The art of teaching

Preface

A firm conviction that all the essentials pertaining to Education as a Science, and to Teaching as an Art, can be formulated into a system suited to the needs and conveniences of normal-school and private learners, has led to the preparation of this volume.

It deals exclusively with those questions and duties that relate to the teacher's work, such as organization, study, recitation, government, etc. of schools of various grades, together with some special methods of teaching the branches themselves.

It is the author's opinion, formed and strengthened through a quarter of a century's almost exclusive labor in normal schools and teachers' institutes, that by far the greater number of mistakes and failures in teaching is attributable to the want of a consistent system, and of a practical knowledge of the duties involved, rather than to any essential lack of the knowledge to be imparted, however great, in general, that want may be. More depends upon the manner of imparting and enforcing truth, than upon the mere possession of it, as such.

Hence the very great importance of professional training, to supplement, and to classify and make vital, the mere acquisition of knowledge in the several branches of science.

This implies true method, the acquisition of which, so far at least as this depends upon professional training, proceeds upon

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IV PREFACE.

the plan that the child must be studied first, in all its physical and psychical characteristics and relations, as a thing or object to be treated or educated ; second, that the study of science or knowledge must be pursued, not as an end, but as a means for accomplishing an end, viz., the development and refinement of all of man's faculties, soul and body; third, that the study and practice of methods in harmony with the end to be attained, viz., the complete development of these faculties by the harmonious blending of all possible educational forces in the exercises of the school-room, must be the one great aim of the true teacher. These are the leading features underlying this system, to which the student of pedagogics is earnestly invited.

Worthington, Ohio, July 25, 1879.

Article I. Necessity and Objects 180

Article II. Requisites, etc 187

Article III. The Varieties 194

Chapter Sixth— School Government 205

Article I. Objects and Means 207

Article II. Qualifications and Requisites 241

Article III. Qualities and Methods 245

S-Y-35TOFSIS X.

Opening Exercises.

f Reading the Scriptures.

J Singing. Chanting. (__ Prayer.

Organization.

Enrollment and seating, etc.

Examination and classification.

Order of Exercises.

Definiteness. Extent. Not too much assigned 3K Lkssoxs!'° ° F "J at once. Points of interest and difficulty. Manner of recitation named.

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ART OF TEACHING.

Introduction

We come now to consider that part of the Science of Education, which relates more particularly to school-keeping, or special Didactics, — that part in which the special applications are shown, — that part for which the author's previous work on the subject has in some degree, it is hoped, prepared the mind of the student.

It might he thought by some to be sufficient had we confined ourselves exclusively to this department of the science; but it must be apparent to any one, on mature reflection, that to commence the subject here, would be to commence it in the middle ; it would be to take things for granted, whose truths had never been demonstrated. It would be downright empiricism. It would be like the attempt of the merest charlatan to establish a science upon naked assumption, or upon a limited number of experiments; and it has been shown in another place, that experiment is no science or any part thereof. What is true m the individual case, is of no determinative value until it can be si i own that all possible cases, falling under the same head, are true also. Individual facts, there-

O THE ART OF TEACHING.

fore, prove nothing conclusively in establishing general truths, until they can be generalized. Experiments are useful chiefly in discovery, and, so far as they go, they give good testimony ; but their employment in the establishment of general principles, would prove rather tedious for this utilitarian age. Hence we must have general truths in all sciences whose principles are susceptible of demonstration. From these we may deduce specialties.

This seems to be the precise character of this science. It answers to all the conditions. The fact is, for every operation in nature there is a cause ; and every step in growth or education has its antecedents. Every act performed is either right or wrong. There are no indifferent ones ; and every thing done in school is either of one class or the other. If the act is right, there is a reason for it, which may be sought out, generalized, and made a guide to subsequent acts and investigators. If it is wrong, there is also a reason for it, which may be demonstrated and developed in such a way that it may become a warning to ah who pass over that same way.

The whole subject of special didactics, therefore, may thus be referred to general laws, whose principles underlie the whole superstructure of human culture. Every step in practice, if it is a right s f ,ep, is only the application of a general principle to a particular case, and can therefore be referred back to theory or general principles for authority ; so that there may be as much definiteness, nay, certainty, in the art of teaching, when once it is thoroughly apprehended, as in any other art. The very existence of the science of education and art of teaching, as we have before shown, is predicated upon this truth. But this discussion will not be continued further than merely to show the connection and mutual dependence of theory and practice, or general and special didactics.

In presenting the practical part of this subject, special attention will be given, not only to methods of teaching and learning, but to the reference of these to the general principles discussed heretofore ; so that nothing may seem to be taken for granted, or adopted without authority. The whole, therefore, will have the appearance, at least, of a perfect system.

The Home and Miscellaneous Duties have already, to a great extent, been disposed of. As far as it will become necessary to refer to them again, they will be blended with those of the school-room, since their nature and influence are so similar.

The topics for consideration have been named in the introduction to the Science of Education, and may, we believe, be made to include every thing pertaining to the duties of teaching and managing schools; and what is one of the most interesting features is the exact coincidence of the two parts, or of the science and the art. Not a single application in the latter, that does not find its principle in the former. Not a stroke in art that does not find its counterpart in science. The one is the echo of the other.

The topics for investigation are the following, which we propose to take up in the order in which they occur: 1, Preliminaries; 2, Study ; 3, Recitation ; 4, Business ; 5, Recreation ; 6, Government.

In the discussion of these topics we propose to consider the young teacher about to assume, it may be for the first time — the duties and responsibilities of his office. We shall attempt to meet and dispose of every duty and difficulty that he will be likely to encounter.

Article 1— Preliminaries.

Under this head we propose to consider every thing that relates to the organization of schools, the opening exercises, and the mode of assigning lessons and making preparation for study.

Section 1 — Opening Exercises. — We place these first, because we think, in point of time, they stand first; and because we believe the organization and other duties can be much more easily conducted after those exercises have been disposed of in a proper manner.

I believe it is universally admitted that those persons succeed best in their pursuits, of whatever character they are, who attach the greatest importance to them ; that their success is usually measured by their devotion, and the estimation in which they hold their employment, other things being equal. So, to apply the same principle to teaching, I have found, almost without exception, that those teachers who were actuated by a deep and abiding sense of the responsibilities of their calling, have succeeded best. The fact is, that Providence, however provident he may be, does not usually help those who do not help themselves. Much less will he help those who ignore his existence, and consequently will not apply to him for aid. A great many of our teachers fail for want of earnestness. They do not take hold of their work as if they felt their souls wrapped up in it. They set a low estimate upon their duties and labors, and it can not be expected that their scholars will do more. They fail to command that respect for themselves and for the school which is so necessary to success. The stream will rise no higher than the fountain. To make others feel, we must feel ourselves. To warm their hearts, the fire must burn within our own bosoms. An iceberg emits no rays of heat, however majestic it may stand. The north wind seldom breaks the fetters of winter, and wakes the young flowers to life; but the silent, unobtrusive rays of the sun penetrate the very heart of Nature, and start the warm currents of her life-blood through every vein and artery in her broad bosom. So that native earnestness and undeviating honesty, which spring up in the heart deeply imbued with a love for the calling, will usually melt down the hardest cases and surmount the most inveterate difficulties, though other qualifications may be by no means extraordinary.

Again : others fail for want of system. I am persuaded that the errors and failures in teaching are more the result of a want of system or ability to use knowledge than from any want of knowledge itself. It is said that " knowledge is power," und in the sense in which that maxim is generally understood, it is true ; but knowledge is not power any further than it can be wielded to accomplish results, any more than a huge, overgrown body void of sense or reason is power. It is powerful perhaps in the same sense as the earthquake, the volcano or the hurricane is powerful ; powerful for mischief and destruction; powerful, it may be, like the locomotive, — uuable to accomplish a single good result, until directed by the skillful hand of the engineer. Such is mere knowledge without sj^stem.

I am persuaded, also, that without system, at least one half of the teacher's power is as good as thrown away, since it is expended, for the most part, in misdirected efforts; that with the same amount of scientific knowledge now possessed by the profession of teachers, twice the amount of good might be accomplished, were this vast force directed by some welldigested plan of operation. No one can succeed in any department of business without a system or a plan by which to work. If farmers, merchants, mechanics and business men generally, manifested no more concern about their employment, and worked as objectless and aimless as many teachers do, there would be universal failure and bankruptcy all over the land. System guides and gives success to the military general in his battles and campaigns. It guides the scholar in his investigations, and the statesman in his legislation. In a word, the worlds are guided by it, in their ceaseless whirl in space. The seasons go and come according to the plan laid down for their observance; and day and night are perpetual in their round. System reigns in every department of nature and of successful art. It is the secret of success every-where else, and it would not seem probable that teaching forms any exception, save that the necessity seems greater here, in proportion to the greatness of the duties and responsibilities.

This want of system in teaching comes, in the great majority of cases, from a want of a clear understanding of the intention and importance of the duties, and a frank acknowledgment of them in the presence of the school. ISTo school can succeed well, when there is not this clear understanding and cordial reciprocity on the part of all concerned. I know of no better way of bringing about this state of things, than for the teacher to lead off in the matter, not waiting for parent or pupil, but to show by his conduct and conversation, that he is deeply in earnest in this matter.

But earnestness without prudence, will avail but little. Great energy without skill, would resemble the locomotive without a hand to guide it ; and great powers minus humility, would become offensive and nugatory where great interests are at stake.

Let us instance two cases to illustrate the point. One teacher, with hat in hand, and blustering, it may be, from his recent exertion, enters the school-room about the time to open the school. Presently a rapid succession of heavy raps, or the loud ringing of the bell is heard in the vicinity of the teacher's desk; and through all, and above all,*the stentorian voice of the teacher is heard calling to order (?). By repeated effort, and great exertions, this is so far accomplished at length, that one accustomed to such scenes would hardly be mistaken as to the intention, at least. Order being thus far secured, without one moment's reflection, to say nothing about opening exercises of a formal character, the classes are called, and the teacher and pupil rush into the arena of duties tc contend and toil, to fret and sweat (I will not say swear), over the day's difficulties.

Now, we submit, are the minds of teacher and scholars in a proper frame to encounter such perplexing duties as will most likely meet them? If for no other purpose than merely to afford time for a few moments' reflection, and opportunity to call in their thoughts, and to place them on the duties in which they are about to engage, it would be desirable to have a portion of time set apart for some formal opening exercises.

Take another example. The teacher enters the room quietly, unobtrusively, and in ample time to take a general survey of persons and things before the houi for opening the school arrives. Presently a gentle, but well-known signal is heard, and all are quietly seated in their proper places. A moment or two of silence elapses, during which time all are listening and expecting ; and then there break forth from the stand, in subdued but earnest tones, the blessed words well chosen from the Bible. The teacher reads, but his soul is full of the inspiration from that holy book, and he bears the shafts of Divine truth to the hearts and consciences of those that hear. His remarks are pointed, and mostly bearing upon the duties and difficulties of the day. But hark! a hymn of praise now rises from that little band, and echoes from the hillside and the forest. And now all is hushed again, save one earnest, pleading voice devoutly imploring Divine favor. The scene closes, and the sunbeams of joy steal in unconsciously upon those confiding hearts, and all their anger and dark suspicions, if they entertained any, have melted away like frost-work before the sun, under the beam of Divine Truth. Now, are not these hearts, these minds, in a better condition for study and recitation than those in our first picture?

There may be those in the school who would affect indifference to these things, and so they might, were the heavens to fall ; but that affected indifference would not screen them from the influences thus brought to bear upon them. These things will commend themselves to their sober judgments; and if consistently and persistently prosecuted, they can not tail to produce the happiest results. But it is not our purpose to dictate. We only wish to present the case fairly, and allow teachers to chose for themselves. To this end, we suggest the following exercises, any one or all of which may, as shall seem best to the teacher, be adopted as appropriate opening exercises.

1. Beading the Scriptures. — The reasons for this exercise may be briefly summed up as follows :

1. The children need moral and religious instruction as we have shown, and as everybody admits. This is a most favorable time, when their minds are clear and vigorous to apprehend those truths.

2. It offers the best possible opportunity to make impressions. The words of inspiration have more force than any others, simply because they are inspired. No mere human words or composition can have the effect that these have, when read and felt by the teacher himself.

8. It prepares the way for successful study and instruction in other departments. It opens the heart and the mind to receive and impart the truth, which will grow all the better for being watered thus daily by the dews of Divine Inspiration.

4. It offers the very best opportunity to smite down some of those vicious habits that may be making inroads upon the school. It would not be wise, perhaps, to take special pains to make it bear upon these points; but the silent influence of the Word itself will prove sufficient, in most cases, to work the reform.

The manner of conducting this part of the opening exercises, will be left to the judgment of the teacher, with these simple suggestions, that while some w T ould succeed best with one plan, others might adopt a different one and succeed equally as well. I have known most charming results produced in primary and secom dary schools, by the whole school's repeating the Lord's Prayer in concert. The same may be done with portions of Christ's Sermon on the Mount, and selections from

16 THE ART OP TEACHING

the Psalms. Then again, I have seen a whole school, teacher and all, affected even to tears, by a careful and earnest reading, explanation and application of some of the most interesting portions of holy writ. The historic parts of both the Old and New Testament are suitable. Others again I have known to succeed best by joining with some or all of their pupils in reading. But whatever may be the form, children should be taught to regard the reading of the Bible with more interest and earnest attention than they do other books. Otherwise there is great danger of their coming to regard it, by and by, of no greater value. It may become unto them " a savor of life unto life, or of death unto death." It is a sharp, two-edged sword for good or ill. It is an educational instrumentality, of such force that no teacher can afford to do without it ; and it is to be devoutly hoped that the time is past when its use will be objected to. It is suitable for all conditions of the human race, but is used to greatest advantage when the passages are carefully and wisely selected for the occasion. It then acts like a charm upon the heart. There are storms of troubled passions there. But Christ's words, "Peace, be still!" that echoed from wave to wave over the troubled waters of the sea of Galilee, were scarcely more potent to produce a calm than these passages Avill become when properly selected, and read with the right spirit.

2. Singing is an exercise, at once, so appropriate and so common, that it needs no argument to recommend it. There is scarcely any excuse for not practicing it in school ; for if the teacher can not sing, some or perhaps all the pupils can, and all that is necessary is to grant them permission, and the thing is done; perhaps not in the most approved style, but time and practice will improve it. Of course, it need not be confined to the opening exercises. It may mingle with all others. It will gladden and enliven all. All know the magic power of music to subdue the passions, to cultivate the voice, and to refine the feelings. Let its sweet strains, therefore, mingle freely in all the exercises of the schoolroom. For the opening exercises, such selections should be made as shall comport with the occasion, and should be so arranged, if possible, as to allow all to participate.

There is one particular mode of singing, fast coming into use in the schools, which seems to possess merits for opening exercises, surpassing all others, viz. : the chant. It does seem that nothing can be more appropriate than this, when the whole school can unite in chanting the praises of God, morning and evening, for what we have said of opening exercises is mainly true of the closing.

3. Prayer. After what has been said of reading the Scriptures, and singing etc., the arguments in favor of prayer* or some form of devotion might be inferred. It is the crowning excellence of all the rest, as it is a virtual acknowledgement of allegiance to God, and of dependence upon him. It more than all others, will show the teacher to be deeply in earnest. Of course, it presupposes that every teacher should be a good man; for who else should teach? Not the bad man surely ! And there are but these two classes. Therefore the argument runs thus. All good men pray ; none but good men should teach ; therefore teachers should pray.

But it is not our purpose to proscribe those who do not; for we believe that many excellent teachers do not presume to pray, for conscience' sake, or because they do not make a public profession of religion. I honor and respect such ; but I can not avoid the conviction that their excellencies would be very much enhanced, could they consistently add this other grace also. It would sanctify and intensify every other power. And it would seem, on a careful examination, that if there is any one duty in all the wide range of human duties that demands prayer, it is that of teaching. If there is one position in life in which a man needs Divine guidance, that position is the one in which the training of human beings is concerned. Add to this the moral effects of prayer upon both pupil and teacher, and its claims are set beyond a shadow of a doubt.

Now, if this form of opening exercises be objected to by any on the plea of want of time, let such be answered as follows : That if these things are of the importance claimed for them, then they have as much claim upon the time of the school-roomas any others; and it would be just as unreasonable to quibble about the time devoted to recitation in Grammar or Arithmetic, as about this. And when it is considered how much these exercises really add to the sum total of education, not only by preparing the minds and hearts of pupils, etc., but in actual instruction in matters of the most vital importance, it will readily be seen that so far from being any loss of time, it is actually time saved. u To study w T ell is to have prayed well," was a maxim of one of the greatest students and reformers the world ever knew; and it is not without its application here. But the time thus employed need not occupy more than ten or fifteen minutes at the most, and often it can be brought within the compass of seven or eight.

SCHOOL-ROOM DUTIES.

Sec. 2— Organization.— The organization of schools is of so much importance, that its claims to a separate hearing can not be set aside without very much impairing the completeness of the plan we have marked out. The efficiency and success of the school depend so essentially upon a thorough and systematic organization, that teachers should study this subject with as much care as they do any other, relating to the school.

At the commencement of a term of school, the great anxiety of the teacher seems to be, to begin the hearing of classes; but it will be found that time may be saved, as well as perplexity avoided, by a little care and attention at the outset. A week, or even ten days may be spent to great advantage in organizing and trying the machinery, before starting oft' for the term, especially if the school be a new one. This will be found to be much better than to commence the first or second day with an imperfect organization, only to run into difficulty, and expose the teacher and pupils to the mortification of a reorganization and perhaps a failure. The examinations and other general exercises which will be described by-and-by, will afford ample employment for both teacher and pupil until the regular exercises begin.

Another reason why teachers should not be hasty in completing the organization of their schools, especially if they are unacquainted with their pupils, is found in a want of a mutual understanding between the parties. Teachers need time to observe and study the capacity, advancement and natural inclinations and dispositions of their pupils; and they, in turn, stand equally in need of time to make a similar acquaintance. The exercises about to be recommended afford these opportunities in due proportion.

I have sometimes made this remark to teachers that were about going out, perhaps for the first time, to engage their schools ; and the recommendation may not be inappropriate here, viz. : that if they can spare the time, they should spend at least a week in visiting the families of the neighborhood or district, for the purpose of getting acquainted with the parents and children, and with the influences that have been, and still may be operating upon them ; or in other words, to learn their antecedents ; for no teacher is prepared to give direction and instruction to a child until he knows something of its capacity and antecedents. In the ordinary way of organizing, he is left without any means of knowing, except that which is afforded by a very imperfect acquaintance, acquired in the ordinary recitation.

Let him not go on these visitations, however, as a pedagogue, or as one whose special business it is to instruct ; or he may not find those who are willing to learn from so green a disciple. Let him not go to lecture the parents upon their duties, etc., and to frighten the children and old ladies with his immense learning; or he may breed contempt in the minds of those who are as wise as himself. But let him go, rather, as a friend to converse and counsel with, and receive instruction from them, in reference to their labors, daily duties, habits and wishes; and he will acquire more valuable information in a half-day's friendly intercourse, than he would in a whole week's recitation, simply because he then comes in direct contact with the real boys and girls, which is not always the case at school. He may thereby avoid errors, which if committed, will lead to the defeat of his most sanguine purposes. How often has the teacher had reason for sorrow and repentance for his treatment of children, after learning what those poor little ones have to contend with at home ! Teacher, look well to your children's homes, if you would educate them.

Again : a thorough and systematic organization of the school, before starting off, will do much to convince the pupils, both of the importance of their duties and of the ability of the teacher to conduct them. A few master-strokes here (I do not mean strokes from the master) will give him a greater ascendency over his pupils, than any or all the other kinds of strokes he may employ subsequently. Whereas, a few mistakes will hav.e a tendency to sink him correspondingly low in their estimation.

Many teachers fail from this cause. They come before the school, perhaps for the first time in their iives, without any definite or well digested plan. The consequence is, they are embarrassed. They hesitate and halt in the performance of their duties ; and however wise they may pretend to be, and however earnestly they may labor, nothing will conceal from the lynx-eyed children (and they read motives by intuition) the lamentable deficiency, or save him from exposure. He may struggle, but his embarrassment will increase ; and at every successive blunder, he will sink lower and lower in their estimation, and deeper and deeper into difficulty, until his resurrection becomes impossible.

But take an example of a teacher well versed in didactics; one who has wisdom and a plan, and dispatch to execute it. He comes before his school, without ostentation or embarrassment. He knows what is the first thing to be done, and the second, and the third, and so on. He disposes of them in their proper order, and in such a manner as to convince his pupils that " knowledge is indeed power." The whole is completed with that eminent ability which proves him to be a master workman. And what is the effect upon the pupils ? They yield their willing and unqualified submission ; and the teacher rises, at each successive step, until he stands before them an embodiment of power. Such a teacher can teach. Such also is the effect of system, or a studied plan of operation. This alone is argument sufficient to convince any one, that there is something more than mere familiarity with the branches of study necessary to secure success in teaching. No amount of mere scientific acquirements can compensate for this deficiency in professional skill. This must be learned somewhere, either before or after the teacher commences his duties. It were better far to learn it before, since this may save him from a world of mortification and perhaps failure, and his pupils from a still worse calamity.