, and forces suited to its development — that there were no right and certain modes or processes, by which these educational instrumentalities could be applied to the educational susceptibilities. It would be just as unwise as to suppose that God had created seeds for growth, and a soil every way suited to nourish them, and yet had made it impossible that the two should be brought in contact.

There are, therefore, educational susceptibilities or capacities; and suited to the exact nature of these, there are educational instrumentalities or forces ; and superadded to these, there are certain and right modes .or processes of applying these forces to the capacities : and these plain truths shall constitute the basis of the theoretical part of this work.

To render this matter plain, we assume the foUowrng propositions : 1. That there is no necessary antagonism existing between the educational capacities and their appropriate forces or supplies ^judiciously administered — except that induced by disease or disordered growth, 2. That all true modes of education proceed in exact harmony with the naturCj design and growth of man's faculties^ intellectualy physical and moral, 3. That God ha^ not only made it possible for us to understand the true modes of education^ but that he has made it necessary^ and absolutely imperative. He requires this at our hands.

In reference to the first we remark, that this is true in air intellectual and moral sense, no less than in a physical. The hungry body does not loathe the food that nourishes it : neither does the hungry mind loathe knowledge, or the food that nourishes it : nor yet does the soul abhor the love, the sympathy, the sweet affections that cherish the moral and religious nature; unless one or all of those departments of our being are laboring under the influence of disease. And here we wish to be understood that diseases exist every-where within the dominion of sin ; and that it is the duty and peculiar province of education to alleviate and remove them. There are, therefore, intellectual and moral diseases, as well as those of a purely physical character. The disordered state of one department of our being often induces disorder in the others. And, on the other hand, the healthy condition of the one promotes the health and growth of all the others. These diseases may be considered either as constitutional, chronic, acute or recent in their origin and formation. Indeed, we may conclude that they are all, to a great extent, of the first class ; since sin has so corrupted our entire rare, that the whole being, physical, intellectual and nieral, is tainted, to a greater or lees extent, with the corruptions peculiar to each ; and so deep-seated have become these complaints, that nothing short of Divine agencies, co-operating, it may be, with the human, can avail for their removal. What we mean, therefore, is that this depravity — for by this name it is best known — or this disease, is either aggravated or abated accordi. g as the causes or influences operating have been bad or good, — whether we consider these as having operated in the past, or as still operating in the present, generations of men.

And now it becomes a matter of the* gravest importance, a question of most startling significance : can these diseases be removed or alleviated by any means, human or Divine, or by both of these agencies combined ? We infer, as before intimated, that they can, since they admit of increase and decrease. The causes of difficulty removed, and a class of opposite influences at work, would surely produce opposite results. The steps by which we have descended to our present depth, retraced, would surely bring us back to the point whence we started, provided the nature of our ofiense did not render it impossible. This, we apprehend, is the case, so far, at least, as absolute perfection is concerned. But we have unbounded faith in the efficacy of the remedial agents, provided by the merciful Being .who first gave us our powers, and commanded us to keep and perpetuate them. But since man failed to do this, through a greater than creative kindness, the same Being has provided a ransom in the atonement, so ample as to reach to the lowest depths of his depravity, renovating his moral nature, healing his moral disease, and thereby rendering it possible, at least, by a course of education and discipline, by obedience to the laws of his being, and a strict observance of the laws of God, to retrace those steps, and regain, if not a primitive and absolute state of perfection, at least, to attain to the subliniest bights of human excellence.

Education, therefore, in its largest sense, proposes, the alleviation and removal of those diseases, so far, at least, as human instrumentality can be efficient in so difficult a case* And while we claim for it, only that it is human, and therefore subject to error, nevertheless, it should always so co-operate with Divine agencies as to produce the results anticipated. To inquire earnestly after this way, to learn the real nature and importance of a true education, and to enforce its claims to the highest possible place in human consideration, shall be our present object.

Our second proposition is, that all true modes of education proceed in exact harmony with the nature, design and growth of man^s faculties, etc. The correctness of this position will at once be admitted; for, to admit its opposite, would be to admit the establishment of discord instead of harmony in the works of the Creator. At no stage of growth, should the educational forces and processes interfere with the natural order of development. This would be no less disastrous here than would any interference with the natural conditions, supplies, and laws of growth, in the vegetable world. All true methods of educating man, therefore, must be based upon sound philosophy; for if education, as such, has any claims to the dignified title of Science, its operations must proceed in harmony with the nature, design,and laws of growth pertaining to the subject of such education, and in accordance with the principles involved in such science. And then it follows, as a matter of necessity, that those principles and processes are susceptible of classification and arrangement, or else education is no science : for without these conditions no science can exist. And then again, if these principles and processes can be thus classified and arranged, they can be studied and mastered ; and if they can be classified, arranged, studied and mastered, they can be applied in the education of every human being — not beyond the reach of education — just jis definitely, though, perhaps, not with as certain results, as the principles and processes of chemistry and mathematics are studied and applied in agriculture and the arts. And, surely, the claims of this science upon our consideration are as urgent as any other, if we consider the character, the value of the materials, and the agents with which it proposes to operate.

The agriculturist, for instance, can afford to make a mistake in raising a crop; so can the mechanic, in building a ship or a house; for these appertain only to the grosser interests and perishable substances. The painter can afford to make a mistake in mingling his colors, or in giving form and expression to the features of his picture ; or he can afford to see it blurred and marred, and even rent asunder by unskilled or wicked hands ; for, in sncb case, the only loss is the waste of material and labor, and, perchance, his hopes of gain. The sculptor can afford to see his beautiful figure, upon which he has spent years of anxious toil, shattered to atoms in his presence, or sunk to the bottom of the ocean. The loss might be more than compensated by reproduction. But who will undertake to compensate for the loss of a human being, freighted with a deathless cargo of eternal interests? Who will undertake to repair the damages done to an immortal spirit? Who will undertake to remove the blurs and

FN TRODUCTION. 1 5

fitaius from the face of human character, or to stop the influences involved in error? The agriculturist, the artist, and all material workers can well afford to make mistakes; but in educating boys and girls, in forming habits and molding character, in giving direction to the energies of immortal minds, in rearing and training human beings for their duties and responsibilities here, and their destiny hereafter, we can not afford to make mistakes. These are more costly and enduring than the senseless stone, or the inanimate clod. The influences evolved, too, are of a more enduring nature; for the mistakes or the master-strokes here, unlike those upon the canvas or the marble, perpetuate themselves, and operate on other beings to all eternity. ^If then it becomes necessary that the agriculturist and the artist have knowledge of the character of their materials, and skill to manage them; if it becomes necessary that they have rules and definite methods by which to make application of the principles of their peculiar sciences; much more does this necessity increase, when we come to apply the same principle to thai most difficult and enduring, that most artistic of I all arts, the art of educating human beiugs.N

The question seems to be settled therefore, as to the importance and necessity both of accurate and extensive knowledge upon these subjects, and of rules by which to be guided in the applications. The possibility of such rules seems the only point now.

Our third proposition reads as follows: That God j ( has not only made it possible for us to understand the true ' ; modes of education^ but that he has made it necessary, ab* ' ' 8olutely imperative.

We are at liberty,here, to draw the following conclusions: 1. That God requires us to do nothing but what is right. Wrong is opposed to right, is the offshoot of evil, and therefore can not be included. He has commanded us further, or at least given us as a sacred precept, " To train up a child in the way he should go." This is right, and,because it is thus given, it is obligatory. It, of course, presupposes knowledge of that way, and skill to direct others in it. 2. He does not require of us any impossibilities ; or, in general, what is necessary for the accomplishment of any good purpose, is possible. Right modes of education are necessary, and therefore possible. This is conclusive. God has not created a single necessity, in all his dominions, without, at least, indicating the mode of supply ; and we go still further and 8ay,that there is not a single evil existing under the sun but what has its appropriate remedy, though it may possibly be beyond the reach of man. To suppose the contrary would be to admit that God has been defeated in establishing the order of creation and providence. So that we shall be safe in concluding that whatever is right or necessary, is possible ; and further, that there is both a necessity here and a possibility of supplying it.

The investigation now turns upon the nature and extent of our knowledge, and the characteristics of those principles, rules and modes of application best adapted to produce the required results.

It will be readily granted, we think, that this knowledge must be peculiar ; that it must reach beyond the mere range of scholastic attainments ; that no knowledge, however perfect, relating to mere common jsubjects, will be of any further utility here than as a mere instrument by which the education of the individual may be promoted. Hence, the popular idea of education appears to be erroneous, so far, at least, as it makes education consist in the mere acquisition of knowledge, without any reference to its uses as a means of accomplishing the end ; for a man is not thoroughly educated until he knows how to educate other men.^

Man's education, therefore, consists in the ability he acquires to use his powers of thinking, willing and doing ; and the chief uses of knowledge, aside from the enlarged scope it gives to these powers, is so to discipline, subdue and strengthen them, as that they may be able, both to control their own energies, and to operate with due force upon surrounding objects. No mere amount of knowledge, therefore, can compensate for the want of discipline and vigor, which constitute the sole object and the end of education. But the mere acquisition is best accomplished at the same time, and in connection with the best discipline ; so that in true education, the two processes mutually aid each other. [ '" The proper study of mankind is man." To the educator, no knowledge is so important as self-knowledge, or that which relates to man and his education. It ranks highest, both as it relates to discipline and to its utility in the education of others. Indeed it is the " Scientia Scientiaraniy" since it relates to all sciences, and teaches their propet* uses. In this sense, it is to him, though more general in its character, and intrinsic in its merits, what diagnostics and therapeutics are to the physician. Without this knowledge, the teacher would be fitly represented by an individual having a large collection of drugs and medicines, yet ignorant of their eflfect upon the human system. He would be unable to wield his instrumentalities skillfully in the accomplishment of the purposes for which they were intended. '

Butthe educator should, above all other artists, know 2 the nature and capacity of the powers, intellectual, physical, and moral, with which he proposes to operate. He should acquaint himself with this wonderworking machine, whose secret springs of thought and motion lie hidden from the eye of the casual observer; and whose products outvie the costliest fabrics of human art. He should not only familiarize himself with their nature, capacity, and laws of growth, but, as far as possible, with their antecedent iaflnenoes; that he may judge with greater clearness and accuracy in the selection of mean« and modes to be employed in their subsequent treatment. But here, as in every other case where great interests are involved, however certain and reliable the means in themselves may be, such is the imperfection of human knowledge and experience, that there is a constant demand for Divine aidjto give potency to the means employed. The educator is, at best, but the w-eak instrument in the hands of the wise Disposer of events ; and his strength for good or for evil, is usually measured by the presence or absence of this Divine guidance ; and it is safe to say further, that his moral force is regulated by his ideas of God, and the estimate he places upon the observance of his precepts.

Again : so intricate and multiform are the shades of distinctions in the intellectual, moral and physical fabric ; and such a diversity obtains in the capacities, both with respect to the natural endowment of children and to the influences that have been brought to bear upon them, that no two results, precisely similar, can safely be predicated of the same forces operating. The forces, therefore, must be varied to suit every individual case. And here it is proper to remark, that the forces themselves are as various as the individual wants for whose supply they were evidently intended ; and it is because educators do not seek out and observe this harmony and adaptation, that so many- errors are committed in the education of the young.

To adopt a particular course of treatment, and to insist upon its observance in all cases, irrespective of constitutional and acquired diflerences, argue a dogmatism and dullness almost unpardonable. It would surely be regarded in this light, in every other profession. It would be substantially to adopt the theory, that all minds and bodies are of the same type, have the same constitutional peculiarities and educational capacities, and have been exposed to the same antecedent causes.

No human being, therefore, possesses the wisdom, foresight or authority to legislate for the particular cases that arise in a course of education or teaching. Neither was it designed that such should be the case, even to a limited extent. Its effects would be to deprive both teacher and pupil of their appropriate individuality, and to circumscribe the limits of thought and human development.

Hence, many of the improved (?) methods, which have become the particular hobbies of some particular teachers, amount to but little more than an exposition of this error; save so far as these particular methods can be generalized,and referred to a philosophic system of education.

Hence, likewise, those particular plans for teaching the particular branches of science, however excellent in themselves, become useless when put into the hands of one unskilled in the sciences themselves, or ignorant of the nature and capacity of the mind, and of the uses of knowledge. It is like placing a sharp sword in the

I

t hands of a child, that is liable not only to injure others, buf to destroy its own life.

Precisely similar effects are produced by attempting to educate teachers by tilling their heads (more frequently, however, their hats) with diagrams and plans for giving instruction, while they are profoundly ignorant, both of the nature and treatment of mind and(' body, and of the branches to be taught, as well as the objects to be attained in teaching tbem. What can be expected from such a course, but failure and disgrace? And the results show that the law of cause and effect) has not yet been abolished.

But all sound Theory and Practice are based upon the immutable laws of Truth. They must arise out of the fundamental principles lying at the foundation of this science of human culture, and be regulated by the laws adopted for their governance. These principles and these laws, in their essential nature, are logically and chronologically antecedent to all experience, and all theory, and all practice. Experience may develop them, but it does not constitute any essential part of them, any rriore than the experiments in chemistry and natural philosophy constitute parts of these sciences. The experience is all well, so far as it goes to establish any general principle, or so far as it conforms to any; and it may be useful in the discovery of new principles. In this last case, it should be placed to the credit of the discoverer: but who would think of incorporating the mere experiment or the experience of the author, as a fundamental principle in the science, instead of the fact or principle discovered ?

Hence the inadequacy, so far as the purposes of a text-book are concerned, of any treatise on modes, that deals thus exclusively with experience, or with methods which have been successful, perchance, in the hands of particular teachers. When, therefore, these things are put forth in the shape of a science, to be learned and practiced by others, as such, the unwarrantable assumption is made, that all children require the same treatment; and that all teachers will be equally successful with the same methods, regardless of constitutional and acquired differences.

This would be as unreasonable as to suppose that all plants would grow equally well in the same soil ; that all animals could subsist on the same food ; that all men would succeed equally well in the same employment ; or that all kinds of labor could be carried on with the same tools.

Therefore, we find that when mere experience is exhausted, the light of the so-called science expires, and leaves us, too often, to grope our way in darkness, or to lean upon a broken reed. No text-book, therefore, is worthy of confidence, that embodies nothing more than mere experience. The science of education is as different from all this, as the sun himself is different from his own rays ; and the attempt to embody these things into a science, is not unlike an attempt would be to collect the sun's rays, and retain them in his absence. The nature and capacity of the subject to be operated upon, must be studied and understood, no less than the character of the forces employed, and the modes of application.

Hence again we infer, that all true Theory and Practice must be, to a very great extent, the 'product of the teacher's own originality.

No teacher can be eminently successful by adopting the entire plans of another. He should not — nay, he

22 THE SPIBNCB OF EDUCATION.

can not wholly divest himself of his individuality. To whatever extent he does, he becomes a parasite. David could not fight in Saul's armor, for very cogent reasons. The teacher must, therefore, with the same originality and the same kind of dependence that characterized this great warrior, choose his own instruments ; and in most cases, the simpler the better. He must tight in his own armor, if he expect to win. The thoughts and feelings he brings forth, must be coined in his own mint, though the ore may be brought from a foreign mine. His own native energies must stamp them, and set the seal upon them, and give the impress of originality to them ; must breathe into them the breath of life, and inspire them with the living, acting, energizing spirit^ i£ he would plant these thoughts deep in the sanctuary of the soul. He must shine with his own^ and not with a reflected light. He must warm and invigorate with his own, not with a borrowed heat ; or he becomes the mere reflector of the rays of some superior orb. Unless he thus vitalizes his teachings, all his supposed excellence will become useless in his hands ; and, instead of hiding, will only serve to expose his deficiencies.

Hence all the modern improvements and plans for the education of children, however excellent in themselves, will be of little service unless they are warmed into life by the invigorating influence of intelligence. The teacher should,therefore,know the hidden springs of thought, of feeling and of will. He should understand the structure and organism of the machinery through which these act. He should acquaint himself intimately with the nature and value of the educational forces, their influence upon the subject educated; and with the modes or processes of control-