Elements of chemistry:

Front matter

MEraCAL tSCMOOL

College of Th^rm^

ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY.

Chapter I

NO. OF

FABAaRAPH PAGB

Preliminary View of Chemical Affinity — Laws of Combination i — 24

1 Chemical Distinction of Bodies into Elements and Compounds i

2 Differences between Physical and Chemical Properties ... 2

3 Physical States of Matter 3

4 Porosity — Divisibility of Matter 3

5 Varieties of Attraction 4

6 General Characters of Acids, Alkalies, and Salts 5

7 Characters of Chemical Affinity 7

8 Laws of Combination 12

9 Law of Definite Proportions 13

10 Law of Multiple Proportions 13

11 Law of Equivalent Proportions 14

12 Tables of Equivalent Numbers 15

13 Application of the Law of Equivalent Proportions .... 18

14 Law of Volumes 21

15 Symbolic Notation 22

CHAPTER II. Weights and Measures— ^Specific Gravity . . 24—32

16 English System of Weights and Measures 24

17 French System of Weights and Measures ....... 25

18 The Balance 26

19 Specific Gravity '. 27

20 Specific Gravity of Liquids 28

21 Specific Gravity of Solids 29

22 The Hydrometer 31

23 Correction of Weights taken in Air 32

VIU TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Chapter III

VO. OF "PAEAGEAPH PAGE

On some Varieties of Molecular Force . . ^s — ^^5

24 Varieties of Molecular Force 33

§ I. Elasticity 33 — 52

25 Elasticity of Solids and Liquids 33

26 Boyle's or Marriotte's Law of Elasticity in Gases 35

27 Repulsion among tlie particles of Gases 36

28 The Air-Pump 37

29 Air-Pump with a Single Barrel 38

30 Elasticity of the Air 39

3 1 The Condensing Syringe 39

32 Weight of the Air 40

33 Household Pump 41

34 The Barometer and Pressure Gauge 42

35 The Syphon 44

36 Downward Pressure of the Atmosphere 45

37 The Pneumatic Trough 46

38 The Gas Holder 47

39 The Mercurial Trough 48

40 Correction of Gases for Pressure 48

41 Density of the Atmosphere at different heights 50

§ II. Cohesion 52 — ^6

42 Measurement of Cohesion 52

43 Reunion of Divided Surfaces 52

44 Cohesion of Solids 53

45 Cohesion of Liquids 54

46 Influence of Heat on Cohesion 56

§ III. Adhesion — Diffusion of Liquids and Gases s^ — 91

47 Adhesion 56

48 Cements 58

49 Capillary Action 59

50 Varieties in Capillary Action of Liquids 60

TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX

NO. OF PARAGRAPH PAGB

51 Capillary Depression of Mercury 61

52 Extensive Operation of Capillary Actions 62

53 Influence of Surface on Adhesion 63

^^ Adhesion between Liquids 66

57 Laws of the Diffusion of Liquids 68

58 Endosmosis and Exosmosis 71

59 The Osmometer — Conditions of Osmose 72

60 Flow of Liquids through Capillary tubes 74

61 Adhesion of Gases to Liquids 77

62 Adhesion of Gases to Solids 78

6^ Desiccation of Gases 80

65 Effusion of Gases 84

66 Transpiration of Gases 84

67 Passage of Gases through Diaphragms 88

68 Separation of Bodies by Cold or Heat 90

§ TV. Crystallization 91 — 115

69 Formation of Crystals 91

70 Sudden Crystallization — Nuclei 92

7 1 Separation of Salts by the process of Crystallization • • • 93

72 Variation in Crystalline Form_, from External Causes ... 93

73 Change of Bulk in the act of Solidification 94

74 Development of Crystalline Form in Solids 94

75 Structure of Crystals — Cleavage 95

76 Goniometers 97

77 The Reflecting Goniometer 98

78 Symmetry of Crystalline Form too

79 Classification of Crystals loi

80 Isomorphism 107

81 Chemical bearings of Isomorphism 109

82 Isomorphous Groups no

83 Dimorphism in

84 Allotropy 112

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER lY.

KO. OP PARAGRAPH PAGB

85 Influence of Light in producing Chemical Changes . . . .115

86 Sources of Light n6

87 Theories of Light — Undulations 118

88 Illustration of Undulations from Sound 118

89 Varieties of Sound 120

90 Mechanism of Undulation 121

9 1 Transparency and Opacity 122

92 Law of the Diminution of Light by Distance 123

93 Rumford's Photometer 124

94 Reflection from Plane Surfaces 125

95 Reflection from Curved Surfaces 126

96 Refraction 127

97 Law of the Sines 128

98 Refraction at Inclined Surfaces 129

99 Total Reflection 130

TOO Wollaston's Method of ascertaining Refractive Power . . .131 loi Prismatic Analysis of Light 133

102 Theory of Colours 134

103 Fixed Lines in the Spectrum 136

104 Change in the Refrangibility of Light 137

105 Complex Nature of Radiant Force 139

106 Phosphorogenic Rays 140

107 Velocity of Light 141

108 Change of Velocity with Change of Medium 141 no Colours of thin Plates 145

111 Double Refraction 147

112 Influence of Crystalline Form on Double Refraction . . . .148

113 Polarization of Light by Double Refraction 149

114 Polarization by Reflection 151

115 Distinction between Common and Polarized Light . . , '153

116 Polarization by Reflection from a Bundle of Plates . . . .154

117 Effect of the Analyser in rotating the Plane of Polarization 154

118 Colours of Polarized Light 154

119 Colours in Plates cut perpendicular to the Axis 155

TABLE or CONTENTS. XI

NO. OP PARAGRAPH PAGB

1 20 Coloured Circular Polarization 158

121 Magnetic Polarization 160

CHAPTER Y.

Heat 161 — 262

122 General Properties of Heat 161

123 Sources of Heat 162

124 Fallacious Indications of Sensation as a Measure of the

Amount of Heat 164

§ I. Expansion — Measurement of Temperature 164 — 187

125 Difference between Heat and Temperature 164

126 Expansion of Solids 165

127 Expansion of Liquids 166

128 Expansion of Gases 169

129 Air Thermometers 169

130 Principle on which the Thermometer is graduated . . . .171

131 Tests of a good Thermometer 172

132 Different forms of Thermometer . 173

133 Increase in the Katio of Dilatation with Rise of Temperature 174

134 Pyrometers 176

135 Comparative Range of Temperature 178

136 Force exerted by Expansion 178

137 Anomalous Expansion of Water 179

138 Correction of Gases for Temperature 180

T39 Adjustment of Bulk to Changes of Temperature 181

140 Process of taking Specific Gravity of Gases 181

141 Determination of the Specific Gravity of Yapour 184

§ II. On the Equilibrium of Temperature, 187 — 211

142 Equilibrium of Temperature 187

144 Inequality in the Rate of Conduction in different Directions . 190

145 Convection of Heat 191

146 Currents in Gases : — Yentilation 193

147 Trade Winds 194

XU TABLE OF CONTENTS.

NO. OF PARAGRAPH PAGB

148 Gulf Stream 196

149 Radiation of Heat 197

150 ReflectioQ of Heat 197

151 Absorption of Heat 198

152 Connexion between Absorption and Radiation 199

153 Formation of Dew 200

154 Law of Cooling by Radiation 202

155 Relative Absorbability of different kinds of Heat 203

156 Transmission of Heat through Screens 204

157 Refraction of Heat 208

158 Probable Independence of Light and Heat 209

159 Double Refraction and Polarization of Heat 211

§ III. Heat of CompQsition .... 211 — 261

160 Specific Heat 211

161 Yariat ion in A mount of Specific Heat according to Physical State 215

162 Disappearance of Heat during Liquefaction 216

163 Freezing Mixtures 218

164 Evolution of Heat during Solidification 220

165 Disappearance of Heat during the Formation of Yapour . .220

166 Ebullition 222

167 Influence of Adhesion on the Boiling Point 223

168 Influence of Solids in Solution upon the Boiling Point . . .224

169 Influence of Pressure on the Boiling Point 225

170 Measurement of Heights by the Boiling Point 226

171 High Pressure Steam 227

172 Production of Cold during Evaporation 229

173 Measurement of the Latent Heat of Yapours 230

174 Economical Applications of Steam 232

176 Evaporation 240

177 Dalton's Law of the Tension of Yapours 241

178 Limit of Evaporation 243

179 Circumstances which influence the Rate of Evaporation . .244

180 Dew Point 247

181 Daniell's Hygrometer : — Wet Bulb Hygrometer 248

183 Spheroidal State produced by Heat 259

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xlll

CHAPTER YT.

NO. OF PABAGKAPH JAGB

Electricity and Magnetism 263 — 428

184 Oonnexion of Electricity with Magnetism 262

§ I. Magnetism 263 — 272

185 Leading Characters of Magnetic Action 263

186 Magnetic Induction 265

187 Preparation of Magnets 267

188 Influence of Molecular Actions on Magnetism 268

189 Measurement of the Magnetic Intensity of a Bar 269

190 Magnetism of the Earth : — The Dip 269

191 Declination or Variation 270

192 Variation in the Intensity of the Earth's Magnetism . . . .271

§ IL Static Electricity 272 — 315

193 Simple Facts connected with Electricity 272

194 Two Kinds of Electricity 273

195 Insulators and Conductors 275

196 Electroscopes 276

197 Electrical Hypotheses 278

198 Electrical Induction 280

199 Faraday's Theory of Induction 282

200 Distribution of the Electric Charge 283

201 Electrical Machines 286

202 Further Illustrations of Induction 287

203 The Electrophorus 288

204 Spread of Induction 289

206 Measures of Electricity 295

207 Specific Induction 297

208 Various Modes of Discharge 299

209 his Development of Heat 300

210 Disruptive Discharge 302

211 Velocity of Discharge 304

212 Striking Distance 306

XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS.

213 Convection 307

214 Other Sources of Electricity 308

215 Electricity of Vapour 309

216 Atmospheric Electricity 310

217 Aurora Borealis 314

§ III. Galvanic or Voltaic Electricity, 315 — 378

218 Galvani's Discovery 315

219 Simple Voltaic Circuits 316

220 Activity of the Conducting Wire 317

221 Action of the Conducting Wire on a Magnetic Needle . . .318

222 The Galvanometer 319

223 General Summary of the ElSects produced by the Conducting

Wire 321

224 The Voltaic Pile : — ^the Crown of Cups 321

225 Electric Disturbance produced by Contact 322

226 Necessity of Chemical Action to produce Voltaic Action . .323

227 Polarization and Transfer of the Elements of the Liquid . . .323

228 Energy of the Current proportionate to the Chemical Activity. 327

229 Direction of the Current dependent on the Direction of the

Chemical Action 328

230 Circuits with One Metal and Two Liquids 333

230 his General Summary 335

231 Counteracting Currents : — Grove's Gas Batteiy 336

232 Darnell's Battery 339

233 Grove's Nitric Acid Battery 341

234 Smee's Battery 342

235 Resistances to the Voltaic Current 343

236 Differences between a Simple and a Compound Circuit . . . 345

237 Ohm's Theory 348

238 Chemical Decomposition : — The Voltameter 350

239 Further Application of Ohm's Theory 353

240 Wheatst one's Rheostat and Resistance Coils 355

241 Processes of Voltaic Discharge 358

243 Conduction by Liquids 364

244 Conducting Power of Gases 366

245 Disruptive Discharge : — Electric Light 366

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV

NO. OF PAKAGKAPH PAGE

246 Discliarge by Convection : — Chemical Actions 368

248 Kelative Decomposability of Electrolytes 373

249 Resemblances between Static and Yoltaic Electricity . . . -374

250 Deluc's Dry Pile 375

251 Water Battery 377

§ IV. Electro-Magnetism 378 — 396

252 Law of Electro-Magnetic Action : — Tangent Galvanometer. . 378

253 Influence of a Conducting Wire in exciting Magnetism . .380

254 Formation of Electro-Magnets 381

255 Molecular Movements during the Magnetization of Bars . .382

256 Laws of Electro-Magnetism 383

257 Ampere's Theory of Electro-Magnetism 384

258 Mutual Influence of Wires which are conveying Currents . .385

259 Electro-Magnetic Rotations 388

260 Electric Telegraph 390

§ Y. Magneto-Electricity 396 — 407

261 Yolta-Electric Induction 396

262 Magneto-Electric Induction 397

263 Ruhmkorfi*'s Magneto-Electric Induction Coil 399

26^ bis Inductive Action of Currents ; — Henry's Coils 400

264 Arago's Rotations 403

265 Magneto-Electric Machines 405

§ YI. Thermo-Electricity 407 — ^411

266 Summary of Facts in Thermo-Electricity 407

267 Thermo-Multiplier 410

268 Reduction of Temperature by the Electric Current . . . .410

§ YII. Animal Electricity 411 — 414

269 Electrical Phenomena exhibited by the Torpedo 411

270 Electrical Phenomena of the Gymnotus 412

271 The Muscular Current in Living Animals . . • . . . .413

XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS.

NO. OP FABA.GBAFH PAGB

§ VIII. Relations of Light and Magnetism :

— Diamagnetism 414 — 428

272 Magnetic Polarization of Light 414

273 Magnetism of Bodies in general 416

274 Diamagnetism 417

275 Diamagnetism of Gases 418

276 List of Magnetic and Diamagnetic Bodies 421

277 Influence of Chemical Composition upon the Magnetic or

Diamagnetic State 422

278 Influence of Structure on Diamagnetism 422

279 Law of Diamagnetic Repulsion 424

280 Mutual Relations of Difierent kinds of Force 424

ERRATA.

Page 31, 13 lines from the top, for aerometer, read areoineter.

,, TOO, 6 ,, bottom, transfer </iree from the end to the beginning of the line.

,, 102, the position of first crystal in figs. 43 and 44 is incorrect with reference to the

horizontal axis.

,, 105, 13 lines from the bottom, for Jig. 48, read^. 49.

top, „ fiff- 5h „ fid' 50. bottom, ,, equally, „ equal.

,, read, from m and r, let fall the perpendiculars m n

and R Q. ,, for assume, read exert upon light. ,, ,, Bichloride of sulphur, read Dichloride of sulph ur. top, after now regarded, insert as.

lOE—e lOE—e

2 2 *"

,, ,, electrical phenomena generally, read the wire

through which the Leyden jar is being discharged. „ dele with.

bottom, for adjoining, xosA joining.

124, 5 128, 10

160, 7 207, 24 279, 18

J,

354, 14&21

lines from

359, "

381, 13 383, 5

J,

ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY.