Lares and penates : or, Cilicia and its governors; being a short historical account of that province from the earliest times to the present day

Front matter

s ii

I '

Ml 1 i

Chapter I

Early period of Cilician history. Scriptural mention of Tarsus. Ancient religion. Notice of the Cilicians by Herodotus. Cilicia under the Assyrians. Burial-place of Sardanapalus. Dominion of the Medes. Cilicia overrun by Scythian hordes. The Prophet Daniel's tomb. Croesus, king of Lydia. Persian satraps. Invasion of Greece by the Persians. Syennesis, king of Cilicia. Treaty of Antalcidas. Alexander the Great in Cilicia. Battle of Issus 11

Chapter II

Plistarchus. Battle of Ipsus. Ptolemy Evergetes. Antiochus the Great. Zeno and Chrysippus. Cilicia under the Seleucidae. Invaded by Tigranes. Reduced to a Roman province by Pompey. Cicero's campaign in Cilicia. Marc Antony and Cleopatra at Tarsus. Cilicia invaded by the Parthians under Labienus. Athenodorus. Vonones slain in Cilicia. St. Paul. Insurrection of the Cliteans. Cossuatianus Papito governor. Polemon, king of Cilicia, marries Berenice. Cilicia declared a Roman province in Vespasian's time. Fate of the Roman empire decided on the plain of Issus. . 23

Chapter III

Legend of the Seven Sleepers. Sapor invades Cilicia. Zenobia's conquests. Cilicia overrun by the Alani. Maximianus dies at Tarsus. Death of Constuntius at Mopsuestia in Cilicia. St. George, patron saint of England, born at Epiphanea. The Emperor Julian buried at Tarsus. Invasions of the Huns. Belisarius in Cilicia. Campaigns of Heraclius and of Chosroes (Kusru Anushiriwan). . . 36

VI CONTENTS.

Chapter IV

Rise of the Saracens. Cilicia overrun by Harun al Rashid. Al Mamun dies in Cilicia. Exchange of prisoners at Il-Lamas. Sack of Mopsuestia by the Khalif Mutassim. Mopsuestia retaken by Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces. Rise of the Turkmans. Alp Arslan and Romanus Diogenes. Turkman dynasty at Nicasa. Persecution of the Christians. First Crusade. Tancred and Baldwin in Cilicia. Alexius annexes Cilicia to the Greek empire. . . 45

Chapter V

The Emperor John Comnenus killed in a wild boar hunt in Cilicia. Description of Anazarba. The second Crusade. Third Crusade. Death of Frederick I. (Barbarossa) in Cilicia. Fourth Crusade. Cilicia under John Ducas Vataces. Devastations of Yanghiz or Genghiz Khan. ...» 54

Chapter VI

Rise of the Osmanlis or Usmanlis. Victories of Bayazid. Invasions of the Moguls. Capture of Constantinople by Muhammad II. Bayazid II. Annexes Cilicia to the Ottoman empire. Campaigns of Sulaiman the Magnificent. Amurad IV. invades Cilicia. His house at Adana. Reforms of Mahmud II. Abd'ul Masjid. . . .65

Chapter VII

Modern history of Cilicia. Rise of Kutchuk Ali Uglu. His means of revenue. Acts of cruelty. Bayas. Mode of life and characteristics. Seizes the master of an English vessel. Captures a French merchantman. Bribes the Turks who are sent against him. Puts his friend the Dutch Consul of Aleppo into prison. Forces a caravan of merchants to ransom him. A characteristic anecdote. . 73

Chapter VIII

Dada Bey, son of Kutchuk Ali Uglu. His piratical expeditions. Repels the attacks of the Turks. Is taken by stratagem. Is beheaded and burnt. History of Mustafa Pasha. Kil-Aga killed by Haji Ali Bey. Dervish Hamid. Story related of Haji Ali Bey. Conquests of Ibrahim Pasha. Mustuk Bey placed in power. Comparison between the Egyptian and Turkish governments. . . 84

CONTENTS. Vll

Chapter IX

Muhammad Izzet Pasha. A pretender to the Turkish throne . His strange history and rare accomplishments. Disappears at Kuniyah . Ahmed Izzet Pasha. Grants permission to Mustuk Bey to murder his nephew. Sulaiman Pasha. Durwish Ahmed's expedition against Mustuk Bey. His chief officers taken and stripped. Bayas captured and sacked 92

Chapter X

Anecdotes of Sulaiman Pasha. Gin-Jusif, rebel of Kara-Tash. Arif Pasha. Murder of a pasha. Hasan Pasha. Anecdotes of the council. Christian members of council. Employes of the Porte. Toll at Kulak Bughaz. Hati Sheriff. Courts of justice. . . 101

Chapter XI

Geography of Cilicia. Tarsus and Adana. Missis (Mopsuestia). Sis (Pindenissus). Bayas and the coast. Pylse Ciliciae. Population of Cilicia. Europeans and then- influence destroyed. Consuls and their authority. English consuls allowed to trade. Climate. Stagnant lake (Rhegma). Marsh of Alexandretta. Country-houses. Nimrud. Sea-ports. Kaisanli. Mursina and its roadstead 110

Chapter XII

Advantages and disadvantages of Tarsus in a commercial point of view. Tables of navigation. Tabular view of the trade of the interior of Asia Minor. Table of exports. Table of imports. State of agriculture in Cilicia. Produce of the country. Cotton. Wheat. Barley. Linseed. Wax. Fruit-trees. Silk. Olive-trees. Pay of a day-labourer. Pasture of land. Tenure of land. Timber and woods. Geology and mineralogy. Extracts from Mr. Ainsworth's work. Plain of Tarsus. Falls of the Cydnus. First, second, third, and fourth range of hills. Mines of iron and lead. Argentiferous Galena. Revenue of the Pashalik 117

Chapter XIII

II Lamas (Lamum). Kurkass (Corycus). Aski Shahir. Soli, afterwards Pompeiopolis. Great Mausoleum at Tarsus. Strabo's description of the coast of Cilicia. His account of Tarsus and neighbouring towns. .......... 128 viii CONTENTS.

LARES AND PENATES.

Chapter I. Page

Introductory 145

Chapter II

Discovery of the terra-cottas. Lares and Penates of Cilicia. Evidences of promiscuous worship. Apollo of Tarsus. Perseus, Bellerophon, and Pegasus. Radiated Apollo. Identity of physiognomy. Ugly faces. Deification of childi-en. Deification of princes. Deification of ladies. Character of Cilician art. Progress of Christianity. Destruction of the Lares and Penates. Atys. Apollo, the Syrian Baal. Cyhele, Ceres, and Isis. Eleusinian mysteries. Cybele and Atys, Isis and Osiris, Venus and Adonis. The cat, dog, and horse. Harpocrates and Floras. Isis and the Nelumbium. Sacred bulls. Egyptian art. Morpheus 152

Chapter III

Apollo. Apollo Belvedere. Caricatures of Midas. Apollo of Tarsus. Senator in the clavus latus. Lion attacking a bull. Telephus or Mercury (?). Ceres. Victory. Date of destruction of the Lares . Metamorphosis of Actaeon into a stag. Remarks of Mr. Birch. . 184

Chapter IV

ON CERTAIN PORTRAITS OF HUNS, AND THEIR IDENTITY WITH THE EXTINCT RACES OP AMERICA.

Monstrous head in a conical cap. Portrait of a Hun (?). Identity with American sculptures. Emigrations of Asiatic nations to America. Testimonies from Stephens, Schomburgk, Humboldt. Analogies of language. Evidences from Klaproth and d'Herbelot. 203

Chapter V. Ethnological Subject Of The Huns Continued

" The ugly heads" of the collection. Standard of beauty. Monuments of Central America. Parallel case in Hayti. The Hittites of Scripture. Reference to Egyptian sculpture. Effects of the Egyptian invasion of Cilicia. 208

CONTENTS. IX

Chapter VI

r-AGE

ADDITIONAL WORKS OF ART. GODS, DEMIGODS, AND HEROES.

Apollo. Mercury. Hercules. Bacchus. Silenus. Fauns and Satyrs. Pan. Minerva. Venus. Cupid. Europa. Marsyas. Leander. Laocoon. ^Esculapius. Fortune. Caius Caligula (?). Priapus. Harpy. Marsyas. Abrerig or Nergal (?). Summary . . .213

Chapter XIV. Page

COMPARATIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Arsus (Rhosus). Myriandrus. Iskandrun or Alexandretta (Alexandria ad Isson). Godfrey de Bouillon's fort. Baylan (Pictanus, Erana ?). Primitive Christian church. Castles of Ibn Daub and of Baylan Bustandah. Altars of Alexander. Castle of Markatz. River Kersus. Gates of Cilicia and Syria. Bayas (Baiae). Issus. Nicopolis. KaraKaya(Castabala). Epiphanea. Matakh. Tamir Kapu (Iron Gates, Ammanian Gates). Ayas (Agese). Ammodes. Kara Tash(MallusandMegarsus). Aleian plain. Pyramus. Mopsuestia. Castles on the plain. Sari Capita. Rhegma of the Cydnus. Yanifa Kishla. Mazarlik. Castle of Kalak Bughaz. Kara Sis. Anabad and Dunkalah 262

Appendix

PAGE

Narrative of Nadir Bey, written from his own dictation (in French) . 301

Translation 310

Petition of Nadir Bey (in Italian) 320

Translation 325

Historical Documents : Copy of a Buyurdi from Muhammed Izzet Pasha. Insurrection of Lattakiyah in 1804. State of North Syria in 1805 and in 1814. Petition from the Chief of the Trades to Mr. John Barker, 1841. Notice of Badir Khan Bey, the extirminator of the Nestorian Christians. Story of Fahel, chief of the Arabs of the Zor, or forest district on the Euphrates. . . . 328

Commercial Tables : I. Commerce of Kaisariyah with the chief towns of Asia Minor. II. Summary of the Commerce of Kaisariyah one year with another. III. Exports of the Pashalik of Adana and Tarsus. IV. Imports of the same Pashalik. V. Prospectus of the Navigation of Mursina, roadstead of Tarsus, 1844. VI. Table of Duties paid at Constantinople 372

INDEX 387

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

View of Sis ....

Mausoleum at Eleusa

Map of Cilicia

Sarcophagus at Seleucia Pieria

Ruin at Anazarba .

Saccal Tutan ....

Plain of Antioch — Overflow of the Orontes — Mod

distance ....

Missis .....

View of Alexandretta Alexandretta and Cape Khanzik Sarcophagus at Seleucia Pieria Ground-plan of Mausoleum at Tarsus Tomb at Eleusa

Ruins of an Aqueduct at Anazariu Valley of the Orontes Sculptured Rocks at Anazarba

GoS-HAWK AND FALCON

Gesril Hadeed, in the Plains of Antioch .

Betias: Summer Residence of Mr. Barker Mr. Barker's Villa in the Valley of Suedia nt Am

Frontispiece,

109 110 113

lie

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS TO LARES AND PENATES.

Actaeon 189

Adonis as Apollo . - 178

Apis 182

Ariadne 216

Atys, young 174,227

Bacchante .

Bacchus

Bard playing .

Roy and Dolphin

Cains Caligula .

Captive, kneeling

PAGE

. 200

195, 216

. 243

. 230

. 223 . 211

XIV

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

Cere's 176

Chronos 193

Commodus 167

Cupid and Swan . . . .219,220

Cybele 192

Davus 198

Gladiator 244

Harpocrates 181

Head, tutulated 192

Heads, monstrous .... 203, 204

Hercules 169

Hero 193

Horse, leg of 175

„ head of 180

Idiot head 268

Incense-burner 155

Iris 177

Isis 191

Jupiter 157

Lady, head of 168, 188

Lamp 156

Leander swimming the Hellespont 222 Lion attacking a Bull .... 187

Macrocephalus, a 238

Magus 232

Man riding a Bear .... 226

Mask, comic 177, 178

Mercury 158

Messalina 158

Midas 185

Monster, head of a 236

Musical Instruments .... 260

Osiris 14, 161

Pallas 169

Pan 155

Perseus 197

Phree (the Egyptian Sun) . . 252

Phrygian Head 197

Priest with attributes of Apollo . 164

Priestess 199

Saturn 193

Senator 186

Serapis 14

Sibyl, African 228

Silenus 218

Somnus 183

Tartarus 248

Victoria Aleta 189

BY THE EDITOR.

The author of this little volume, aud the first to bring to light the Lares and Penates of the ancient and interesting city of Tarsus — Mr. William Burckhardt Barker — is the son of John Barker, Esq., who died at Suedia, or Suwaidiyah, near Antioch, on the fifth of October, 1850, in his seventy -ninth year. He is also the godson of the eminent traveller and Oriental scholar Louis Burckhardt, whose footsteps he has most worthily followed, having prosecuted the study of the Oriental languages from his early boyhood, and being now as familiar with Arabic, Turkish, and Persian, and the many dialects which emanate from these languages, as he is with the chief languages of Europe. He lately made an extended tour in Persia, whither he went to perfect himself in the language of that country before his final return to England.

Mr. "W. Burckhardt Barker is further already known in this country by an account of the sources of the river Orontes, of which no previous description had been published, and which appeared in the 7th volume of the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society.

The father of our author for a long period occupied posts of honourable trust under the British government. He was appointed Consul and Agent to the East India Company at Aleppo in 1799, where he exercised his functions and practised a generous hospitality to his countrymen and to strangers till 1826, when he was promoted to the post of his Majesty's Consul-General in Egypt. Here he remained till 1834, when he became entitled to his retirement from public service. He then fixed his residence in the beautiful valley of Suedia, ancient Seleucia Pieria, on the banks of the Orontes, and about fifteen miles from Antioch. Here he built a commodious house, and planted his grounds with the choicest flowers, shrubs, and fruit-trees of Europe and Asia. At a subsequent period he added to this general residence a summer-house at the village of Betias, on a commanding eminence of Mount Ehosus, where there was an abundant supply of water, the air was always refreshing and cool, and the prospect magnificent ; and here his mortal remains were consigned to the tomb.

The presence of an Englishman of a liberal and benevolent mind had a great influence upon the native population, who looked up to him and his family with sentiments of love and respect. This feeling was shared as well by the Muhammadan inhabitants as by the Christian. His services to Eastern travellers have in numberless instances been called into action, and have been gratefully recorded in many published works of those who partook of his hospitality.

Mr. Barker's family came from Bakewell, in Derbyshire, where they have long been established. He married Miss Hays at Aleppo in 1800, who survives him. This lady's mother was a daughter of Mr. Thomas Vernon, a Levant merchant of Aleppo, when that city was the grand emporium of the commerce of India. He was of the family of the Vernons of Hilton, in Cheshire, and a near kinsman of Admiral Sir Edward Vernon, of Porto Bello celebrity. By this lady, who was a remarkable linguist, for it is stated she spoke five languages fluently when only six years old, Mr. Barker had three sons and two daughters, all of whom possessed a great facility for acquiring languages, and became proficient Orientalists.

Mr. Barker's latter years were much occupied in procuring from all parts of Asia the best kinds of fruits, which he cultivated in his gardens at Suedia with a view to prove their merits, and afterwards of transferring them to his native country, so as to improve upon the varieties grown there. His attention was especially directed to the peach, nectarine, and apricot ; and from specimens that have already been produced from his stock, there is but little doubt that in a few years a very superior order of what we denominate wall-fruits will be in common cultivation in England. Some hundreds of Mr. Barker's trees are now under culture in the garden of an eminent nurseryman in Devonshire, and are destined to be spread over the country. They all possess the peculiar property of having sweet kernels, in contradistinction to those common in Europe, which have bitter kernels : this imparts a greatly improved flavour to the fruit. The famous Stanwick nectarine, declared by Dr. Lindley to be incomparably superior to any thing we have, was introduced by Mr. Barker into this country through the assistance of his Grace the present Duke of Northumberland. In this gentle and humanising pursuit Mr. Barker spared neither exertions nor expense. He was in the habit for many years past of sending agents into distant countries of the East, including Bokhara, Samarkand, Kandahar, and Shiraz, to procure for him scions of all such trees as bore the best fruits.

He was, indeed, enthusiastic in the pursuit of whatever he thought would benefit mankind. Thus in 1848, when the cholera committed great devastation in the north of Syria, a remedy is stated to have been discovered by which many persons were cured even in the advanced stages of the disease. Mr. Barker verified the efficiency of the proposed remedy by personal observation ; and once he was satisfied, he spared no pains or expense to spread the knowledge of what he deemed an important discovery to all parts of the world.

During a residence of fifty years in Syria and Egypt, Mr. Barker never lost an opportunity of obliging in his private capacity all persons who came within his reach ; and such was the reputation he had acquired by his general hospitality, that often a letter of introduction from him to any of the chiefs around was of more real value than the best passport from the government authorities. During the campaign of the French in Syria he also rendered good service to our old ally the Porte, from whom, under Sultan Selim, he received a gold medal and a snuff-box set with diamonds, which were sent to him through his friend Sir Sydney Smith.

Mr. Barker had a final opportunity of being usefid to his country by forwarding the objects of the Euphrates expedition, which landed at the mouth of the Orontes in 1835, and of extending his characteristic hospitality to Colonel Chesney and the officers and men of the expedition.

This true-hearted Englishman, indeed, spent all his income in keeping up to the last the honour and respectability of the British name.

As a farther proof of what has been here stated, I have been induced, with the kind permission of the publishers, to introduce into the work a brief notice of Mr. Barker, with some account of his residence at Suwaidiyah and of the immediate neighbourhood, from Mr. Neale's work, recently published by Messrs. Colburn and Co., Eight Years in. Syria ami Palestine, <£e;

The interest of the present work will be found upon perusal to be much greater than might be expected from its more or less local character. Cilicia, properly so called, is not less remarkable for its physical configuration, than it is as the scene of varied historical events, many of which have by their importance influenced the destiny of the world.

Physically speaking, the alluvial deposit of the Cydnus and the Sarus, the Pyramus and the Pinarus, all rivers of ancient renown, the great Aleian plain, the lower and wooded ranges of the Taurus and of the Arnanus, the snow- clad summits of which gird this province like a wall of rock, and the narrow slip of land forming the shores of the Issic Gulf, constitute the whole of the country of Cilicia Proper.*

But politically and historically Cilicia derived its importance from being the highway between the nations of the East and the West. When the Persians, under their powerful monarch Xerxes, advanced against the first seat of European civilisation, or when the Greeks in their turn marched in the train of a Persian satrap to the plains of Babylonia, Cilicia was alike put under contributions by both parties. When the already aged civilisation of the East and the young civilisation of the West had in Alexander the Great's time become more balanced, the fate of the two was decided half-way on the plains of^Cilicia. Petty chieftains, like the successors of Alexander, made of it a continuums field of strife ; and so warlike had the experience of the past made its

* Strabo divided Cilicia into Cilicia Aspera and Cilicia Campestris; the latter is called by Ptolemy, Cilicia Proper.

INTRODUCTORY PREF.\

inhabitants, that it required a Pompey, a Cicero, and a Mark Antony in the palmy days of Eome to bring the same rock and sea-girt province into subjection.

Even the short-lived powers of Zenobia affected Cilicia; and in the long straggle for domination that took place between the Emperor of Byzantium and the Sassanian King?. Cilicia still continued to be the field of oft- repeated and sanguinary conflicts. fcThis was still more the case upon the rise of Muhammadanism : and in the times of the early khalifs. -when the population of the country appears to have attained its maximum, its soil was more than ever stained by the blood of victims to men's lust for power and dominion.

The Saracens were succeeded by Turkman races, which have ever since held most tenaciouslv by a country which they have found peculiarly adapted to their habits and mode of life. Three times the Christians of the West, as they were rising into power upon the past civilisation of Greece and Eome, advanced to battle for the empire of the Cross through Cilicia; and fatal experience ultimately taught them to take other routes. For a time, as under the wily Alexius or the less fortunate John Comnenus, Cilicia was once more a Greek province: but the dread power of the Osmanlis was already on the ascendant; and with the exception of the temporary sway of the Mamluks, and of devasting inroads of a Janghiz Khan or a Timur-lang. which were aevanescent as they were sweeping, and of a brief Egyptian domin;r in the time of Ibrahim Pasha, Cilicia has ever since remained under the control of the Osmanlis. or of their more or less dependent vassal?, the Turkman chieftains of the countrv.

The peculiar position of this sea-and-mountain-girt province has always influenced the character of the inhabitants. The father of history tells us that the Cilicians were among the few nations in Lesser .\ - i whom Crcesus could not bring into subjection. Mr. Barker notices the bad character for piracy and unfaithfulness that Artemisia, queen of Halicansassus, gave of the Cilicians; so familiar indeed were these features in the character of these isolated people of antiquitv, that Cilix hand facile verum (licit became a proverbial saying.

From the same mountains where Cicero found the il wicked and audacious Tibarani." and where dwelt the rebel Clita?ans, Armenians (not always very warlike in other countries) descended to ravage the plains or harass the Crusaders ; and what is more curious, as shewing the persistency of character among tribes similarly situated, the Aushir and Kusan Uglu tribes of Turkmans, scarcely subjected by Ibrahim Pasha, are in the present day merely nominal vassals of the Sultan.

A curious feature also belongs to Cilicia, which is its fatality to crowned heads. It is doubtful if Sardanapalus, notwithstanding certain not very authentic statements to the contrary, did not die in this province ; the river Cydnus, which had nearly proved fatal to Alexander, was certainly so, nearly a thousand years afterwards, to the Emperor Frederic, surnamed Barbarossa ; Seleucus VI. was burned to death in a palace at Mopsuestia ; Labienus and Vonones were slain in the same province ; Pescennius Niger was killed on the ever-memorable battle-field of Issus; Trajan died at Selinus; Florianus was killed by his troops at Tarsus; Maximianus died in agonies at the same city; Constantius perished at Mopsuestia, and Julian the Apostate Avas buried at Tarsus ; the best and wisest of the khalifs, Almaamun, died in Cilicia ; and the pride of the Comneni, Kalo Joannes, lost his life in a boar-hunt at Anazarba.

Three times the fate of the world was decided on the plain of Issus. First, when the Greeks and Persians met there ; secondly, when Severus and Pescennius Niger engaged there in a life-struggle for dominion ; and thirdly, when Heraclius and Chosroes contested there for the superiority of the West over the East. There also, in the time of Bayazid II., the Osmanlis contested with the Mamluk dynasty of Syria the empire of the East. Yet in the present day it is difficult to determine, in a truly positive manner, the exact site of this famous battle-field, to which so melancholy and so sad an interest attaches itself.

The modern history of this remarkable country, as detailed by Mr. Barker, possesses all the interest of a romance. It could scarcely be imagined that, within almost our own times, the high-road between the East and the "West was held almost independent during the whole lifetime of one bandit-chief, Kuchuk Ali Uglu, and during a portion of that of his son, both of whom levied tribute on all wayfarers, imprisoned or murdered inoffensive travellers, and committed all kinds of excesses, even to capturing English and French merchantmen and imprisoning a Dutch

Consul, without any effective interference having taken place on the part of Europe or the Turkish government! Happily those days are gone by, — it is to be hoped for ever.

The history of the five pashas ■who succeeded to the Egyptians is replete with curious matter, highly instructive to those who wish to be truly informed as to the mode of administration in Turkish provinces. The commercial details, more complete and satisfactory than any hitherto presented to the public, will also prove interesting to a large community.

In regard to that part of Mr. Barker's work which illustrates the political and administrative affairs of Cilicia, it must, however, be understood that the condition of that province is very exceptional, and in one peculiarity anomalous. The population is mixed, the majority being Turkmans; next in number, but at a far-off distance, come the Fallahs, or agricultural peasants, mostly Ansayrii and deists ; after these the Christians, chiefly Armenians; next come the Kurds, dwelling at Kars and other places in the mountains; and lastly, the Turks or Osmanlis, chiefly employes of the Porte, police, &c. The Turkman tribes of Taurus are as independent as the Miriditi, Sagori, and other mountain tribes of Turkey in Europe ; and the Ayans, or Turkman nobles of the tribes inhabiting both plains and mountains, constitute the council, and thus hold the provincial, more especially the financial, administration of the district so entirely under their control, as to put insuperable impediments in the way of reforms projected at Constantinople being as yet brought into operation in a district so remote, so peculiarly circumstanced physically, and having a population of its own — not precisely ill-affected towards the Sultan of the Osmanlis, but having no feeling or tie of nationality.

The antiquities of Cilicia are the monuments of its past glory ; the more interesting and suggestive from comparison with the actual fallen condition of this once prosperous, populous, and powerful country. Towns that could boast of their 200,000 inhabitants, like Mopsuestia, now scarcely contain 200 ! Anazarba, the home cf Dioscorides and Oppianus, is now level with the ground; and Epiphanea, which gave birth to St. George of Cappadocia and of England, is an untenanted, desolate, black ruin. The city dignified by the birth of the great

Apostle to the Gentiles remains, but alas how fallen ! The dominion of the Greeks and Romans has, however, left its traces in a few noble monuments of olden time. The public edifices of Soli or Pompeiopolis, the ruins of Anazarba, the tombs at Sebaste or Eleusa (for an illustration of which I have been indebted to the distinguished traveller Dr. Layard), the Amanian gates, and the presumed altars of Alexander, still attest the taste and magnificence of bygone times; above all, a new interest has been imparted to Cilician archaeology by Mr. Barker's important discovery of terra-cotta illustrations of the Lares and Penates of the Cilicians of old. Epiphania is still a great ruin ; Sis and Arsus are remarkable sites of early Christianity ; and hills and mountains are still dotted with the castles of Saracens, Venetians, Genoese, and Crusaders. Almost all that has been done by the Muhammadans still exists ; and Bayas, on the site of the Baiae of the Romans, is for its size the most complete epitome of an Oriental town that I ever met with.

Much has been done in recent times to illustrate the comparativegeography of Cilicia. It was impossible that, in the absence of current topographical information, former commentators on the old geographers could throw more light upon the subject than existed in the days of Pliny, Strabo, or Ptolemy. Take, for example, the commentaries of the distinguished classical editors Gronovius and Vossius upon Pomponius Mela: Issus is identified with Laissa, Ammodes with Amanoides, Tarsus with Tarso, &c. Cellarius, in his admirable Compendium of Ancient Geography, wisely refrains from identification with actual sites.

The beginning of a new era in respect to a more intimate acquaintance with the geography of Cilicia dates from the publication of Captain (now Admiral) Sir Francis Beaufort's Karamania, and Colonel Leake's Journal of a Tour, &c. The surveys of the Euphrates Expedition completed what Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort had left undone, and enabled the editor to publish a first detailed notice of the comparative geography of the Cilician and Syrian gates in the fourth volume of the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, and which has been amplified and corrected in subsequent publications.

Much, however, still remains to be done by future traveller's. The site of Myriandrus has never been positively determined ; Cicero's campaign in Amanus is by no means thoroughly understood.

The route given in the Antonine Itinerary as leading from Nicopolis to Zeugma on the Euphrates appears to be the same as the pass through Amanus by which Darius advanced in the rear of the Macedonians ; but the details of this road are wanted. The sites of Aliaria and Gerbidissus are unknown ; and the total distance of seventy- two Roman miles from the Euphrates to the shores of Cilicia is unsatisfactory. No traces have been met with of the Serropolis of Ptolemy, supposed to be the same as the Cassipolis of Pliny. Cadra and Davara, the strongholds of rebels at the period of Tarsus's greatest glory, are also unknown sites.

Mr. Barker has not omitted the consideration of the produce and agriculture of this rich and fertile country. His notice also of the natural history of Cilicia, if not scientific, is still replete with curious and original information. Gazelles and other small deer, as also their natural enemies the feline tribe, abound in Cilicia. The Amanus is spoken of in the Song of Solomon as the mountain of leopards. The naturalist iElian, and the poet of the Argonauts, Valerius Flaccus, speak of the tigers and of the deer of the same district. The editor has seen six panthers while hunting in one small valley ; and Mr. Barker describes Abdallah il Rushdi as leaving Adana, after a short residence there, with forty-two panther-skins in his possession.

The plains of Cilicia abound in game. It is scarcely possible to ride across these fertile grassy expanses, dotted here and there on the western side with the evergreen carob-tree — the locust-tree of Scripture — without seeing herds of gazelles browsing in the distance. The large bustard stalks along the same plains, and the smaller bustard is seen at certain seasons soaring in flocks of myriads. Wherever there is cover, the beautiful francolin — the prototype of our pheasant — abounds. The marshes teem with wild fowl. The sea swarms with fish, which may often be seen parading its depths from over the ship's side. Turtles are so abundant, that Mr. Barker tells us that hundreds may be taken in a day. This is truly a country as favoured by nature as it is neglected by man.

But by these very peculiarities it gains in human interest. Its remarkable configuration and physical features, its mountains, forests, and wild animals, its natural resources and produce, its history and vicissitudes, its associations and existing monuments, its prostrate and oppres-