The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801-1922 : being a revised and enlarged edition of the Ottoman Empire, 1801-1913 1923

Front matter

LIBRARY by the

ONTARIO LEGISLATIVE

LIBRARY

Preface To-the Second Edie

HE present work has been based, wherever possible, upon the original documents, and is the result of many years’ study of the Eastern Question. I am indebted to the editors of The English Fitstorical and The Westminster Reviews for permission to reprint with considerable additions two articles contributed to those periodicals; and I desire to thank H. E. M. J. Gennadios, former Greek Minister in London, for access to his unrivalled collection of pamphlets, and Cav. Pasqualucci, librarian of the Consulta, for his courtesy in allowing me to use the library of the Italian Foreign Office. With regard to the spelling of Greek names, while common words have been written in their popular, unaccented form, rarer words have been reproduced in Greek dress with their accents. Slav names have been transliterated. W. M.

ROME,

EDITORIAL NOT

The later relations of Turkey and other Powers with Egypt are not included in this work, having been discussed in another volume of this series, Zhe Colonization of Africa.

CHAPTER I THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AT THE DAWN OF THE XIXth CENTURY

Relations of Turkey with the four great Powers, France, Russia, Austria, and Great Britain—Eastern policy of Prussia—Extent of the Ottoman empire in Europe—In Asia, and Africa—Organisation and races of European Turkey—Local tyrants—Division between Mussulmans and Christians—Bosnian feudalism—Condition of the Serbs—The Albanians—The Greeks—The Greek Church—The Phanariotes—State of Greece: privileged communities. . : ° . s, t

CHAPTER (Il NAPOLEON IN THE NEAR EAST (1801-15)

The French in Dalmatia—Destruction of the Republics of Poljitza and Ragusa—France and Montenegro—First Russo-Turkish war of the century—Duckworth before Constantinople— Paper partition of Turkey at Tilsit—Second French occupation of the Ionian Islands—Capture of the Islands by the British—Treaty of Bucharest—Congresses of Vienna and Paris: British protectorate over the Ionian Islands. 31

Chapter III The Servian Risings (1804-17)

Tyranny of the Janissaries—Mild rule and murder of Hajji Mustapha— Servian loyal rising of 1804: Kara George—Servian overtures to Austria and Russia—Servian victories—Palace revolutions in Constantinople—Russian protectorate over Servia—Treaty of Bucharest abandons the Serbs—Second Servian rising of 1815 : Milosh Obrenovich— Murder of Kara George—Milosh recognised as chief . 46

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Chapter IV The Preface Of Greek Independence (1815-21)

The British in the Ionian Islands: Sir Thomas Maitland, first Lord High Commissioner—Constitution of 1817—The cession of Padrga—Ali Pasha declared a rebel, appeals to the Greeks—-The Philikée Hetairia— Alexander Hypseldntes, leader of the Greek movement, crosses the Pruth—Rival Roumanian rising of Tudor Vladimirescu—Battles of Dragashani and Skuleni—Native princes in the Danubian Principalities . ° 2 . ; : ‘ . : : - 58

Chapter V The War Of Greek Independence (1821-9)

Outbreak of the Revolution—Heroic death of Didkos—Spread of the insurrection to the islands—-Murder of the Patriarch Gregory V— Three stages in the war—The ‘‘ Peloponnesian Senate ”—Arrival of Demétrios Hypseldntes and Alexander Mavrokorddtos—Sack of Tripolitsié—Constitution of Epfdauros—End of Ali Pasha—Massacre of Chios—Foundation of Hermoupolis—Capitulation of the Akropolis —Greek victory at Dervenaki—Defeat at Péta—First ‘‘ Commissioner”? of Crete—Second National Assembly at Astros—Canning’s Philhellenism—Russian proposal for three Greek principalities—Death of Marko Botzares—Byron in Greece—The first Greek loan—Byron’s death at Mesolonghi-—‘‘ War of the Primates ”—Destruction of Kassos and Psarda—Ibrahim lands in the Morea—Santa Rosa at Navarino— Second siege of Mesoldnghi—Death of Odysseis—The sortie from Mesolénghi—Protocol of April 4, 1826—Turkish siege of the Akropolis —Death of Karaiskakes—Second surrender of the Akropolis—Third National Assembly at Troizén: Capo d’Istria elected President of Greece—Treaty of London of 1827—Battle of Navarino—Death of Hastings—The Cretans at Grabotisa—Arrival of Capo d’Istria—The ‘¢ Panhellénion’’—Policy of the President—France compels the Egyptians to evacuate the Morea—Destruction of Tripolitsi—Protocol of March 22, 1829—Fourth National spite at oe of Pétra: end of the war : : : : o 9X

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CHAPTER: VI THE CREATION OF THE GREEK KINGDOM (1829-33)

Protocols of February 3, 1830: Leopold of Saxe-Coburg ‘‘ Sovereign Prince of Greece ”—Leopold refuses—Conflict between Capo d’Istria and the Hydriotes—Catastrophe of Poros—Assassination of Capo d’Istria—Provisional Commission of three—Fifth National Assembly at Argos—Agostino chosen President: civil war—Otho ‘King of Greece ””—-Limits of the kingdom—Samian autonomy—Crete united with Egypt—Triumph of Koléttes and the ‘‘ Constitutionalists ”»— Anarchy—National Assembly at Pronoia—Flight of the Senate from Nauplia—Fight with the French at Argos—Arrival of Otho—Prosperity of the Ionian Islands—Napier in Cephalonia—Adam Lord High Commissioner—The ‘‘ Ionian Academy ”—Parties in the Islands . 106

Chapter VII The Balkan And Syrian Difficulties Of Turkey (1822-45)

Roumanian Nationalist movement: Asaki and Eliade—Convention of Akkerman—Russo-Turkish war of 1828-9 : Russian occupation of the Principalities—Treaty of Adrianople—The réglement organique— Servia at Akkerman and Adrianople—Grant of Servian autonomy : Milosh hereditary Prince of an enlarged Servia—Turkish garrisons of the Servian fortresses—Despotism of Milosh: ‘‘ Constitution of Sretenje”—British support of Milosh—Creation of a Servian Senate— Milosh abdicates—Milan Obrenovich II—Michael Obrenovich III’s first reign—Alexander Karageorgevich elected Prince— The Dragon of Bosnia”—Ali Pasha Rizvanbegovich—Union of the Piperi with Montenegro—Peter II reorganises Montenegro: abolition of the civil ‘* governorship ”—His conflicts with the Turks—Revolt of Mehemet Ali: invasion of Syria—The Russians ‘‘ protect” the Sultan: treaty of Hunkiar Iskelesi—Battle of Nezib—Death of Mahmtid II—Quadrilateral convention of 1840—Settlement of Egypt and Thasos— “Convention of the Straits”—Charter of Giil-khaneh—The Lebanon . : . . . ee aes : : eee ak 25

CHAPTER Vill

GREECE UNDER THE BAVARIAN AUTOCRACY (1833-43)

The Regency—Disbanding of the irregulars—Bureaucratic system—Ecclesiastical policy—Conspiracy of Kolokotrénes—Revolt of the Mainates— Recall of Maurer and Abel—Insurrection in Arkadia and Messenfa—

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The capital removed from Nauplia to Athens—Otho’s majority— Insurrection in Akarnanfa—Rudhart Prime Minister—Founding of the University—“ British,” ‘‘ French,” and ‘‘Russian” parties—Crete under the Egyptians—The Cretan insurrection of 1841—The revolution of September 3/15 at Athens—Progress of Greece during the decade

Chapter IX The Greek And Ionian Constitutions (1843-53)

Greek Constitution of 1844—Administration of Koléttes—The Mousotiros incident—Local disturbances—The Pacifico case: Cervi and Sapienza—The “Synodal Tome” of 1850: independence of the Church in Greece—Nugent, Douglas and Mackenzie in the Ionian Islands— Seaton’s reforms in the Constitution: introduction of a free press— Risings in Cephalonia—The first reformed Ionian Parliament— Bibescu and Michael Sturdza in the Principalities—Roumanian revolution of 1848—Convention of Balta Liman—Reigns of Barbe Stirbeiu and Gregory V Ghika—Austrophil policy of Servia—Montenegro : succession of Danilo—Abolition of the theocratic system—Count Leiningen’s mission 5 : : . : , ° « 294

Chapter X The Crimean War (1853-6)

Holy Places—Mentschikoff's mission—Motives of Napoleon III— Overtures of the Tsar—Stratford de Redcliffe—Settlement of the original dispute—Fresh Russian demands—The Russians cross the Pruth—‘‘ The Vienna Note”—Destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope—British ultimatum—The Allies at Varna—British officers’ defence of Silistria—Russia evacuates the Principalities—Effects of the war upon the Balkan races: Servia and Montenegro—Excitement in Greece : insurrections in Thessaly and Epirus—The Allies occupy the Piraeus—The cholera at Athens—The landing in the Crimea—Battle of the Alma—Siege of Sebastopol—Battles of Balaclava and Inkerman—The Crimean winter—‘ The four points’”—Battle of the Tchernaya—Fall of Sebastopol—Congress and treaty of Paris--Small results of the treaty—The Montenegrin and Greek protocols . 199

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Chapter XI The Union Of The Danubian Principalities (1856-62)

Growth of the Unionist idea—Convention of Paris—Election of Couza as Prince—First united Roumanian Assembly—Deposition of Alexander Karageorgevich—Restoration of Milosh—Second reign of Michael Obrenovich I1I—Bombardment of Belgrade—Partial evacuation of the Servian fortresses—Turco-Montenegrin war of 1858: battle of Grahovo — Assassination of Danilo—Accession of Nicholas I—Herzegovinian rising of 1861—Turco-Montenegrin war of 1862—Convention of Scutari—Greek finance—Question of the Greek succession—Effect of the Austro-Italian war of 1859 on Greece—Combination of circumstances against Otho—Revolt at Nauplia—Greek revolution of 1862: abdication of Otho : ; : : : : ; . 243

Chapter XII The Cession Of The Ionian Islands (1862-4)

Meeting of the National Assembly—Election of Prince Alfred as King— The search for a sovereign—Prince George of Denmark chosen ‘‘ King of the Hellenes””—Fighting at Athens between ‘‘the Plain” and ‘‘the Mountain ”—Arrival of King George—The Ionian question: scheme for the colonisation of Corfi' and Paxo—The two stolen despatches— Gladstone’s mission—Storks Lord High Commissioner—Union of the Tonian Islands with Greece—Neutralisation of Corfu and Paxo— Destruction of the Corfiote fortresses—The Greek Constitution of 1864 . ; : ; : ; A ; : : 270

CHAPTER XII

REFORMS AND THEIR RESULTS: THE LEBANON AND CRETE (1856-69)

Haitti-Humaytin of 1856—Murder of the consuls at Jedda—The Massacres in the Lebanon—French expedition to Syria—Organisation of the Lebanon in 1861-4—The Cretan Insurrections of 1858 and 1866-g— Defence of Arkddion—‘“‘ Organic Statute of 1868”—Turkish ultimatum to Greece—Hobart Pasha at Syra—Conference of Paris . . 298

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Chapter XIV The Roumanian And Servian Questions (1862-75)

Murder of Barbe Catargi—Secularisation of the monasteries—Couza’s coup d’état—Agrarian law—Free education—Deposition of Couza— Prince Charles of Hohenzollern—Sigmaringen Prince of Roumania— Constitution of 1866: the Jewish question—The Prince’s recognition by the Sultan—His difficult position during the Franco-German war— The railway question—Servia: suggested Serbo-Greek alliance— Complete Turkish evacuation of Servia—Assassination of Michael— Milan Obrenovich IV Prince of Servia—The Regency: constitution of 1869—Milan’s situation . . . : og OR Se

Chapter XV The Bulgarian Exarchate (1870-5)

Early Bulgarian risings—Bulgarian schools and books—The demand for national bishops—Relations with the Papacy—Tartar and Circassian immigration—Midhat’s administration—The Bulgarian emigrants at Bucharest—Creation of the Bulgarian Exarchate—The ‘‘ Apostles ””— Liberation of the Black Sea—The ‘‘ Marathon massacres ”—The Ldvrion mines—Constitutional questions at Athens . > 338

Chapter XVI The Balkan Crisis Of 1875-8

State of Bosnia and the Herzegovina —The rising at Nevesinje—Grievances of the insurgents—Revolt in Bosnia—The Andrdssy note—The Berlin Memorandum—Servia and Montenegro declare war on Turkey— “‘Benkovski” in the Sredna Gora—The massacre of Batak: the ‘* Bulgarian Atrocities”—Murder of the consuls at Salonika—Deposition and death of Abdul Aziz—Murad V’s brief reign : accession of Abdul Hamid II—The Servian war of 1876—Successful Montenegrin campaign—The Constantinople conference—‘‘Midhat’s Parliament ”—The London protocol—The Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8—Russo-Roumanian convention—Siege of Plevna—Second Montenegrin campaign—Second Servian war—Feeling in Great Britain—The ‘‘ GEcumenical government” at Athens—Insurrections in Epirus, Thessaly, and Crete—The treaty of San Stefano—The treaty of Berlin—The Cyprus convention—Present state of the Berlin treaty . - . . : . . o\ oe 2’ 35s

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CHAPTER XVII THE UNION OF THE Two BULGARIAS (1878-87)

The Arab Tabia question—The regulation of the Danube—Roumania proclaimed a kingdom—Her relations with the Triple Alliance—The Austrians occupy Bosnia—The sanjak of Novibazar: Austro-Turkish convention of ioe tbe: ** Albanian League”’: Gusinje and. Plava— The “* Corti compromise ”’—The cession of Dulcigno—Kidnapping of the Mirdite Prince—Rectification of the Greek frontier—The Berlin conference of 1880—Greece receives Thessaly and Arta—Crete : the Pact of Halépa—Alexander of Battenberg first Prince of Bulgaria— Coup d’ état of 1881—Constitution of Eastern Roumelia—The ‘* Pomak Republic”’—The Philippopolis revolution—Serbo-Bulgarian war: battle of Slivnitza—Blockade of Greece—Kidnapping of Alexander— His return and abdication—Kaulbars in Bulgaria—Election of Prince Ferdinand Fi ; a fs Pi : a ass : . > 399

Chapter XVIII Armenia, Crete, And Macedonia (1887-1908)

The Armenian massacres—The Cretan insurrection and firman of 1889— The insurrection of 1896—Col. Vdssos in Crete—Bombardment of Akrotéri—The Greco-Turkish war of 1897—The International Commission of Control—Prince George of Greece High Commissioner in Crete—The Opposition at Thérisso—M. Zaimes High Commissioner— Rival races and Churches in Macedonia—The Macedonian Committee —Austro-Russian schemes of reform: the Miirzsteg programme—The bands in Macedonia—The occupation of Mitylene—Stambulov’s rule in Bulgaria—His fall and assassination—Reconciliation with Russia : conversion of Prince Boris—Social condition of Bulgaria—Servia: the royal divorce—Servian constitution of 1889—Milan’s abdication— Alexander’s coups d@’état—His marriage—Constitution of 1901: third ‘coup d’éat—Murder of Alexander and Draga—Election of Prince Peter Karageorgevich as King: constitution of June 1903—Rule of the regicides—Progress of Montenegro: the Italian marriage—Montenegrin constitution of 1905—-Results of emigration—Italian influence —Roumanian social problems: (1) the land, (2) the Jews—Roumanian gs policy—Greek internal politics since 1898—Cyprus—The “Twelve Islands” —Thasos—Samos . ‘ . sez

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Chapter XIX The Turkish Revolution (1908-12)

The “Committee of Union and Progress”—The revival of the Turkish constitution—Fraternisation of the Ottomans—Declaration of Bulgarian Independence—Annexation of Bosnia and the Herzegovina— Crete proclaims union with Greece—The counter-revolution in Turkey —The massacre at Adana—Deposition of Abdul Hamid II1—Mohammed V—Settlement of the Bosnian and Bulgarian questions—Crete : attitude of the Powers—Increasing Turkish demands—Withdrawal of the international troops from Crete—The flag incident : Turkish notes to Greece—The Greek Military League—The two National Assemblies: M. Venizélos Premier—The revised Greek Constitution—The policy of ‘*Turkification”—Albanian insurrection of 1911—The Libyan war: loss of Tripoli and the Cyrenaica—Italian occupation of 13 islands . . e : ° , : : : ‘ ~ 474