A History of Modern Europe ... With maps

Preface

. In writing this volume I have not had the advantage of con sulting the English Foreign Office Records for a later period than the end of 1815. A rule not found necessary at Berlin and some other foreign capitals still closes to historical inquirers the English documents of the last seventy years. Restrictions are no doubt necessary in the case of transactions of recent date, but the period of seventy years is surely unnecessarily long. Public interests could not be prejudiced, nor could individuals be even remotely affected, by the freest examination of the papers of 1820 or 1830. /,' ' A-A*^ The London documents' of 1814 — 1815 are of various degrees of interest and imjjortance.^ -Those relating to the Congress of Vienna are somewhat disappointing. Taken all together they add less to our knowledge on the one or two points still requiring elucidation than the recently -published correspondence of Talley rand with Louis XVIII.

The despatches from Italy are on the other hand of great value, proving, what I believe was not established before, that the Secret Treaty of 1815, whereby Austria gained a legal right to prevent any departure from absolute Government at Naples, was communicated to the British Ministry and received its sanction. This sanction ex plains the obscure and embarrassed language of Castlereagh in 1820, which in its turn gave rise to the belief in Italy that Eno-land was more deeply committed to Austria than it actually was, and probably occasioned the forgery of the pretended Treaty of July 27, 1813, exposed in vol. i. of this work, p. 538, 2nd edit. The papers from France and Spain are also interesting, though not establishing any new conclusions.

PREFACE.

. VI While regretting: that I have not been able to use the London Archives later than 1815, I believe that it is nevertheless pos sible, without recourse to unpublished papers, to write the history of the succeeding thirty years with substantial correct ness. There exist in a published form, apart from documents printed officially, masses of first-hand material of undoubtedly authentic character, such as the great English collection known bv the somewhat misleading name of Wellington Despatches, New Series ; or again, the collection printed as an appendix to Prokesch von Osten's History of the Greek Rebellion, or the many volumes of GentzJ Correspondence belonging to the period about 1820, when Gentz was really at the centre of affairs. The Metternich papers, interesting as far as they go, are a mere selection.

The omissions are glaring, and scarcely accidental. Many minor collections bearing on particular events might be named, such as those in Guizofs Memoires. Frequent references will show my obligation to the German series of his torical works constituting the Leipzig Staatengeschichte, as well as to French authors who, like Viel-Castel, have worked with original sources of information before them. There exist in English literature singularly few works on this period of Continental history. A greater publicity was introduced into political affairs on the Continent by the establishment of Parliamentary Govern ment in France in 1815, and even by the attempts made to introduce it in other States. In England we have always had freedom of discussion, but the amount of information made public by the executive in recent times has been enormously greater than it was at the end of the last century.

The only documents published at the outbreak of the war of 1793 were, so far as I can ascertain, the well-known letters of Chauvelin and Lord Grenville. During the twenty years' strugo-lc with France next to nothing was known of the diplomatic

PREFACE.

. VII transactions between England and the Continental Powers. But from the time of the Reform Bill onwards the amount of information given to the public has been constantly increasing, and the reader of Parliamentary Papers in our own day is likely to complain of diffusiveness rather than of reticence. Neverthe less the perusal of published papers can never be quite the same thing as an examination of the originals ; and the writer who first has access to the English archives after 1815 will have an advantage over those who have gone before him. The completion of this volume has been delayed by almost every circumstance adverse to historical study and production, including a severe Parliamentary contest. I trust, however, that no trace of partizanship or unrest appears in the work, which I have valued for the sake of the mental discipline which it demanded. With quieter times the third volume will, I trust, advance more rapidly. London, October, 1886. page 1 CONTENTS.

Chapter I. The Restoration

Tho Restoration of 1814 — Norway — Naples — Westphalia — Spain — The Spanish Constitution overthrown : victory of the clergy — Restoration in France — The Charta— Encroachments of the nohles and clergy — Growing hostility to the Bourbons — Congress of Vienna — Talleyrand and the Four Powers — The Polish question — The Saxon question — Theory of Legitimacy — Secret alliance against Russia and Prussia — Compromise — The Rhenish Provinces — Napoleon leaves Elba and lands in France — His declarations — Napoleon at Grenoble, at Lyons, at Paris — The Congress of Vienna unites Europe against France — Murat's action in Italy — The Acte Additionnel — The Champ de Mai — Napoleon takes up the offensive — Battles of Ligny, Quatre Bras, Waterloo — Affairs at Paris — Napoleon sent to St. Helena — Wellington and Fouche — Arguments on the proposed cession of French territory — Treaty of Holy Alliance — Second Treaty of Paris — Conclusion of the work of the Congress of Vienna — Federation of Germany — Estimate of the Congress of Vienna and of the Treaties of 1815— The Slave Trade

Chapter II. The Progress Op Reaction

Concert of Europe after 1815 — Spirit of the Foreign Policy of Alexander, of Metternich, and of the English Ministry — Metternich's action in Italy, England's in Sicily and Spain — The Reaction in France — Richelieu and the New Chamber — Execution of Ney — Imprisonments and persecutions — Conduct of the Ultra-Royalists in Parliament — Contests on the Electoral Bill and the Budget — The Chamber prorogued — Affair of Grenoble — Dissolution of the Chamber — Electoral Law and Financial Settlement of 1817 — Character of the first years of peace in Europe generally — Promise of a Constitution in Prussia — Hardenberg CONTENTS. X PAGE opposed by the partisans of autocracy and privilege — Schmalz' Pamphlet— Delay of Constitutional Reform in Germany at large— The Wartburg Festival— Progress of Reaction— The Czar now inclines to repression — CongTess of Aix-la-Chapelle — Evacuation of France — Growing influence of Metternich in Europe — His action on Prussia —Murder cf Kotzebue— The Carlsbad Conference and measures of repression in Germany — Richelieu and Decazes — Murder of the Duke of Berry Progress of the reaction in France — General causes of the victory of reaction in Europe 78

Chapter III. The Mediterranean Movements Of

1820. Movements in the Mediterranean States beginning in 1820 — Spain from 1S14 to 1820— The South American Colonies — The Army at Cadiz: Action of Quiroga and Riego — Movement at Corunna — Ferdinand accepts the Constitution of 1812— Naples from 1815 to 1820— The Court-party, the Muratists, the Carbonari — The Spanish Constitution proclaimed at Naples — Constitutional movement in Portugal — Alexander's proposal with regard to Spain — The Conference and Declaration of Troppau — Protest of England — Conference of Laibaeh — The Austrians invade Naples and restore absolute Monarchy — Insurrection in Piedmont, which fails — Spain from 1820 to 1822 — Death of Castlereagh — The Congress of Verona — Policy of England — The French invade Spain — Restoration of absolute Monarchy, and violence of the reaction — England prohibits the conquest of the Spanish Colonies by France, and subsequently recognises their independence — Affairs in Portugal— Canning sends troops to Lisbon — The Policy of Canning — Estimate of his place in the history of Europe 166

Chapter IV. Greece And Eastern Affairs

Condition of Greece : its Races and Institutions — The Greek Church — Communal System — The Ægæan Islands — The Phanariots — Greek intellectual revival : Koraes — Beginning of Greek National Movement ; Contact of Greece with the French Revolution and Napoleon The Hetæria Philike — Hypsilanti's Attempt in the Danubian Provinces : its failure — Revolt of the Morea : Massacres : Execution of Gregorius, and Terrorism at Constantinople — Attitude of Russia Austria, and England — Extension of the Revolt : Affairs at Hydra The Greek Leaders — Fall of Tripolitza — The Massacre of Chios Failure of the Turks in the Campaign of 1822 — Dissensions of the Greeks — Mahmud calls upon Mehemet Ali for Aid — Ibrahim conquers Crete and invades the Morea — Siege of Missolonghi — Philhellenism in Europe — Russian proposal for Intervention — Conspiracies in Russia ■ Death of Alexander : Accession of Nicholas — Military Insurrection at St. Petersburg— Anglo-Russian Protocol— Treaty between England, CONTENTS.

PAGE Russia, and France — Death of Canning — Navarino — War between Russia and Turkey— Campaigns of 1828 and 1829— Treaty of Ad rianople — Capodistrias President of Greece — Leopold accepts and then declines tho Greek Crown — Murder of Capodistrias — Otho, King of Greece 237

Chapter V. The Movements Of

1830. France before 1830 — Reign of Charles X. — Ministry of Martignac — Ministry of Polignac — The Duke of Orleans — War in Algiers — The July Ordinances — Revolution of July — Louis Philippe King — Nature and effects of the July Revolution — Affairs in Belgium — The Belgian Revolution — The Great Powers — Intervention, and establishment of the Kingdom of Belgium — Affairs of Poland — Insurrection at Warsaw — War between Russia and Poland — Overthrow of the Poles : End of the Polish Constitution — Affairs of Italy — Insurrection in the Papal States — France and Austria — Austrian Intervention — Ancona occupied by the French — Affairs of Germany — Prussia ; the Zollverein — Brunswick, Hanover, Saxony — The Palatinate — Reaction in Germany — The exiles in Switzerland ; Incursion into Savoy — Dispersion of the Exiles — France under Louis Philippe : Successive risings — Period of Parliamentary activity— England after 1S30 : The Reform Bill .

Chapter VI. Spanish And Eastern Affairs

France and England after 1830 — Affairs of Portugal — Don Miguel — Don Pedro invades Portugal — Ferdinand of Spain — The Pragmatic Sanction — Death of Ferdinand : Regency of Christina — The Constitution — Quadruple Alliance — Miguel and Carlos expelled from Portugal — Carlos enters Spain — The Basque Provinces — Carlist War : Zumalacarregui — The Spanish Government seeks French assistance, which is refused — Constitution of 1837 — End of the War — Regency of Espartero— Isabella Queen — Affairs of the Ottoman Empire — Ibrahim invades Syria ; his victories — Rivalry of France and Russia at Constantinople — Peace of Kutaya and Treaty of Unkiar Skele.si — Effect of this Treaty — France and Mehemet Ali — Commerce of the Levant — Second War between Mehemet and tho Porte — Ottoman disasters — The Policy of the Great Powers — Quadruple Treaty without France— Ibrahim expelled from Syria — Final Settlement — Turkey after 1840 — Attempted reforms of Reschid Pasha 422