Elements of physical and political geography. Designed as a text book for schools and academies ..

Front matter

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Preface

The department of Natural or Physical Geography has hitherto received but little attention in our schools. The time of the learner has been chiefly spent upon the accidental or artificial divisions of the earth ; in learning estimates of population and extent, which, if true to-day, may be false to-morrow; in committing to memory a dry catalogue of names and definitions without any intelligible ideas associated with them — a collection of unmeaning facts, to be forgotten more easily than learned.

It is of comparatively little use for a child to be told that " the earth is one of the planets," if he does not know what a planet is ; or to learn the location and extent of certain mountains, seas, and rivers, if he does not perceive their influence upon climate, vegetation, and the condition of man. The study of geography should not be limited to a mere description of the earth's surface, and of the organized existences which inhabit it. We should trace the general phenomena of the globe to the causes from which they originate ; we should endeavor to perceive that nice adaptation of means to ends in the relative position, proportion, and configuration of the land and water of the globe, which is so obvious in any single specimen of organic life.

" In teaching geography," says Dr. Wayland, ** I would treat it as I would any other branch of physical knowledge. I would look upon the earth as a grand specimen in physical science, presented for our examination. The knowledge of

4 PREFACE.

artificial divisions, of national boundaries, number of inhabitants, revenues, exports and imports, will readily associate itself with the knowledge of natural divisions, and will be remembered more easily by means of a vivid objective representation. It is because the study of geography consists so much of these dry details that it in general awakens no greater interest in the pupil. Pursued as a branch of physical science, we should, in the first place, lay the foundation for wide and valuable generalizations ; we should create in the mind a consciousness of the need of geology, history, ethnography, and political economy, and thus accomplish the best purpose of teaching, by rendering every addition to our knowledge an incitement to further acquisition."

In commencing this study, a difficulty is immediately presented to the young learner, in the enormous magnitude of the objects he is to contemplate. His mind is unable to grasp such immensities of extent and diversities of form. With no experience as a traveller or voyager, and, in most cases, having never been far beyond the limits of his native town, he can forin no appreciable ideas of the subject. He has learned nothing of geography by observation, he has seen comparatively nothing of the world in which he lives ; and what can he be presumed to know ? Certainly but little, very little. It is evident, therefore, that the learner must commence the study of geography by first learning the topography of the place where he lives ; in other words, he must begin at home. His attention should be first directed to the school room itself — its form, the relative position of the various objects within it. Then let a drawing or map of it be made on the blackboard. Next, by a walk about the grounds of the school house, draw liis attention to the prominent objects in its vicinity; determine the position of the edifice by the points of the compass, by which to note the topography of those objects ; notice whether the house stands on high or low ground ; observe the neighbor-

PREFACE. 5

ing trees, rocks, and hills ; if there be a brook or river near by, observe its course, and what determines that course. Trace effects to their causes wherever practicable.

After such explorations, let the learner take his slate, and map out such parts of what he has seen as may be thought necessary. Endeavor to give him right ideas of distance, of height and depth. Before alluding to the earth's rotundity, carefully prepare his mind to assent to this fact, by observing the eifect produced on his field of view in looking at the surrounding scenery from different heights. If possible, let him get a view from the sea shore, to remark the vessels as they appear in the horizon.

Avoid the use of the technicalities of the science and set definitions, until the learner has attained to such a knowledge of facts and principles, by personal observation, as will serve him for a stand-point from which his imagination may venture to look out without fear of confusion.

If apparatus be essential in teaching natural philosophy and chemistry, it is certainly no less so in the science of geography. Therefore let the school room be amply furnished with artificial globes, models, maps, and pictures of natural scenery. Relief maps and relief globes, such as are so beautifully and accurately manufactured in Germany, and Professor Guyot's Series of elegantly colored Mural Maps, published in Boston, furnish the best means, of an artificial nature, for imparting right ideas of the earth's surface. These, with any one of the best School Atlases extant, will sufiiciently illustrate the following pages.

In the orthography and pronunciation of geographical names, we have followed the " Universal Pronouncing Gazetteer" of Baldwin, whenever available, and have used Dr. J. E, Worcester's system of notation. In the compilation of the work, materials have been drawn from various sources ; but the author is chiefly indebted to the more recent works of Humboldt, Petermann, Milner, Johnston, Guyot, Miss R. M. Zornlin, and Mrs. Somerville. The author would also 1*

6 PREFACE.

gratefully acknowledge his special obligations to M. F. Maury, LL. D., Lieut U. S. N., Superintendent of the National Observatory at Washington, for much valuable information on the subjects of winds, rains, and currents, and for the privilege of taking copies of several plates from the last edition of " Maury's Sailing Directions."

As a guide to the teacher in conducting recitations, an analysis of the text of each page is given in the foot margin, either as topics or questions. Besides the numerous questions interspersed throughout the work as map exercises and reviews, various problems are appended to certain chapters, the solution of which will require an understanding of the principles previously developed.

Boston, August, 1855.

Contents

PAOB

Inditctiye Lessons, 11

PAET FIRST.

ELEMENTS OE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER I. — Preliminary Observations, 15 II. — The Contours of Land and Water, 19

III. — The RELiEi'S op the Land Surface, 23

An Outline of Geology, 28

CHAPTER IV. — The Water Surface of the Earth 32

Questions for Map Exercises on the Oceans, 36

CHAPTER V. — Mathematical and Astronomical Elements, . . 38

CHAPTER VI. — Special Geography of North America, 50

2. Mountain Systems, 53

3. Plateaus, 57

4. Declivities and Plains, 5S

7. Physical Aspects of Central America and the West Indies, 63

8. Geology of North America, 65

CHAPTER VII. — Special Geography of South America, .... 69

2. Mountain Systems, 71

3. Plateaus, 74

4. Declivities and Plains, 75

7. Geology, 79

CHAPTER VIII. — Special Geography of Europe, 82

2. Central Highlands, 84

3. Southern Peninsulas, 87 m CONTENTS.

4. Northern Highlands, 88

6. The Great European Plain 90

8. Geology, 94

CHAPTER IX. — Special Geography op Asia, 98

2. Mountain Systems, 100

3. Plateaus, 102

4. Declivities and Plains, 104

7. Geology, Ill

CHAPTER X. — Special Geography of Africa, 114

2. Mountain Systems, 116

3. Plateaus, 117

4. Declivities and Plains, 118

7. Geology, 122

CHAPTER XI. — Special Geography of Australia, &c., 125

CHAPTER XII. — General and Comparative View of the Continents, 130

CHAPTER XIII. — General and Comparative View of the

Oceans, 137

Exercises for Exammation, 140

CHAPTER XIV. — Of Air and Water as Envelopes op the

CHAPTER XV. — Of Heat, Electricity, and Magnetism, 145

§ 1. Heat. Problems, 145

2. Electricity, 148

3. Magnetism 149

CHAPTER XVI. — Of Climate 151

CHAPTER XVII. — Of Winds, 157

§ 1. General System of Atmospheric Circulation, 157

2. Trade Winds and Monspons, 162

3. Winds of the Temperate and Polar Regions, 164

CHAPTER XVIIL — Or Rain, 166

2. Of Clouds 168

3. Periodical and Continuous Rains, 171

4. Rains of the Western Hemisphere, 174

5. Rains of the Eastern Hemisphere 176

6. Summary, 178

CHAPTER XIX. — On Ocean Currents, 179

2. South Polar Current, 181

3. Grand Equatorial Current, 182

4. The Gulf Stream 183

6. North Polar Currents, &c., 185

6. Effects of Currents on Navigation, 186

CONTENTS. 9

CHAPTER XX. — Geographical Disteirution of Vegetables,. 194 CHAPTER XXI. — Geographical Distribution of Animals, ... 202

2. Arctic Fauna 204

3. Temperate Faunas, 204

4. Tropical Faunas, , 205

CHAPTER XXII. — Geographical Distribution of Mankind, . 207

CHAPTER V. — Political Divisions of South America 290

2. Venezuela, 290

3. New Grenada 291

4. Ecuador 291

6. Bolivia 292

8. The Argentine Republic, 293

9. Uruguay 294

10 CONTENTS.

10. Paraguay, 294

11. Brazil 294

13. Patagonia, 295

CHAPTEE VI. — Political Divisions of Europe, 296

2. Great Britain and Ireland, 297

3. The Netherlands 299

4. Belgium, 300

5. Prance, 301

6. Switzerland, 301

i 7. Austria, 302

8. Prussia, 303

9. Germany, 304

11. Portugal, 306

,15. The Ionian Islands, 310

16. European Russia, 310

CHAPTER VII. — Political Divisions op Asia 314

§ 1. Inhabitants and Countries. 2. Turkey in Asia, 314

3. Arabia, 315

4. Persia. 5. Iran. 6. Afghanistan, 316

7. Beloochistan. 8. Hindostan, 317

9. Island of Ceylon, 318

. 10. Indo-China. 11. British Provinces, 319

12. Malacca. 13. Chinese Empire. 14. China, 320

15. Toorkistan. 16. Siberia. 17. Japan, 322

Exercises m Voyages and Travels, 323

CHAPTER VIII. — Political Divisions of Africa 324

^ 1. Inhabitants and Countries. 2. North Africa, 324

3. Eastern Africa. 4. South Africa, 327

5. Western Africa, 328

6. Central Africa. 7. African Islands, 329

Appendix

Table of the Number of Geographical Miles in a Degree of Longitude, under each Parallel of Latitude, according to the spheroidal

Shape of the Earth, 331

Table of Heights of some Remarkable Points on the Earth, 332,-334

♦' « Lakes and Inland Seas, 335

«« «« Comparative Lengths of Rivers, 335

INDUCTIVE LESSONS

INTENDED AS ORAL EXERCISES BY THE TEACHER.

I. We often want to ascertain distances and heights, when neither foot-rule, yardstick, nor measuring tape is at hand. This deficiency in instruments may be suppKed, in some degree, in various ways. Take a carpenter's rule, or a yardstick that is graduated into feet and inches, and measure off on the school room floor, or elsewhere, a rod in length, marking the extremes in some suitable manner. Then let each pupil determine for himself, by pacing it oif, how many paces of his natural gait in. walking ai-e equal to one rod, or half a rod ; also how many feet and inches are equal to one of his paces. Let this be practised until it becomes a ready means for measuring horizontal distances. Then ask one to ascertain the length of the school room, and another its width. Having previously determined for yourself the actual distances between a variety of objects or points in the vicinity of the school house, send out three or four pupils to pace off these distances, and report to you the result in rods, yards, and feet.

n. To measure heights and depths, let each pupil determine his own height in feet and inches, and then mark an equal height on the waU or fence. Taking his stand at some distance from the wall, let him fix his eye upon the space indicating his height, till he becomes ^miliar with it as a measure of altitude. Prove its utility by requiring him to determine the height of certain objects.

However well furnished yom- school room may be with surveyors* instruments, these ready means of measurement should not be neglected. It is well to teach young persons to be fertile in expedients. An anecdote may serve to show this. An engineer in the French service was unexpectedly called upon by his superior officer to determine the width of a certain river. He had no instruments with him, and the result must be given without delay. His reputation, nay, his office, was involved in

12 INDUCTIVE LESSONS.

the dilemma. "Without the least pertiirbation of mamier, he took his stand on the river's banlc, carefully adjusted the fore-point of his chapeau in front of his left eye, and with this as his Kne of direction, he observed where the point of sight would fall on the opposite bank. Then keeping his head and body rigidly fixed, and making his left heel a centre of motion, he turned a quarter roimd ; and noticing where that point of sight fell on his own side of the river, he marched up to it, counting his paces, and gave the width of the river.

HE. "We will now suppose that the learners are prepared to take a tour of survey. Let the scene of their first exploration be the school room. Select some object for a starting point, — your own desk, for example, — and ask, " How far is my desk from the nearest wall ? " Let several measure the distance. Li like manner determine the position of various other objects in the room, both with relation to your desk and to each other. Now inquire, " If I wish to make a picture or groimd plan of our school room, so as to present each object and part in its natural size, how large a sheet of paper will be necessary ? " They answer, " As large as the school room floor." " Right ; but this is impracticable. I want to draw it on our blackboard, which, you see, is very much smaller in surfece : how can it be done ? " Some one answers, " By making the picture of each object smaller." " Very well : but in order to preserve a just proportion in the parts of the picture, it will be necessary to fix upon a scale of measurement. Let us take, as the unit of a scale, one inch to a foot. I win divide this horizontal line" (drawing it on the board) "into twenty-four or thirty-six inches, to represent twenty-four or thirty-six feet. Next, let this figure " (drawing it by the scale) " represent the outline of the school room floor." Having progressed thus far, direct some member of the class to take the crayon, and say, " Locate on the plan, and that by actual measurement, the teacher's desk, the table, the stove, or the door." Give each member of the class a chance to do something upon it. When completed, question them as to the details of the plan, to ascertain how far its purpose is understood. For example, (pointing to the location of the teacher's desk on the plan,) ask, " "What is this ? " " Yom- desk." " Why, no. This " (putting your hand on the desk itself) « is my desk." Some will then say, " It is a picture of your desk." " Yes ; but my desk is very much larger than the picture ; is it not ? " " It is ; but the picture is made small because the blackboard is not large enough for one of natural size." Pointing to the whole plan, — " Now, if you should meet with this or a similar picture when you are at home or elsewhere, of what would it remind you ? " " Our school room." " Would you think of the room and its furniture as being small, like the

INDUCTIVE LESSONS. 13

picture?" "No, sir." "Why not?" "Because we know that it is much larger." This dialogue may be pursued further if desirable.

Now, as a practical application of this lesson, each one of the class should be required to make a plan (on paper) of some room in his own home, to be brought in for examination.

rV. The next lesson should embrace a wider field of observation. For this pm-pose, select some spot of twenty or thirty rods square. One having a variety of natural objects, as tree, rock, brook, or pond, would be preferable. Take the south side of the proposed field as a base line, and fix upon some point or object for the first station, or starting point, to which all others within the intended limits shall be referred. Let each pupil be provided with a memorandum book and pencil for taking " field notes."

Select the points for survey, and direct the pupils, each in turn, in pacing oft* the distances, and noting them properly in their field books. A measm-ement with a surveyor's chain should also be taken as a standard for determining the correctness of the measures by pacing.

On returning to the school room, let the class proceed to map out on the blackboard a plan of the survey from their notes. Fix upon some convenient scale of measm-ement by which to project the plan, and let all be done by the pupils, requiring each to do something, to prove that he knows something.

V. As another step in these preliminary exercises, place before the class a map of some place which they have not seen, but which is familiar to yom-self. By questions and descriptions endeavor to awaken in their minds just ideas of the real scene.

Next, take a map of the township in which the school is situated, and beginning with the school house, lead the class to a right conception of the bearing and distance of the several parts of the town from the school house, so that, as they are sitting at their desks, they can point towards any place in town which you may mention.

An acquaintance with the town becomes the just basis for an acquaintance with the county, and the comity with the state. Encourage the pupils in making plans and maps of their own surveys.

VI. Questions. — What towns he next north, south, east, or west of this town? What other towns adjoin this town? Pomt towards each of the neighboring towns. K either of the neighboring towns does not join ours, by what are they separated ? Is this a large or a small town? Are there any larger ones in this state ? Is this town situated on high or low kind ? In what county is it ? Name the adjoining counties. In what state is our county ? In what part of the state ? How far, and in

INDUCTIVE LESSONS.

what direction are we jfrom the capital of this state ? Do you know why it is called the capital ? Are there any hills or mountains near us ? Any Yalleys or plains ? Any bodies of water ? Are there any highlands in our state ? If so, in what part of it ? Describe them. What rivers has it ? What lakes ? What bays, capes, or islands ? Point towards each one, as you name it. If you wished to go to sea, what course would you take ? K you wanted to travel farther inland, what would be your direction ? Would you be ascending or descending ? Why ?

By such exercises as these, adapted in each case to the peculiarities of location, the teacher should prepare his pupils for the pursuit of this study.

KEY TO THE SOUNDS OF THE MARKED LETTERS.

VOWELS.

Fate,

Mete, Piue,

Note,

Cube,

Type, mt,

Met, Pin,

Not,

Tub,

Crystal,

-Eire,

ThSre, Marine,

Move,

Pull,

Myrrh.

Far,

Her, Bird,

Nor,

Fur,

F&st,

Brier. Rujn.

S6n,

Eiile,

Bon.

F^l,

Actgr.

Sulphur.

Bbdnd.

Li?r.

CONSONANTS.

9 soft -— a9id.

i soft — giant, ^tenoa.

shard — ghasm.

ghard-

give, Bergen.

au — in French,

— Ilrtwte.

eau— " "

" 0

— Bordemix.

au — « Ger. It. Sp. Port., " bw

— Jimgii-au.

ei, ey — " German,

" I

— Leipsic.

j _ « French,

" zh

— Dijon.

j — « Spanish,

« h

— Juan.

j — " other languages

— Jungfrau.

X — " Spanish,

" h

— Xalapa.

zz— « Italian,

« ts

— Tacazze.

Chapter I. Preliminary Observations

*' O Lord, how manifold are thy works ! in wisdom hast thou made them all . the earth is full of thy riches." — Ps. civ. 24.

1. We read, in the Sacred Scriptures, that " In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth ; " and that the earth, at first, was without form, and void ; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And God caused the waters to be gathered together unto one place, and the diy land to appear. He set lights in the firmament of heaven, to divide the day from the night, to give light upon the earth, and to serve for signs, and for seasons, and for days, ^nd for years. He caused the earth to bring forth grass, and herbs, and trees ; and created the fishes of the sea, the fowls of the air, the beasts of the field, the cattle, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth. And last of all, he created man, in his own image. " Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them."

2. At the present time, besides the myriads of plants and of the lower orders of animals, the earth is estimated to contain more than a thousand millions of human beings, scattered over its surface, divided into races, nations, and tribes, differing in external appearance, character, language, government, and religion.

3. A knowledge of the form and dimensions of the earth constitutes a most important element in the science of geog-

Analtsis. 1. Bible account of the creation. — 2. Present condition of the earth. — 3. Important element in the study of geography. Of first impresraphy. The first impressions of our senses are insufficient to give us a correct idea of the figure of the earth. To a spectator placed on an open plain, it seems to present the appearance of a fiat or plane surface, equally extended in every direction, and terminated by a hue in which the heavens seem to touch and rest upon it like a great dome.

4. It has long been known, however, that the form of the earth is that of a sphere or globe. Standing upon the seashore, we may observe the surface of the ocean terminated by a clear, well-defined line, or offing, as it is called, which is the visible horizon. If we embark in a vessel, and sail out of sight of the land, this offing will extend in a circle around ns, of which our station in the vessel forms the centre. The appearance of this visible horizon, or sea offing, is owing to the convexity of the earth's surface.

5. This fact is exhibited by a vessel going from the shore and sailing beyond our visible horizon. The whole is visible till it reaches this water line. Beyond this, though the masts and sails still remain in sight, the hull of the ship is below the horizon. If the ship proceed a little farther, the lower sails disappear, and at length the whole is lost to view.

8. There are other proofs of the globular form of the earth -~ the daily apparent course of the sun from east to west ; the constantly changing appearance of the starry heavens, to a person going from north to south, or from south to north ; and the circular shadov/ of the earth on the moon in an eclipse.

7. A navigator, whose vessel continues to sail in the same general direction, (merely deviating from it so far as the intervening land renders necessary,) will eventually arrive at the place from which he set out. This practical proof of

sions. — 4. Form of the oarth. The offing ; to what owing ? — 5. Proof of the convexity of the earth's siurface. — 6. Other proofs. — 7- Proof by circum-

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 17

the roundness of the earth was first accomplished by Ferdinand Magellan, who sailed from Spain in the year 1519, and whose vessel, by a continued westerly course, after an absence of about three years, arrived at the port from whence it started.

8. The mountains and valleys, the various elevations and depressions of the land surface, compared with the whole magnitude and form of the earth, are far less in proportion than the roughness on the rind of an orange. The highest mountain in the world,* if represented on a globe of eighteen inches diameter, would be less than the eightieth part of an inch in height.

9. Physical Geography treats of the earth in its natural condition, drawing our attention to the diversities of its surface, as composed of land and water, of mountains, plains, and valleys ; the phenomena of its atmosphere and oceans ; with the distribution of plants, animals, and man over its surface. Physical geography may therefore be regarded as the foundation of the natural sciences, underlying them all, and supplying their materials for observation and study.

10. The earth is regarded as a solid body, regularly increasing in hardness, or density, from the surface towards its centre. Its surface, or crust, consists of a great variety of substances of different densities, some of which occur in shapeless masses ; others are disposed in regular layers, or strata, either horizontal or inclined.

11. Man has penetrated but a very little way into the earth, by digging wells, or by mining; but, by reasoning from the inclination of the strata at or near the surface, and from other circumstances, he has obtained a tolerably accurate idea of its structure, to the depth of about ten miles.

12. The various forms, and the relative positions of the land and water surfaces, though apparently characterized by great irregularity, are not the res^ult of mere chance or accident, but were planned and designed by the almighty Architect of the universe, to act in harmony.

" All are but parts of one stupendous whole, Whose body nature is, and God the soul."

* Mount Kunchinginga, in Asia, 28,178 feet, or over five miles.

navigation. Who first gave this proof ? — 8. Proportionate magnitude of mountains, &c. The highest mountain. — 9. Definition of physical geography, — 10. The earth, how regarded ? Condition of its crust. — 11. Knowledge of its structure. — 12. Remark on the forms and relative positions of the land and water. Quotation. What has God established and caused ? ' 2*

He has established the proportions between the land and water, and the desert, just as they are, and has made the capacity of the air to circulate heat and moisture just what it is, that each and all may do their work in obedience to law, and in subservience to order. He "measured the waters in the hollow of his hand, and comprehended the dust in a measure, and weighed the mountains in settles, and the hills in a balance."

CHAPTEB II.

THE CONTOURS OF LAND AND WATER.

" The sea is his, and he made it ; and his hands formed the dry land." — P$. xcv. 5.

13. The best representation of the earth, as a whole, is an artificial terrestrial globe, which shows on its surface a contour' or outline of the various geographical regions, the continents, the peninsulas, and the islands, in their relative situations. A map of the world displays the hemispheres on a plane surface.

14. If we divide the globe into hemispheres by the meridian of Ferro, — one of the Canary Islands, — we shall perceive that land predommates in the eastern hemisphere, and water in the western. Li the hemispheres divided by the equator, the land is more extensive in the northern than in the southern.

15. Another division of the globe into hemispheres, bytaking London, in England, as the centre of the northern one, and Antip'odes Islands, south-east of New Zealand, as the centre of the southern, will exhibit the most extensive important masses of land in the former, which may be called the land hemisphere, and in the latter the greatest collections of water, which is the water hemisphere.

16. Hence we find that the land and water on the surface of the globe are very unequally distributed, the water occupying nearly three fourths of the whole.

17. The dry land appears in various detached portions in the midst of the oceans, and may be considered in two classes — Continents and Islands.

18. A Continent is a portion of the earth's broken crust, which has been elevated from the bottom of the ocean to a certain height above its surface, presenting to view a large

13. Best representation of the earth. — 14. Comparison of the eastern and western hemispheres. Of the northern and southern hemispheres. — 15. Of the land and water hemispheres. — 16. Distribution of land and water. — • 17. Two classes of lands. — 18. Continent defined. IleUef. Contour. Relabody of irregular shape, limited in its outline by the sea. This elevation of the land above the level of the sea is called the relief, and the shape of its horizontal outline is the contour'. A few feet, more or less, of elevation above the level of the sea, would entirely change the outline. The physical position of a place, or its elevation in the atmosphere above the level of *the sea, is an element of as much importance in regard to its climate, vegetation, and other circumstances, as its geographical position with regard to the equator.

19. The Eastern HemisphepoE, or Old World, comprises four continents, viz., Asia, Europe, and Africa, which, being connected together, are commonly spoken of as the Great Eastern Continent ; and Australia, which lies detached.