A History of Rome from the earliest times to the establishment of the Empire

Preface

. This work was begun some years ago, chiefly for the purpose of imparting to the Upper Forms in Schools some knowledge of the altered aspect which Roman History has assumed. It was laid aside, mainly, because notices appeared of several works written with a similar purpose ; and was resumed in accordance with the opinion of friends who had a good right to form a judgment upon the matter. It has imperceptibly assumed larger dimensions, and the character of the book is Considerably changed from that which it was originally intended to bear. A History of Rome, suited to the wants of general readers of the present day, does not in fact exist, and certainly is much wanted : whether this work will in any way supply the want is for others to say. The task has been executed under some disadvantages.

My days were for the most part fully occupied; and what time I had to spare was liable to be broken in upon in many ways. When I came to revise the whole for the Press, I found the effects of this interrupted labour in various errors and repetitions ; and I cannot but fear that much of this original taint may still be detected. But I hope, after all deductions, that I may have put into the Reader's hand a book in some measure free from the reproach cast by a great living writer upon all compendious Histories,— namely, that they are Histories in which nothing of History remains except the Proper Names. The difficulty inseparable from a work of this kind lies in the treatment of the Early History. Since what may be called I

PREFACE.

. IV " The Revolution of Niebuhr," it has been customary to give an abstract of his conclusions, with little attention to the evi dence upon which they rest. But the acute and laborious cri ticisms of many scholars, chiefly German, have greatly modified the faith which the present generation is disposed to place in Niebuhr's authoritative dicta ; and in some cases there may be observed a disposition to speak lightly of his services. If I may say anything of myself, I still feel that reverence for the great Master which I gained in youth, when we at Oxford first applied his lamp to illuminate the pages of Livy. No doubt many of the results which he assumes as positive are little better than arbitrary assertions. But I conceive that his main positions are still unshaken, or rather have been confirmed, by ex amination and attack.

If, however, they were all abandoned, it will remain true for ever, that to him is due the new spirit in which Roman History has been studied ; that to him must be referred the origin of that new light which has been thrown upon the whole subject by the labours of his successors. In a work like this, dissertation is impossible ; and I have endeavoured to state only such results of the new criticism as seem to be esta blished. If the young reader has less of positive set before him to learn, he will at all events find less that he will have to unlearn. Far the greater part of this work was printed off before the appearance of Sir George Cornewall Lewis's '■ Inquiry into the Credibility of Early Roman History.' Much labour might be saved by adopting his conclusions, that Roman History deserves little or no attention till the age at which we can securely refer to contemporaneous writers, and that this age cannot be carried back further than the times of Pyrrhus.

It is impossible to speak too highly of the fullness, the clearness, the patience, the judicial calmness of his elaborate argument. But while his conclusions may be conceded in full for almost all the Wars and Foreign Transactions of early times, we must yet claim at tention for the Civil History of Rome in the first ages of the

PREFACE.

. V Republic. There is about it a consistency of progress, and a clearness of intelligence, that would make its fabrication more wonderful than its transmission in a half-traditionary form. When tradition rests solely on memory, it is fleeting and un certain ; but when it is connected with customs, laws, and institutions, such as those of which Rome was justly proud, and to which the ruling party clung with desperate tenacity, its evidence must doubtless be carefully sifted and duly estimated, but ought not altogether to be set aside. I have made free use of the works of modern writers. Among the works of our English labourers in this field it is almost super fluous to notice Dr. Arnold's History of the early times of the Republic, Mr. Merivale's of the last age, and Bishop Thirl wall's account of the dealings of Rome with Macedon and Greece.

Among foreign Scholars, I should be ungrateful if I omitted to mention Becker's admirable work on Roman An tiquities, with Marquhardt's Continuation (to which I am largely indebted for the Chapters on Constitutional History), the two works of K. W. Nitzsch on Polybius and the Gracchi, the volume of M. de Merimee on the period of the Social War and the First Civil Wars, and Drumann's elaborate Biographies. I have not been studious to add Notes for the purpose of authenticating facts, except when the fact stated seemed specially to require it : otherwise such references only have been made as may serve to excite interest or impart instruction. Westminster, 1855.

Introduction

.

Section I. Physical Geography Of Italy

§ 1. Relation of Italy to Roman History. § 2. Length of Italian Peninsula. § 3. Breadth. § 4. Extent of surface. § 5. Reasons for considering Physical Structure. § 6. Division of Italy into two portions. § 7. Physical Structure of upper portion : The Alps, or northern limits of the valley of the Po. § 8. Upper Apennines, or southern limits of this valley. § 9.- Plain of the Po itself. § 10. Physical structure of lower portion of Apennine range. §11. Its southern flank. §12. Northern flank. §13. Deduction of geographical features of Italy from foregoing description : Few prominent Headlands and large Gulfs. § 14. Few Islands. § 15. No large Rivers, except in the valley of the Po. § 16. No large Plains, except in same valley. § 17. No large Lakes, except in same valley. Peculiar character of Lakes in many parts of sub-Apennine districts. § 1 8. Marshy character of some districts. Methods of reclaiming land in modern times. § 1 9. Climate. §20. Productions. §21. Beauty of scenery . . . Page 1

Section II. Early Population Of Italy

§ 1. Constant invasions of Italy, notwithstanding Alpine barrier. § 2. Its subdivision among numerous tribes. § 3. Signification of the name Italy in Roman times. § 4. Roman Italy occupied by at least six distinct races. § 5. Pelasgians. § 6. Opicans or Oscans. § 7. Umbrians. § 8. Sabellians. § 9. Etruscans. § 10. Greeks. § 11. Romans a compound race. § 12. Evidence of Tradition. § 13. Evidence of Language:— Roman language akin to the Greek in structure, being probably Pelasgian, mixed with Oscan, with Sabine vocabulary added. § 14. Comparison between Romans and English in respect to origin. § 15. Sources of early Roman History .

Chapter I. Origin Of Rome

: ROMULUS AND NUMA. § 1. Belief of the Romans that they were sprung from the East. § 2. Legend of Æneas. § 3. Legend of Ascanius. § 4. Legend of Rea Silvia, and birth of the Twins. § 5. Legend of recognition of Twins by Numitor. § 6. Legend of the quarrel of Romulus and Remus. Variations in Legends. § 7. Romulus founds Rome. Uncertainty of dates. § 8. Asylum. Rape of Sabines. § 9. War with Sabines. Legends of Tarpeia, of Janus, of Sabine women. § 10. Peace between Romans and Sabines. Romulus and Tttus Tatius joint Kings. §11. Legend of Cæles Vibenna and Etruscan settlers at Rome. Four of Seven Hills now occupied. § 12. Death of Titus Tatius. Reign and Death of Romulus. § 13. Institutions attributed to Romulus: (1) Social; (2) Political; (3) Military. §14. Interregnum: Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, second king of Rome. § 15. Religious institutions attributed to Numa. § 16. His love of agriculture. § 17. Other institutions .......... Page 23

Chapter II. Tullus Hostilius And Ancus Martius, The Third And Fourth Kings

§ 1. Increase of Rome in next two reigns. § 2. Choice of Tullus Hostilius. § 3. War with Alba. Legend of Horatii and Curiatii. § 4. War with Etruscans. Punishment of Mettus Fuffetius. § 5. Forced migration of Albans to Rome. § 6. War with Sabines. §7. Curia Hostilia. § 8. Death of Tullus. § 9, 10. Election of Ancus Maetius: his institutions. § 11. Subjugation of Southern Latium: increase of Roman citizens. § 12. Pons Sublicius: Janiculum: Ostia. §13. Death of Ancus ... .37

Chapter III. Tarquinius Priscus And Servius Tullius, The Fufth And Sixth Kings

§ 1. Sons of Ancus set aside. § 2. Early history of Tarquinius Priscus. § 3. How he came to be chosen King. § 4. Addition to numbers of Senate. § 5. Social state before reforms of Tarquin. Patricians or Patrons, Clients Plebeians. § 6. Origin of Plebs. § 7. Tarquin's plan of reform. § 8. CONTENTS OF VOLUME L Opposition of Patricians. Legend of Attus Navius. § 9. Plan modified. Augmentation of Patrician Gentes and of Knights. § 10. Wars of Tarquin. § 11. Public works: Cloaca Maxima, etc. § 12. Legend of death of Tar quin. § 13. Servius Tullius. § 14. Wish to give political power to all Plebeians. § 15. Plan of reform. Comitia Centuriata. § 16. Census. Preponderating influence of property. § 17. Plebs made part of Populus, or Body Politic. § 18. Roman territory divided into Tribes. § 19. Four of City. § 20.

Sixteen of Country. § 21. Only Plebeians originally mem bers of Tribes. § 22. Assembly of Curiæ finally superseded by that of Tribes. § 23. Walls of Rome built by Servius. § 24. Principal places in early Rome. § 25. Alliance with Latins. §26. Legend of death of Servius Page 43

Chapter IV. Tarquinius Superbus, And The Beginnings Of The Republic

§ 1. Despotism of second Tarquin. § 2. Alliance with Etruscans and Latins. § 3. Temple on Capitoline. § 4. Legend of Sibyl. § 5. Stratagem by which Gabii was taken. § 6. King's sons, with Brutus, sent to consult-the Delphic Oracle. § 7. Legend of Lucretia. Expulsion of Tarquins. § 8. Consuls. § 9. Patres Conscripti. § 10. Rex Sacrorum. § 11. First attempt to restore Tarquin, by conspiracy: Judgment of Brutus. § 12. Second attempt, by Etruscans of Tarquinii and Veii. Death of Brutus. § 13. P. Valerius Poplicola. § 14. Consecration of Capitoline Temple by M. Horatius. § 15. Third attempt to restore Tarquin, by Porsenna: Legends of Horatius Codes, Mucius Scævola, Clœlia. § 16. Tarquin at [ Tuseulum. § 17. First Dictator. § 18. Fourth attempt to restore Tarquin, by Latins: Battle of Lake Regillus. § 19. Death of Tarquin at Cumæ . . . . . . . . . . .65

Chapter V. Observations On The History Of Rome Under The Kings

§ 1. Nature of Legendary History. § 2. Among Greeks. § 3. Among Romans. § 4. Religious and Historical Legends. § 5. Tendency to propagate Historical Legends in all times. § 6. Detection of incongruities in early Roman History : difficulties explained away by ancient critics. § 7. Modern critics, before and after Niebuhr. § 8. Relation of stories of Kings to actual history. § 9. Romulus and Numa. § 10. Tullus and Ancus. § 11. Tarquinius Priscus and Servius. § 12. Tarquinius Superbus. § 13. Character of next Book ......... X

Book II. Rome Under The Patricians, Chapter VI

DECLINE OF ROMAN POWER AFTER THE EXPULSION OF THE TAR- QUINS. GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. § 1 . Extent of Roman power at Expulsion of Kings. § 2. It fell with Monarchy. § 3. Romans for a time subject to Porsenna. § 4. Rome no longer head of Latium : accession of Attus Clausus and 3000 Clients. Narrow limits of Roman History for next 150 years. §5. Campagna: pestilential air. § 6. Less unhealthy in ancient times. § 7. Nations bordering on plain of Rome : Tusculum, &c. § 8. Lower Apennines : Præneste" : Volscians: Æquians: Hernicans. §9. Lower Etruria . . Page 89

Chapter VII. The Tribunate

§ 1. Character of struggle between Orders. § 2. Sufferings of Plebeians in border wars, not shared by Patricians. § 3. All power gradually resumed by Patricians. § 4. Patricians an exclusive Caste : privilege of Connubium. § 5. Plebeians first roused by severe Laws of Debtor and Creditor. § 6. Patricians chief Creditors, Plebeians Debtors. § 7. Story of incident which gave rise to Tribunate : Appius Claudius, leader of Patricians, deceives Plebeians. § 8. Secession of Plebeians to Mons Sacer. § 9. Menenius Agrippa: Fable of Belly and Members. § 10. Peace restored: two Tribunes to be chosen as Protectors of Plebeians. § 11. Incompleteness of Protection. § 12. Plebeian Ædiles .97

Chapter VIII. Agrarian Law

THE ELECTION OF THE TRIBUNES TRANSFERRED TO THE TRIBES. § 1. Sp. Cassius, Patrician, patron of the Plebeians: proposes an Agrarian Law. § 2. Nature of Agrarian Laws. § 3. The Patricians allow Law to pass. § 4. Sp. Cassius condemned for aiming at kingly power. § 5. His fall increases power of Patricians: seven Consulships of Fabii. § 6. But boldness of Tribunes also increases : a Consul impeached by Tribune Genucius, who is murdered. § 7. Volero Publilius refuses to enlist. § 8. Chosen Tribune : Publilian Law, enacting that Tribunes should be chosen by Tribes. § 9. Second Appius Claudius elected Consul to oppose Law: in vain. Five Tribunes henceforth elected at Comitia Tributa .

Chapter IX. Wars And Foreign Affairs From The Battle Of Lake Regillus

TO THE DECEMVIRATE. (496—450 B.C.) § 1. Great decrease of Roman power. § 2. Vagueness in history of Wars: famous Legends. § 3. Volscian Wars: Legend of Coriolanus. § 4. Æquian Wars: Legend of Cincinnatus. § 5. Veientine Wars: Legend of Fabian Gens. § 6. Leagues formed by Spurius Cassius with the Latins and Hernicans the true barriers against Æqui and Volsci. § 7. Importance of these Leagues to Latium as well as to Rome. § 8. Duration of Latin League Page 112

Chapter X. Continued Struggle Between The Orders

THE DECEMVIRATE. (470—449 B.C.) § 1. Progress of Plebeians : Colony of Antium : impeachment of second Appius. § 2. Great pestilence. § 3. Reform-bill of Terentilius Harsa. § 4. Violent scenes at Rome. § 5. Compromise: Triumvirs appointed to report upon Laws of Solon at Athens. § 6. Public Land on the Aventine parcelled out among Plebeians. § 7. Return of Triumviri. § 8. Appointment of Decemviri: their functions: third Appius Claudius their chief. § 9. Ten Tables completed. § 10. Resignation of first Decemvirs : successors elected, including Appius. §11. Change in bearing of Appius: despotism of new Decemvirs. § 12. Two Tables added to Code. § 13. Appius and colleagues retain office for a second year. § 14. Wars break out with Æquians and Sabines. § 15. Legend of Siccius Dentatus. § 16. Legend of Virginia. § 17.

Second Secession to Mons Sacer: Decemvirs resign. § 18. L. Valerius and M. Horatius sent to negotiate between Senate and Plebeians: Ten Tribunes elected. §19. Restoration of Consulship : Valerius and Horatius elected. § 20. Valerio-Horatian Laws. § 21. Triumph of new Consuls over Sabines and Æquians. § 22. Appius impeached and dies in prison: Oppius executed : the rest pardoned. §23. Attempt to re-elect Consuls and Tribunes . . . . . . . .124

Chapter XI. The Code Of The Twelve Tables

§ 1. Few remains of the XII Tables. § 2. Difference of character in the first X and last II Tables. § 3. Political ordinances of the X Tables. § 4. Laws for protection of Person and Property. § 5. Iniquitous provisions of the II Tables. § 6. Advantages resulting from the Code to the Plebeians . . . . . • • - . -. ■ .

Chapter XII. Sequel Of The Decemvirate

MILITARY TRIBUNATE. GENERAL HISTORY TO THE WAR WITH VEII. (448—406 B.C.) § 1. Many Patricians go over to the Plebeians. § 2. Canuleian Law for legalising Intermarriage of Orders : third Secession. § 3. Proposition to throw open Consulship to Plebeians : fierce contest -. compromise by appointment of Military Tribunes. § 4. Nugatory nature of concession. Creation oi Censorship. § 5. Survey of whole time of Military Tribunate: threo periods. § 6. Reasons for Plebeians demanding so little. § 7. Quæstors increased from two to four: admission of Plebeians to Quæstorship. § 8. Probably at same time to Senate. § 9. Summary of their political gains. § 10. Popularity of Sp. Mælius, a knight: struck dead by C. Servilius Ahala. §11. Stories of two Postumii : their severity . . Page 144

Chapter XIII. Wars Since The Decemvirate

SIEGE OF VEII. (448—391 B.C.) § 1. Steady advance of Romans on the side of the Æquians and Volscians. §2. Lower Etruria, at peace since fall of Fabii. §3. Renewal of hostilities : Cossus wins spolia opima from Lars Tolumnius. § 4. Veii : siege begins in 400 B.C. § 5. Appointment of M. Furius Camillus as Dictator. § 6. Legend of Overflow of Alban Lake. § 7. Legend of Capture of Veii in tenth year of war. § 8. Camillus takes Falerii (story of schoolmaster), Sutrium, Nepete": truce with Volsinii. § 9. Project of removing from Rome to Veii, defeated. §10. Unpopularity of Camillus : his banishment. §11. Estimate of his conduct : his parting prayer j&^ . . . 155

Chapter XIV. The Gauls

(390 B.C.) § 1. Introductory. § 2. Who the Gauls were. § 3. Migrations of Celtic nations: occupation of Northern Italy by Gauls. § 4. Who those Gauls were that burnt Rome. § 5. Legend of quarrel with Gauls, and battle of Alia. § 6. Patricians defend Capitol: old Senators in Forum. § 7. Gauls enter Rome: slaughter of Senators: Gauls repulsed from Capitol. § 8. Legends of C. Fabius Dorso and M. Manlius Capitolinus. § 9. Of delivery by Camillus. § 10. Falsehood of last Legend. § 11. Later inroads of Gauls. § 12. Legends of T. Manlius Torquatus and M. Valerius Corvus

Chapter XV. Sequel Of The Gallic War

LICINIAN LAWS. FINAL EQUALIZA- TION OF THE TWO ORDERS. (389—367 B.C.) § 1. Proposition to migrate to Veii renewed: defeated by an omen. § 2. Irregularity in rebuilding the City. § 3. Misery of the people. § 4. M. Man- Bus comes forward as their patron : his fate. § 5. Estimate of his character. § 6. Measures to conciliate the Plebs: four new Tribes created from the Veientine territory. § 7. Claims of the Plebeians to the Consulate renewed by C. Licinius and L. Sextius. § 8. Pretended cause of their enterprise. § 9. The three Licinian Rogations promulgated 376 B.C. § 10. First, for reduction of debt. § 11. Second, agrarian. § 12. Third, political. § 13. Violent opposition of the Patricians, met by an interdict on all elections by Licinius and Sextius. § 14. Struggle prolonged for five years. § 15.

Compromise refused by the Tribunes : after five years more the Licinian Rogations become Law. § 16. Sextius first Plebeian Consul: Patrician Curies refuse him the Imperium. § 17. This Quarrel adjusted: judicial power of the Consul transferred to a new Patrician Magistrate, the Prætor : Curule Ædiles. § 18. Camillus vows a Temple to Concord: rapid rise of Roman power consequent on the Union of the Orders . . . Page 173

Chapter XVI. Sources Of Early Roman History

§ 1 . Destruction of all public Records by the Gauls. § 2. Meagre character of these Records: early History of Rome embodied in Legends. §3. Legends of the Patrician period full of falsehood. § 4. Due to banquet-minstrelsy and funeral eulogies. § 5. Plebeian ballads also rife. § 6. How this mass of Legends was made into History. § 7. Tradition and documents. § 8. Minstrelsy lingered on after Burning by Gaul, but superseded by Annals . . . . . . . . . . .184

Chapter XVII. Sequel Of The Licinian Laws

CIVIL HISTORY TO THE FIRST SAMNITE WAR. (B.C. 366—344.) § 1. Difficulties of Social Reformation. § 2. Increased by pestilence: Gulf in Forum: Self-sacrifice of M. Curtius. § 3. Also by Gallic inroads. §4. Vain attempts to limit rate of interest. § 5. Evasion of Second Licinian Law. §6. Attempts to set aside Third Licinian Law foiled: First Plebeian Dictator: First Plebeian Censor. §7. Plebeian honours limited to a few families. § 8. Subject of this Book CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.

Chapter XVIII. Wars From The Burning Of Rome To The First Samnite

WAR. (B.C. 389—344.) § 1. Rising of Volscians, Æquians, and Etruscans. Victorious Dictatorship of Camillus. § 2. Six new Tribes added, four from the Etruscan, two from the Volscian territory. § 3. The Latin League no longer in existence : wars with several Latin Cities. § 4. Fresh irruption of the Gauls, favoured by Hernicans and Tiburtines. § 5. Renewal of Latin League. § 6. War with the Tarquinians, followed by a peace for 40 years. § 7. Third inroad of Gauls. Second Treaty with Carthage. Reflexions . . Page 194

Chapter XIX. First Samnite War

(B.C. 343—341.) § 1. Origin and geographical position of the Samnites. § 2. Little unity between them and kindred tribes. § 3. Samnites a pastoral people. § 4. They spread from their mountains over various parts of the coast. Campania. Their Colonists become thenenemies. § 5. Causes of the War. § 6. First year of the War: battle of Mount Gaurus gained by Valerius Corvus. Other victories. § 7. Peace concluded next year. Reasons. § 8. First Reason: Mutiny of Roman Legions wintering in Campania. They advance to Bovillæ, and are joined by Plebeians from the City: Fourth Secession. § 9. Difference between this and former Secessions. It is put down by Valerius. § 10. Laws for improving the condition of soldiers. §11. Genucian Laws. Laws for relieving Debtors : remarks. § 12. Second Reason deferred to next Chapter ...... 199

Chapter XX. Great Latin War

SUBJECTION OF LATIUM. (B.C. 340-338.) § 1. Review of the relations between Rome and Latium. § 2. Proposals of the Latin Cities for a union with Rome. § 3. Contemptuously rejected. § 4. Manlius and Decius, Consuls, march into Campania. § 5. Roman and Latin armies meet under Vesuvius: military system of Rome: identical with that of Latins. § 6. Order of Manlius against single combats. § 7. Manlius condemns his son for disobeying. § 8. Battle of Vesuvius : self-sacrifice of Decius. § 9. Mournful triumph of Manlius. § 10. Conclusion of the War. § 11. Large quantity of Publie Land gained by the War; a portion distributed to the poor Plebeians. § 12. Publilian Laws. § 13. Principle on which the Latin Cities were treated. § 14. Public and Private Rights of Romans: how granted to foreigners. § 15. Previous privileges of Latins. § 16. "New arrangements, of three kinds. § 17. Settlement of the Campanian Cities ......

Chapter XXI. Events Leading To The Second Samnite War

(337—326 B.C.) § 1. Next twelve years without great events: measures of precaution against Samnites. § 2. Revolt of Cales: Colony there. § 3. Alexander of Molossus engaged by Tarentines to make war with Lucanians: Treaty of Romans with him. § 4. Colony sent to Fregellæ. § 5. Generous treatment of Privernum: Thirty -one Tribes. §6. Colony to Terracina. §7. Dispute with Palæpolis, which calls in a Samnite garrison. § 8. Publilius Philo besieges Palæpolis: first Proconsul: destruction of Palæpolis. §9. From these causes of quarrel, Second Samnite War breaks out . Page 220

CHAPTER XXIL THE GREAT SAMNITE WAR, COMMONLY CALLED THE SECOND.

(326—304 B.C.) § 1. Part taken in war by nations of Southern Italy. § 2. Leading men at Rome: M. Valerius Corvus, M. Papirius Cursor, Q. Fabius, P. Decius the younger, etc. § 3. War divided into three periods. § 4. First Period (326-322), in which Romans gain the upper hand. § 5. Second Period (b.c. 321-315): great Defeat of Roman Army at Furculæ Caudinæ. § 6. Pontius passes Romans under yoke, and releases them on conditions of peace. § 7. Peace repudiated by Senate. § 8. Remarks on their conduct. § 9. Continued success of Samnites, till 315. § 10. Third Period (314- 304): precautionary measures: Capua called to account: Colonists sent to Fregellæ, Casinum, Interamna, Suessa. § 11. War declared by Etruscans. § 12. Great defeat of Samnites by Papirius. § 13. Of Etruscans by Fabius. § 14. Samnites sue for Peace. § 15. Why Senate was ready to come to terms. — Thirty-three Tribes 225

CHAPTER XXIIL THIRD SAMNITE WAR.

(299—290 B.C.) § 1. Hollowness of the late Peace. § 2. Rome engaged in war with Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls. § 3. Samnites choose this crisis for declaring war. § 4. Samnium desolated by Fabius and Decius. § 5. Great confederacy organised by Gellius Egnatius, the Samnite. § 6. Fabius and Decius again elected Consuls: great efforts for Campaign. § 7. Decisive battle of Sentinum: self-sacrifice of second Decius. § 8. Victory in Samnium by Papirius and Carvilius. § 9. C. Pontius again appears, and is taken prisoner by Fabius. § 10. Great Colony planted at Venusia. § 11. Submission of Samnites. § 12. Shameful death of C. Pontius . . . .237

CHAPTER XXIV. CIVIL HISTORY DURING THE TIME OF THE SAMNITE WARS.

§ 1 . Internal changes during Samnite Wars : remnants of jealousy between two Orders: Pudicitia Plebeia. § 2. Patrician Clubs put down by C. Mænius. § 3. Ogulnian Law for admitting Plebeians to Pontificate and Augurate. § 4. Plebeians, as a class, no longer poor. § 5. Increasing number of Slaves and Freedmen. § 6. Political condition of Freedmen. § 7. Appius Claudius Cæcus: his scheme of uniting Patricians and Freedmen against Plebeians. § 8. Choice of Senate by Appius as Censor: his colleague resigns, but he remains sole Censor. § 9. He enrols Freedmen in all Tribes. § 10. His agent, Cn. Flavius the notary: publishes a Calendar. §11. Elected Curule Ædile. §12. Appius retains his Censorship for four years. §13. His public works: Appian Road: Appian Aqueduct. § 14. His later life. § 15. Restoration of old rule with respect" to Freedmen by Fabius and Decius : peaceable end of the question . Page 24.5

CHAPTER XXV. EVENTS BETWEEN THE THIRD SAMNITE WAR AND THE LANDING OF

PYRRHUS. (289—282 B.C.) § 1. M' Curius Dentatus: conquest of Upper Sabines. § 2. Agrarian Law of Curius : Secession of poorer Citizens : Hortensian Laws. § 3. Early intercourse of Rome with Greece Proper : the Snake of Æsculapius and Sacred Isle. § 4. Now brought into contact with Magna Græcia and Sicily : retrospective view of their wealth and population. § 5. Syracuse. § 6. Other towns of Sicily: Rhegium occupied by Mamertines. § 7. Tarentum: her situation and people : practice of hiring foreign captains. § 8. Her treaty with Rome. § 9. She intrigues with Italian nations against Rome. § 10. Thurii seeks aid of Rome against Lucanians. § 11. General rising of Southern Italians, as also of Etruscans and Gauls : Prætor Metellus cut off in Etruria. § 12. Consul Dolabella extirpates Senonian3. § 13.

Boian Gauls defeated in great battle on Lake Vadimo: Colony of Sena Gallica. § 14. Fabricius conducts war in South. § 15. Ten Roman ships are assaulted in harbour of Tarentum: sack of Thurii. § 16. Roman Envoys insulted: speech of L. Postumius. § 17. Hopes of peace frustrated by promised arrival of Pyrrhus ..... 254

CHAPTER XXVI. PYRRHUS IN ITALY.

(280—275 B.C.) § 1. Adventurous youth of Pyrrhus, King of Epirus: lust of conquest. §2. Arrives at Tarentum: stern discipline. § 3. Preparations of Romans: comparison of forces. § 4. Pyrrhus meets Romans on Siris : battle of Heraclea. § 5. Remarks of Pyrrhus after victory. § 6. Locri joins Pyrrhus: Rhegium seized by Campanian captain, Decius Jubellius: disappointment of Pyrrhus. § 7. Mission of Cineas to Rome: patriotic speech of App. Claudius. § 8. Report of Cineas: Pyrrhus marches into Latium, but Rome remains firm. § 9. Embassy of Fabricius during winter. § 10. Second campaign : Battle of Asculum in Apulia : Pyrrhus inclined to peace. § 11. Consuls of the next year warn him of his physician's treachery: Pyrrhus restores prisoners and departs for Sicily. § 12. His fortunes in Sicily. §13.

Returns to Italy in third year. §14. M' Curius, the Consul, compels Romans to enlist. § 15. Battle of Beneventum: defeat of Pyrrhus. § 16. After fate of Pyrrhus Page 268

CHAPTER XXVII. FINAL REDUCTION AND SETTLEMENT OF ITALY.

(274—264 B.C.) § 1. Milo left by Pyrrhus in Tarentum. § 2. Final reduction of Samnites and Italians of South. § 3. Surrender of Tarentum: embassy of Ptolemy Philadelphus to Rome. § 4. Campanian soldiers in Rhegium compelled to surrender: their fate. § 5. Submission of Sallentines and Messapians: Colony of Brundusium. § 6. Reduction of Picenians and Umbrians. § 7. Of Etruscans. § 8. Account of Settlement of Italy: present extent of Roman Territory : none but its inhabitants admitted to a share in government. § 9. Principles adopted in regulating Italy: Isolation and Self-government. § 10. How Isolation was produced: different conditions of Italian - Towns. § 11. Prefectures. § 12. Municipal Towns. § 13. Colonies. § 14. Colonies of Roman Citizens. § 15. Latin Colonies. § 16. Jus Latii. § 17. Free and Confederate States. § 18. Constitutions of Italian Towns. §19. Admirable results of the system . . . 280

Book IV. Rome And Carthage

CHAPTER XXVIII. CARTHAGE.

EVENTS LEADING TO FIRST TUNIC WAR. § 1. Good fortune of Rome in her successive wars. § 2. Saying of Pyrrhus. § 3. Situation of Carthage. § 4. Origin and growth of Carthage. § 5. Her subjects. § 6. Government. § 7. Army. § 8. Navy. § 9. Her attempts to gain possession of Sicily. § 10. Mamertines of Messana and Hiero of Syracuse: Mamertines seek protection of Rome. § 11. Hiero and Carthaginians defeated by Romans. § 12. Tlie First Punic War •follows 293 VOL. I. c

CHAPTER XXIX. FIRST PUNIC WAR.

(263—241 B.C.) § 1 . First Punic War divided into Three Periods. § 2. First Period. Success of Romans : sack of Agrigentum. § 3. Romans build a Fleet of Quinqueremes. § 4. Sail to the North of Sicily. § 5. Grappling-engines, called Corvi. § 6. Carthaginians defeated by Duilius off Mylæ. § 7. Carthaginians lose greater part of Sicily. § 8. Second Period. Regulus and Manlius set sail for Africa : great victory at sea off Ecnomus. §9. Army landed at Clupea. § 10. Romans advance to Carthage. Great defeat of Regulus by Xanthippus. § 11. Fleet entirely lost. § 12. Fresh Fleet built. Panormus taken. § 13. Second Fleet lost. Romans give up the Sea. § 14. Victory gained by Metellus at Panormus. § 15. Embassy and death of Regulus. § 16. Criticism of this event. § 17. Third Period. Third Fleet built.