History of Gustavus Adolphus

Front matter

GU5TAVUS AD0LPHU5. i-ZpLcr?*z ,*x • z^-^yt~ HISTORY OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS BY JOHN L. STEVENS, LL.D. RECENTLY UNITED STATES MINISTER AT STOCKHOLM LONDON RICHARD BENTLEY AND SON Jpnblisbtts in ©riri-rant to g)er % Qnctn i38S PREFATORY. Among the persons whose genius, heroism, and force of char acter influenced events, and won commanding fame, in the seventeenth century, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden is justly regarded of the first. The War of Thirty Years, a long and terrible struggle between Catholicism and Protestantism, largely influenced by the rivalry and bitter hostility between France and the House of Austria, called out the strong qualities of the Swedish king. The influence of his reign on his own country, and of his career in Germany on the prospects of Protestantism in continental Europe, will always constitute an interesting theme for historical students and readers.

A military man of remarkable powers, his high moral qualities and lofty purposes forbid his standing in the cate gory of the Alexanders, the Marlboroughs, and Napoleons. As fascinating as romance, thrilling with all that is exciting and ter rible in war, his life is perused with interest and profit by those who wish to understand some of the most momentous events which have influenced the history of the modern world. The author has read and carefully considered whatever might throw light on his character and career. To this end he has studied the best Swedish, German, French, and English writers on the subject, and has improved suggestive conversations with Swedish scholars and statesmen ; and this volume is the result. He realizes its imperfection and inadequacy as a full statement of the genius and work of the remarkable personage it attempts to represent.

PREFA TOR Y. IV But the essential facts and import of his history are presented, and to these the critical reader will be able to supply what is wanting in our manner of statement. To better elucidate the life and deeds of the illustrious hero, we have given a brief sketch of earlier Swedish history, of the causes and beginning of the War of Thirty Years, and of some of the chief men with whom his career was identified. We here tender our thanks to those in charge of the Royal Library in Stockholm for the kindness shown in promptly granting our numerous requests while engaged in gathering the data for this volume. CONTENTS.

Chapter X

Revolt in Bohemia. — Frederick of Palatine crowned King. — Ferdinand II. chosen Emperor by the Electors. — The Subjection of Bohemia by Ferdinand and the League. — Mansfeld. — Christian of Brunswick. — Tilly. — Elizabeth of the Palatinate . . .202

CHAPTER XL

Gustavus Adolphjs preceded in Germany by Christian IV. of Denmark. — The Latter defeated, and compelled to make Peace with the Emperor. — Siege of Stralsund — Wallenstein compelled to abandon the Siege. — Discussion of the King of Sweden with Oxenstierna and the Senate on the German Campaign . . . 235

Chapter XII

Gustavus assembles his Army for his German Expedition. — Takes Leave of the Swedish Estates. — Disembarks in Germany. — Advances into Pomerania. — Stettin surrenders. — His Encounter with the Imperialists. — An Attempt to assassinate the King of Sweden 267

Chapter XIII

Tilly chosen by the Emperor to confront the King of Sweden. — Protestant Princes join Gustavus. — Capture of Greiffenhagen, Gartz, Demmin, Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and other Cities .... 287

Chapter XIV

Advance of Gustavus. — Siege and Destruction of Magdeburg by the Imperialists. — The Electors of Brandenburg and Saxony. — Battle of Breitenfeld, and Defeat of Tilly 303

Chapter XV

The Importance of the Victory of Breitenfeld. — Separation of the Swedish and Saxon Armies. — Reasons for not advancing on Vienna. — Marches into Franconia. — Frankfort-on-the-Main surrenders. — Successes on the Rhine. — Negotiations with Bavaria and other Members of the League. — Richelieu. — Conditions of Peace proposed by Gustavus Adolphus CONTENTS. VII

Chapter XVI. Page

Military Operations renewed. — Welcomed by Nuremberg. — Bold Passage of the Lech, and Brilliant Victory over the Imperialists. — Received joyfully by Augsburg, and marches to Ingolstadt. — Advances into Bavaria. — French Minister seeks to serve Maximilian by Negotiations. — Surrender of Munich to the Swedes. — Gustavus forms Closer Union with Nuremberg . . . . 361

Chapter XVII

Restoration of Wallenstein to the Imperial Command. — His Method and Success of raising an Army. — Gustavus Adolphus fails to prevent the Junction of the Armies of Wallenstein and Maximilian. — The Armies of Gustavus and Wallenstein at Nuremberg. — Attempt of the Former to drive the Imperialists from their Position. — Great Loss of both Armies around Nuremberg, and their Retirement from their Fortified Positions . . . 37S

Chapter XVIII

The First Serious Check of Gustavus in Germany. — Marches again into Bavaria, and prepares to carry his Arms into the Hereditary Dominions of Austria. — Returns suddenly Northward to save Saxony from the Army of Wallenstein. — Advances to Naumburg and Weissenfels. — The Battle of Lutzen. — The Swedish Army victorious, but the King is slain. — The Effect of the Death of Gustavus Adolphus. — Concluding Remarks

Chapter I. Sketch Of Swedish History To The Time Of The First

VASA. Before entering on the principal work which the author has undertaken in the writing of this volume, — an historical account of Gustavus Adolphus, — it is fitting to give a brief sketch of Sweden from the earliest times, presenting the more salient and important events and incidents of her history ; and thus we shall be able to gain a better understanding of the national life and force which were behind the great leader who achieved so much for the renown of his people, and left so permanent an impression on the Europe of the seventeenth century. It may be said, in truth, that prior to nearly the close of the tenth century, Swedish annals, as known to us, are very confused, and not much is entirely reliable. Scandi navia, of which Sweden forms so important a part, was almost unknown to the nations of antiquity, if it really was known at all by them.

The ancient Greeks and Romans had very erroneous ideas of the North of Europe, regarding it as made up of snow, ice, mists, and darkness, and believed that somewhere beyond those regions lived the Hyperboreans, — mortals dwelling in perfect peace with their gods, in a rich land, under sunny skies, where grains and fruits ripened without the toil of the husbandman, and plenty and comfort were the common lot of all. There none suffered by sickness and pain ; neither the young nor the old died by disease, but those who became weary of life ended their days by casting themselves from some lofty cliff into the foaming and mysterious depths of the sea. Later it began to be doubted if mortals were really in possession of such charming abodes anywhere on the earth, and the Hyperborean conception began to drop out of belief.

The oldest account of the North which has been preserved to modern history is that given by Pytheas, who lived three hundred and fifty years prior to the Chris tian era. This man was a native of the old Grecian city, now Marseilles in France, who was sent by his govern ment to make inquiries into the situation and condition of those remote lands of the North from which Phœnicians brought valuable articles of commerce. Pytheas must have been a well-instructed man for his time, and of a bold resolution ; for he had to leave the bright skies of Southern Europe, take his perilous chances along the un certain shores of the Atlantic to that distant region which the learned men of his time believed covered with snow and mist. The spirit of commerce is often bolder than science itself ; and, as a citizen of an enterprising and commercial city, he felt the impulse of the atmosphere around him.

The classic authors of Greece and Rome three centuries after him ridiculed his accounts ; but the intrinsic evidence is now in favor of their authenticity in the opinion of modern historians. His voyages carried him to the shores of Britain and Scandinavia. Of his visit to the former country, which he called Albion, nothing is known, except that he travelled over a large part of what is now England and Scotland. He describes a place called Thule, which he regarded an island. From what he says of the great length of the days at midsummer, his description would apply to one of the numerous islands which are situated along the northern coasts of Sweden and Norway, though it might refer to one of the Danish isles. Strabo represents Pytheas as saying, that, in Thule, the nights at midsummer were only two or three hours in length.

The weight of probability is, that it must have been somewhere in Scandinavia; and, for this reason, what is said of Thule and the lands in its vicinity has important value in its bearing on the early history of the Northmen. According to Pytheas, the inhabitants of the country at the south of Thule thrashed their grain in roofed buildings, where it was stowed away under cover, " because the sun did not always shine there, and the rain and the snow often came and spoiled the crops in open air." They had a strong desire to trade with foreigners who came to their coasts, were keen to drive a bargain, and always ready to fight if they thought they had been insulted or ill-used. According to the view of the most careful of the Scandinavian historians, whose investiga tions as to all matters pertaining to their countries and people are elaborate and thorough, it is probable that Thule was a part of Scandinavia inhabitated and cultivated many centuries before the Christian era.

It is certain that the picture which Tacitus traces of it, in the first Christian century, implies a culture more ancient. The states of the Sueones, according to what Tacitus had learnt d, were important by their population, their fleets, and their arms. Their vessels were particularly fitted to the navigation of the coasts and rivers. They attached much value to fortune. The sea which surrounded them guaranteed them from the surprises of their enemies. It is thought that the Goths were the most ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia, occupying the south, and were earlier in Sweden than the Sueones. The Goths and the Sueones long fought each other, but finally fused, and formed the Swedish nation. The little that has come down to us, from the classic authors, of what Pytheas had written of his travels is all that we have of any voyager's report of the North of Europe until the time of Alfred of England.

Twelve hundred years after Pytheas, two travellers from Scandinavia, whose names were Wulfstan and Othere, came to the court of the English king, who always gave a warm welcome to those who would bring him information from foreign lands. Alfred was pleased to listen to their story of what they had seen, and of the country from which they came. From their account of their travels, he wrote a brief history, and made a chart of modern Europe. The description of Scandinavia in this book is valuable. During the twelve centuries from the Marseilles traveller to Alfred of England, nothing was heard in Central and Southern Europe of the lives, customs, and doings of the Scandinavian people in their own homes ; although within that period tribes of half savage, resolute, blue-eyed, tall, strong men from the North poured southward, and became known to the Ro mans as Cimbri, Teutons, Germans, and Goths.

At first the novel and fierce modes of attack used by these men, and their great strength and courage, carried terror and defeat among the trained soldiers of Rome, who knew not how to break through the long wall of shields chained together which those strange and audacious foes brought against them. But in time the superior discipline and arms of the Romans overcame the fierce Northern war riors. Notwithstanding their sanguinary experience and dread of these warlike strangers from the North, the Romans did not take pains to discover the precise part of Europe from which they came. It is said that finally, by chance, some strings of amber beads had been brought to Rome ; and soon these ornaments were so much ad mired that the fashionable ladies of that city thought their dress incomplete unless they had an adequate number to ornament the neck and hair.

Then, as in modern times, fashion was powerful to stimulate commerce. As soon as the amber beads were in demand by the Roman ladies, the agencies of Roman trade were put in motion, and found their way along the great rivers, and through the half-savage and little-known countries of Eastern and Northern Europe, till they reached the shores of those seas where it was believed the precious material so much coveted could be found in abundance. In this way, by degrees, the Romans became better acquainted with the location and nature of the lands from which the Goths and Germans had come. The Northmen themselves aided to dispel the prevailing ignorance in their own regard ; for, in their roamings and voyages, they took with them their bards, who sung of the deeds of their ancestors, and the wonderful manner in which they feasted, fought, and con quered in their far-off homes among the fjords, mountains, and snows of the North.

It is probable, that, in the course of time, these tales of the Gothic bards became known to the people of Southern Europe, and thus the latter came to know more of Scandinavia and its people. According to the records of the Northmen and the evidences of modern research, the Scandinavians were a Gothic or German race. Like all the nations who now people Europe, they came originally from Asia, and belong to the Aryan race. Leaving their home in the East, they made their way westward, till they turned aside to follow the route which each tribe selected for itself. The special German nation to which the Scandinavians belong was early known as the Goths. These people had pushed them selves, from their old Eastern homes, westward and northward, until they arrived on the shores of the Baltic and the German seas, where they took possession of the islands and coast-lands, driving out or enslaving the older tribes, which, long before, had come from the regions beyond the Black Sea.

The people driven out by the new-comers were compelled to find homes in colder and less fruitful lands, where their descendants, in modern times, are known as Finns and Lapps. There are no reliable data to show the precise time when the Goths first came to the North of Europe. These people, in their new homes, in time increased so in numbers that they began to swarm south in pursuit of more fertile lands, and for war and pillage. For centuries from the declining period of the Roman Re public, the Northmen were known as a restless, wandering, piratical race of people* who continually invaded and rav aged the more southern countries of Europe, ever eager to plant themselves on the first fertile spot which promised them food and shelter, or to capture and sack the village or town which promised them rich plunder.

Tribe after tribe appeared almost every year with the opening of spring ; and when Rome ceased to exist as a dominating power, and Charlemagne had organized a new European empire, these Goths from the North continued their roving and aggressive habits, hanging on every frontier and coast, and penetrating through bay and river which opened the way to successful attack and pillage. The viking expedi tions were a terror to every city and country on the At lantic coasts and inlets from the English Channel to the Mediterranean. Their boldness, fierceness, and vigor of body and mind, made an ever-enduring impression on the people of the more favored countries of the South. Of au thentic and entirely reliable history of that portion of the Scandinavian people who became known as the Swedes, there is not much until the Christian period of Swedish his tory.

There is a degree of probable history of Scandinavia and its people in the sagas, the general name of those com positions which contain the history and mythology of the Northern people of Europe. At the courts of the Northern kings, the skald, or bard, was accustomed to compose poetry and chants in honor of those who had distinguished themselves in warlike exploits, and to recite and sing them on festive and public occasions. These productions abounded in historical recitals of the chief families, and the ancestry of those who listened to them with lively interest. These were repeated until they were fully engraved in the memory of those who heard them, and handed down from one generation to another. Later this oral poetry was put in writing, and constituted the sagas. The most important of these were the productions of Ice landers, who made considerable progress in literature in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

The " New Edda " is a Scandinavian work drawn from these sagas by Snorre Sturleson, who was a judge in Iceland from 1215 to 1222. This book contains an account of the mythology, poetry, and philosophy of the Scandinavian people, and gives valuable information on their history. These recitals of the sagas are too much intermixed with mythology and fiction to furnish very much positive data for authentic history, so far, at least, as Sweden is concerned. It would be for eign to the historic sketch we are now attempting, to bring forward this class of testimony. As tending to show the spirit, resolution, vigor, and character of the Northmen, these sagas are referred to as of value, and, were we not here making but a meagre outline, would be considered at length. It is correct to say, that the reliable history of Sweden of chief importance begins after the introduction of Christianity into the country in the reign of King Olaf, which was from 993 to 1024.

Of the three Scandinavian countries, Sweden became known to the intelligent world of Europe at a later period than the other two. Denmark was farther south, and composed of islands favorably situ ated, and that country and Norway were more adjacent to the Atlantic, which made them more accessible to the nations of the South ; while Sweden, which had its water domain chiefly on the Baltic, became known to the more advanced people of Europe at a later date than Denmark and Norway, whose theatre of activity was more on the western seas. The mythology and religion of the Swedes show them, as well as the Danes and Norwegians, to have been a vigorous, warlike people, among whom personal independence and strength of character were fostered. Like the Danes, the Swedes traced the descent of their early kings back to Odin.

Throughout the North every king was the pontiff, or high-priest, of his people ; and one of his chief duties was to offer annual sacrifices within the temples of his kingdom. The accounts given of the rise of the Swedish monarchy, in the legend known as the "Ynglina Saga," was written by the Iceland scribes from the old songs brought down from former generations. This and other sagas, which give an account of the royal races of Sweden, were doubtless based on real facts which had become intermixed with many fables. That these people, in their dark and bloody Paganism, lived in much turbulence and strife, cannot be doubted. Their kings were elective, and often changed. The people with arms in their hands were powerful, though they followed their sovereigns with obedience in warlike enterprises.

In the period in which the Danes were hovering on the coasts of Great Britain, and making hostile inroads into Germany and Gaul, the Swedes were striking out boldly into East ern Europe, turning their arms against the Finns, Lapps, and Wends, and making much of the territory which is now in Russia, the theatre of their warlike success. Mak ing, thus, a brief glance at these early centuries of Swedish history, we come to the time when Olaf became known as the first Christian king of Sweden, since whose reign there are reliable data for history. He was taught Christianity by Siegfred, an English missionary, who devoted a long life to the work of teaching the Pagan Swedes the religion of the gospel. Olaf had been seven years king when he received Christian baptism, about the year iooo. He died in 1024, not having been able to induce his people to fol low his example in adopting the new faith.

They com pelled him to leave them free to follow the religion of their fathers ; while they allowed him to erect a bishopric, and gave him choice of any district in Sweden in which he might build Christian churches. For this purpose, he selected West Gothland, which continued to be the chief seat of the Christian faith ; while the lands of the Svea would not allow Christian priests within their limits, or acknowledge Christian kings for their rulers, for more than a hundred and fifty years after the death of Olaf. An effort had been made to introduce Christianity into Sweden more than a hundred and fifty years earlier by Frankish monks. The son and successor of Charlemagne, Louis le Debonnaire, took an ardent interest in sending Christian missionaries to the Pagans of the North. Under the aus pices of this pious emperor, a monk from Picardy named Anscarius, and his friend, another monk, called Autbert, went to Denmark in 827.

But these missionaries did not meet with the reception they expected, and were soon driven from the country to which they had gone with such devotion and sacrifice. This was a keen disappointment to the pious Louis, as well as to Anscarius and his friend. Two years later, in 829, Bjorn, a Swedish king, sent to Louis, asking him to send Christian teachers to his coun try, that he and his people might be taught the new religion. This Bjorn was king of Upper Sweden, and had his royal residence and chief town at Upsala, near the great temple of Odin, and the consecrated centre of the Norse Paganism. Receiving this information, the Emperor Louis again sent for Anscarius, who at once responded to the call, and, with monks and servants, entered on their long and dangerous journey to the North. In the course of their voyage on the Baltic they were beset with pirates, robbed of the valuable manuscript-books given them by the emperor, and put on shore in destitution.

In this forlorn condition they made their way to Sweden, where they were well received by the king and his people, and allowed to preach to and baptize all who were willing to accept the new faith. As soon, however, as Anscarius went away, the influence of his work rapidly disappeared. Twenty years later, when he returned, he found the Swedes so afraid of bringing on their heads the wrath of the gods if they listened to the Christian teachers, that they threatened to put them to death unless they immediately abandoned the country. Thus the missionaries, whom the son of Charlemagne had induced to go to the remote North to convert the Pagans, were compelled to leave their work unfinished. Other attempts were made to introduce the Christian doctrines among the Swedes at different times after Anscarius and his fellow monks were driven from the country ; but it was more than one hundred and seventy years from the first unsuccessful effort of the Emperor Louis and his monks to evangelize the people of Sweden, to the date of the baptism of Olaf, the first Christian king.

Olaf had passed some of his early life in Denmark, where Christianity had sooner made progress ; and there he had undoubtedly been favorably impressed in its regard. But the stern resistance it met with among his people after his own public adoption of the new faith showed how little real hold it had then obtained, and how tenaciously the old religion maintained its power over the inhabitants of Sweden. Siegfred, the English missionary, had, indeed, been more successful than Anscarius, but to a limited degree only. A long and troublesome struggle was to continue between the old Scandinavian religion and what was then taught as Christianity, before the latter would acquire full supremacy in the country. The Swedish peasants of that age had great power in the State, and were not slow to exercise it, not alone in matters of religion, but in other important affairs.

The baptism of their king to the new faith, and the authority his example implied, were not enough to win or compel them to its adoption, as the sequel most forcibly showed. Olaf died in 1024 ; and his two sons, Jacob and Edmund, successively reigned nearly thirty years, the last dying about 1054. The Stenkil line of kings began in 1055, and continued nearly seventy years. During that period the country was torn by factions, religious wars raged with violence, and finally all the reigning family and many of the chief men were slain together. In this state of violence and anarchy no bishops remained in Sweden, and the old religion re gained chiefly its ascendency. In 1 130 the Sverker line of kings began its rule, and continued ninety or more years. This also was a period of turbulence, strife, and bloodshed.

Sverker Carlsson, who reigned from 1 135 to 1155, under whom the condition of the country somewhat improved, was a believer in Christianity ; and under him the Church of Rome obtained some form of official recog nition. In his old age this Sverker king was troubled by civil wars, and finally slain by his own servants while on the way to hear mass in a Christian church. He was succeeded in 1 155 by Erik, whose reign formed an epoch in Swedish history. This king (after his death called St. Erik) worked earnestly and effectively during his reign to improve the state of the country. The old sagas assert that King Erik sought to accomplish three things: "to build churches and improve the services of religion, to rule his people according to law and right, and to subdue the enemies of his faith and realm."

He enjoys the credit of having gained the love and gratitude of all the women of Sweden by the laws which he made to secure them valu able rights, of which the following were the most impor tant, — that "every wife shall have equal power with her husband over locks, bolts, and bars ; that she may claim half his bed during his life, and enjoy one-third of his property after his death." It was not until the reign of this king that the Christian religion fully secured its as cendency in Sweden. Until this time the worship of Odin had been kept up, at the cost of Christians as well as Pagans. He was the first king who erected a church at Upsala, thus disregarding the Pagan claims as to its special sanctity as the long-recognized centre of the old faith. Under his protection an archbishopric was created, to which Henrik, who had the reputation of being a learned and pious man, was appointed.

This prelate went with the king on an expedition to Finland. The idolaters of that country had repeatedly desolated the coasts of Sweden, and it became necessary to bring them to better behavior. Accompanied by Hen rik as Christian missionary, King Erik succeeded in putting down Paganism in that country by the establishment of the new faith, and probably planted there some Swedish colonies. Bishop Henrik was the first Christian apostle to the Finns, and died a martyr. It was during the reign of this king that Finland, a large and important country, was joined with Sweden, — a union which remained un broken until the Machiavelian insinuation of Napoleon on the raft of Tilsit, and the ambition of the czar, caused the former country to be absorbed in the Russian Empire, after the connection had been maintained with Sweden six hundred and fifty years.

King Erik lost his life in an attack by Magnus Henriksson of Denmark, who, claiming to have some rights to the Swedish throne, marched in force to Upsala. Erik was then attending mass at the church, and, when warned of the near approach of the enemy, would not quit service until its close. He then pressed forward at the head of his' men to encounter the force of the hostile prince, and, in the fierce fight which ensued, was slain by the invaders on the public square, May, 1160. The virtues and religious devotion of this king gained for him the love of the Swedes, who cherished him as their patron saint. For a long time his remains were preserved in the cathedral at Upsala, and venerated as holy relics. His arms were emblazoned on the national flag, which the Swedes bore in the wars against the enemies of the State.

They celebrated the anniversary of his death, and the city of Stockholm has his image on its seal and banner. For nearly a hundred years after the death of St. Erik kings of his line continued to reign in Sweden, and during this period there was much turbulence and repeated civil war. There was frequent repetition of bit ter and destructive struggles for the throne between rival princely aspirants and their partisans. The prelates and the nobles increased their power and pretensions amid these bloody turmoils, and assumed the right to elect the king, which in former generations had long been the pre rogative of the people assembled with arms in their hands. Compacts and conventions were often arranged for the transmission of the royal sceptre, made with armed hands, and written in blood, and as often broken after brief con tinuance.