Landscape gardening, or, Parks and pleasure grounds : with practical notes on country residences, villas, public parks, and gardens

Front matter

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B-JUL 21

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Author's Preface

The design of the following work is altogether a practical one. While engaged in his profession, during the last eighteen years, the author has often been requested to recommend a book, which might enable persons consulting him to acquire some general knowledge of the principles of Landscape-gardening, and which might aid them in carrying his suggestions into effect. He has been in the habit of naming certain well-known works, such as Price " On the Picturesque," and Gilpin " On Landscape-gardening." He has often felt, however, that such advice was, in great measure, illusory ; and that if implicitly followed, it would tend rather to puzzle than to enlighten or direct those who might adopt it. He himself had experienced the difficulty of making practical application of the general reasonings, and of the diffuse, and, at times, irrelevant discussions to be found in some vof these authors; and it was only by means of light derived from his own practice that he was able to put them to profit. In the work of Price, for example, the leading precepts substantially author's preface. vh

are: Study pictures — familiarize your taste with scenes which painters would delight to copy — become acquainted with the elements of the picturesque, and seek to realize the resulting ideas in and about your residence. Most gentlemen of liberal education know something of pictures; but there are few who would not disclaim such a special culture in the fine arts, as would fit them to apply the principles of painting to the improvement of their grounds. To prescribe such a course is virtually to require a professional education, or to impose the amateur labor of half a lifetime. The object of the present work is to preserve a plain and direct method of statement, to be intelligible to all who have had an ordinary education, and to give directions which, it is hoped, will be found to be practical by those who have an adequate knowledge of country affairs.

The author earnestly disclaims all intention of detracting from the acknowledged merit of his illustrious predecessors. He has been willing to sit at the feet of Wheatley, Price and Gilpin. He has learned much from their writings. His aim, in this volume, has been to popularize their principles, and to simplify and extend their processes in practice. He has, however, sedulously avoided those redundant and often merely controversial discussions by which some of their literary works are encumbered. At the same time he is convinced that Landscape-gardening, like the other fine arts, is of a progressive nature; and that its ascertained principles compose a fabric

V1U AUTHORS PREFACE.

to which successive writers have added, or have yet * &. i, each his stick and his stone. He has endeavored to do his part. While, however, he has not been inattentive to the literature of his profession, he has looked even more intently at nature ; he has sought to draw directly from her inexhaustible stores; and in offering to the public the results of his observations, he humbly trusts that he has contributed to the progress of the art.

In adding to his original plan two chapters on the Arboretum and the Pinetum, the author has sought to supply a want in regard to ornamental collections of trees, which is becoming daily more apparent. So far as his limited space has allowed, he has endeavored to treat these subjects on the principles both of science and taste; and he hopes that the botanical information, which he has drawn from the best sources, though it may be uninteresting to the general reader, will not be unacceptable to the lovers of these pleasing departments of Arboriculture.

Edinburgh, August, 1852.

Chapter I. The House And Offices

Introduction — Climate of the site — Soil and Subsoil — Drainage — Supply of Water — Shelter— Position of the House in the Park — Elevation of the Site — Extent of the Site — Style of the House — Arrangement of the Interior of the House — Conservatory — Stable-court and Offices, . . • . . . .13

Chapter II. The Approach

Definition — Direction of the Approach — Site of the Entrance-gate — Style of the Gate and Lodge — Line of Approach through the Park — Gates on the Line of Approach — Termination of the Approach — Roadway of Approach — Decoration of Approach — The Avenue — The Fine Approach, . . . .52

CHAPTER III. PLEASURE-GROUNDS AND FLOWERr-GARDENS

Position of the Pleasure-grounds— Composition of the Landscape — Terraces — Walls — Grass Slopes — Shrubs on Terrace-banks — Stairs on Terraces — the Upper Surface of Terraces — The Flower-garden — Site of the Flower-garden — Ground Color — The Parterre— The Rosary — The American Garden — The Mixed Flower-garden — Artistical Decorations — Rockworks — Shelter of the Flower-garden — Planting in the Pleasure-grounds — Walks in the Pleasure-grounds — Formation of Lawns, . . . .73

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X CONTENTS.

Chapter IV The Park

Definition — The Unity of the Park— Natural Character of the Ground — Acquired Character of the Ground— Planting in the Park — Surfaces to be Planted— Arrangement of Woods in the Park — a Group — a Clump — a Mass — Carrying out the Arrangement of Woods — Grouping of Plantations in the Park — Outlines of Plantations— Belts and Circles — Artificial Style — Avenues, . 105

Chapter V. Ornamental Characters Of Trees, Detached And In Combination

Introductory Remarks.

Sect. I. The forms of Single Trees — Broad Round-headed Trees — The Spiry, Conical, or Pyramidal Configuration — The Upright or Oblongated-— The Weeping or Pendulous.

Sect. II. The Color of Trees — Table of the Colors of Foliage of Trees— General Remarks.

Sect. III. The Ornamental Character of Trees in Combination — Conical or Pyramidal Trees — Round-headed Trees — Intermingling of the different Forms and Colors — Concluding Remarks, . 135

Chapter X. Public Parks And Gardens

Sect. I. The Public Park— Site of the Public Park— Laying-out of Public Parks-— Educational Institutions.

Sect. II. Street Gardens.

Sect. III. Botanic Gardens— Special Purposes of Botanical Gai dens— Botanical Museums— Laying-out of the Botanic Gardens.

Sect. IV. Gardens belonging to Horticultural and Zoological Societies— Gardens of Horticultural Societies— Laying-out of Horticultural Gardens— Horticultural Museum — Zoological Gardens, . 215

CHAPTER XL

THE VILLA.

Introductory Remarks.

Sect. I. General Properties of the Villa— The Locality— The Site-** Roads— Position of the House — Style and Arrangement of the House.

Sect. II. Laying-out of the Grounds of a Villa— Seclusion— The Approach — Kitchen -garden — Trees and Shrubs* — Water — Lead* ing Varieties of Villa Scenery — The Pleasure-ground Villa— The Park Villa, ....... 255

Xll CONTENTS.

Chapter XII. General Observations On The Laying-out And Improvement Of Grounds

Landscape-gardening — Analogies to Landscape-painting — Comparative Power over Materials — Simplicity and Multiplicity of Points of View — Processes wholly and partly Tentative — Propriety of Revision—Utility of Plans — Hazard of Preparatory Operations, ........ 287

Chapter XIII. The Arboretum

Definition— Recent Introduction — General Idea of Arrangement — Sect. I. Scientific Treatment of the Arboretum — Introductory Remarks— Dr. Lindley's Classification of the Natural Orders — Explanations — Synopsis of Orders and Genera — Application of Principles — Transference of the System to the Ground. Sect. II. Decorative Treatment of the Arboretum — Object in View — Employment of Larger Trees — Lawns — Surfaces planted — Evergreens— Arboretums attached to Private Residences — Sites in Pleasure-grounds, . . . . . . 303

Chapter XIV. The Pinetum

Remarks on Special Collections of Trees — The Pinetum — Materials and Arrangement — Enumeration of Species, with Observations on the Groups — Effects of Climate — Soil — Early Cultivation of the Plants— Planting of the Pinetum — Pruning of the Trees — Decorative Treatment of the Pinetum, ..... 333

AMERICAN NOTES.

Chapter I. The House And Offices

Introduction — Climate of the Site — Soil and Subsoil — Drainage — Supply of Water — Shelter — Position of the House in the Park — Elevation of the Site — Extent of the Site — Style of the House — Arrangement of the Interior of the House — Conservatory — Stable Court and Offices.

The house, being the head-quarters of the family — the capital, as it were, of the park or demesne — is by far the most important object within the grounds, and, as such, the selection of the site must take precedence of all other matters, whether it be a castle or a cottage, and whatever be its form and construction. While this ought to be the dominant principle in the formation of a country residence, and while the house should be made the central point, to which all operations connected with the laying out of the park and pleasure-grounds should be referred ; there are certain requirements belonging to a mansion-house, as a comfortable dwelling, which must be allowed to modify the final choice of site as the best upon the whole world.

Climate of the Site.— The general temperature and dryness of the air have a material influence on the health and comfort of a family, and, therefore, must receive due consideration. These qualities resolve themselves very much into those of the park, and of the district in which it is situated. Along the eastern shores of the United Kingdom, and in the country adjacent to these, in some places to a considerable distance inland, the climate is comparatively dry and good ; but in spring and in the beginning of summer, when cold withering winds from the sea are prevalent, the east coast is found to be very trying to the constitutions of some individuals. On the west coast, and in the districts bordering on it, there is a much greater degree of humidity, which, though in itself disagreeable, is accompanied with a softness and mildness that at certain seasons make the climate pleasant and beneficial to those whose health is affected by the rude severities of the center and the east. The interior hilly or mountainous regions of our island have a climate peculiar to themselves ; yet, with a varying amount of moisture and dryness, and of cloudy or clear atmosphere, they are generally healthy and bracing, and partake of the characters of the east and west, according as they approach to either coast. Some of the inland and slightly hilly districts toward the east have much of its dryness without its peculiar severity in spring, and may, therefore, be accounted the best. The general climate of the park, then, may be said to be the ruling one for the mansion-house ; but in large, and even in what may be considered small parks, there are often localities which have modifications peculiar to themselves. These variations, though inconsiderable

CLIMATE OF THE SITE. 15

on flat surfaces, are sufficiently marked on undulating and hilly ones. Southern exposures are decidedly superior, in point of warmth, to northern slopes, or places lying toward the east or west. Good sites are found in the latter direction, but they are occasionally inclement ; when such positions are selected, they should occupy, if possible, a western declivity on the east, and an eastern declivity on the west side of the country. High and exposed situations are cold, but have a clear and bracing atmosphere. "Windy positions are to be avoided ; as also those which are exposed to draughts of cold air, a peculiarity less apparent to slight inspection than the other, but not less disagreeable and injurious in its effects. Aware of this, the inhabitants of hilly countries generally place the ends of their houses toward the length of the valleys, as the winds, for the most part, sweep up and down them, in whatever direction they run ; and by this arrangement the houses are assailed by fewer cross-draughts than when they are set down across the valley. In dry,, well-sheltered localities, near the sea-coast, these peculiarities of climate are less frequently experienced than in more inland regions.

Note. — Although written for the humid climate of the British Isles, these remarks are worthy of consideration in the dryer atmosphere of America. In many localities of our new states, owing to causes of disease, which a more extensive improvement and clearing up of the country will abate, the best sites for dwellings can not with safety be occupied. In the older states there are districts still subject to autumnal fevers, chills and agues, chiefly in the vicinity of sluggish water-courses, or undrained swamps, or marshes. In such, the best positions for a dwelling cannot be oecu^ pied until a more rapid flow of the water be effected by clearing the streams of their obstructions, and the low grounds are drained of their standing water. In ^,11 open country, long settled, and its climate defined, every one desirous to build, will readily ascertain the advantages or defects of the site on which he prefers to erect his dwelling. A combination of objects usually control the selection of the site, and no rule can be laid down which will govern in all cases. To those who have a wide range of choice in this particular, and are not pressed for time, we would suggest the erection of a temporary cottage on one or more sites which please their taste, in which a family might be lodged, with a thermometer to note the ranges of heat and cold, and the currents of wind, as they affect the spot adversely, or otherwise. We have known instances where an apparently well-sheltered valley, by the peculiar conformation of the adjacent hills, was swept with stronger and harsher winds than an exposed promontory in its immediate neighborhood. A hilly or a mountainous region requires closer examination to determine accurately the degrees of temperature, and the currents of air to which they are exposed, than an open, flat country, with nothing to break off or interrupt the winds but the occasional shelter of trees. As a general rule, too much importance cannot be given to climate in the selection of the grounds for a park, or the buildings within it. A mistake in this particular may be attended with the most calamitous results, not only affecting the amount of capital invested, but extending even to life itself. — Ed.

Soil and Subsoil of the Site.— The nature of the

SOIL AKD SUBSOIL OF THE SITE. 17

soil and subsoil of a place have a much greater influence on its climate than at first sight might be supposed. In our visits to country residences, we have often found remarkable differences of climate, which could be assigned to no other cause. Those on light dry soils and subsoils seemed cheerful and agreeable during winter, while others, in the same district, with wet soils and retentive subsoils, were damp, muddy, and uncomfortable. These differences could not fairly be attributed to differences in artificial drainage, for they were often visible on the same estate, and perhaps in the same park, one field being moist and slabby, and another being dry and airy. A little observation only is required to note these peculiarities in the various localities. Invalids are very sensible to their influences. Those places to which slight frosts are most easily attracted will always be found, if not with wet surface soils, certainly with cold, retentive, humid subsoils. These evils are best counteracted by thorough drainage ; but this remedy is not always effectual, or, to be so, would need to be extended to a considerable range of country. Where perfect drainage cannot be secured, no residence should be formed. We should even hesitate to recommend the erection of a house on a cold site, with a tilly subsoil ; for, however well drained the surface may be, the air in such situations is commonly raw and chill.

Note. — The above is sound doctrine, which cannot be too closely studied by all who build a residence in the country. We have known spots, beautiful in location, but so irreclaimably unfit for a family residence, that after all the desired improvements had been made at a great expense to fit it for occupation, it had to be abandoned. There are other places, apparently as forbidding when in a natural state, which are susceptible of entire amelioration by draining. These can usually be determined by a geological survey of the grounds, and a thorough examination of the kinds of tree and shrubbery which most incline to grow upon them. In all cases of doubt of the practicability of a thorough drainage, and a consequent warmth and kindliness of the soil for the objects required, the proposed site for the residence should at once be abandoned. The selection and improvement of a position which shall prove unfit for a perfectly wholesome and satisfactory residence, will remain a source of perpetual annoyance and regret. — Ed.

Drainage of the Site. — It is important that the site should at least possess that moderate elevation which will facilitate the drainage, not only of the locality which it immediately occupies, but the whole of its environs. The lower apartments of the house should be made completely dry, and free from the effects of surface-water or neighboring springs. Easy and well-concealed sewerage from the house and offices is matter worthy of careful attention. Indeed, the thorough drainage, not merely of the house and grounds, but of the park, and of the whole estate commanded by the windows, should be deemed indispensable. Let the reader imagine a house set down on a bank overhanging a flat, marshy country of many hundred acres in extent: nothing would be more dismal than the prospect in the first instance, and nothing might be more difficult and laborious than the subsequent efforts to improve it.

Note. — Any one within the limits of the United

SUPPLY OF WATER. 19

States who should seriously contemplate building in the borders of an undrainable marsh, contemplating to use it for a park or pleasure-ground, would be considered a prominent candidate for a lunatic asylum. Thanks to the free range we enjoy, no such acts of folly are likely to occur. Yet the necessity of a thorough drainage to the site, and which, in many desirable localities, is not at first apparent, is indispensable to the proper occupation of the premises. A stiff and retentive subsoil, in our dry American climate^ is not objectionable to a building site, if it have sufficient descent to pass off the drains without hindrance. We should not make it an objection, if, on other accounts, the position were advantageous. — Ed.

Supply of Water. — Water, in sufficient quantity and of good quality, is another requisite which must receive due attention in determining the site of a house. Sometimes an adequate supply of this necessary of life is by no means of easy attainment. Wells, tanks, reservoirs with pipes, and hydraulic rams, have all been resorted to, according as the natural surface of the estate has allowed or compelled the employment of one or other of these. A fountain or reservoir above the level of the mansion-house certainly deserves the preference wherever it can be formed, though its original expense may be considerable. This plan affords the greatest facilities for the introduction of water into the various apartments of the house and offices, and for yielding a sufficient supply in case of fire, a matter of some importance in regard to the safety of the property. An abundant reservoir, placed as indicated above, will provide with water the fountains on the terraces, and in the flower-gardens and pleasure-grounds. In some gravelly subsoils, even when the surface is comparatively dry, a considerable quantity of water may sometimes be found at no great depth, and may be obtained by means of wells and force-pumps ; but the supply can hardly ever be so abundant as that yielded by the reservoir, and the labor required to raise it is very great. The hydraulic ram is a very useful instrument where only a moderate quantity of water is needed. A small stream, with a few feet of fall, will keep it in operation, and will enable it to raise the water to a tank, say on the top of the mansion-house, whence it may be distributed as required. We have, however, seen it used, and, independently of the price of the machine, very considerable expense incurred, where, but for inattention or ignorance in some quarter, the much more efficient system described above might have been successfully adopted, with little or no increase of cost.

Note, — A windmill may oftentimes be substituted for other machinery to raise water for the supply of a house and grounds when a suitable site can be obtained for its erection. It is a cheap and simple structure, and a pleasing object in the landscape. In some parts of the country they are much used for various economical purposes connected with husbandry, and may be thus applied in connection with the raising of water to supply fountains or reservoirs in pleasure-grounds.— Ed.

Shelter. — It has already been remarked that situations exposed to high winds and cold draughts are ineligible for the site of a house. The proprietor, however, has sometimes a difficult choice to make between magnificent distant views, which add so much to the

SHELTER. 21

cheerfulness of a residence, and that warmth which results from sufficient protection, and tends so much to promote its comfort. Most likely he will endeavor to compound the matter between the two rival claims, and, while he risks some degree of exposure, will seek to mitigate it by means of shelter. It is commonly found that natural shelter is the most effectual. A hill, or knoll, or low ridge, particularly if covered with trees, is more efficacious than a plantation on a slope- ascending to the house. A slight change of position will sometimes be found to have, in this respect, a noticeable influence. In an extensive park or district of country, the aerial currents generally affect a particular track, determined, perhaps, by a gap in a line of hills, the terminating of a ridge, or the contracting of the sides of a valley ; and a small remove from that tract, which may be ascertained by observation, may afford the protection required, without much sacrifice of beauty. The site should be open, and, if natural shelter is not to be obtained, recourse must be had to planting. There are few places, indeed, except in some marine residences, in which this expedient is not of considerable value ; still, in exposed localities, the progress of wood is slow, and one generation may pass away before the result desired can be effectually secured. Meanwhile, the builder of the house may have derived little benefit from the trees which he has planted and reared with great expense. Even for a marine residence the shelter of a large rock or knoll is of much consequence. For the sake of a dry and warm site, I should be much disposed to forego some other more showy qualities.

Note, — The question of shelter depends somewhat on the length of time, and the season of the year, in which the house is to be occupied. For a summer residence solely, the view or scenery which the site embraces — other things contributing to the conveniences of access and living — has usually a controlling influence in determining the question. Shelter, therefore, as the term is understood by our author, is not of the first importance. If the house be built in proper style, with verandas, and suitable yard and garden walls, aided by the quickly growing trees and shrubs, with which our country abounds, the question of shelter will be readily accommodated. — Ed.

Position of the House in the Park. — The relation of the mansion-house to the various points of the surrounding domain, requires attentive consideration, and yet it is a subject on which it is difficult to give specific directions. The whole circumstances connected with the locality, the surface of the ground, and the facilities of access, must be taken into account. "We believe that a site near the center of the park, other things being equal, is generally preferred. Sometimes necessity obliges the choice of one much nearer the boundary; and such a position, when well protected from external annoyances, either by the form of the ground, or by the intervention of a lake or arm of the sea, or by a considerable breadth of plantation, instead of being a disadvantage is the reverse, especially when the views from the public rooms, parkward, are by that means extended both in length and breadth. This observation, however, relates chiefly to places of moderate size. In smaller parks, on account of the limitation of space, it is more difficult to form a fine piece of lawn or park scenery when the house assumes a central position ; and there is generally a

POSITION OF THE HOUSE IN THE PARK. 23

want of that depth which is attainable when it is set down near one side or end of the place. Excellent sites may often be selected near the shore of an arm of the sea, on the bank of a lake, or in the vicinity of a river, as at these points, besides the land scenery, we have that life and variety which water can alone afford. There are, however, few rivers forming the boundaries of estates of sufficient breadth to allow the house to be erected close to their banks. Besides the risk of inundation and of damp vapor, which is incident to low situations, there is always the possibility of discordant or offensive objects being erected on the opposite side. Note. — The objection to the narrowness of the rivers in Great Britain is well made ; but not so in America. The St. Lawrence, Niagara, Detroit, St. Clair, the Ohio, Mississippi, the Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, Susquehannah, Potomac, and an hundred others of our broad rivers, afford the finest possible sites for dwellings, in many instances on their immediate banks, where they are of sufficient width to render " discordant or offensive objects on the opposite side" so indistinct or innocuous, as to form no serious objection to improving them for park or villa residences. A site on the immediate bank of a broad stream, or bay, or lake, will seldom be chosen, excepting in a level country, where the -house would, if placed at a distance back, not command it, and where the banks are of sufficient elevation to be out of the reach of floods. Water, in connection with landscape scenery generally, is more effective when seen from a moderate distance, than when it makes the immediate foreground of the picture. This, however, will depend much on the breadth of surface which the water occupies, and whether it forms a part of the whole landscape, or a part only of one of the views from the dwelling, when such dwelling commands a separate view from its different fronts. The subject of the landscape which is to be embraced in the single, or in the several views of a residence, cannot be too closely nor too intimately studied, before determining the site for the buildings.

It may be remarked in this connection, that as no landscape view can be complete without water, it should, wThen it can be embraced in the view, always find a place, far or near, as circumstances may control. Minor objects in wood, buildings, or extent of country, may be discarded for the advantage of a grand view of the water. Indeed, we know of no sensation suddenly breaking on the mind like that of a fine water view when we have been long pent up among wroods and grass alone, however picturesque and beautiful they may be. It expands the heart, exhilarates the spirits, and stirs the soul as no other natural object can do ; and — although from being long accustomed to it we may be over-partial — we would not forego the daily spectacle of a broad sheet of moving, living water, for all the petty artificial gettings-up of all the artistic gardeners in the universe. — -Ed.

A more elevated position, even though it may be near some public road, will probably command equally fine views of the river, and at the same time be more free from intrusion, than any of those lower down. We may add, that certain baronial residences, and some of them of no small splendor, are occasionally seen standing on the side of street or road, having been erected there because they were places of strength in ancient times. Such remains of the old feudal glories

ELEVATION OF THE SITE. 25

we should be sorry to see removed from where they are ; but similar situations are now seldom or never adopted for new residences.

Note. — At the risk of being prolix on this subject, we must be permitted to enter a protest on the characteristic tendency of Americans to place their country establishments in close proximity to the highway or public road. A prominent object in the enjoyment of a country residence, is retirement — shutting ourselves from the gaze and remark of the passing world, and enabling us to take our own pleasure in our own way. A familiar connection with the public road, therefore, should always be avoided; while the park, and the buildings within it, should still be at a reasonabhT convenient distance for the necessary purposes of living. A suburban villa, simply, may look out upon the public street in front, and at a few rods distance from it ; but a proper country-house, with extensive grounds around it, appropriated for the use and convenience of its occupants, should shun all such familiar contact. In fact, no family, not possessing within themselves resources of mind, and books, sufficient to keep them from yearning after the idle gossip of a village neighborhood, should ever think of living in a "park," or away from the daily intercourse of a pedler's cart, or the interesting spectacle of a passing drove of cattle, sheep, or turkeys. — Ed.