The Student's Rome

Front matter

a. ColisL'iim.

b. Meta Sudans.

c. Arch ofConstantine.

Book I. Rome Under The Kings

Chap.

I. Origin of Rome : Romulus and Numa 15

II. Tullus Hostilius and Ancus Martius, the third and fourth kings . . 27

III. Tarquinius Priscus and Servius Tullius, the fifth and sixth kings .. 32

IV. Tarquinius Superbus, and the beginnings of the Republic .. .. 48 V. Observations on the history of Rome under the kings . . . . '. . 59

B.C.

496-450.

liOME.

Book II. Rome Under The Patricians

Chap.

VI. Decline of Roman power after the expulsion of the Tarquins. Geographical sketch of the neighbourhood of Rome Q6

VIL The Tribunate 71

VIII. Agrarian law. The election of the Tribunes transferred to the Tribes 77

IX. Wars and foreign affairs from the battle of Lake

. Regillus to the Decemvirate S\

h n CONTENTS.

B.C. Chap. ^age

470-449. X. Continued struggle oetween the Orders. The Decem-

virate. The code of the Twelve Tables 90

443-406. XI. Sequel of the Decemvirate. Military Tribunate.

General history to the war with Yeii 104

448-391. XII. Wars since the Decemvirate. Siege of Veil .. .. 110

390. XIII. The Gauls 116

389-367. XIV. Sequel of the Gallic War. Licinian Laws. Final

equalisation of the two Orders 123

BOOK III. ROME CONQUEROR OF ITALY, (b.c. 366—265.)

366-344. XY. Sequel of the Licinian Laws. Civil History to the

first Samnite War. Wars from 389-344

139 145

153 163

343-341. XYI. First Samnite War

340-338. XVII. Great Latin War. Subjection of Latium

337-326. XYITI. Events leading to the Second Samnite War

326-304. Second or Great Samnite War

299-290. XIX. Third Samnite War . . . . *

— XX. Civil History during the time of the Samnite Wars 169

289-282. XXL Events between the Third Samnite War and the

landing of Pyrrhus 175

280-275. XXII. Pyrrhus in Italy 185

274-264. XXIII. Final reduction and settlement of Italy 194

Book IV. Rome And Carthage

— XXIV. Carthage. Events leading to First Punic War . . 202 263-241 . XXY. First Punic War 207

— XXYI. Events between the First and Second Punic Wars 220

218-216. XXYII. Second Punic War. First Period 231

215-211. XXVIII. Second Punic War. Second Period 253

210-207. XXIX Second Punic War. Third Period 265

206-202. XXX. Second Punic War. Fourth and last Period . . . . 277

— XXXI. Government, Constitutional Changes, and Finances,

up to the close of the Hannibalic War . . . . 292

XXXII. Social and Intellectual Condition of the People. —

Manners — Religion — Literature — Art .. .. 307

CONTENTS vil

BOOK V. ROME AND THE CONQUEST OF THE WORLD, (b.c. 201—132.)

B.C. Chap. Page

— XXXIII. Introductory : State of the Eastern World . . . . 320

214-194. XXXIV. First and Second Macedonian Wars: Settlement of

192-188. XXXV. War with Antiochus, and settlement of Eastern

Affairs 340

200-177. XXXVI. Wars in the West contemporaneous with the Macedonian and Syrian Wars 349

200-169. XXXVII. Civil History during the Macedonian and Syrian Wars : Corruption of manners : Senatorial predominance : Scipio and Cato 354

180-168. XXXVIII. The Third Macedonian War, or War of Perseus . . 364

166-150. XXXIX. General History between the War with Perseus

and the last Wars with Greece and Carthage .. 375

151 146. XL. The last Wars with Macedon and Greece: Fall of

Corinth 384

150-146. XLI. Third Punic War: Fall of Carthage .. .... 389

149-133. XLII. Spanish Wars: Fall of Numantia 399

133-131 . XLIII. First Slave-War in Sicily 405

— XL1V. The condition of Rome and her people at the close

of the Period of Conquest 410

— XLV. Manners and Morals : Literature and Art .. .. 416

BOOK VL

FIRST PERIOD OF CIVIL WARS.

133. XL VI. Tiberius Gracchus 426

133-1 29. XL VII. Return and death of Scipio the Younger . . . . 435

128-121. XL VIII. Caius Gracchus and his times 441

120-104. XL1X. Jugurtha and his times 453

105-101. L. The Cimbrians and Teutons |

103-1 01. Second Slave-War in Italy f 464

100-91. LI. From the Sixth Consulship of Marius to the death

of M. Livius Drusus 473

90,89. LII. The Social War 483

88-86. LIIL First Civil War 490

88-84. LIV. First Mithridatic War 50 1

83, 82. LV, Return of Sylla : Second Civil War 509

82^78. LVI. Sylla's Dictatorship and death 518

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page

, 320

339 340

Coin of Ptolemy Philadelphia . .

Coin of Philip V., King of Ma-

cedon

Coin of the Quinctian Gens, hearing the head of Flamini-

mis

Coin of Antiochus the Great . .

Tomh of the Scipios, as restored

by Canina 354

Coin of Persens 364

Coin of Lepidus, representing Paullus triumphing over Perseus and his Children . . . . 374

Coin of Attalus 1 375

Plan of Tyrian Carthage . . . . 393 Tomb on the Appian Way . . 410 Medallion of Terence .. ..416

BustofEnnius 425

The Forum from the Capitol .. 426 Tomb on the Appian Way . . 435 Walls of Rome, from the inside 441

Caius Marius 464

Coin of the Eight Italian Nations, joining in an Oath of Federation, with the Legend Italia Coin of the Two Allied Nations who last held out, with the name of Papius in Oscan characters 489

Coin of Mithridates VI

Coin. — Temple of Jupiter on Capitol, and head of Jupiter

Cn. Pompeius Magnus Slab from Arch of Titus, representing the Spoils of Jerusalem borne in Triumph M. Tullius Cicero, G. W.

Coin of Caesar

Coin to commemorate Conquest

of Gaul

Parthian Coin

Roman Arch at Beneventum . .

Coin to comemmorate the taking

of Egypt

Coins struck upon the death of

Caesar

Coins of the Triumvirs

Fine Coin of Antony, executed at

Anfioch

Antony and Cleopatra Figure Head of Roman Galley, dredged up near Actium

Octavian

M. Vipsanius Agrippa

PaOH

509 518 537

546 547 559 568

580* 580**

581 '595

610 611

638 639 659

The initials G. W. denote that the Illustrations were copied from original Sketches by Sir Gardner Wilkinson, obligingly lent by him to the Publisher.*

The Figure Head of a Roman Galley (p. 638) was the property of the late Lieut.-Gen. Sir Howard Douglas, Bart., having been discovered while he was Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands.

Coin with head of Janus.

HISTORY OF ROME.

INTRODUCTION.

Section I. Physical Geogkaphy Of Italy

1. Relation of Italy to Roman History. § 2. Length of Italian Peninsula. § 3. Breadth, § 4. Extent of surface. § 5. Geographical features of Italy : Few prominent Headlands and large Gulfs. § 6. Few Islands. § 7. No large Rivers, except in the valley of the Po. § 8. No large Plains, except in same valley. § 9. No large Lakes, except in same valley : Peculiar character of Lakes in many parte of sub-Apennine districts. § 10. Marshy character of some districts. § 11. Climate. § 12. Productions. § 13. Beauty of scenery.

§ 1. The History of Eome is properly the history of a City, or rather a Civic Community, which gradually extended its sway, first over all Italy, then over all the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean Sea. It was, according to the common reckoning, nearly five centuries before the citizens of Rome became lords of Lower Italy ;* in another century they had become the sovereign power of the civilised world.f It is difficult, therefore, in attempting a geographical sketch for the purpose of elucidating Roman History, to determine where we ought to begin and where to end. For during a long period we are hardly carried out of sight of the Capitol ; and at the close of that period we are hurried with startling rapidity into the heart of every country, from the Atlantic to the mountains of Asia Minor, from the ridges of the Alps to the plains that lie beneath Mount Atlas. But since the origin and composition of the people whom we call Romans depend upon the early state and population of Italy at large, and since in course of time all Italians became

ROME.

2 HISTORY OF HOME. Introd.

Romans, it will be well to follow the usual custom, and begin with a geographical sketch of the Italian Peninsula.

§ 2. This Peninsula, the central one of the three which stretch boldly forward from the southern coasts of Europe, lies nearly between the parallels of north latitude 38° and 46°. Its length therefore, measured along a meridian arc, ought to be about 550 miles. But since, unlike the other two Mediterranean Peninsulas, it runs in a direction nearly diagonal to the lines of latitude and longitude, its real length, measured from Mont Blanc to Cape Spartivento, is about 700 miles.

§ 3. To estimate the breadth of this long and singularlyshaped Peninsula, it may conveniently be divided into two parts by a line drawn across from the mouths of the Po to the northern point of Etruria. Below this line the average breadth of the leg of Italy does not much exceed 100 miles. Above this line both coasts trend rapidly outwards, so that the upper portion forms an irregularly shaped figure, which lies across the top of the leg, being bounded on the North and West by the Alpine range from Illyria to the mouth of the Var, on the South by the imaginary line before drawn together with the Gulf of Genoa, and on the East by the head of the Adriatic Sea. The length of this figure from east to west is not less than 350 miles ; while from north to south it measures, on the average, more than 120 miles.

§ 4. The surface of the whole Peninsula, including both the leg of Italy and the irregular figure at the top, is estimated at more than 80,000 square miles, or, an area not much less than the surface of Great Britain and Ireland. But a very large proportion of this surface is unproductive, and a great part even incapable of tillage.

§ 5. The geographical features are simple. No deep gulfs and inlets are to be expected ; for these are only found when mountain-chains jut out into the sea and maintain themselves as headlands, while the lower land between is eaten and washed away by the ceaseless action of the waves. Such phenomena are presented by Greece, and by the western coasts of Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. But in Italy there is but one mountainchain, running with more or less regularity down the length of the Peninsula. This chain is attached to the Alps above Genoa, arid strikes in an easterly direction across the leg of Italy, till it nearly touches the Adriatic near Arimihum (Bimini). Here the range takes a turn to the south-east, and spreads across the Peninsula in an irregular mass of mountains, the highest of which (11 (j ran Sasso) attains the height of about 10,000 feet. But shortly the dimensions of the chain again contract, and its elevations fall; and it runs down to Lucania almost parallel to the coast of ths

Sect. I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY. 3

Adriatic. After this it forks off into two branches ; one, the loftier and more rugged, running towards the toe of the Peninsula, the other, of less elevation, forming the heel. The low lands between these two ranges have been scooped out by .the waves, and here has been formed the great gulf of Tarentum, a vast expanse of sea, measuring from point to point no less than 80 miles. But except this great gulf, the coasts of the Peninsula are indented by comparatively gentle curves. On the northern side the single inequality is presented by the projecting mass of Mount Garganus, which forms with the lower coast what is now called the bay of Manfredonia. On the sole of the foot, below the gulf of Tarentum we find the bay of Squillace (Sinus Scylacius). After passing the straits of Messina, occurs the bay of St. Eufemia (Sinus Vibonensis), which is separated from that of Squillace by a neck of land less than 20 miles in breadth. A little higher up we come to a wide sweep in the coast, known by the name of the bay of Policastro.

Then follows the most irregular part of the coast, being that which bounds the mountainous district of the centre ; and it is this part which deserves particular attention from the student of Roman History. Between the point at which ancient Lucania touches on Campania, and the point at which Latium begins, a distance of about 120 miles, the coast-line is broken into three fine bays ; the bay of Psestum or Salerno on the south, the bay of Gaeta on the north, and between them the smallest but most famous and most beautiful of the three — the bay of Oumse or Naples. From Cape Circello (Circeii), which forms the northern horn of the bay of Gaeta, the coast-line runs onward to Genoa, unbroken save by the headlands of Argentaro and Piombino in Tuscany. But these do not project far enough to form any recess worthy to be named. The little bay of Spezzia, just north of Tuscany, forms a good harbour, but is otherwise not deserving of mention as a geographical feature.

§ 6. The same circumstance which prevents Italy from abounding in deep bays and bold headlands also generally prevents its coasts from being studded with islands, which are but relics of projecting mountain- chains. If we omit Sicily, which is in fact a continuation of the Peninsula separated by a channel of two or three miles broad, and the Lipari islands, which are due to the volcanic action still at work beneath Etna and Versuvius, the islands of Italy are insignificant. Caprese (Capri) on the one hand, Prochyta (Procida) and Ischia on the other, are fragments of the two headlands that form the bay of Naples. Igilium (Giglio) and Ilva (Elba) stand in a similar relation to the headlands of Argentaro and Piombino. Besides these may be named

b 2

Pontise (Ponza), Pandataria, with a few more barren rocks off the bay of Gaeta, and a few even less important on the coast of Tuscany.

§ 7. Except in Northern Italy, which abounds in noble rivers, the narrowness of the Peninsula forbids the existence of really large streams. Yet, the Apennine range, which forms on its lower side along parallel valleys, enables numerous torrents and rills which descend towards the south to swell into rivers of not inconsiderable size. Such especially are the Arno and the Tiber. Their waters are separated by the hills which terminate in the headlands of Argentaro and Piombino, so that the Arno flows northward, and enters the sea on the northern frontier of Tuscany, after a course of about 120 miles; while the Tiber runs in a southerly direction, receiving the waters of the Clanis from the west, and those of the Nar (Nera) and Velinus from the east, till its course is abruptly turned by the Sabine hills. The entire length of its channel is about 180 miles. These two well-known rivers, with their affluents, drain the whole of Etruria, the Sabine country, and the Campagna of Rome.

Similar in their course, but on a smaller scale, are the Anio (Teverone) and the Liris. They both rise in the iEquian hills, the Anio flowing northward to swell the stream of the Tiber a little above Rome : the Liris, joined by the Trerus (Sacco) from the west, running southward so as to drain southern Latium and Northern Campania, till it turns abruptly towards the sea, and enters it about the middle of the bay of Gaeta, after a course of about 80 miles.

The Vulturnus and the Calor run down opposite valleys from the north and south of the Samnite territory, till they join their streams on the frontier of Campania, and fall into the bay of Gaeta only a short distance below the Liris. Both of these streams measure from their sources to their united mouth not less than 100 miles.

The only other notable river on the southern coast is the Silarus (Sele), which descends by a channel of about 60 miles from the central Apennines of Lucania into the bay of Paestum or Salerno. In the foot of Italy the mountains come down so close to the* sea that from the mouth of the Silarus to the lower angle of the gulf of Tarentum, the streams are but short and rapid torrents. Of these it is said that no fewer than eighty may be enumerated between Paestum and the straits of Messina. The gulf of Tarentum receives some streams of importance. The Bradanus and Casuentus (Basento) enter the gulf within four miles of each other after a course of about 60 miles. The Aciris

Sect. I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY. 5

(Agri) is to the south of these. The Siris (Sinno), notable as the scene of the first battle between Pyrrhus and the "Romans is a mere torrent, as is the Galesus upon which Tarentum stands.

The northern or Adriatic Goast is broken into abrupt gorges, at right angles to the main chain, and therefore has few considerable streams. The Aufidus (Ofanto) in Apulia, renowned in Roman history from the fact that the fatal battle of Cannas took place upon its banks, rises on the opposite side of the same range from which the Calor flows, and runs a course of about 80 miles. The Sagrus (Sangro) stands in the same relation to the Vulturnus as the Aufidus to the Calor, and conveys the waters of the Fucine lake from the JEquian hills through Samnium, by a nearly similar length of channel. But the largest river of this side is the Aternus, which finds its way from the Sabine hills into a valley parallel to the main range, and thus prolongs its course. It is joined by a number of smaller streams, and attains a considerable volume of water before it reaches the sea at the point where the Marrucinian coast abuts on that of Picenum.

The whole coast from Mount Garganus northward is ploughed by numberless torrents which descend in rapid course down steep mountain gorges. Of these we need but name the JEsis between Picenum and Umbria ; the Metaurus in Umbria, famous for the defeat of Hasdrubal ; the Rubicon, which formed the boundary of Roman Italy on the northern side, as did the Macra (Magra) on the opposite coast.

§ 8. The limestone mountain tract of the Apennines, which occupies the whole narrow Peninsula from the great valley of the Po downwards, is often too steep, bare and rugged, to be capable of cultivation. There are, however, many rich plains of limited extent, among which Campania ranks first, with many narrowbut fertile vales, in which nature rewards labour with bountiful returns ; and the upland valleys afford good summer pasture for the flocks, when the vegetation of the plains is burnt up by the sun. In the continental portion of the modern kingdom of Naples, consisting of about half the leg of Italy, it is calculated that little more than one half of the land is at present under cultivation. In the States of the Church, and on the sea- coast of Tuscany, the proportion is even less.

§ 9. In speaking of lakes, we must resume our twofold division of the Peninsula. On the Alpine slopes of the great valley of the Po, the Granitic and Ancient Limestone rocks break into vast chasms at right angles to their general direction, in which the waters of the rivers that flow downwards to join the Po accumulate and form those lakes so well known to all lovers of natural beauty, — Benacus (Lago di Garda) formed by the waters of the

HISTORY OF ROME. Introd.

Mincius, Lavius (Lago di Como) by those of the Adda, Verbanus (Lago Maggiore) by those of the Ticino, not to mention the lakes of Lugano, Orta, and others, smaller indeed, but not less beautiful.

But Apennine Italy, considering the great extent of its mountain districts, does not present many considerable lakes. Nor are these formed by the accumulated waters of rivers flowing through them, like the lakes of northern Italy or Switzerland. For the most part, like the lakes of Greece, they have no visible outlet, but lose their waters partly by evaporation, partly by underground fissures and channels. The Fucine lake in the iEquian hills feeds the Sangro, and lake Bradanus in the south feeds the river of the same name. But the celebrated lake of Trasimene in Etruria, and the lakes of the volcanic district, as the " great Volsinian Mere, 55 the lakes of Alba, Nemi, Amsanctus, and others, have no visible outlet. These, in fact, are the craters of extinct volcanoes. Roman history contains legends which relate to the artificial tapping of these caldrons ; and some of the tunnels cut through their rocky basins still remain.

§ 10. The abundance of water which is poured over the hills, is apt to accumulate in marshy swamps in the low districts towards the sea. Such is the case along the lower course of the Po, on the coast-lands of Tuscany, and in the lower part of the Campagna of Rome. Mantua, which stands a little above the junction of the Mincio with the Po, is surrounded by marshes ; and the whole coast between Venice and Ravenna is a swamp.

To keep the Po and its tributaries within their channels, the Lombards of the Middle Ages raised embankments on either side of the stream. But these embankments cause the rivers to deposit the whole of the mud with which they are charged within their channels, and the quantity thus deposited is so great that it is necessary to raise the embankments continually. Hence, in the course of centuries, the bottoms of the rivers have been elevated considerably above the plains ; so that the streams of Lombardy in their lower course are in fact carried along huge earthen aqueducts. In time, human industry will not be equal to raise these embankments in sufficient strength, and a deluge will ensue more fearful than those which the poet of Mantua seems to have witnessed.*

Virg., Aen. n. 496 ; cf, Georg. i. 322, sq.

Sect. I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OP ITALY. 7

§ 11. The climate of Italy, like its physical structure, is extremely different in the northern and in the southern part of the Peninsula. In the valley of the Po the winters are often extremely severe, so that towards the close of the last century all the olive-trees in that district were killed by the frost. On the south of the Apennines the climate is much milder in the winter, though in spring the winds are often very cold. Snow is rarely seen in the Campagna di Eoma, or in the neighbourhood of Naples at the present day ; though in the times of the ancients it seems to have been not uncommon.

Italy is in general a healthy country. The men are active, vigorous, and well-grown ; the women, in their youth, handsome. Some parts, however, are afflicted by pestilential air (malaria), especially the lower part of Tuscany, and the Campagna di Eoma. Parts of Calabria also are extremely unhealthy, and all the southern side of the Apennines suffers from the south-easterly wind, called the Sirocco, which comes charged with suffocating heat from Africa and Arabia.

§ 12. The productions are those of the Temperate Zone in their highest perfection. Wherever there is a sufficiency of soil and water, as in the valleys leading to the plain of Lombardy, or descending to the sea from either side of the Apennines, grain of all kinds is produced in great abundance. In ancient days, the plain of Lombardy, now so highly cultivated, was thickly covered with oak forests, that furnished food to countless herds of swine. Many parts of the Apennines are still well clothed with chestnut trees, and the inhabitants of the upland valleys live on their fruit during the winter. Modern ingenuity and industry have fertilised many of these districts by the help of artificial irrigation.* On the southern slopes of the Apennines olives flourish : and the vine is cultivated largely in all parts of the Peninsula. For this last purpose the sunny terraces of the limestone mountains are especially suited. But want of care,

* The practice of irrigation was known to antiquity, as appears from Virgil's well-known line (Eel. iii. 11) : —

But that it was rude and imperfect appears from the beautiful description in Georg. i. 106, sqq. : —

It may, indeed, be observed that this description is partly borrowed from

Iliad *. 257, sqq.

in the treatment of the plant or in the manufacture of the wine, makes the wines of Italy very inferior in quality to those, of France or of the Spanish Peninsula, though in ancient times the vineyards of northern Campania enjoyed a high reputation. Every schoolboy knows the names of the Massic and Falernian hills, of the Calene and Formian vineyards. In the southern parts the date-palm is found in gardens, though this and other tropical plants are not natural to the climate, as they are in the south of the Spanish Peninsula, which lies about two degrees nearer to the region of the vertical sun. The plains of Apulia were chiefly given up to pasturage — a custom which continues to the present day.

§ 13. The natural beauty of Italy is too well known to need many words here. The lovers of the sublime will find no more magnificent mountain-passes than those which descend through the Alps to the plains of Lombardy. In the valley of the Dora Baltea, from its source under Mont Blanc to Aosta and Ivrea, all the grandeur of Switzerland is to be found, enriched by the colours and warmth of a southern sky : the cold green and gray of the central chain here passes into gold and purple. In the same district is found the most charming lake scenery in the world, where the sunny hills and warm hues of Italy are backed by the snowy range of the towering Alps. Those who prefer rich culture may gratify their utmost desires in the lower vale of the Po about Lodi and Cremona, or across the Apennines in the valley of the Arno and in Campania. If we follow the southern coast/ probably the world presents no lovelier passages than meet the traveller's eye as he skirts the Maritime Alps where they overhang the sea cornice-like, between Nice and Genoa ; or below Campania, where the limestone of the Apennines, broken by volcanic eruptions, strikes out into the sea between the bays of Naples and Salerno. The Romans, who became lords of all Italy and of the civilised world, sprang up in one of the least enviable portions of the whole Peninsula. The attractions of modern Rome are less of nature than of association. The traveller would little care to linger on the banks of the Tiber, if it were stripped of its buildings and its history.

( 9 ) SECTION II.

EARLY POPULATION OF ITALY.

§ 1. Constant invasions of Italy, notwithstanding Alpine barrier. § 2. Its subdivision among numerous tribes. § 3. Signification of the name Italy in Roman times. § 4. Roman Italy occupied by at least six distinct races. § 5, Pelasgians. § 6. Opicans or Oscans : the Umbrians: the Sabellians. § 7. Etruscans. § 8. Greeks. § 9. Romans a compound race. § 10. Evidence of Tradition. §11. Evidence of Language: — Roman language akin to the Greek in structure, being probably Pelasgian, with an Italian vocabulary added. § 12. Sources of early Roman History*

§ 1. It is a common remark, that mountains are the chief boundaries of countries, and that races of men are found in their purest state when they are separated by these barriers from admixture with other tribes. Italy forms an exception to this rule. It was not so much the " fatal gift of beauty," of which the poet speaks,* as the richness of its northern plain, that attracted successive tribes of invaders over the Alps. From the earliest dawn of historic knowledge, we hear of one tribe after another sweeping like waves over the Peninsula, each forcing its predecessor onward, till there arose a power strong enough to drive back the current, and bar aggression for many an age. This power was the Eoman Empire, which forced the Gauls to remain on the northern side of the Apennines, and preserved Italy untouched by the foot of the foreigner for centuries. No sooner was this power weakened, than the incursions again began ; and the fairest provinces of the Peninsula have hardly yet (1865) succeeded in escaping from foreign rule.

§ 2. But if the northern barriers of the Peninsula failed to check the lust of invaders, its long straggling shape, intersected by mountains from top to bottom, materially assisted in breaking it up into a number of different nations. Except during the strength of the Eoman Empire Italy has always been parcelled out into a number of small states. In the earliest times it was shared among a number of tribes differing in race and language. Great pains have been taken to investigate the origin and character of these primaeval nations. But the success has not been great, and it is not our purpose to dwell on intricate questions of this kind. We will here only give results so far as they seem to be established.

* The stanzas of Filicaja are well known from their version in Childe Harold " Italia, oh Italia ! would thou wert less lovely, or more powerful/* &c.

B 3

§ 3, It is well known that it was not till the close of the Kepublic, or rather the beginning of the Empire, that the name of Italy was employed, as we now employ it, to designate the whole Peninsula, from the Alps to the Straits of Messina. The term Italia, borrowed from the name of a primreval tribe who occupied the southern portion of the land,* was gradually adopted as a generic title in the same obscure manner in which most of the countries of Europe, or (we may say) the Continents of the world have received their appellations. In the remotest times the name only included (Enotria proper (Lower Calabria) : f from these narrow limits it gradually spread upwards, till about the time of the Punic Wars, its northern boundary ascended the little river Rubicon (between Umbria and Cisalpine Gaul), followed the ridge of the Apennines westward to the source of the Macra, and was carried down the bed of that small stream to the Gulf of Genoa.