The present State of the Turkish Empire, ... translated with notes and observations, on the relations of England with Turkey and Russia; by Lt.-Col. Sir F. Smith

Introduction

. The revolution of 1830 having compelled Mar shal Marmont to expatriate himself, he took up his residence at Vienna, where he remained until 1 834, when, becoming weary of the monotony of an inactive life, he set out on a tour through Hungary, Transylvania, Southern Russia, the Krimea, Tur key and Egypt. Of this tour the Marshal has published a journal, in which he has minutely described every thing that came under his observation. An attentive perusal of this work can hardly fail to suggest the idea, that the principal object of the author, has been to impress his readers with the belief of the declining state of the Turkish Empire. The Marshal's statements on this point are too clear to be misunderstood ; he predicts not only that its fall is inevitable, but that it cannot be long delayed. Any work from the pen of so distinguished a man as Marshal Marmont must ever excite atten tion, but the present one is eminently calculated a

INTRODUCTION.

. to create the deepest interest, and more especially at a period when the eyes of the statesman, the soldier, and the merchant are directed to the East, as the probable theatre of great political events, which cannot fail to have an influence on the well being of every state in Europe. The interference of a neighbouring power in the affairs of Turkey, must naturally be regarded with apprehension by herself, and with jealousy by the rest of Europe. The motives of such interference are open to suspicion, because the strength of this ally would most probably be increased, in proportion as that of Turkey might be diminished. England is, of all powers, the most able to exercise an influence in the regeneration of Turkey, and from her posi tion is perhaps the least likely to have the honesty of her intentions either doubted by the Porte, or impugned by any other nation.

If she will there fore exert her energies in such a cause, Turkey can still be saved from the grasp of Russia, whose future interest, whatever may be her present wishes and professions, will be advanced by destroying the Turkish Empire. Under this impression it is thought that a translation of that part of the Marshal's work, which treats

INTRODUCTION.

. V more particularly of Turkey and her relations with other powers, may be calculated to draw attention to this important subject, and it is therefore offered to the British public, with the addition of such observations as the translator feels called upon to make in opposition to the Marshal's arguments and the theory which he has founded upon them. In the course of his journey the Marshal saw the Austrian frontier regiments, the studs, and some of the principal towns in Hungary and Transylvania. He afterwards crossed the Russian frontier and proceeded to Odessa, where he remained for some days. During his stay in that city, he made excursions in the neighbourhood, and visited the Russian military colonies, of which he gives a most minute and valuable description. From Odessa he went to the Krimea, where, under the guidance of Count Woronzow, he inspected all that was considered most worthy of his notice, and he took leave of that amiable and excellent nobleman at Kosloff, to proceed to Constantinople.

From the period of his arrival at the city of the Sultan, the Marshal's observations will be given in as close a translation of the original, as has been found practicable. But the notice of the former VI

INTRODUCTION.

. part of his work, will be confined to a brief de scription of the more prominent and interesting matter, contained in his relation of the journey from Vienna to the Krimea, to which will be added some information derived from other sources. HUNGARY. Marshal Marmont quitted Vienna on the 22nd April 1834, to proceed on his tour, and on reaching the confines of Hungary, took the road to Buda and Pesth. He passed through Raab and crossed the field of battle where, in 1809, the French army, under the orders of the Viceroy of Italy, defeated the Austrians, commanded by the Archduke John. He visited the establishments of the Hungarian studs, a description of which will be given hereaf ter, and on the 24th of April reached the celebrated fortress of Komorn, situated near the confluence of the Waag and the Danube.

This fortress, when the Turks occupied Hungary, was on their frontier. It has since that period been much strengthened by additional works, and would be found capable of a long resistance if it should ever be attacked. But in the present state ofthe Austrian Empire, and of its relations with the neighbouring powers, such an event is not probable. Komorn has, from the nature of its works, the peculiar property of affording accommodation for HUNGARY. a numerous garrison, while it is capable of being defended by a small number of men. The country between Vienna and Buda is highly cultivated, and the view in approaching the latter city is magnificent. When the Turks occupied Hungary, Buda, its capital, was the head quarters of the Pacha. It was from hence that he proceeded to besiege Vienna, which city, through the courage of the Poles and the genius of Sobieski, has twice been the rampart of Christendom.

On the second occasion the preservation of this city was in some degree owing to the avarice of the Turkish commander, the Grand Vizier Mustapha. For being desirous of saving it from general pil lage, by which he would probably have lost his personal share of booty, he hesitated to carry it by assault, and thus afforded time for Sobieski to form a junction with Prince Charles of Lorraine, and to march to its relief. A battle ensued which ended in the total defeat of the Turks, who fled to the banks of the Raab, a distance of at least thirty leagues. It was on this occasion that Prince Eu»ene first distinguished himself as a soldier. Two years subsequent to the event above HUNGARY. IX alluded to, Buda was also the scene of a signal disaster to the Turks, who were then defeated, with the loss of many thousands of their best troops, by the armies of the Duke of Bavaria and Prince Charles of Lorraine.

In this battle the celebrated Duke of Berwick, who was then only fifteen years of age, commenced the career of a soldier in which he afterwards became so distin guished. Buda, which is on the right side of the Danube, still remains the capital of this division of the country, although Pesth, which stands on the opposite bank of the river, is the chief place for the transaction of commercial affairs. The communication between the two cities, is by a bridge of boats, of about a quarter of a mile in length. The streets of Pesth are spacious and regular, and a great proportion of the houses are handsome and substantially built. This city has various manu factories, and contains a population of about 60,000. The roads in this part of Hungary are in a very bad state, the necessary consequence of the Govern ment having no funds at its disposal for their repair, and of the opposition of the inhabitants to a toll being levied upon them for this purpose.

In a former journey Marshal Marmont saw the X HUNGARY. fortress of Forchenstein, which belongs to Prince Esterhazy. It is situated on a height and contains a numerous artillery, besides arms sufficient for four or five thousand men. There is in this stronghold vast property, consisting of precious stones of immense value. A statute of the house of Esterhazy, compels its chiefs to increase this treasure, and forbids them to apply it to any other purpose than the ransom of an Esterhazy from Turkish slavery. In 1809, when the district of Œdenburg was occupied by the French army, a detachment of its cavalry appeared before Forch enstein and demanded admittance, but the soldiers of Prince Esterhazy refused to open the gates, and thus saved the treasure of their master. After a short sojourn at Pesth, in April 1834, the Marshal continued his route, over those immense Hungarian plains, known by the name of " Puszta."

These plains are not only uncultivated, but even without inhabitants. They are traversed by roads which are not regularly formed, but are merely traced at the convenience or caprice of travellers. The general character of the scenery is here extremely wild, and presents a striking contrast to that between Vienna and Buda. In continuing his journey, the Mar- HUNGARY. XI shal at length arrived at the cultivated districts, but instead of finding the people dispersed, as in other agricultural countries, and inhabiting farm-houses, hamlets and ordinary villages, he describes them as collected together in villages of immense extent, to the number, in some instances, of even forty thousand. In the spring, the whole of the males capable of working leave these villages, and encamp upon the land intended to be cultivated.

Here they remain until it is ploughed and sowed, when they return to their homes, where they continue till the period of harvest. We may trace the origin of this singular custom to the necessity of mutual protection, arising out of the contests between the Christians and the Turks, of which this country was formerly the great theatre. For it was only by collecting them selves together in large bodies that the inhabitants could find security against the predatory excursions of either party. On the 26th April, the Marshal passed through Soroksar, Ocsa, Œrkeny and Kets-Kemet, the only places in which he saw inhabitants in journeying over a space of thirty leagues. At Kets-Kemet he found a population of thirty-eight thousand HUNGARY. souls. Although the country he traversed on this day's journey is of great fertility, yet, from the total want of shelter, the crops are subject to be de stroyed by violent storms with which this district is occasionally visited — an evil which might probably be remedied by enclosing the cultivated land with belts of trees.

On the following day he passed through Tson grad and Szentes, the former inhabited by thirty thousand, and the latter by ten thousand peasants. He halted for the day at Mezo-Hegyes, the Aus trian establishment for improving the breed of horses. An idea may be formed of its magnitude, by merely stating that the land appropriated to it is fifteen leagues in circuit. It is surrounded by a broad and deep ditch, and is sheltered by a wide plantation of trees. When the Austrian cavalry was supplied with horses exclusively from this establishment, there were no less than twenty thousand colts here. But the object of the Go vernment is now merely to breed stallions, both at this place and at Bobolna, for the provincial depots, where a total number is kept up of nearly two thousand. This is effected by means of an annual supply from all the government establishments, HUNGARY.

XIII towards which Mezo-Hegyes contributes two hun dred and fifty. For this purpose one thousand brood mares and forty-eight stallions are kept there. In the operations of husbandry there are em ployed two hundred mares and six hundred oxen, with three hundred and sixty ploughs. When the provincial depots have received their full complement of young horses, the surplus is either sold or sent as remounts to the cavalry. At present the stock of stallions, brood mares and foals at Mezo-Hegyes amounts to three thousand. The whole of this establishment is under the direction of an officer with the rank of Major, who is assisted by two subalterns, and has under his command eleven hundred and seventy men. The advantages of the Austrian system is, that not only a very superior description of horse is obtained for the cavalry, but that the breed is im proved throughout the whole country.

On the 29th April the author continued his route, crossing the Maros at a place called Arad. Here the soil is more fertile, and more highly cultivated. The general aspect of the country also changes, for the immense villages which have been alluded to are no longer met with, but are sue- HUNGARY. ceeded by farm houses and villages of ordinary extent. The population is composed of German colonists, who retain the manners and industrious habits of their nation. The next place of importance he reached was Temesvar, which is a regular fortress, composed of ten bastions, with numerous outworks. It is built on the banks of the Temes, and near the navi gable canal which unites the Maros with the Theiss. Although Temesvar is the central point of defence of the Hungarian frontier, it is unlikely that it will ever be required as a protection to this country, for in the event of a war between Russia and Austria, the contest between these powers would probably take place on the frontiers of Poland and Silesia.

On the 30th, Marshal Marmont proceeded to Karansebes, the head quarters of the frontier regiments of Illyria. In the year 1809, when the Marshal was made Go vernor General of the Illyrian provinces, which had been ceded to the French, the six regiments belong ing to this territory, were under his command. It was by his advice that Napoleon decided on maintaining the system under which they were organized, HUNGARY. XV although urged by other officers to break it up ; and the gallant conduct of these troops during the war justified the favourable opinion which the Marshal had formed of them. The system adverted to and the circumstances which led to its adoption are not unworthy of notice. The long wars between the Hungarians and Turks, having devastated this frontier district and reduced its population to the greatest state of misery, it became necessary to devise some means for ameliorating its condition.

A military organization appearing to be the best arrangement for effecting this object, the whole of the inhabitants were enrolled and formed into companies and regiments, to which certain tracts of country were assigned. In the first instance the quantity of land allotted to each family was in proportion to its numbers, and subsequently a further grant was made to those whose industry or superior system of cultivation entitled them to such a reward. Landed property was on no occasion vested in an individual, but in the entire family, whose chief directed the whole of the operations as in patriar chal times, and kept the accounts, which were audited at certain periods of each year. The net HUNGARY. proceeds of the industry of every family, were then divided among its members, the head receiving two shares.

The Government levied a small tax upon the land, to be applied towards the support of the troops, and defraying the expenses of the civil administration of the district, the deficiency being made up from the general revenue of the kingdom. The amount of the tax was determined not merely in proportion to the extent, but also with reference to the fertility of the land ; and it was op tional with the proprietors, either to pay the impost in money, or in labour on the estates which remained in possession of the Government. The population was expected to guard the frontier at all times, and also to furnish during war the number of troops that might be demanded by the Government. It therefore became necessary to adopt such an organization and system of dis cipline, that notwithstanding the inhabitants were scattered over a great extent of country, a well trained and efficient force might be collected when ever required by the exigencies of the state.

The district assigned to each regiment is accurately marked out, and a record is kept of its FRONTIER REGIMENTS. XVII boundaries in a general register, which is so ar ranged, as to shew on inspection not only the amount due for taxes, from the whole body, but even from the several individuals composing it. Every mem ber of the regiment is furnished with a book, in which an officer of his company inscribes an extract from the general register, shewing the amount of his particular debt. In time of war every regiment is required to send into the field four battalions, of twelve hundred men each, and even during peace two battalions composed of the most disposable men, properly armed and equipped, are always ready to march. The individuals composing these battalions, remain however with their families until they assemble for the purpose of instruction, or are called upon for more active duties.

Each soldier is required to serve in an effective regiment for a period of twelve years, after which he is enrolled in the reserve. The men, from the wool of their flocks, furnish the materials for their uniforms, which are made up in their own families ; credit for the value of these clothes being given to them, as a set off against the tax due for their land. Certain officers are appointed to regulate all the details of these b FRONTIER REGIMENTS. arrangements, and also to direct the agricultural operations. They fix not only the amount of land to be ploughed, of grain to be sown, and of animals to be slaughtered, but also the quantity of corn to be put into store for each family, as a provision against a time of scarcity. The whole of the coun try allotted to the regiments is visited once a fort night by subordinate officers, who report their observations to the Colonel, and this chief makes a general inspection once during the year.

The pecuniary affairs of each regiment are con ducted by a finance committee, composed of three officers, whose accounts are audited at certain periods by a commissary of the brigade to which it belongs. There is in each company a military tribunal, called the Court of Session, instituted for the pur pose of administering justice in minor cases, which is thus obtained promptly and without expence. It is composed of a lieutenant, a serjeant-major, two serjeants, two corporals, and two heads of families, who assemble once a week. The efforts of this tribunal are in the first instance directed to produce a reconciliation between the litigants, and it does not pronounce an award until these attempts FRONTIER REGIMENTS. XIX are proved to be unsuccessful. This award is not valid until confirmed by the captain.

Although the impartiality of the Court of Session is free from suspicion, yet its members may naturally be supposed to be deficient in intelligence, and therefore a higher tribunal has been established to take cognizance of civil matters of a graver or more important character. This higher tribunal is composed of two Officers and an Au ditor. The latter, although of the legal profession, is obliged to bear a military title, and wear a uniform, in order to insure respect in this country, where everything has a military character. The officers sign the minutes of the evidence, and the Auditor gives the award. The offences of cri minals who are not enrolled in the army, are tried by the Court of Session ; but for the trial of those who are enrolled, a military court is convened, composed of the chief of a battalion, an auditor, two captains, two serjeant-majors, two serjeants, two corporals, and two privates.

As an additional protection to the accused, the sentence cannot be carried into effect until it has been approved by the colonel, who is not permitted in any case to sit as president of the court. Such XX HUNGARY. are the principal features of the Frontier Military Force. This extraordinary institution, which is supposed to have been founded by Sigismund, King of Hungary, was improved by Prince Eugene, and perfected by Marshal Lascy. It not only has a tendency to promote the progress of civilization, and to increase the welfare and prosperity of the people, but it enables the Government to draw from them the largest contribution to the exigencies of the state, that their condition admits of. The most extraordi nary part however of this system, is that it insures the defence of a very extensive frontier, at a comparatively small expence.

For it enables the country to furnish seven or eight times the number of sol diers, that any district of the same extent, but under a different management, could supply. This will be better understood when it is stated that the proportion of the population from which each regi ment is raised and recruited, in Austria, is 400,000 individuals, whereas each of these frontier regiments is supplied from a population of only 50,000. At Karansebes, we are reminded of the lament able catastrophe that befel the troops of Austria, near this place, in the latter wars between that power and Turkey. HUNGARY. XXI Joseph the Second afforded on this occasion a remarkable instance of the misfortunes which a monarch may bring upon his people by overrating his qualifications as a military commander ; for though personally brave, he seemed, when the lives of others depended on his decision, to be deficient in that moral courage and presence of mind which are indispensable in a General ; yet he evinced great resolution, as well as indefatigable industry in conducting the civil affairs of the state, and un questionably possessed superior talent.

His political acts have been the subject of much discussion; how far they may be deserving of praise or censure this is not the place to enquire ; but it is impossible to deny that the views of this monarch were directed to promoting the welfare of his country. By moving in advance of public opinion, and by promptly effecting those changes in the national institu tions which the circumstances of the times seemed to demand, he nipped in the bud, so far as his own dominions were concerned, the revolutions that threatened Austria as well as the rest of Europe. In 1789, Joseph, having collected together 80,000 men, for the purpose of attacking the Turks, established his camp near Karansebes. HUNGARY. The Turks were in a position opposite to the Aus trian army and so placed as to cover the province of Walachia.

All was prepared for the attack ; the generals were assembled in the tent of the Emperor to receive their orders, and every thing appeared to promise success to the Austrian army ; but Joseph, feeling a degree of disquietude re specting the result, asked Marshal Lascy if he felt sure of beating the enemy. The Marshal replied, as any sensible man would have done, under simi lar circumstances, that he hoped for victory, but that he could not absolutely guarantee it. Unhap pily this answer so discouraged Joseph, that he immediately abandoned the intention of attacking the Turks, and resolved to retire behind the Temes. The plan of retreat was arranged, and the army was formed in parallel columns ; the infantry be ing placed in the centre, the cavalry on the flanks, and the baggage in the intervals.

The Austrians commenced their march at midnight, but shortly afterwards Marshal Lascy discovering that the order had not been issued for withdrawing the piquets of the left wing, supplied the omission, and suddenly halted the main body to wait for HUNGARY. XXIII these detachments. The word of command to halt was given and repeated in the usual manner ; but being mistaken for the word " allah," which the Turks are in the habit of shouting when about to fall upon their enemies, many of the Austrian troops believed that they were attacked. This was the case with the drivers of the tumbrils, who, seized with panic, put their horses into a trot, in the hope of escaping. The infantry supposing the noise made by these carriages to be caused by the charge of the enemy, commenced firing in all directions.

The havoc they thus created in their own ranks was so great, that no less than 10,000 men are said to have been killed or wounded during the darkness of the night. At day-light the mistake was discovered, and the Austrian army then retreated to the position the Emperor had intended to take up behind the Temes. If, instead of giving way to his alarm, Joseph had attacked the enemy, it is probable that he would have obtained possession of Walachia without losing more than 3000 or 4000 men. As it was, he not only lost 10,000 by the disaster above mentioned, and 20,000 by sickness, which was the consequence of a prolonged occupation of an un- HUNGARY. healthy tract of country, but he raised the courage of the Turks, and thereby deprived his own troops of the confidence they had previously reposed both in him, and in themselves.

From Karansebes, Marshal Marmont proceeded to Orsova, on the banks of the Danube. Although at present a miserable town it is likely to be much extended, as the principal Lazaretto for the puri fication of merchandize and persons coming from the Black Sea has been established here. The navigation of the river, at a short distance below the town, has hitherto been obstructed by a bar, or more properly by rapids. It is now pro posed to overcome the difficulty thus occasioned by the formation of a canal, to be united to the river above, and below the obstruction. The length of this canal would not exceed a thousand yards, and two locks would suffice to make it navigable. The Emperor of Austria is very desirous to carry this project into effect, but as the canal must be formed on the right bank of the river, and within the Turkish territory, it cannot be done without the Sultan's permission, which hitherto it has been found impossible to obtain.

A similar work would be required about ten TRANSYLVANIA. XXV leagues above Orsova. On the completion of both, the Danube would become navigable from Vienna to the sea, which would essentially promote the wealth and prosperity of Hungary. It is calcu lated that the voyage from Vienna to Constanti nople might then be made in twelve days. At present, from a want of the means of export, the produce of this kingdom is of comparatively little value to its owners, but if the navigation of the Danube were rendered certain, this produce would be much enhanced, as it would then be conveyed to France and Italy, at a small expense. The contemplated improvement would even facilitate the communication with India by Trebizond. On one of the islands of the Danube there is a fortress in possession of the Turks, called New Orsova, which, if in good repair and properly gar risoned, would command the navigation of the river.

From Orsova the Marshal proceeded to the baths of Mahedia, which retain the celebrity they acquired in the time of the Romans. They are still considered very efficacious and are much fre quented. He afterwards returned to Karansebes, whence he finally set out on the 4th of May, to continue his journey. TRANSYLVANIA. He passed through the town of Deva, situated in the valley of the Maros. This valley, and indeed the greater part of Transylvania, has an appearance of fertility, but yet it is asserted that even with the most judicious system of culture, it is far from being productive. The Maros, which is the largest river of the principality, passes through a country rich in ores, and, in a remarkable manner, seems to form a line of separation between the several metals. Thus on the right bank there are mines of gold and of silver, and on the left of iron, lead, and copper.

The castle of Deva is beautifully situated, ma jestically towering over the valley, and forming an almost impregnable place of security. The population of the principality of Transyl vania, is composed of a great diversity of people, who are distinct in origin, and speak different lan guages. There are 250,000 Hungarians, 1,000,000 Wa lachians, 500,000 Germans, 150,000 Szeklers, and 120,000 Armenians, making a total of upwards of 2,000,000. The State however only recognizes the distinctions of Hungarians, Szeklers, and Germans. The Hungarians and Szeklers, have at various TRANSYLVANIA. XXVII times conquered this country, but its ancient inha bitants were Walachians, whose descent has been traced to the Roman colonists established here by Trajan. This province has for its defence four frontier regiments of infantry, and a regiment of hussars.

The adjoining Turkish provinces of Walachia and Moldavia being comparatively but little known, it may be well to make some slight mention of them. The population of both these provinces, like that of Transylvania, is of Walachian origin, being descended from the Roman colonists and the ancient occupiers of the land. The only foreigners that have intermixed with them are Hungarians, who inhabit about 60 villages in Moldavia. Bessarabia, which is only separated from Mol davia, by the Pruth, is also inhabited by Wa lachians of Roman origin. It is remarkable that these three provinces, encircled as they are by people of Sclavonian descent, should have so long retained a population which remains distinct in race and insulated from the surrounding multitudes, who durin°* centuries have never ceased to make en croachments on the south of Europe.

The population of Moldavia is about 1,000,000, and that TRANSYLVANIA. XXVIII of Walachia, 2,000,000, amongst which there are said to be no fewer than 100,000 gypsies. Both the principalities of Walachia and Molda via are highly picturesque and beautiful, and are celebrated for the variety of their productions, and for the excellence and number of their cattle, which they export largely. The Moldavian horses, in particular, are considered to be of a very su perior breed. The principal towns of Walachia are Bucharest, Giorgewo, Tergovista, Galaez, and Brahilow. The central and southern parts of this province are less mountainous than the northern, and contain vallies of great fertility, which are however very imperfectly cultivated. This is the natural conse quence of misgovernment, for the inhabitants of a country where property is insecure, are seldom disposed to grow more than their necessities absolutely demand.