Ethics: an investigation of the facts and laws of the moral life

Front matter

I 1 H I90e

Date

■-=a>iiill ■■i»

Chapter I. Page

The Beginnings of Ancient Ethics ... 3

(a) Pre-Socratic Ethics

(J)) Socrates and the Socratic Schools

{a) Platonic Ethics

{p) The Aristotelian Ethics .

The Stoics and Epicureans

(a) Stoic Ethics

(b) Epicurean Ethics

Transition to Christian Ethics .

Chapter II. Christian Ethics

1. The General Basis of Christian Ethics . . • • 33

2. The System of Augustine, and the Pelagian Controversy . 38

4. The Fall of Scholasticism and the Ethics of the Reformation . 48

Chapter III

{a) Bacon and Hobbes . . • • • 53 ifi) John Locke and the Intellectualism of the Cambridge

School . . . ■ ■ • 59 (f) Shaftesbury and the English Ethics of the Understanding . . . ... 67 vni

Contents

PAGE

(rf) David Hume and the Scotch Ethics of Feeling . . 73

(e) The Ethics of French Materialism . . . 84 The Metaphysical Ethics of the seventeenth and eighteenth

centuries . . • ... 87

(a) Descartes and Cartesianism . . . 87

{d) Wolff and the German Enlightenment . . . 104

The Ethics of Kant and of Speculative Idealism . . . 106

{d) Intermediary Tendencies between Universalism and Individualism . . . . . . 127

(a) Herbart's Practical Philosophy . . . . 135 (p) German Naturalism and Materialism , . -139

(f ) Utilitarianism and Positivism in England and France . 142 id) Utilitarian Ethics as Influenced by the Theory of

Evolution . . . ... 153

Chapter IV. General Criticism Of Ethical Systems

1. Classification of Ethical Systems

(a) General Standpoints for such a Classification

(b) Classification according to motives {c) Classification according to ends

2. Authoritative Ethical Systems

3. Eudaemonistic Systems

{a) Egoistic Utilitarianism (b) Altruistic Utilitarianism

4. Evolutionary Ethical Systems

(a) Individual Evolutionism {b) Universal Evolutionism

Index of Names

Vol. II.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL THEORIES OF THE UNIVERSE.

II. 270-1

T

Chapter I. Ancient Ethics

I. THE BEGINNINGS OF ANCIENT ETHICS.

(a) Pre-Socratic Ethics.

HE earliest Greek speculation was for the most part cosnwjogical. Hence it took little interest in ethical questions. The sayings ascribed to the mythical or semimythical Seven Sages are crystallisations of popular morality, which cannot be treated as the beginnings of a science. The •earliest philosophical schools, however, joined to their philosophical endeavours efforts, primarily reformatory, against the popular religion. The Eleatics, especially, in that opposition to polytheism and the humanising of the naturegods, which was begun by their founder Xenophanes, cleared the way at least for later ethical speculations. The same thing is true of the religio-philosophical sect of the Pythagoreans, although, in spite of the great stress they laid upon certain external requirements of conduct, they can scarcely be said to have reached the stage of reflection on the subject of morals.^ Nor do we find in Heraclitus and Democritus the Atomist anything but isolated ethical maxims.^ Never-

* ZiEGLBR, Die Ethik der Griechen und RSmer, i. pp. 27 fF. , is, however, of A different opinion on this point. But the arguments which he adduces seem to me to prove only that ethical influences were present in the cosmological speculations of the Pythagoreans.

' (^ on these M. Heinze, Der Euddmonismus in der griechischen Philosophie. Abh, d. sacks. Ges, d. Wiss.,phil. hist. CI., viii. pp. 694 ff.

theless, in the facts that Heraclitus regarded trust in the divine world-order as the source of all human satisfaction, while Democritus, on the other hand, declared cheerfulness and tranquility of temperament to be true happiness, we can see the first flashes of the storm between opposite tendencies which were later to come into conflict.

It is, then, characteristic of the development of ethics that it did not, like other sciences, especially natural philosophy, . begin with positive dogmas ; but that the first steps it made I consisted in denial, in the destruction of existing conceptions of morality. Preceding philosophers had shaken faith in the popular religion : the Sophists began to call into question the moral ideas associated therewith. The Sophists, as we know, gave perhaps less umbrage to their own time by what they taught, than by the way they taught it They were the first to treat learning as a mercenary career, — an attitude which was an offence against current morality. But the fact that they occupied this attitude, to which we moderns make no objection, is significant also as regards the contents of their teaching. They acknowledged no universally valid norm of human conduct, but assumed that its motives were wholly / subjective and hence changing, just as human knowledge was subjective and variable. In spite of this sceptical position, the Sophists show a congruity between their theoretical and practical teachings hardly attained by the earlier philosophers. If there is no universally valid knowledge, then there are na universally valid moral principles. Man, the individual man with his personal opinions and wishes, is in the one case as in the other the measure of things. Really, however, the lack of a moral principle in this system of ethics is only apparent. Though all universally valid principles are abolished, there remains egmsm, which the Sophists exhibited in their own mode of life, inasmuch as they applied their knowledge and rhetorical skill to the furtherance of their own interests.

272] The Beginnings of Ancient Ethics 5

evading as far as possible the demands which society and the state make upon the individual. They taught subjectivism, riot only because they believed it, but because it was useful *' to them. It was probably this fact rather than their opposition to the old worn-out cosmological speculations, which rendered their doctrine questionable and hurtful to public morals.

{U) Socrates and the Socratic Schools.

Thus we see that even the man whom Aristotle called the founder of scientific ethics, even Socrates, stands so far as his relation to preceding philosophical thought is concerned, throughout upon common ground with the Sophists. For him also man, the individual, is the only object deserving a deeper interest What distinguishes him from his predecessors and contemporaries is his estimation of the motive of human action, in that he regards all those springs of action which are directed towards the satisfaction of a transitory pleasure or a transitory need as worthless, or at least as subordinate ; while he maintains that only those of such a nature as to call forth a lasting yet intense feeling of pleasure-^ are the motives really worthy of man. Duration and intensity, though formal criteria only, are traits easily recognisable in the investigation of the internal properties of the Good. Yet we are forced to conclude from the accounts of his teaching in Xenophon and Plato that Socrates did not succeed in reaching a concept of virtue accurately defined as to its contents. This failure is easy to understand, not only because intensity and duration are merely relative marks, but because the whole kind and manner of the Socratic investiga-r tion bore an inductive character, in accordance with which it\ sought rather to exhibit the good in special instances, than to include it in a definite general concept. Hence the fact that in these discussions not only do the good, the useful and the pleasurable seem to coincide, but certain relatively lower kinds of usefulness are assigned an ethical value.^ Socrates' whole view of life, however, would be wrongly judged, if one were to construe it in accordance with such single expressions.

It was true of him, if of anyone, that the man was greater than his doctrine ; and the latter approaches more closely to the likeness of the man if we take it in its entirety. In the requirement of duration we have an important advance beyond the Sophistic scepticism, which had especially emphasised the subjective and variable character of morals. If in the choice of motives the preference is no longer granted to that motive which seems natural or pleasant at the moment, but to that only which assures a lasting satisfaction, then the choice is made ipso facto in behalf of rational deliberation. It is only rational deliberation that can distinguish between transitory and permanent goods. Thus from this postulate there follows immediately the Socratic law that virtue is knowledge : a law which carries with it the warning to decide according to motives of permanent, not of transitory value. But that which is permanently valuable, as it is fixed for the individual consciousness, cannot be variable from subject to subject, either : it must possess an universal value. In this sense there follows from the law that virtue is knowledge the second law that virtue may be taught. Only a knowledge which has its firm basis in general principles of human nature can be communicated by one person to another. For this reason the Sophist Gorgias was consistent with his own standpoint, when he assumed that even if knowledge existed it could not be communicated : an assumption which is the extreme opposite of the Socratic law that virtue may be taught.

But a further conclusion is furnished us by the thought of

^ Many of the expressions in Xenophon's Mem. are especially important in this connection.

273-4] "^^ Beginnings of Ancient Ethics 7

the universal character of the concept of virtue. If what is good and useful to one is so to others, then it cannot and ought not to happen that the interests of different individuals should come into irreconcilable conflict. Where such a conflict is threatened, a solution must be found in a rational balancing of all the real interests involved. It must be confessed that this inference from Socrates is scarcely expressed in his teachings. His attention was so much directed towards the conduct of the individual life that he did not give their proper rights to claims which transcended that life. On the occasions when, as Xenophon tells us, he declared that man to be most praiseworthy who anticipated his enemies in maleficence and his friends in beneficence,^ his standpoint, that of individual utility, seems to have varied but little from the current popular morality. Of course, however, we must not forget that such isolated expressions are influenced by the circumstances in which they were uttered, and that for this reason they cannot always claim unconditional validity. What is more significant for the character and tendency of the Socratic doctrine is his reference to the two sources of moral requirements, the written law of the State and the unwritten law of the gods.^ Here he is the philosophic interpreter of a separation which had taken place in the moral consciousness of his time ; the separation between the inner moral requirement and the external legal order. In 1 <-• obedience to both of these Socrates saw the mark of the '~"^ upright man. This principle of obedience, however, lifts him above the standpoint of egoistic utility, which is apparent in so many single utterances ; and here is the very point where his own example transcends the contents of his doctrine, or at least makes the latter seem like merely an imperfect expression of his moral disposition. Socrates found his chosen life-work in teaching his fellow-citizens. ' Xen. Mem. il 3, 14. ' Xen. Mini. ix. 4, 12-25.

8 Ancient Ethics [274-S

To help others according to their capacity, to attain that power of ethical introspection which had become a necessity to him, — this was what he recognised as his highest moral duty, which he could not forsake without depriving his life of its meaning. None the less, however, was he penetrated with the conviction, which he repeatedly expressed to his pupils, that obedience to the laws of the State is the duty of everyone. The conflict between the general duty of civic obedience and that individual duty of fidelity to the inner call, which he felt as a religious and moral requirement, he knew no other way of meeting than by voluntary submission to the death sentence of his judges, though it would have been easy for him to avoid death by flight from prison or by forsaking his mode of teaching. It has been justly said in this connection that Socrates suffered death because life without that chosen calling seemed to him no longer worth living, and that thus his death was only an affirmation of the very eudsemonism which he proclaimed in his doctrine. As a matter of fact, we cannot speak in his case of a categorical imperative of duty, whose merit, as with Kant, consists in the fulfilment of duty without inclination. We have to do here with a need of happiness, which coincides ' with duty, because only the fulfilment of duty brings happiness and is worth striving for. The Socratic ethics was too much the outcome of its founder's life to regard the life according to duty and the happy life (SiKalwg ^v and e3 ^ijv) as in general distinct. But the realisation of such an unity in one's own life is one thing; the doctrinal expression of it another. While we not infrequently find the former falling below the latter, the greatness of Socrates consists in the fact that his doctrine is only an imperfect approximation to the moral fact of his life. If this fact were taken away, what would the Socratic ethics be to us to-day? Assume that he had escaped from prison as his disciples

275-6] The Beginnings of Ancient Ethics 9

wished, we might perhaps regard his sayings as an attempt, well-meant but imperfectly executed, at a positive reform against the destructive efforts of the Sophists, but the man himself would no longer be for us the creator of ethics. That he is this is due not to his doctrine, but to_hisJife ; above all, to the influence which his life had upon that greatest philosophical moralist of the Greeks, who called himself his disciple, — upon Plato.

How readily the single utterances of Socrates lent themselves to different interpretations is most strikingly shown by the Socratic Schools, which all, in spite of their decided contrast to each other, honoured Socrates as their master, and to whose adherents, therefore, we must allow at least the personal conviction that they were his true followers and the heirs of his doctrine. Only two of these schools are important for ethics : that of the Cynics, founded by Antisthenes ; and that of the Cyrenaics, founded by Aristippus. While the Cynics pushed to extremes the Socratic indifference to external sources of happiness, the eudaemonistic side of the Socratic thought was seized upon with equal partiality by the Cyrenaics, and developed into a doctrine of external pleasure. The opposition which we find between the two schools at this point is of great significance, because it takes its origin in the nature of the ethical problems themselves, and hence is constantly recurring under the most diverse forms. More particularly, the Cynics and Cyrenaics are in this respect the immediate forerunners of the Stoics and Epicureans of a later period.

In contrast to these one-sided Socratics, who appealed to isolated sayings and acts, it was Plato who, entering into the spirit of the Socratic thought, brought to consciousness the unspoken word of the Master and expressed the Master's life in his own works.

lo Ancient Ethics [276-7

(a) Platonic Ethics.

Plato's philosophy rests wholly and entirely on an ethical basis. Moreover, his theoretical view of the world is determined by ethical ideas and requirements. Taking his stand on the Socratic law that virtue is knowledge, he makes it his task to give the ethical concept of the Good the central position in an all-embracing theory of the universe. Here, in the first instance, the question arises as to how the Good itself is to be defined ; a question which Socrates had not answered, since he was only concerned with pointing out the Good in single instances. The earliest Platonic dialogues are occupied with this question, and the answers given to it vary within the limits of the national ways of looking at things. Bravery, justice, piety, and above all regulative prudence, which Plato emphasises as the most important / virtues, were held to be such by the Greeks generally. In his conception of the motive for these virtues, also, he hardly differs at first from his prototype, inasmuch as he seeks to show that virtuous action is, in special cases, useful and productive of happiness.^ He betrays his universalism at the outset only in the fact that he does not recognise an internal diversity among the separate virtues, but assumes an unity of the virtues corresponding to the unity of knowledge.^ No one of them can exist without the others, for they are all subordinate to wisdom and may be regarded as its special parts or applications.

Within the range of thought just indicated fall the

dialogues of the first, the Socratic period of the Platonic

philosophy. But in the last of these, especially in the

Crito and the Gorgias, there is already discoverable the germ from which the doctrine of Ideas is developed ; and the ethical motives of this remarkable theory, which forms the centre of Plato's whole later system, are here clearly apparent. When Plato, perhaps influenced more by the Socratic life than by the Socratic doctrine, rises to the principle that it is better to suifer wrong than to do wrong, he can no longer avoid the conviction that the Good and the pleasurable do not necessarily coincide. It would, however, be intolerable to suppose a permanent conflict between pleasure and good. There is thus no way out of the difficulty save by the opposition of permanent to transitory pleasure; and, since the former is unattainable in the life of sense, it must be sought in a supersensuous existence.^ This fundamental ethical thought is combined with the Socratic assumption that virtue and knowledge are one and the same. The Good also, the object of all virtues, is, in its real essence, but one : it is a world-governing power, active in the forms of nature as well as in the thoughts and deeds of men. Thus the Good becomes for Plato the contents of his conception of God. But the attempt to form a scheme of the world on this hypothesis is baffled by the facts of imperfection and wickedness. The sense-world, then, must be only an imperfect copy of an ideal supersensuous world ; and the distinction between concept and sense-presentation seems to confirm this assumption. We have in our concepts the reminiscences of a supersensuous world, a world set free from matter: sense-impressions are only the external occasions for the awakening of such recollections. To every object of thought there corresponds an Idea; the Good, however, is the highest Idea, to which all the others are subordinated. In the world of Ideas perfect harmony rules ; there every Idea is in accordance with the Idea of the Good. In the world of sense, on the other hand, the ' Rep. i. 329 ; v. 476 ff. and espec. ix. and x.

purity of the Ideas is affected by their union with matter ; here, therefore, the individual Ideas may conflict with each other as well as with the Idea of the Good. Thus wickedness and imperfection arise. In a future supersensuous existence they will be overcome; just as in an existence previous to this union with matter they did not exist.

Apparently, the ethical thought upon which this whole system is based is identical with that which lies at the bottom of the religious idea of retribution. A similar likeness may be traced in the inclination to which Plato often yielded, to shroud his philosophical thoughts in mythical form. Among these mythological illustrations there occur phases of the retributive conception which could find no place in the philosophic formulation of the doctrine of Ideas : for instance, the notion of punishment for sin, and a process of purification for the guilty.^ Still more remarkable is another thought, likewise clothed in mythical garb, but truly philosophical at its core, which bears upon the question of the development of moral ideas in the empirical consciousness. The general principle that this consciousness beholds the Ideas under the form of sensuous presentations involves an intrinsic relation between these presentations and the Ideas, especially the chief of them, the Idea of the Good. At the same time, however, the Idea of the Good must not be presented to consciousness in its undisguised aspect, but in a sensuous form, out of which dialectic thought may create a concept adequate to the Idea. Now this sensuous form of the Good is, according \ to Plato, the Beautiful. He thus gives a deeper philosophic meaning to the old Hellenic thought of an inner unity of the KoKov and the ayaQov. In the Phmdrus he connects this thought with the mythological figure of Eros, the god of Love, who takes possession of the lover as a divine 1 Phmdrus, 248ff. Phado, 109-115. Rep. x. 614S.

frenzy, and kindles at the sight of beauty a love which is the longing of the soul after the imperishable prototype of the beautiful. Of all the Ideas, that of beauty is the most radiant, and hence even in its earthly copies is known through the clearest of our senses, the illuminating eye. Thus, at the sight of beauty there is aroused a reminiscence of the ideal world. But behind this reminiscence, which is called forth by the aspect of the beautiful object, there lies a process of development, allied to the development of knowledge from the sensuous perception to the concept. The lowest stage is the love of particular beautiful bodies ; the second, love of the beautiful in all its manifold forms, — a love which still adheres to the sensuous appearance, but seeks therein that which is universal. The third stage is love for beauty of the soul, for moral beauty. This, too, is at first fixed upon the individual, the single moral personality ; but in the fourth and highest stage it rises to the contemplation of that universal Being which is the contents of knowliedge, and as such the most perfect copy of the world of Ideas. Yet, even sensuous love bears in itself the germ of this final form. For the love of one friend for another, first kindled merely by physical beauty, gradually rises to spiritual love, and since this is occupied in a common striving for knowledge, it finally becomes the source of love for the Idea of the Good and Beautiful itself, which thus appears as the true object, though but obscurely recognised at first, of the lower forms of love.^

This whole discussion, which we have here clothed as far as possible in its mythical form, is the first attempt to fin(^ an inner relation between the ethical and the cesthetic. For Plato's own ethics this combination had important consequences. Through its means the system was preserved from 1 Phadrus, 237-257.

a danger which threatened it by reason of its antithesis between the perfection of the world of Ideas and the imperfection of sensuous existence, burdened with matter. This danger lay in the tendency to asceticism and avoidance of the world which seems to be the almost inevitable consequence of such a view. That even Plato did not quite escape it is strikingly shown in the Phcedo, the dialogue which bears the powerful impress of Socrates' dying hour. Here it is said that the soul, since it will some day return to its supersensuous home, ought to approximate as far as possible to a separation from the body even while on earth, by abjuring sense-pleasure and withdrawing into itself.^ The fact that this tendency failed to obtain permanent sway is perhaps due chiefly to a lively feeling for the ethical power of the beautiful, and to the conviction that the Idea of the Beautiful cannot do without the sensuous form for its realisation. Plato's moral conception of life in his riper years, as it is represented especially in his greatest ethical work, the Republic, has felt the tempering influence of this conviction.

It is true that even here the fundamental thought of the doctrine of Ideas is still predominant, — the thought that the world of sense has its permanent background in a supersensuous, purely spiritual existence, of which the soul bears in itself an obscure reminiscence, and towards which it strives to return as to its home. But the sense-world is at the same time a copy of the ideal world, and it is so more and more as moral action guided by wisdom succeeds in actualising the Idea of the Good — the supreme Idea. In so far as man accomplishes such a realisation, thus far his activity approaches that of the Creator, who. Himself one with the Idea of the Good, has produced nature in its various forms by allowing the Ideas to have part in it : a thought which Plato

28o-i] Plato and Aristotle 1 5

expresses in mythical form in his work on natural philosophy, the TimcBus. But just as here the supreme Idea of the Good cannot realise itself in a single natural form, but only in the coherence of the world as a whole, so we find that man in the more limited sphere of his moral action is capable of producing the Good not as an individual, but only as a totality, in the State. In proportion as a given State can attain this end, it possesses moral value. From this point of view Plato describes in his Republic an ideal of the State, setting forth such civic regulations as in his opinion are most perfectly suited to the end in question. And here the creation of the world, especially the creation of man, furnishes him with a prototype for the creation of the State, to be brought about through man. Just as the human soul is divided into three parts — knowing, feeling, and desiring — of which the first ought to have authority over the other two, so the State is to be divided into three classes corresponding to the parts of the soul ; the class of the rulers, to which as endowed with the rational principle there is assigned the exercise of justice, the guardianship of the State laws, and the education of youth ; the class of the warriors, whose office is to ensure the safety of the State from external attacks ; and lastly the class of the farmers and craftsmen, upon whom fall the lower occupations, indispensable indeed for the necessities of life, but ethically valueless in the opinion of the aristocratic philosopher. To these three ranks there correspond three principal virtues, each the function also of one of the three parts of the soul : ■wisdom, the virtue of reason ; valour, the virtue of the spirited part of the soul, the dvfios; moderation, the virtue of the appetitive part of the soul, the eiriOv/xla. These virtues, however, are not to be thought of as absolutely separate, any more than the corresponding parts of the soul. It would, indeed, be impossible to require the higher virtues of the lower ranks ; but each of the lower virtues must be demanded of the rulers. Thus from the union of these three virtues in their just proportions there arises the iovx^, justice. This is the virtue upon whose exercise the preservation of national order is wholly dependent ; for through it the separate parts of the State, each in its own sphere and in accordance with its peculiar virtue, combine into a harmonious whole.^

The most noteworthy feature of this system of ethics is its subordination of the individual moral end to the universal, political end. True, Plato does treat the State as the means which, especially in education, enables the individual to attain virtue ; yet the State itself transcends in importance this purely individual function, since perfect harmony of the virtues can be reached in it alone, and never by the individual. This strong drift of his ethics in the direction of politics necessarily conflicts to a certain extent with his earlier expositions, in which the Socratic individualism prevails. In fact, we find the philosopher abandoning the doctrine of the unity of the virtues, of which he had previously made so much. Since the individual is little more than a tributary part of the whole, he need cultivate only a single virtue, that one which corresponds to his station in life. ' The thought of unity here appears only in the requirement that the leaders of the State, the philosophers, shall combine in themselves all the virtues. Instead of the identity of the virtues previously assumed, we have the government of the lower virtues by the highest, wisdom ; and the resulting combination of all into the single harmonising virtue, justice.

While such a division and separation of the virtues betrays an eifort to do justice to the complexity of the phenomena of moral life, in his latest writings Plato has given us the practical sequel to this effort. In so doing he has, it is true, departed

* Rep. iv.-vi.

from the ideal standpoint maintained in the Republic; but by that very fact he has come nearer to the requirements of life and reality. Thus in the Laws he opposes to the four divine virtues of wisdom, courage, moderation and justice the [ .four human virtues of health, beauty, physical strength and riches. Together with this higher estimate of external goods, the philosopher puts the cardinal virtues more on an equality with each other than he did in the Republic, and brings the significance of the practical virtues more into the foreground. Wisdom formerly appeared as the root of moral action ; now it is moderation that is chiefly prized. This change had a profound influence upon his political views. The necessity of class divisions, the rulership of the philosophers, are less emphasised. At the same time we find other and purely humanistic requirements, such as the purity of marriage and the kind treatment of slaves, more strongly insisted upon. Here Plato's views already approach in many particulars those of his great successor Aristotle, vAxo, in complete opposition to the idealistic and transcendental system set forth in the Republic, endeavours to establish his ethics throughout , on the basis of actual life.