Epitome of the Synthetic philosophy of Herbert Spencer

Preface To The Fifth Edition

The fourth edition of this volume, pubhshed in 189 7i represented the Synthetic Philosophy as completed by Mr. Spencer. Since then he has published a revised and enlarged edition of The Principles of Biology^ and a revised edition of First Principles.

He hag most kindly allowed me to adapt these alterations and additions to the following pages, which therefore represent the Philosophy in its latest and most complete form.

F. H. C.

November, 1901.

Preface To The First Edition

The object of this volume is to give in a condensed form the general principles of Mr. Herbert Spencer's Philosophy as far as possible in his original words. In order to carry out this intention each section (§) has been reduced, with but few exceptions, to one tenth ; the five thousand and more pages of the original being thus represented by a little over five hundred. The Epitome consequently represents The Synthetic Philosophy as it would be seen through a diminishing glass : the original proportion holding between all its varied parts.

Should this volume lead the general reader to a better acquaintance with Mr. Spencer's own works, I shall feel amply repaid for my labour.

My warmest thanks are due to Mr. Spencer for his invaluable preface ; and also to Miss Beatrice Potter, and Mr. Henry R. Tedder, F.S.A., the able and accomplished secretary and hbrarian of the Athena3um Club, for their valuable suggestions while the work has been in progress.

F. H. C.

Preface

'^After spending several years in the self-imposed task of making indexes to my books, for the efficient execution of which I am much indebted to him, Mr. r. Howard Collins volunteered to undertake a far larger and more difficult task. He expressed the wish to make an epitome of The Syntlietic Fhilosophy ; and asked me whether, if an epitome were satisfactorily made, I would agree to the publication of it. After some consideration I assented. ^

Before starting on a journey through an unknown region, study of a map is desirable ; and a clear preliminary conception is more readily obtained from a small outline-map than from a large one full of details. In like manner, before commencing a series of volumes which, though all pervaded by certain organizing ideas, deal with various subjects, an introductory viev>r presenting these organizing ideas in smaller space and freed from elaboration, can scarcely fail to facilitate comprehension. The epitome which Mr. Collins has prepai^ed in the course of five years fulfils this purpose. ' ^

Ill-health lias prevented mefrom reading it through ; but I have read portions taken at random here and viii PREFACE.

there, and have found them very well done. The condensed statements are at once correct and clear. Indeed I have been somewhat surj)rised that it has proved possible to put so much into so small a space without sacrifice of intelligibility. Of course, divested as they are of all illustrative matter, these abstracts of chapters and sections do not suffice to give vivid and definite conceptions ; but the undeveloped conceptions they give prepare the way for those developed ones to be obtained by perusal of the chapters and sections themselves.

To write an introduction to an introduction will be thought strange; but the epitome in one volume which Mr. Collins has made of matter occupying ten volumes may itself be epitomized in three pages — of course in a series of highly abstract propositions. Some eighteen or more years ago, an American friend requested me, with a view to a certain use which he named, to furnish him with a succinct statement of the ^ardinal_principles developed in the successive works I had published and in those I was intending to publish. This statement, which I wrote out for him, and which has since made its appearance in England in a form giving it but little currency, I here reproduce to prepare the way for Mr. Collins' epitome.

"1. Throughout the universe in general and in detail, there is an unceasing redistribution of matter and motion.

2. This redistribution constitutes evolution where there is a predominant integration of matter and dissipation of

PREFACE. ix

motion, and constitutes dissolution where there is a predominant absorption of motion and disintegration of matter.

3. Evolution is simple when the process of integration, Or the formation of a coherent aggregate, proceeds uncomplicated by other processes.

4. Evolution is compound when, along with this primary change from an incoherent to a coherent state, there go on: secondary changes due to dififerences in the circumstances of the different parts of the aggregate.

5. These secondary changes constitute a transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous — a transformation which, like the first, is exhibited in the universe as a whole and in all (or nearly all) its details : in the aggregate of stars and nebulae ; in the planetary system ; in the earth as an inorganic mass ; in each organism, vegetal or animal (von Baer's law) ; in the aggregate of organisms throughout geologic time; in the mind; in society; in all products of social activity.

6. The process of integration, acting locally as well as generally, combines vnth the process of differentiation ta render this change not simply from homogeneity to heterogeneity, but from an indefinite homogeneity to a definite heterogeneity; and this trait of increasing definiteness, which accompanies the trait of increasing heterogeneity, is, like it, exhibited in the totality of things and in all its divisions and sub-divisions down to the minutest.

7. Along with this redistribution of the matter composing any evolving aggregate, there goes on a redistribution of the retained motion of its components in relation to oneanother : this also becomes, step by step, more definitely heterogeneous.

8. In the absence of a homogeneity that is infinite and absolute, that redistribution of which evolution is one phase, is inevitable. The causes which necessitate it are these : —

9. The instability of the homogeneous, which is con-

:x ^ PREFACE.

sequent upon tlie different exposures of the different parts of any limited aggregate to incident forces. The transformations hence resulting are complicated by —

10. The multiplication of effects. Every mass and part of a mass on which a force falls, sub-divides and differentiates that force, which thereupon proceeds to work a variety of changes ; and each of these becomes the parent of similarlymultiplying changes : the multiplication of them becoming greater in proportion as the aggregate becomes more heterogeneous. And these two causes of increasing differ- -entiations are furthered by —

11. Segregation, which is a process tending ever to separate unlike units and to bring together like units — so serving continually to sharpen, or make definite, differen- ■tiations otherwise caused.

12. Equilibration is the final result of these transformations which an evolving aggregate undergoes. The changes go on until there is reached an equilibrium between the forces which all parts of the aggregate are exposed to and the forces these parts oppose to them. Equilibration may

'pass through a transition stage of balanced motions (as in a planetary system) or of balanced functions (as in a living body) on the way to ultimate equilibrium ; but the state . of rest in inorganic bodies, or death in organic bodies, is .the necessary limit of the changes constituting evolution.

13. Dissolution is the counter-change which sooner or later every evolved aggregate undergoes. Remaining exposed to surrounding forces that are unequilibrated, each aggregate is ever liable to be dissipated by the increase, gradual or sudden, of its contained motion; and its dissipation, quickly undergone by bodies lately animate, and slowly undergone by inanimate masses, remains to be undergone at an indefinitely remote period by each planetary and stellar mass, which, since an indefinitely distant period in the past, has been slowly evolving : the cycle of -its transformations being thus completed.

14. This rhythm of evolution and dissolution, completing

PREFACE. XI

itself during sliort periods in small aggregates^ and in the vast aggregates distributed through space completing itself in periods which are immeasurable by human thought, is, so far as we can see, universal and eternal — each alternating phase of the process predominating now in this region of space and now in that, as local conditions determine.

15. All these phenomena, from their great features down to their minutest details, are necessary results of the persistence of force, under its forms of matter and motion. Given these as distributed through space, and their quantities being unchangeable, either by increase or decrease, there inevitably result the continuous redistributions distinguishable as evolution and dissolution, as well as all those special traits above enumerated.

16. That which persists unchanging in quantity, but ever changing in form, under these sensible appearances which the universe presents to us, transcends human knowledge and conception — is an unknown and unknowable power, which we are obliged to recognize as without limit in space and without beginning or end in time."

Returning to the epitome made by Mr. Collins in the volume herewith issued, I will add only that it cannot with advantage be read in large portions at once. A long series of abstract propositions, taken without concrete illustrations, is likely to prove wearisome, and to leave but faint impressions. It will be better for the student to read one section only at a time, and himself to seek illustrative cases before proceeding to the next.

Herbert Spencer.

Contents

PAET I. " FIRST PRINCIPLES." \

Chapter I. The Unknowable

Religion and science, 3-5. Ultimate religious ideas, 5-7. Ultimate icientific ideas, 8-10. The relativity of all knowledge, 10-13. The reconciliation, 13-16.

Chapter II. The Knowable

Philosophy defined, 17-8. The data of philosophy, 18-20. Space, time, matter, motion, and force, 20-2. The indestructibility of matter, 22-3. The continuity of motion, 23-4. The persistence of force, 24-5. The persistence of relations among forces, 25. The transformation and equivalence of forces, 25-8. The direction of motion, 28-31. The rhythm of motion, 31-4. Recapitulation, criticism, and recommencement, 34. Evolution and dissolution, 35. Simple and compound evolution, 36-7. fcOip law of evolution, 38-40. The law of evolution, continued, 40-3, 43-5. The law of evolution, concluded, 45-7. The interpretation of evolution, 4TJ^ The instability of the homogeneous : exemplifying instability at large, 47-50. The nmltiplication of effects, 50-3. Segregation, 53-5. Equilibration, 55-8. Dissolution, 59-61. Summary and conclusion, 61-3.

Chapter III. The Data of Biology, i

Organic matter, 67-9. The actions of forces on organic matter, 69-71. The reactions of organic matter on forces, 71-3. Metabolism, 73-4. Proximate definition of life, 74-6. The correspondence between life and its circumstances, 76-7. The degree of life varies as the degree of correspondence, 77-8. The dynamic element of life, 78-9. The scope of biology, 79-80.

Chapter IV. The Inductions or Biology. t

Growth, or increase of bulk, 81-4. Development, or increase of structure, 84-7. Structure, 87-8. Function, 88-90. Waste and repaii-.

xiv CONTENTS.

90-2. Adaptation, 92-4 Individuality, 94-5. Cell-life and cell-multiplication, 95-6. Genesis, 96-100. Heredity, 100-2. Variation, 102-4. Genesis, heredity, and variation, 104-6. Genesis, heredity, and variation, concluded, 107-8. Classification, 108-10. Distribution^ 111-2.

Chapter Y. The Evolution of Life. ^ Preliminary, 113. General aspects of the special-creation-hypothesis, 113-5. General aspects of the evolution-hypothesis, 115-6. The arguments from classification, 116-7; from embryology, 117-9; from morphology, 119; from distribution, 120-1. How is organic evolution caused? 121-2. External factors, 122-3. Internal factors^ 123-5. Direct equilibration, 125-6. Indirect equilibration, 126-9. The co-operation of the factors, 129. The convergence of the evidences, 129-31. Recent criticisms and hypotheses, 131-3.

Chapter VI. Morphological Development. The problems of morphology, 134-5. The morphological composition of plants, 135-7, 137-42. The morphological composition of animals, 142-4, 144-5. Morphological differentiation in plants, 146. The general shapes of plants, 146-8. The shapes of branches, 148-9; of leaves, 149; of flowers, 150-1 ; of vegetal cells, 151. Changes of shape otherwise caused, 151-2. Morphological differentiation in animals, 152. The general shapes of animals, 152-4. The shapes of vertebrate skeletons, 155-6. The shapes of animal cells, 157. Summary of morphological development, 157.

Chapter VII. Physiological Development.

The problems of physiology, 158. Differentiations between the outer and inner tissues of plants, 159-60; among the outer tissues of plants. 160-2; among the inner tissues of plants, 162-4. Physiological integration in plants, 164-5. Differentiations between the outer and inner tissues of animals, 165-6 ; among the outer tissues of animals, 166-8; among the inner tissues of animals, 168-73. Physiological integration in animals, 174-5. Summary of physiological development, 175-6. The integration of the organic world, 176-8.

Chapter VIII. The Laws of Multiplication. The factors, 179-80. A priori principle, 180. Obverse a priori principle, 180-1. Difficulties of inductive verification, 181-2. Antagonism between growth and asexual genesis, 182-3; between growth and sexual genesis, 183-4; between development and genesis, asexual and sexual, 184-5; between expenditure and genesis, 185-6. Coincidence between high nutrition and genesis, 186-7. Specialities of these relations, 187-8. Interpretation and qualification, 188-9. Multiplication of the human race, 189-90. Human population in the future, 190-2.

CONTENTS. XV-

PAET III. ''THE PEmCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY.'*

Chapter IX. The Data of Psychology. v

The nervous system, 195-6. The structure of the nervous system,, 196-9. The functions of the nervous system, 199-202. The conditions essential to nervous action, 202-3. Xervous stimulation and discharge, 203-5. iEstho-physiology, 205-8. The scope of psychology, 208-9.

Chapter X. The Inductions of Psychology. ; The substance of mind, 210-2. The composition of mind, 212-5.. The relativity of feelings, 215-7; of relations between feelings, 217-9.- The revivability of feelings, 219-20 ; of relations between feelings, 221. The associability of feelings, 222-3 ; of relations between feelings,. 223-4. Pleasures and pains, 224-5.

Chapter XI. General Synthesis. i- '

Life and mind as correspondence, 226. The correspondence as direct: and homogeneous, 226-7 ; as direct but heterogeneous, 227; as extending in space, 227-9; as extending in time, 229-30 ; as increasing m speciality, 230-1; as increasing in generality, 231-2; as increasing in complexity, 232-4. The co-ordination of correspondences, 234. The integration of correspondences, 235. The correspondences in theirtotality, 235-6.

Chapter XII. Special Synthesis. ,

The nature of intelligence, 237-8. The law of intelligence, 238-9.. The growth of intelligence, 240. Reflex action, 240-1. Instinct, 241-2.. Memory, 242-3. Reason, 243-5. The feelings, 245-7. The will, 247-8.

Chapter XIII. Physical Synthesis.

A further interpretation needed, 249. The genesis of nerves, 249-50.. The genesis of simple nervous systems, 250-1 ; of compound nervous sy stems, 252-3 ; of doubly-compound nervous systems, 253-5. Functions-- a.s related to these structures, 255-6. Psychical laws as thus interpreted, 256 -7. Evidence from normal variations, 257-60 ; from abnormal, var latipns, 260. Results, 261-2.

Chapter XIV. Special Analysis.

Limitation of the subject, 263. Compound quantitative reasonincTy 2G3-5, 265-6. Imperfect and simple quantitative reasoning, 266-7. Quantitative reasoning in general, 267-8. Perfect qualitative reasoning, 268-70. Imperfect qualitative reasoning, 270-2. Reasoning in general, 272-5. Classification, naming, and recognition, 275-7. The perception.

xvi CONTENTS.

of special objects, 277 ; of body as presenting dynamical, statico- ■dynamical, and statical attributes, 278-80 ; as presenting statico- •dynamical and statical attributes, 280-1 ; as presenting statical attributes, 281-3. The perception of space, 283-6; of time, 286-7; of ■motion, 287-9 ; of resistance, 289-90. Perception in general, 290-2. The relations of similarity and dissimilarity, 292 ; of cointension and non-cointension, 292-3 ; of coextension and non-coextension, 293 ; of coexistence and non-coexistence, 294 ; of connature and non-connature, •294-5 ; of likeness and unlikeness, 295. The relation of sequence, 296. •Consciousness in general, 296-7. Results, 297-8.

Chapter XV. General, Analysis.

The final question, 299-300. The assumptions of metaphysiciang, 500. The words of metaphysicians, 300-2. The reasonings of metaphysicians, 302-5. Negative justification of realism, 305. The argument from priority, 308-7 ; from simplicity, 307 ; from distinctness, -307-8. A criterion wanted, 308-9 Propositions qualitatively distinguished, 309-11. The universal postulate, 311-4. The test of relative validity, 314-5. Its corollaries, 315-6. Positive justification of realism, .316. The dynamics of consciousness, 316-7. Partial difierentiation of subject and object, 317-9. Completed differentiation of subject and object, 319-21. Developed conception of the object, 321-2. Transfigured realism, 322-4. Postscript: Idealism and Realism, 324-5.

Chapter XVI. Congruities.

Preliminary, 326. Co-ordination of data and inductions, 326-7 ; of tsyntheses, 327-8 ; of special analyses, 328-9 : of general analyses, 329- 30. Final comparison, 330-1.

Chapter XVII. Corollaries.

Special psychology, 332. Classification, 332-4. Development of conceptions, 334-6. Language of the emotions, 336-8. Sociality and sympathy, 338-41. Egoistic sentiments, 341-2. Ego-altruistic sentiments, 342-4. Altruistic sentiments, 344-6. -Esthetic sentiments, 346-8.

PART lY. "THE PRINCIPLES OF SOCIOLOaY."

Chapter XVIII. The Data or Sociology.

Super-organic evolution, 351. The factors of social phenomena, 352. Original external factors, 352-4. Original internal factors, 355. Primitive man — physical, 355-6 ; — emotional, 356-8 ; — intellectual, 358-60. Primitive ideas, 360-3. The ideas of the animate and inanimate, 364-5 ; of sleep and dreams, 365-6 ; of swoon, apoplexy, catalepsy, ecstasy, and other forms of insensibility, 366-7; of death and resurrection, 367-9;

CONTENTS. xvii

of souls, ghosts, spirits, demons, etc., 369-70; of another life, 371-3 ; of another world, 373-5 ; of supernatural agents, 375-6. Supernatural agents as causing epilepsy and convulsive actions, delirium and insanity, disease and death, 376-7. Inspiration, divination, exorcism, and sorcery, 377-9. Sacred places, temples, and altars ; sacrifice, fasting, and propitiation ; praise, prayer, etc., 379-82. Ancestor-worship in general, 382-4. Idol-worship and fetich-worship, 384-6. Animal-worship, 386-9. Plant-worship, 389-90. Nature-worship, 391-3. Deities, 393-6. The primitire theory of things, 396-7. The scope of sociology, 397-8.

Chapter XIX. The Inductions op Sociology. ^ What is a society ? 399. A society is an organism, 399-401. Social growth, 401-2. Social structures, 402-3. Social functions, 403-4. Systems of organs, 404-5. The sustaining system, 405-6. The distributing system, 406-7. The regulating system, 407-10. Social types and constitutions, 410-2. Social metamorphoses, 412-3. Qualifications and summary, 413-4.

Chapter XX. The Domestic Relations, t

The maintenance of species, 415. The diverse interests of the species, of the parents, and of the offspring, 415-6. Primitive relations of the sexes, 416-7. Exogamy and endogamy, 417-20. Promiscuity, 420-1. Polyandry, 421-2. Polygyny, 422-3. Monogamy, 423-4. The family, 424-8. The status of women, 428-9 ; of children, 429-30. Domestic retrospect and prospect, 431-2.

Chapter XXI. Ceremonial Institutions. ,

Ceremony in general, 433-6. Trophies, 436-8. Mutilations, 438-40. Presents, 440-3. Visits, 443-4. Obeisances, 444-7. Forms of address, 447-8. Titles, 448-50. Badges and costumes, 450-2. Further class-distinctions, 452-3. Fashion, 454. Ceremonial retrospect and prospect, 454-6.

Chapter XXII. Political Institutions. .

Preliminary, 457-8. Political organization in general, 458-60. Political integration, 460-3. Political difi*erentiation, 463-5. Political forms and forces, 465-7. Political heads — chiefs, kings, etc., 468-71. Compound political heads, 471-4. " Consultative bodies, 474-6. Representative bodies, 476-8. Ministries, 479. Local governing agencies, 480-2. Military systems, 482-3. Judicial and executive systems, 484-6. Laws, 486-8. Property, 488-90. Revenue, 491-2. The militant type of society, 492-5. The industrial type of society, 495-9. Political retrospect and prospect, 499-502.

b xviii CONTENTS.

Chapter XXIII. EccLEsrASTicAL Institutions, y'^

The religious idea, 503-7. Medicine-men and priests, 507. Priestly duties of descendants, 508. Eldest male descendants as quasi-priests, 508-9. The ruler as priest, 509-10. The rise of a priesthood, 510. Polytheistic and monotheistic priesthoods, 511-2. Ecclesiastical bierarchies, 512-3, An ecclesiastical system as a social bond, 513-5. The military functions of priests, 515-6. The civil functions of priests, 516. Church and State, 517. Nonconformity, 518. The moral influences of priesthoods, 518-9. Ecclesiastical retrospect and prospect, 519-20. Religious retrospect and prospect, 520-2.

Chapter XXIV. Pkofessional Institutions.

Professions in general, 523. Physician and Surgeon, 523-5. Dancer and Musician, 525-6. Orator and Poet, Actor and Dramatist, 526-7. Biographer, Historian, and Man of Letters, 527-8. Man of Science and Philosopher, 529-30. Judge and Lawyer, 530-1. Teacher, 531-2. Architect, 532. Sculptor, 533. Painter, 533-4: Evolution of the professions, 534-5.

Chapter XXV. Industrial Institutions.

-- Introductory, 536-7. Specialization of functions and division of labour, 537-9. Acquisition and production, 539-40. Auxiliary production, 540. Distribution, 540-1. Auxiliary distribution, 541. Exchange, 542. Auxiliary exchange, 542-3. Interdependence and integration, 543-4. The regulation of labour, 544-5. Paternal regulation, 545-6. Patriarchal regulation, 546. Communal regulation, 546-7. GUd regulation, 547-8. Slavery, 549-50. Serfdom, 550-1. Free labour and contract, 551-3. Compound free labour, 553-4. . Compound capital, 554-5. Trade unionism, 555-7. Co-operation, 557-9. Socialism, 559-60. The neai* future, 560-2. Conclusion, 562.

PAET V. "THE PEINCIPLES OF ETHICS.''

Chapter XXVI. The Data op Ethics.

" The principles of Ethics," 563. Conduct in general, 565. The evolution of conduct, 566-7. Good and bad conduct, 567-9. Ways of judging conduct, 569-71. The physical view, 571-2. The biological view, 572-4. The psychological view, 575-7. The sociological view, 577-9. Criticisms and explanations, 579-81. The relativity of pains and pleasures, 581-3. Egoism versus altruism, 583-4. Altruism versus egoism, 584-6. Trial and compromise, 586-9. Conciliation, 589-91. Absolute and relative ethics, 591-3. The scope of ethics, 593-4.

CONTENTS. xix

Chapter XXYII. The Inductions op Ethics. The confusion of ethical thought, 595-6. What ideas and sentiments are ethical? 596-7. Aggression, 598. Kobberj, 598-9. Revenge, 599-600. Justice, 600-1. Generosity, 601-2. Humanity, 602-3. Veracity, €03-4. Obedience, 604-5. Industry, 605-6. Temperance, 606-7. Chastity, 607-8. Summary of Inductions, 608-9.

Chapter XXYIII. The Ethics of Individual Life. .

Introductoiy, 610-1. Activity, 611. Rest, 612. Nutrition, 612-3. Stimulation, 613. Culture, 613-4. Amusements, 614-5. Marriage, 615-6. Parenthood, 616-7. General conclusions, 617-8.

Chapter XXIX. Justice.

Animal ethics, 619. Sub-human justice, 619-20. Human justice, €20-1. The sentiment of justice, 621-2. The idea of justice, 622-3. The formula of justice, 623. The authority of this formula, 623-4. Its corollaries, 624. The right to physical integrity, 624-5. The rights to free motion and locomotion, 625-6. The right to the uses of natural media, 626-7. The right of property, 627-8. The right of incorporeal property, 628-9. The rights of gift and bequest, 629-30. The rights of free exchange and free contract, 630. The right to free industry, 630-1. The rights of free belief and worship, 631. The rights of free speech and publication, 631-2. A retrospect with an addition, 632. The rights of women, 633. The rights of children, €33-4. Political rights — so-called, 634-5. The nature of the State, 635. The constitution of the State, 635-6. The duties of the State, 636-7. The limits of State-duties, 638-9, 639, 640-1, 641-2.

Chapter XXX. The Ethics of Social Life — Negative Beneficence.

Kinds of altruism, 643-4. Restraints on free competition, 644-5. Restraints on free contract, 645-6. Restraints on undeserved payments, €46-7. Restraints on displays of ability, 647-8. Restraints on blame, €48-9. Restraints on praise, 649. The ultimate sanctions, 649-50.

Chapter XXXI. The Ethics of Social Life — Positive Beneficence.

Marital beneficence, 651-2. Parental beneficence, 652. Filial beneficence, 652-3. Aiding the sick and injured, 653. Succour to the ill-used and the endangered, 653-4. Pecuniary aid to relatives and friends, 654-5. Relief of the poor, 655-6. Social beneficence, 656-8. Political beneficence, 658-9. Beneficence at large, 659-60.

PART I.

"FIRST PRINCIPLES."

Chapter I. The Unknowable

*' Carrying a step further the doctrine put into shape by Hamilton and Mansel ; pointing out the various directions in which Science leads to the same conclusions ; and showing that in this united belief in an Absolute that transcends not only human knowledge but human conception, lies the only possible reconciliation of Science and Religion."

I. RELIGION AND SCIENCE.

1. However wrong many human beliefs appear we mayinfer that they germinated from actual experiences, and that they originally contained, and perhaps still contain, some small amount of truth. We may assume this more especially of those beliefs which are nearly or quite universal.

2. The varied opinions which have been held from age to age, from the most primitive to those of modern and civilized communities, as to the origin, authority, and functions of government, may serve to show that between the most opposite beliefs there is usually something in common. We cannot say that some one alone of all these varied beliefs — from the notion of savages that a monarch is a god, to the modern view that government is only the administrator of the moral principles underlying social life — is wholly right and all the others wholly wrong. A careful examination will show that each one of these beliefs contains some truth ; they all exhibit the principle of a subordination of individual actions to social requirements; although differing widely as to the origin, motive, and extent of the ruling power, there is on this one point complete uniformity. A postulate thus unconsciously involved by numerous bodies of men, otherwise diverging in countless ways and degrees, has a warrant far beyond any that can be usually shown* The way to find this postulate is to compare all opinions of the same genus ; to set aside the special and concrete elements in which they disagree ; and to find for the remainder that expression which holds true throughout its variousdisguises.

3. A candid acceptance of this general principle, and aa adoption of the course it indicates, will greatly aid us in dealing with the chronic antagonism between Religion and Science. We shall not regard some men's judgments aswholly good, and others as wholly bad ; but shall rather conclude that none are completely right and none are completely wrong.

4. Thus, however untenable may be any or all the existing religious creeds, however irrational the arguments set forth in their defence, we must not ignore the verity which in all likelihood lies hidden within them. The general probability that widely-spread beliefs are not absolutely baseless, i» in this case enforced by a further probability due to the^ omnipresence of the beliefs. In the existence of a religioussentiment, whatever be its origin, we have a second fact of great significance. And we find a third fact of like implication, when we perceive that, as knowledge cannot monopolize consciousness, it must always continue possible for themind to dwell upon that which transcends knowledge* Hence, there must always be a place for something of the nature of Religion. Since Religion under all its forms is distinguished from everything else in that its subject matter is that which passes the sphere of experience.

5. What is Science ? To see the absurdity of the prejudice against it, we need only remark that Science is simply a higher development of common knowledge; and that if Science is repudiated, all knowledge must be repudiated along with it. It is nowhere possible to say where the dicta of common sense end and the generalizations of Science begin. The daily verification of its predictions ; the growth and firm establishment of such of its larger divisions as mathematics, physics, and astronomy ; and the never-ceasing triumphs of those arts which Science guides ; are conclusive testimony as to its truth,

6. If both Eeligion and Science have bases in the reality of things, then between them there must be a fundamental harmony. There cannot be two orders of truth in absolute and everlasting opposition. To understand how Science and Religion express opposite sides of the same fact — the one its near or visible side, and the other its remote or invisible side — becomes our problem. How to find this harmony — how to reconcile the two, is the question to be answered. We have to seek out that ultimate truth which both will avow with absolute sincerity.

7. We cannot but conclude that the most abstract truth contained in Religion and the most abstract truth contained in Science must be the one in which the two coalesce. It must be the ultimate fact in our intelligence.

8. Here it may be well to bespeak a little patience ; as, to those unacquainted with metaphysics, the three following divisions may prove somewhat difficult to follow. The greatness of the question at issue would justify even a heavier tax upon the reader's attention.

II. ULTIMATE RELIGIOUS IDEAS.

9. A large proportion of our conceptions, including all of much generality, are symbolic only. As the number of objects grouped together in thought increases, the concept, formed of a few typical samples joined with the notion of multiplicity, becomes more and more a mere symbol. This formation of symbolic conceptions is mostly a useful, and indeed necessary, process. When we have to deal with things whose attributes are too vast or numerous to be united in a single state of consciousness, we must either form a more or less symbolic conception or no conception. Eut we are apt to mistake our symbolic conceptions for real

6 " FIRST PRlNClPLESr

ones. Having learnt by long experience that our symbolic conceptions can, if needful, be verified, we are led to accept them without verification. When our symbolic conceptions are such that no cumulative or indirect processes of thought can enable us to ascertain that there are corresponding actualities, nor any predictions be made whose fulfilment can prove this, then they are altogether vicious and illusive, and in no way distinguishable from pure fictions.

] 0. The bearing of this general truth upon the problem of the Universe, is to show not only that no current hypothesis regarding it is tenable, but also that no tenablo hypothesis can be framed.

11. Eespecting the origin of the Universe three verbally intelligible suppositions may be made. We may assert that it is self-existent ; or that it is self-created ; or that it is created by an external agency. Is any one of these suppoT sitions conceivable in the true sense of the word ? No^ For experiment proves that the elements of these hypotheses cannot even be put together in consciousness ; and we can entertain them only as we entertain such pseud-ideas as a square fluid and a moral substance — only by abstaining from the endeavour to render them into actual thoughts. Or, reverting to our original mode of statement, we may say that they severally involve symbolic conceptions of the illegitimate and illusive kind. It is impossible to avoid making theassumption of self-existence somewhere; and whether that assumption be made nakedly, or under complicated disguises,, it is equally vicious, equally unthinkable. For our conception of self-existence can be formed only by joining with it the notion of unlimited duration through past time. And as unlimited duration is inconceivable, all those formal ideas into which it enters are inconceivable ; and indeed, it such an expression is allowable, are the more inconceivable in proportion as the other elements of the ideas are indefinite^ So that in fact, impossible as it is to think of the actual universe as self- existing, we do but multiply impossibilities. of thought by every attempt we make to explain its existence.