A treatise on the culture of wheat : recommending a system of management founded upon the successful experience of the author

Dedication

TO

Sis,

The elegant and accomplished Poet Horace, when seeking immortality from his writings, solicited for them the approbation of Meccenas alone, whose single judgment in their favour he considered sufficient to stamp them with the seal of excellence ; so much in the estimation of this polite and charming poet, was the opinion of a man of taste to be preferred to the indiscriminating voice of the multitude.

Introduction

AS the object of the following pages is to introduce to public notice an improved method of cultivating wheat, I have purposely avoided mixing with my subject, the question of tythes, or the policy of cultivating waste lands. The evil of which the nation at present complains is urgent and pressing, and therefore requires an immediate remedy, which could not be found in the abolition of tythes, or the inclosing and improving uncultivated commons. The benefits of either could only operate at a remote period. The improvements I propose can be carried into effect directly, and the good consequences be felt

b vi the very next year. They interfere with no interest ; they entrench upon no establishment ; they require the employment of no additional capital ; the means of pursuing them are in the hands of every farmer ; no branch of the revenue will be violated by this operation. The necessity which has been admitted by all writers on our national resources, to exist, and, indeed, to have existed for many years past, for an increase in our growth of corn, particularly wheat, added to the frequent recurrence of high prices ; would lead the man of reflection to suppose that he who could point out an improvement of such consequence as I have attempted, must be received with kindness by the public, and his labours properly appreciated, Were a deficiency in the growth of wheat, or a failing crop to happen but seldom, we might view the occurrence with diminished apprehen r sion ; but unfortunately the youngest man living has witnessed them repeatedly; and unless the public attention shall be awakened to the situation of the country, with respect to the growth of com, the consequences may prove fatal to our very existence.

In speaking of the necessity for improvement in our cultivation of corn, I must be understood as not confining myself to barely supplying our internal wants. A country which bounds its views of agriculture with the selfish end of mere subsistence is exposed to constant danger of scarcity ; therefore, in order to ensure a proper exertion of industry and skill on the part of the farmers, agriculture ought to be considered as a commercial pursuit, and by opening foreign markets to their view, stimulate them to enlarged cultivation.

The high price of grain in the home markets operates at present as a bounty to foreign farmers, and as we are certainly not an exporting people (of grain,) British farmers, British landlords, and

b3 viii the British public, are deprived of the benefits which would result from the improved and extended cultivation of British lands. We well know how the nation suffers by the high price of provisions, independent of the actual cost of them to individuals. The army, the navy, the increased expenditure in both in all public contracts, the poor's rates, deficiency in the revenue, and many other contingencies, are matters of serious import. Exclusive of the money paid to foreigners for corn, and bounty paid by the legislature for its importation, foreign freight, foreign shipping, &c. &c. the exportation of corn from this kingdom, amongst many other incalculable benefits, would occupy such a proportion of British shipping and British sailors as would render it a national object. It would trim the balance of trade and turn the scale finally in our favour. It would afford employment to an increasing population, raise the revenue, and reduce the poor's rates. The prosperity of the i*

empire is so involved in the measure, that I should consider apathy in the present critical period as a dereliction of public duty deserving the punishment of the ostracism.

It has frequently been matter of astonishment to me, that the attention of our legislature has not been more alive to the export of corn and improvement of agriculture, which may truly be considered the most important description of commerce, the surest basis of revenue, riches, and national prosperity.

I have endeavoured to lay before the reader information on the improvement of wheat culture, which, however simple it may appear on perusal, has only been collected at the expense of much time and trouble, and the value of which will be best estimated by its effects when properly put in practice.

b 3

Should the period arrive when wheat shall take place of oats and barley through the kingdom, an event I can easily foresee, the condition of the working classes must be improved in a very great measure. This improvement I have endeavoured to point out.

There are, however, many great and important measures attached to the subject of the following Work, which will occur to the intelligent reader without my introducing them here : that of the permanent increase in our finances without burthening the people may be considered as of no minor consequence. Politicians, however, whose ideas are circumscribed by habitual and contracted views of the present system, are not likely to enter into the comprehensive prospect which opens to their consideration. It was the constant object of contemplation of a man who filled an eminent station in this country, and had he lived xi

would have given to it all the weight of his powerful talents.

A country which is dependant upon foreigners for bread corn can never be called truly powerful : the caprice of those on whom she relies for support, or their own crops proving deficient may be attended with consequences of a serious nature. We have a very sufficient proof this year, that no dependance ought to be placed on foreign assistance, and, indeed, in no season has there ever been a quantity of grain to be had, which, in the event of actual scarcity, would stand in the stead of our own produce ; not if the whole world were ransacked for the sweepings of its granaries ; it, therefore, behoves us to depend upon our own resources : as to the boasted assistance of America, she could not feed us a week.

No individual could make a more valuable present to the nation than power and capability b4 xii

to supply the inhabitants with bread. This has been ray object, and its full portion of success depends not upon me, but upon those who occupy the land.

In coming forward on this subject I profess myself actuated by one single motive, which it is impossible to mistake. Those who may happen to differ from me in opinion will, I hope, treat me with the same candour that is due to the question before us. Let them make trial of the plans pointed out rather than endeavour to discourage others by hazarding doubts and conjectures. I profess myself willing to assist every man who shall require assistance, or every agricultural body in the kingdom, with any further information in my power, in order to enable thero to accomplish that great and vital object of growing sufficient corn for our own consumption.

I am well aware that a measure of this magni-

XU1 tiide is difficult of attainment; but it is not only by no means impossible, on the contrary we really have it in our power.

The owners of great estates are imperiously called upon to lend every assistance. They are, properly speaking, trustees for the public, and, therefore, bound in duty to cause their lands to contribute, as much as can be done, to the common stock.

The idea of calling different sciences to the aid of agriculture has been, by many, considered fanciful, and practice deemed incompatible with philosophical inquiry ; but

i Philosophy consists not

Thomson.

The man of superficial acquirements may confine himself to reading and talking, whilst the xi* .

true philosopher, by reducing that to practice which his acute and penetrating mind has, from intensity of thought, conceived in theory, confers a benefit on mankind, and derives a pleasure from his mental labours beyond all valuation ; he

Exults in joys to grosser minds unknown, A wealth exhaustless, and a world his own.

I consider agricultural philosophy to be a province as yet unexplored, upon the borders of which we have just partially trodden, without having as yet ventured far enough to partake of its beauties. As a profound and exquisitely beautiful science, I deplore the infatuation which commits it to the hands of men who can only treat it as a vulgar art.

Pretending to be wiser than our forefathers is -a crime of no trifling magnitude in the eyes of many very worthy people; but education. and its

XV

consequences have made a change in the minds of men which enables us to detect many antediluvian errors, rendered in some degree sacred by immemorial usage. He who sets about to inquire into the abstruse and hidden processes of nature should never be deterred from his purpose because he may find himself at a loss to account for or explain many of her intricacies ; the object he has in view will be more readily accomplished by minutely and clearly investigating to the nicety of demonstration, one or two material points, than by any loose or vague speculations in the boundless regions of fanciful theory.

It is possible that many particulars inserted in the following treatise may be considered as too trifling or diminutive in themselves to be enlarged upon in a work intended for practical purposes ; but to the eye of taste and judgment nothing indicative or explanatory of those beautiful arrangements in the great laboratory of nature

XVI should be permitted to escape observation, the most apparently inconsiderable of which is of greater consequence than all the eflbrts of human genius, when carried to the utmost extent of its improvements.

CHAPTER I. Page

ADDRESS to the readers.— Great difficulty of investigating the process of vegetation.— Theory necessary to be understood in agricultural business.— Learning necessary to an agriculturist.— Importance of the subject in many points of view.— Various seasons require different kinds of management.— The public benefitted by the improvements in agriculture.— Causes of our backwardness in the science.— Importance attached to it by the Chinese.— Great increase of produce in wheat crops,

Chapter II

A new system of wheat management recommended as being cheaper than the old method, producing much greater crops, adapted to all varieties of soil and situation. —Absurdity of expecting smut or other diseases in wheat to be prevented by pickling.-^-Every day's experience of the fallacy of other methods a proof that they were not calculated to remove the evils complained of by farmers.-A P peal to different classes of men to promote the practice here recommended, by their influence and example- Immense sums paid to the subjects of France xviii.

CONTENT^.

for corn, one cause of the scarcity of specie. **** —High price of bread corn inimical to the prosperity of the nation.-AIarming state of the kingdom should the next crop be deficient—Importance of agricultural improvements in a financial point of view,

Chapter III

On the Question of « What soils are calculated for wheat crops," and « How far the cultivation of that grain may be increased and extended to the remote parts of the United Kingdom, where bread made from barley and oats is chiefly in use, -

Chapter IV

Method of management for land already i n tillage, without giving it naked fallow.—To prepare for wheat, ,

Chapter V

Breaking up old turf by paring and burning recommended— Paring deep never diminishes the soil, as some people imagine.— Ashes better in quality when burnt in large heaps. —Burning may be done in winter.— Ashes to be used as top dressing—Importance of charcoal as a dressing to land.— Its properties pointed out—Mixture of lime recommended—Errors committed by farmers in applying caustic lime— Reason why paring and burning appear to be injurious—Injury done to land in converting turf to tillage,

CONTENTS.

Page

when in the hands of unskilful operators. — Wheat and barley may be grown in succession for any length of time by dressing the land with suitable compost, - - 65

Chapter VI

f)n the causes which produce the smut, rust,

blight, and mildew in wheat, - - 85

CHAPTER VIT.

Treats of lime. — Its application to land intended for wheat. — The quantity proper to be laid on _The combination of lime with various acids useful in this instance. — Gypsum or sulphate of lime strongly recommended.— Without a due proportion of lime neither the straw nor grain of wheat can be formed.

Lime recommended to be laid on the

floors of cattle stalls and yards.— Danger of entrusting tenants with power to lay out money in liming lands.— Good wheat cannot be produced without lime, - - .119

CHAPTER IX.

Necessity of thoroughly pulverizing the soil to ensure a good crop of wheat. — Naked fallow not necessary for the purpose.— Simplicity of any process in agriculture to be preferred.

Reasons why wheat land requires. to have

a compact firm surface.— Treading land with sheep recommended as a beneficial operation, most- particularly so on light lands.— Treading prevents the fertility of

CONTENTS.

the land being exhausted by the exhalations produced in very hot weather.— Rolling recommended.— Expense of a roll too much for poor farmers, who can, nevertheless, accomplish the object with sheep.— Treading enables a man to finish more land for wheat with a few sheep than can be done by folding, - lg7

CHAPTER X.

Improvement of lands by superior management proved to be of as much consequence to the tenant as the landlord.-The increased growth of wheat a measure to be gained by such improvement.— Waste lands may be reclaimed at much less expense than what is generally incurred.— fhe author promises a treatise on manure which will enable farmers to encrease the fertility of their lands without the aid of live stock, * 1S5

CHAPTER XI.

On the drill husbandry as it relates to wheat, both in producing a heavy grain, preventing smut, rust, blight, and mildew, hindering the crop being beaten down and lodged by rain and wind, or injured by wet weather, whilst advancing from the bloom to ripenesS > ----- 205 CHAPTER XII.

On the advantage of transplanting and dibbling

Chapter I

Address to the readers. — Great difficulty of investigating the process of vegetation. — Theory necessary to be understood in agricultural business. — Learning necessary to an agriculturist. — Importance of the subject in many points of view.- — Various seasons require different kinds of management. — The public benefitted by the improvements in agriculture. — Causes of our backwardness in the science. — Importance attached to it by the Chinese. — Great increase of produce in •wheat crops.

The Public, for whose benefit the following treatise has been written, will be too generous to judge harshly of a work inspired by motives of the purest patriotism ; nor would it be less than in-

B suiting good sense and good nature to offer an apology for an attempt to render an essential service to the community. It is hoped there will not be any thing found contained herein, which the man of science can greatly disapprove of, unless the plainness of the style ; but as it was intended for practical men who are little acquainted with terms of philosophy, I have avoided these as much as possible. As to the farmer, I shall not appeal to his opinion at first sight, but to his candid and unbiassed observation of the result, after putting it to the test of practice. The difficulty of discovering the exact connection of effects with their causes, in this important subject, is greater than in many others ; because the secret processes of vegetation are so mysteriously conducted, some of them in the hours of darkness, and take up such a length of time, exposed to the various and concomitant operations and effects of the atmosphere in a climate proverbially changeable.

The difficulty of determining with precision on what peculiar circumstances the health of a plant depends, is, therefore, by no means easily overcome, and requires the unwearied application and experience of many years, to aflbrd a rational foundation for building a superstructure.

Theory and system are held too cheap by the generality of farmers, and from this circumstance arise most of our defects in agriculture.

Fielding has wittily and aptly remarked, " that a man writes nothing the worse for understanding something of his subject." The observation may be extended beyond writing. A practical farmer would, as well as a practical gardener, conduct his business with (it may be presumed) equal success if he had some idea of the connection between science and art, between causes and effects ; it would at least save him from committing many blunders.

Agriculture, one of the most beautiful and amongst the most comprehensive of the sciences, is degraded by absurd custom into something below the humblest of the arts j and its management usually confided to the most illiterate and ignorant of. men, unprepared by any previous education, (writing and reading in some cases excepted), who undertake to conduct a series of operations, on which the welfare of the nation materially depends, and which requires an extenb 2 tive acquaintance with many branches of philosophy, and most of the living as well as dead languages. " Omnium rerum (says Cicero) ex quibus aliquid acquiritur, nihil est agriculturd melius, nihil uberius, nihil dulcius, nihil homine liber o dignius."

The necessity under which Great Britain has laboured for thirty years past, of importing a large quantity of bread corn, is admitted by all who have given any attention to the subject, and pathetically lamented by those who have written on it. The traffic is unquestionably injurious to the prosperity of the country, and when I do not go as far as somfrin saying, " if continued, will eventually ruin the nation, by draining us of our ■wealth," it is because there is no propriety in admitting the eventual occurrence of that which we have the means of preventing.

How far it is injurious, may be guessed from a calculation which has been made, that upwards of one hundred millions sterling have been sent to other countries, within twelve years, for corn. A sum which ought to have been paid to our own farmers, had we been pursuing a proper system of wheat management. But leaving the nume-

; 5

rical value out of the question, it is worthy the notice of the patriot and politician, when other consequences come to he considered. France has no longer any regular commerce, and the exigencies of that power are, to a certain extent, provided from her agricultural efforts. The cultivation of the vine has been greatly curtailed since her brandies and wines have found difficulty of admission into these countries ; this has diverted the efforts of her farmer to the extended growth of corn j and could we supply ourselves with bread from our own resources to the exclusion of French grain, there is little doubt but the difficulties of Buonaparte would be greatly increased when deprived of the tribute we at present pay him of about four or five millions sterling, every year, for corn : it would, perhaps, break through his famous, or rather infamous, continental system sooner than the united efforts of the whole physical and political strength of the empire. At present he refuses admission to the produce of our colonial lands, and we are absolutely unable to retaliate, from dire necessity. For some reason or other it happens that we b 3 are very fond of improvements recommended by foreigners. To say that a method of preventing the diseases of wheat had been discovered by a French or Italian philosopher, and rewarded by Buonaparte with the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, would ensure it a favourable reception in this country ; and I very much fear the little notoriety which the Author claims for himself in ; this essay may be the means of preventing its circulation, although there are many in this country satisfied with the productions of its own children, and willing to admit the claims of merit wherever due.

No farmer ought to condemn any mode of management merely because he may be unacquainted with it. Very few men (perhaps I may say no one) understand all branches of husbandry. The science of agriculture, and the practice of it, cannot, for a long time, or perhaps never, be completely comprehended ; therefore no individual ought to think himself removed beyond the necessity of instruction.

A practical farmer should hold in remembrance, that a system, or determined mode of management, which has succeeded on one farm, would, in all probability, be found defective on another, from some very obscure and unnoticed cause.

The operations of a farmer must consequently, to be well conducted, be guided by an attentive consideration of contingent and adventitious circumstances, differing materially in different years. And when I hear a man, who has derived his routine of management from some spot where he has lived the chief part of his life, pointing out the same as applicable to soil and climate differing in a very material degree, it is natural to suppose little dependance can be placed upon his judgment ; yet we see this the case every day with respect to our wheat crops.

My wish is, therefore, to leave the general and particular practice to every man's own judgment, pointing out, however, a few requisites, without which a grain of wheat cannot be brought to maturity in any soil, climate, or situation.

One very material object I have in view, is to rouse the attention of landed proprietors to acquire a just notion of the value of their estates, and how far they can be converted to the general good. With this intention I have been led to speak of those people to whose care the management of b 4;

s

estates and farms is committed; for to their ignorance and prejudice may be fairly attributed the backwardness of agricultural operations in most countries.

The partiality which landholders entertain for having a bailiff from this or that particular country, is truly absurd ; when the merits and abilities of the man are taken for granted, because he happens to be a native of that place. A strong provincial accent is as certain a passport for a landsteward to some of our agricultural fellow-subjects, as broken English or bad French is to qualify a foreigner for the place of my lord's gentleman, or groom of the chambers to my lady. Therefore do I condemn the infatuation which hurries men into innovations in too general a way Among the customs long established in any country, some will be found really good, and the man of judgment will not overlook them. Indeed, at this very mature period of agricultural improvement, perhaps a proper selection of the modes practised throughout Great Britain and Ireland would surpass whatever any one man could presume or pretend to be acquainted with.

Agriculture, until within the last ten or fifteen years, "was considered as a pursuit beneath the notice of the scholar or the gentleman, and yet I know of no science which requires more extensive reading or greater talents ; eveiy branch of it is a system of philosophy.

Such is the estimation in which it is held by the Chinese, that one of the grandest imperial solemnities on the accession of an Emperor, consists in the Monarch actually breaking up a portion of soil with the plough in the presence of his subjects, as a pledge, that he will uphold by all means in his power the interests of agriculture, by which that extraordinary people have existed as a nation from a period so remote, that its antiquity is almost considered a fiction.

And such ought to be the estimation in which this most comprehensive science should be held in the United Kingdom, which must doubtless be the case if the proprietors of lands, or the immediate servants of the crown, were fully impressed with its importance ; for, in truth, whatever of power or prosperity these islands have arrived at, originates in agriculture ; and to whatever extent the improvements of land may be carried, that power and that prosperity will keep pace with them. If we wish to have our navy and army supplied with a race of heroes, we must seek for them in those soils which have been long famous for such produce.

The population of these countries requires to he increased to support the drain of its inhabitants called for by our extensive foreign possessions — and that increase can only be obtained by having abundance of food — bread corn in particular; and however extravagant or unreasonable the expectation may appear at first sight, I am of opinion we could support a population double the present number, provided the natural resources of the country were called forth. I know, with respect to wheat, that full twice the quantity produced by the present mode of management may be had, on an average through the kingdom, on the extent of lands now appropriated to its growth. And I know likewise, that an equal increase may take place in the quantity of stock or animal food; therefore, those who may feel disposed to aim at extensive improvement, shall find such information laid before them as will answer that purpose; and though no man can be answerable for the success of any measure which depends upon the conduct of others, yet from a just theory, founded on principles of true philosophy, much may reasonably be expected.

Should any of my readers think that I have introduced matter into the following pages, not immediately connected with the cultivation of wheat, I must be permitted to say in my own justification, that as the subject is of first-rate consequence to the prosperity of the nation, I could not avoid endeavouring to call the attention of all classes of men to the consideration of it. And as the whole business of the preparation of the soil in various ways, involves a variety of minute circumstances, which I considered necessary to be pointed out, I was led to mention them as proper to he known hy agriculturists : besides, it sometimes happens that the success in matters of great importance depends upon attention to trifles ; and with respect to the bailiffs, I must be allowed to think that the prosperity of agriculture will depend, in a great measure, upon the skill of those who are intrusted with its operations.

CHAPTER