A history of modern Europe

Preface

In writing this volume I have not had the advantage of consulting the English Foreign Office Records for a later period than the end of 1815. A rule not found necessary at Berlin and some other foreign capitals still closes to historical inquirers the English documents of the last seventy years. Restrictions are no doubt necessary in the case of transactions of recent date, but the period of seventy years is surely unnecessarily long. Public interests could not be prejudicedj nor could individuals be even remotely affected, by the freest examination of the papers of 1820 or 1830.

The London documents of 1814 — 1815 are of various degrees of interest and importance. Those relating to the Congress of Vienna are somewhat disappointing. Taken all together they add less to our knowledge on the one or two points still requiring elucidation than the recently-published correspondence of Talleyrand with Louis XVIII. The despatches from Italy are on the other hand of great value, proving, what I believe was not established before, that the Secret Treaty of 1815, whereby Austria gained a legal right to prevent any departure from absolute Government at Naples, was communicated to the British Ministry and received its sanction. This sanction explains the obscure and embarrassed language of Castlereagh in 1820, which in its turn gave rise to the belief in Italy that England was more deeply committed to Austria than it actually was, and probably occasioned the forgery of the pretended Treaty of July 27, 1813, exposed in vol. i. of this work, p. 534, 2nd American edition. The papers from France and Spain are also interesting, though not establishing any new conclusioDs.

v« PREFACE.

While regretting that I have not been able to use the London Archives later than 1815, I believe that it is nevertheless possible, without recourse to unpublished papers, to write the history of the succeeding thirty years with substantial correctness. There exist in a published form, apart from documents printed officially, masses of first-hand material of undoubtedly authentic character, such as the great English collection known by the somewhat misleading name of Wellington Despatches, New Series ; or again, the collection printed as an appendix to Prokesch von Osten's History of the Greek Rebellion, or the many volumes of Gentz' Correspondence belonging to the period about 1820, when Gentz was really at the centre of affairs. The Metternich papers, interesting as far as they go, are a mere selection. The omissions are glaring, and scarcely accidental. Many minor collections bearing on particular events might be named, such as those in Guizof s Memoires. Frequent references will show my obligation to the German series of historical works constituting the Leipzig Staatengeschichte, as well as to French authors" who, like Viel-Castel, have worked with original sources of information before them. There exist in English literature singularly few works on this period of Continental history.

A greater publicity was introduced into political affairs on the Continent by the establishment of Parliamentary Government in France in 1815, and even by the attempts made to introduce it in other States. In England we have always had freedom of discussion, but the amount of information made public by the executive in recent times has been enormously greater than it was at the end of the last century. The only documents published at the outbreak of the war of 1793 were, so far as I can ascertain, the well-known letters of Chauvelin and Lord Grenville. During the twenty years' struggle with France next to nothing was known of the diplomatic

PBEFAGE. TO

transactions between England and the Continental Powers. But from the time of the Reform Bill onwards the amount of information given to the public has been constantly increasing, and the reader of Parliamentary Papers in our own day is likely to complain of diffusiveness rather than of reticence. Nevertheless the perusal of published papers can never be quite the same thing as an examination of the originals ; and the writer who first has access to the English archives after 1815 will have an advantage over those who have gone before him.

The completion of this volume has been delayed by almost every circumstance adverse to historical study and production, including a severe Parliamentary contest. I trust, however, that no trace of partizanship or unrest appears in the work, which I have valued for the sake of the mental discipline which it demanded. With quieter times the third volume will, I trust, advance more rapidly.

London, October, 1886.

X CONTENTS.

FAGB

opposed by the partisans of autocracy and privilege — Schmalz Pamphlet-Belay of Constitutional Efiform in Germany at large— The Warthurg Festival— Progress of Eeaction- The Czar now inclines to repression — Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle — Evacuation of France — Growing influence of Mettemich in Europe— His action on Prussia —Murder cf Kotzehue— The Carlsbad Conference and measures of repression in Germany— Eichelieu and Decazes— Murder of the Duke of Berry— Progress of the reaction in France— General causes of the victory of reaction in Europe ' °

CEAPTBE III.

THE MEDITEBBANEAN MOVEMENTS OF 1820.

Movements in the Mediterranean States beginning in 1820^Spaia from 1814 to 1820 — The South American Colonies — The Army at Cadiz : Action of Quiroga and Riego — Movement at Corunna — Ferdinand accepts the Constitution of 1812- Naples from 1815 to 1820- The Court-party, the Muratists, the Carbonari — The Spanish Constitution proclaimed at Naples — Constitutional movement in Portugal — • Alexander's proposal with regard to Spain — The Conference and Declaration of Troppau — Protest of England — Conference of Laihach — • The Austriiins invade Naples and restore absolute Monarchy — Insurrection in Piedmont, which fails — Spain from 1820 to 1822 — Death of Castlereagh — The Congress of Verona — Policy of England — The French invade Spain — Eestoration of absolute Monarchy, and violence of the reaction — England prohibits the conquest of the Spanish Colonies by France, and subsequently recognises their independence — Aiiairs in Portugal — Canning sends troops to Lisbon — The Policy of Canning — Estimate of his. place in the history of Europe 166

CHAPTER IV.

GREECE AND EASTERN AEPAIES.'l

Condition of Greece : its Eaces and Institutions — ^The Greek Church — Communal System — The .SgEean Islands — The Phanariots — Greek intellectual revival: Koraes — Beginning of Greek National Movement ; Contact of Greece with the French Eevolution and Napoleon — The Hetseria Philike — Hypsilanti's Attempt in the Danubian Provinces : its failure — Eevolt of the Morea : Massacres : Execution of Gregorius, and Terrorism at Constantinople — Attitude of Russia, Austria, and England — Extension of the Revolt: Affairs at Hydra — The Greek Leaders — Fall of Tripolitza — The Massacre of Chios — Failure of the Turks in the Campaign of 1822 — Dissensions of the Greeks — Mahmud calls upon Mehemet Ali for Aid — Ibrahim conquers Crete and invades the Morea — Siege of ilissolonghi — Philhellenism in Europe — Russian proposal for Intervention — Conspiracies in Russia : Death of Alexander : Accession of Nicholas — Military Insurrection at St. Petersburg — Anglo-Russian Protocol — Treaty between England,

CONTENTS. xi

PAGB

Russia, and Prance — Death of Canning — Navarino — War between Eussia and Turkey — Campaigns of 1828 and 1829 — Treaty of Adrianople — Capodistrias President of Greece — Leopold accepts and then declines the Greek Grown — Murder of Capodistrias — Otho, King of Greece 237

CHAPTER V.

THE MOVEMENTS OT 1830.

France before 1830 — Reign of Charles X. — Ministry of Martignac — Ministry of Polignao — The Duke of Orleans — War in Algiers — The July Ordinances — Revolution of July — Louis Philippe King — Nature and effects of the July Revolution — Affairs in Belgium — The Belgian Revolution — The Great Powers — Intervention, and establishment of the Kingdom of Belgium — Affairs of Poland — Insurrection at Warsaw — ^War between Russia and Poland — Overthrow of the Poles : End of the Polish Constitution — Affairs of Italy — Insurrectiun in the Papal States — France and Austria — -Austrian Intervention — Ancona occupied by the French — Affairs of Germany — Prussia ; the ZoUverein — Brunswick, Hanover, Saxony — The Palatinate — Reaction in Germany — The exUes in Switzerland ; Incursion into Savoy — Dispersion of the Exiles — France under Louis Philippe : Successive risings — Period of Parliamentary activity — England after 1830 : The Reform Bill . . 356

CHAPTER VL

SPANISH AND EASTERN AFEAIES.

France and England after 1830 — Affairs of Portugal — Don Miguel — Don Pedro invades Portugal — Ferdinand of Spain — The Pragmatic Sanction — Death of Ferdinand: Regency of Christina — The Constitution- Quadruple AUiauce — Miguel and Carlos expelled from Portugal — Carlos enters Spain — -The Basque Provinces — Carlist War : Zumalacarregui — The Spanish Govenmient seeks French assistance, which is refused — Constitution of 1837 — End of the War — Regency of Espartero — Isabella Queen — Affairs of the Ottoman Empire — Ibrahim invades Syria ; his victories — Rivalry of France and Russia at Constantinople — Peace of Kutaya and Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi — Effect of this Treaty — France and Mehemet Ali — Commerce of the Levant — ^Second War between Mehemet and the Porte — Ottoman disasters — The Policy of the Great Powers — Quadruple Treaty without France — Ibrahim expelled from Syria — Final Settlement — Turkey after 1840 — Attempted reforms of Eeschid Pasha ' . . . 422

CHAPTER VIL

ETTEOPE BEFORE 1848.

Europe during the Thirty-years' Peace — Italy and Austria — Mazzini — The House of Savoy — Gioberti — ^Election of Pius IX. — Reforms expected —

»i CONTENTS.

Revolution at Palermo— Agitation in Northern Italy — Lomtardy — State of the Austrian Empire — Growth of Hungarian national spirit — The Magyars and Slays— Transylvania — Parties among the Magyars — Kossuth — The Slavic national movements in Austria — The government enters on reforms in Hungary — Policy of the Opposition — The Rural system of Austria — Insurrection in Galicia : the nobles and the peasants — Agrarian edict — Public opinion in Vienna — Prussia — Accession and character of King Frederick William IV. — Convocation of the United Diet — Its debates and dissolution — France — The Spanish Marriages — Reform movement — Socialism — Revolution of February — End of the Orleanist Monarchy 465

Modern Eueope.