The History of Egypt from the earliest times till the conquest by the Arabs A.D. 640. A new edition

Preface

. Among the histories of the ancient world those of the Jews, of Greece, and of Rome will always hold the first place in value ; that of the Jews because it contains the history of our religion ; those of Greece and Rome, for the poets and historians, the almost perfect works of art, and the quantity of knowledge that those nations have left us, and for the share that they have had in forming our opinions and guiding our tastes even in the present day. After these three histories, that of Egypt may certainly claim the next place, from the influence which that remarkable country has had upon the philosophy and science of the world, and from the additions it has made to the great stream of civilization, which, after flowing through ages of antiquity and fertili zing the centuries through which it has passed, is even now in its present fulness still coloured with the earliest of the sources from which it sprung.

Archi tecture and sculpture, the art of writing and the use of paper, mathematics, chemistry, medicine, indeed we might add legislation, and almost every art which

PREFACE.

. VI flourishes under a settled form of government, either took its rise in Egypt or reached Europe through that country. Many of our superstitions, and some of our religious truths, are first met with in Egyp tian history ; and one hundred references to the Bible in these pages show how much light Egypt and the Scriptures may throw one upon another. But it is not as the birthplace of art and science alone that Egypt now claims our attention. When Greece afterwards rose, its poetry, philosophy, history, eloquence, and pure taste in art threw the more me chanical knowledge of Egypt into the second rank. But no sooner did Greece itself sink, than Greek literature took refuge in Alexandria. Philosophy then becomes coloured with the mysticism of Egypt, and literature is waited on by its criticism.

To the Alexandrian copiers and libraries we mainly owe our knowledge of the great Greek writers, and our earliest manuscripts of the Bible ; while whatever help we have received from grammarians and critics, whatever in history we have gained from chronology, in poetry from prosody, in geography from mathe matics, in medicine from anatomy, was first taught in Alexandria. Moreover, after the rise of Christi anity, Alexandria no longer played that second part in civilization, nor furnished the handmaid sciences alone, but had its own schools in philosophy and sects in religion. In Alexandria took place that important union between Judaism and Platonism which should receive careful attention in the history of philosophy and of the human mind. Hence the Jewish scriptures became first known to the pagans, and the doctrine

PREFACE.

. VII of one God was perhaps less unwillingly listened to by them in consequence of its being united to some of their own philosophical opinions. The pagans were beginning to drop their polytheism, as Pla tonism appeared in the writings of the Jews ; and both may thereby have been at the same time better fitted for the truths of Christianity. The later Pla tonists of Alexandria have perhaps hardly had justice done them by the moderns, either in regard to the improvement which they wrought in paganism, or the share which they have had in forming the present opinions of the world. Taking the doctrine of Plato as the foundation, borrowing something from the Jews and something from the other sects of pagans, they formed a philosophical religion, which we may think of little worth when offered as the rival of Christianity, but which we ought to admire as sur passing any other sect of paganism.

In Gnosticism we see another form of philosophy, an eastern mysticism, in which science was studied as a help to magic and divination ; which had at the time, and no doubt still has, some share in mould ing the opinions of Christians. It was common among the Jews at the time of the apostles ; Paul censures it by name, and John indirectly. It was the parent, or perhaps the sister of Manicheism, and it has left its traces among several sects of Christians who seem to look for some other source for the origin of evil than the will of a benevolent Creator. The older monuments of Theban sculpture teach us the names of numerous kings of Thebes, of Mem phis, and of the Arab or Phenician shepherds ; and though there may be doubts as to the order in which vhi

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. these early dynasties are to be placed, yet they leave us in no doubt as to the high antiquity which must be granted to this earliest of nations. Greek history begins with the Trojan war ; Jewish history begins seven hundred years earlier, with the migration of Abraham from Chaldæa ; but even when this father of the Hebrew nation led his herds to drink of the waters of the Nile, Egypt was already a highly civi lized country, and the obelisk of Heliopolis, with the other sculptured monuments which he must have seen as he passed, still prove the high state of the arts at that time. After the time of Abraham, the history of Egypt may be traced with certainty through the reigns of Amunothph, Thothmosis, Rameses, and the other great Coptic kings, who for upwards of five hundred years made Thebes their capital, and usually held Lower Egypt as a province.

It was during these reigns that Egypt surpassed every country in the known world in wealth and power, and was foremost in all the arts of civilization, of commerce, and of agriculture. Moses was then educated in all the learning of the Egyptians ; and though Upper Egypt was at that time little known to the Greeks, Homer speaks of the armies and wealth of Egyptian Thebes as proverbial. The massive temples and obelisks covered with hieroglyphics, and the colossal statues, which have al ready outlived three thousand years, prove the high civilization of the kingdom, even before the Jews had become a people, before the Greeks had got an alphabet ; and are one of the causes of the lively interest with which we trace its history in the following ages.

PREFACE.

. IX For about five hundred years more, beginning with Shishank the conqueror of Rehoboam, the kingdom was governed by kings of Lower Egypt, and the Thebaid fell to the rank of a province. The wealth and population of the country were as great or greater under these kings of Memphis and Sais, but the public spirit and virtue of the people were less ; and much of that wealth which had before raised the great temples of Thebes was then spent in the hire of Greek mercenaries to surround a throne which native courage alone was no longer able to guard. It was then that Egypt was first open to Greek tra vellers, and the philosophers eagerly sought from the priests a knowledge of their famed science. The great names of Plato, who studied at Heliopolis, of Solon and Pythagoras, who had visited the Delta still earlier, and of many others of less note, prove how ready Greece then was to learn from Egypt.

During the next two hundred years, beginning with the conquest of the country by Cambyses, Egypt was mostly a province of Persia, and when not smarting under the tyranny of a foreign satrap was suffering as severely from its own half-successful attempts to regain its freedom. In these strug gles between the Egyptians and their conquerors, both parties trusted much to the courage of Greek mercenaries and allies ; the Athenians were ranged on one side and the Spartans on the other ; Persians and Egyptians had both placed the sword in the hands of the Greeks ; and hence, when the power of Macedonia rose over the rest of Greece, when the Greek mercenaries flocked to the standard of Alex ander, he found little difficulty in adding Persia

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. X and its tributary province Egypt, to the rest of his conquests. For three hundred years after this Macedonian conquest Egypt was an independent Greek kingdom, and nearly as remarkable for wealth and power under Ptolemy and his descendants as it had been under its native sovereigns, and that at a time respecting which the faint traditions of consular Rome do not de serve the name of history. Upper Egypt fell off each century in population, while Alexandria, the new seat of government, became the most powerful capital, the greatest trading city in the world, and one of the chief seats of Greek learning. If poetry and oratory still lingered at Athens, Alexandria was at least the chief school for grammar, criticism, mathematics, astronomy, anatomy, and chemistry ; and its public library was the admiration of the world.

But after a reign or two we find that every public virtue was wanting among the Greeks of Alexandria, while vice and luxury rioted in the palace. Every succeeding Ptolemy seemed worse than his father ; till Cleopa tra, the last sovereign of that remarkable family, unable to quell the rebellion of her Alexandrian sub jects, yielded up her person and her capital to each Roman general who in his turn seemed able to uphold her power. For nearly seven centuries more, to the end of this history, Egypt was governed by the Romans, or, to speak more strictly, for three centuries and a half by Rome and for three centuries and a half by Con stantinople, but always through the means of the Greek colonists in Alexandria. During most of these unhappy years, notwithstanding the introduction of

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. XI Christianity, both Greeks and Egyptians were sinking in everything that makes a nation great or a people happy. The ancient learning fell with paganism, while the ancient superstition mixed itself with the religion of Jesus. Frequent rebellions and the in roads of the Arabs added to the weakness and misery of the province. Among the three great families of Christianity, the Greek the Egyptian and the Roman, the Egyptians often held the first place in importance, and were usually followed by the Romans as their pupils. The Egyptians long held the Nicene creed against the Greek and Syrian churches ; and though the opinions of modern Europe are in the first case to be traced up to Rome, yet if we would carry back our search to their original source in Palestine, we must in most cases pass through Alexandria.

When the seat of empire was removed from Rome to Constantinople, and Alexandria lost its power over Egypt, the difference of religion between the two countries was the cause of a growing diffi culty to the government. The Greeks of Alexandria, like the protestants of Dublin, were of the same religion, politics, and blood as their rulers, and in a constant state of quarrel with their fellow-subjects. Sometimes an emperor like Zeno healed the disputes by treating both parties with equal justice. At other times, as under Theodosius, the country was go verned according to the wishes of the less enlightened majority, and the Arian Greeks of Alexandria lost that ascendancy which they claimed as their birthright. But more often the emperors tried to govern the Egyptians by means of the favoured

PREFACE.

. class ; they goaded the people to rebellion by ap pointing to the churches and bishopricks and civil offices men whom the people hated as heretics and aliens ; and at last the Egyptians, with an equal want of wisdom, threw themselves into the arms of their Arab neighbours, in hopes of regaining the govern ment of their own church. With respect to the following pages, the author has only to add that he has in every case stated in the text or in the margin the works from which he has taken each piece of information, so that the enquiring reader may not only check the historian's accuracy, but may at once see the source to which he must look for further knowledge. Highbury, February, 1846. ERRATUM. In page 54, line 4, and page 64, line 13 : Tahpenes was more prohably the city after wards called Daphnæ, twenty miles from Pelusium.

CONTENTS. Chap. I. — Introduction ; the early kings; the invasion by the Shepherds, and their expulsion ; the great kings of Thebes. b. c. PAGE Egypt, its boundaries, soil, and climate 1 Early civilization 4 Asiatic origin of the people ; their name 5 2000 ? The first known kings of Upper Egypt j and of Lower Egypt ." 7 The early style of building ; sculpture 8 Hieroglyphics ; their progress towards an alphabet . . 9 The art of making steel 11 Amunmai Thor 1 12 1650 ? Osirtbsen I ib. Amunmai Thor II ib. Osirtesen II ib. 1550 ? Osirtesen III ib. Amunmai Thor III ib. Queen Scemiophris ib. 1600 ? Suphis or Cheops of Memphis, and his successor Sensuphis, conquer Thebes 13 The pyramids built ; their size and use 14 Abraham visits Lower Egypt 15 The Phenicians settle in Lower Egypt ib. The Shepherd kings make Egypt tributary 16 1550 ?

Salatis ib. Beon ib. Apachnas ib. 1500 ? Apophis, who conquers Thebes ib. Janias ib. Asseth, who introduces the Chaldee knowledge of astronomy, and the length of the year .... ib. 1 450 ? Amosis of Thebes expels the Shepherd kings 17 Chebros, his son 18 Amunothph I. by his marriage gains Ethiopia ib. Mesphra-Thothmosis I. ; his buildings 19 Ethopia less civilized ib. 1400 ? Joseph brought into Egypt as a slave 20 He is made prime minister of Lower Egypt 21 He changes the tenure of the estates 22 The Israelites settle in Goshen 23 Mesphra-Thothmosis II. and Queen Nitocris unite Upper and Lower Egypt ; her palace, obelisks, and pyramid CONTENTS. XIV B. C PAQE Thothmosis III. or Menophres "6 The lake of Mœris 27 1321 The calendar reformed 2^ Amunothph II *™ 1 300 ? Moses leads the Jews out of Egypt 30 The Jewish laws and customs compared with the Egyptian customs "" Hebrew alphabet borrowed from the hieroglyphics ... 36 Some Egyptian months have Hebrew names which do not belong to the same seasons with the hieroglyphical names "' Thothmosis IV., makes the great sphinx 38 Amunothph III. ; his musical statue ib.

The style of Egyptian statues and temples 39 Amunmai Anemneb 40 The Greeks driven out of the Delta ; Erechtheus, Cadmus, and Danaus, founders of Greek cities ib. Rameses 1 41 1200? Oimenepthah I.; his palace at Quorneh, paintings, palace at Abydos, tomb near Thebes ib. Rameses II. ; his palace of the Memnonium 44 His victories ; colony at Colchis 45 Egyptian trinities ; the population 46 The soldiers ; the priesthood 47 Pthahmen-Thmeiothph 48 1 100 ? Oimenepthah II ib. Osirita Ramerer ib. Rameses III. ; his palace at Medinet Abu ib. 1000 ? Rameses IV., V., and VI., at the time of the Trojan war. End of Theban greatness ib. Chap II. — The kings of Lower Egypt. 990 Shishank of Bubastis ; his alliance with the Jews .... 52 He conquers Rehoboam and takes Jerusalem .*. 53 The soldiers regain their privileges ib.

Osorchon I. ; the unsettled state of Egypt 54 ***** Tacellothis of Bubastis ib. ***** Osorchon II. and Shishank II. of Tanis ib. 743 Bocchoris the Wise, of Sais ; his laws ib. Conquest of Egypt by the Ethiopians 55 737 Sabacothph ib. 729 Sevechus ; his alliance with the Israelites 56 Samaria conquered by the Assyrians ib. 715 Tirhakah ; his troops revolt ib. Chronology fixt by the Babylonian eclipses 57 697 Ammeres of Sais jb 679 Stephinathis 5§ 672 Nechepsus ; his learning ib, 666 Necho I ib. CONTENTS. XV B. C. PAGE 658 Psammetichus I. ; Greek mercenaries 58 Egyptian troops desert into Ethiopia ib. 614 Necho II. ; his fleet 59 Begins the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea ib. Circumnavigates Africa.' 60 610 Conquers Josiah ; takes Jerusalem ib. 608 Psammetichus II. ; the Ethiopians rebel 62 He is defeated by Nabopolassar ib.

Arbitrates among the Greek states ib. 591 Hophra ; he conquers Palestine ib. Defeats the Phenician fleet, takes Tyre and Sidon .... ib. Nebuchadnessar defeats the Egyptians and leads the Jews into captivity 63 The prophet Ezekiel dissuades the Jews from alliance with Egypt ib. Jeremiah warns them against settling in Egypt ib. The remnant of Judah retreat there from the Chaldees 64 Hebrew cities in Egypt ib. Egyptian army and Greek mercenaries 65 The Egyptian soldiers dethrone Hophra 66 566 Amasis 67 The Greeks of Naucratis ; their privileges and temples 68 Thales, Solon, and Cleobulus visit Egypt 69 Hecatæus ; Pythagoras 70 Polycrates of Samos ; his ring 72 Cyprus conquered by Amasis and reconquered by Cyrus ib. Phanes deserts to Cambyses 73 Cambyses marches through Petra against Egypt .... ib. 524 Psammenitus defeated at Pelusium 74 Memphis surrenders to the Persians ; all Egypt follows 75 The Egyptian laws 77 Chap. III. — The reigns of the Persian conquerors, and of those Egyptians who rebelled against their power. 523 Cambyses marches against Ethiopia and the Oases . . 82 Plunders the Theban temples and tombs, breaks the colossal statue 83 Wounds the bull Apis, and scourges the priests 84 The embassies to wish him joy on his success ; their gifts 85 He goes mad, and marries his two sisters 86 52 1 Darius ib.

The Persians attack Libya unsuccessfully 87 Aryandes, the satrap of Egypt, coins money ib. Amasis an Egyptian made satrap or melek of Egypt . . 88 Nephra melek of Egypt ; good government under Darius ib. The canal, the taxes ib. Mandophth melek : (the battle of Marathon) 89 487 Mandothph makes himself king 90 484 Xerxes again makes Egypt a Persian province ib. Achæmenes the satrap governs with severity '. ib. 464 Artaxerxes CONTENTS. B. C. PAGE 460 Inarus makes Lower Egypt independent ; and probably Amyrtæus then reigns in Upper Egypt 92 The Persians hold Memphis ib. Hellanicus visits Egypt 94 Anaxagoras, who wrote on the Nile ib. Herodotus, who wrote on manners and customs ib. The fields under water during the inundation 95 The feast of the candles ; a religious gathering of the people ; a sham fight between the priests ib.

Memphis, the citadel of the White Wall, the camp of the Tyrians, the temple of Pthah, three Phenician temples, the hall of Apis • 96 The pyramids, their hieroglyphical inscriptions, the brick pyramid, the labyrinth j Upper Egypt 97 Curious Egyptian customs, respect for animals, gravity in religion, intolerance, mummies at feasts, astrology 98 National song, the Maneros 100 454 Inarus killed, Amyrtæus holds out longer 93 Their sons made satraps ib. Artaxerxes Longimanus 1 00 424 Xerxes II. Sogdianus ib. 423 Darius Nothus. Arxanes satrap of Egypt ib. Democritus of Abdera, president of the temple of Memphis, writes on Hieroglyphics 101 404 Artaxerxes Mnemon ; (his civil war with Cyrus). ... ib. 400 Nepherites [or Psammetichus] makes Egypt independent 102 He allies himself to the Spartans ib. 394 Achoris ib.

He helps Evagoras of Cyprus against the Persians. ... ib. 381 Psammuthis, Nepherites II., Muthis 103 379 Nectanebo I ib. 374 Artaxerxes Mnemon attacks Egypt and is repulsed. ... ib. Eudoxus the astronomer, Chrysippus the physician, and Plato visit Egypt ; their writings 105 361 Tachus. The Persians attack him 106 The Egyptians dethrone him, but he regains his kingdom 107 359 Nectanebo II 109 Darius Ochus attacks Egypt unsuccessfully ib. 349 He is successful on his second invasion 110 Pelusium and Bubastis taken ; Nectanebo flies ib. Darius Ochus ; Arses; Darius Codomanus Ill Chap. IV. — Egypt conquered by the Greeks. Alexander the Great ■ Cleomenes. Alexander unites the Greeks against Darius Codomanus ; defeats him in Asia Minor 113 332 Marches on Egypt ; Gaza conquered ib. Pelusium taken ; Memphis taken 114 Alexander visits the Oasis of Ammon 116 The city of Alexandria planned ib.

The government of the province ; Egyptian judges . . CONTENTS. XVII Bc- PAGE Samaritans settle in the Thebaid 119 Cleomenes left in command ; his dishonesty 120 Hephæstion made a demi-god in Egypt 121 Ptolemy the son of Lagus, or of Philip 122 Alexander's death ; Ptolemy made governor of Egypt as lieutenant of Philip Arridæus , 123 Chap. V. — Ptolemy Soter, as lieutenant and as king. 322 Ptolemy aims at making himself independent 125 He puts Cleomenes to death 126 He conquers Cyrene 127 He brings the body of Alexander to Memphis ib. Perdiccas invades Egypt ; passing by Pelusium he marches against Memphis 128 Perdiccas killed ; Philip Arridæus and Alexander Ægus taken 129 Ptolemy conquers Jerusalem, Phenicia, and Cœlo-Syria ib. Egypt well governed ; Theban temples rebuilt 1 30 Children of mixt marriages held to be Egyptians .... 1 33 Alexandria built and ornamented 134 Its buildings ; the god Serapis 135 The Museum of philosophy ; the use of papvrus 136 The king Philip Arridæus put to death 138 Alexander Ægus declared king of Macedonia and the provinces ib.

Antigonus invades Egypt ; his forces ib. Cyrene rebels ; and is conquered 139 Cyprus conquered by Ptolemy ib. Greek and Egyptian troops compared 141 Demetrius son of Antigonus defeated at Gaza ib. Antigonus attacks Petra 143 Peace between Alexander's successors 144 The state of the Greeks in Egypt 145 Hecatæus visits Upper Egypt ; the Theban temples and tombs ; the Memnonium 146 Jews settle in Alexandria ; Hezekias the priest, and Mosollam the archer 148 311 Alexander Ægus put to death; Hercules proclaimed king of Macedonia and put to death 149 308 Ptolemy proposes to marry Cleopatra ; she is murdered 150 Demetrius destroys the Egyptian fleet 151 Ptolemy takes the title of king of Egypt 152 Antigonus marches against Egypt ; is stopt ib. Demetrius besieges Rhodes 153 Cœlo-Syria and the island of Cos conquered 154 Ptolemy's coins 156 His literary dinners 157 Apelles the painter ; Euclid the mathematician ib.

Diodorus Chronus the rhetorician ; Stilpo 158 Antiphilus the painter quarrels with Apelles 159 Apelles's picture of Calumny ib. Ptolemy's manners and opinions 160 b CONTENTS. XVIII PAGE B.C. 1 si 1 His wives and children He resigns the throne to his son j b6 Remarks Chap. VI. — Ptolemy Philadelphus. 284 His education, tutors, and prospects 167 Grand procession on his accession 1 °° 282 Ptolemy Soter dies 171 Magas, the king's half brother, rebels at Cyrene ib. Gallic mercenaries put to death '72 The son of Philadelphus marries the daughter of Magas ib. Philadelphus puts two brothers to death 173 274 The rise of Rome ; embassy to Egypt 174 Berenice dies ; the feast of Osiris 175 The Pharos lighthouse finished; Alexander's tomb; new cities '7o Roads opened for trade to Berenice, to Cosseir, and to Suez ; the canal finished ; the gold trade 177 Dionysius travels through Bactria to India 178 Ethiopian elephants employed in war 179 The Museum ; its library 1 80 First librarian Demetrius Phalereus ; his character and writings ib.

Zenodotus ; he edits Homer 181 Euclid ; his Elements of mathematics ib. Ctesibius writes on hydrostatics 182 Theocritus the poet ib. Callimachus, professor of poetry ; his hymns 183 Philætas ; his poetry ; Menander sent for 1 84 Hegesias lectures on philosophy ib. The Cyrenaic sect of philosophers 185 Strato writes on physics 187 Timocharis, Aristillus, and Aristarchus the astronomers ib. Aratus ; his astronomical poem, and his translators . . 188 Sosibius and Zoilus the rhetoricians ; Timon the tragic writer ib. Manetho and Petosiris the Egyptian authors 190 Colotes the Epicurean philosopher 191 Homer and Herodotus read publicly in the theatre . . 192 Philadelphus collects pictures 193 Helena the painter 1 94 The Septuagint translation of the Old Testament ; its style ; disapproved of by the Hebrews ib.

Philadelphus helps the Achaian league 197 His wives and children ; his coins 198 Arsinoe ; her tomb, and praise 200 Ergamenes king of Meroe 201 Antiochus marries Berenice ib. Erasistratus and Herophilus the anatomists 202 Extent and wealth of the kingdom CONTENTS. XIX B. C. FAGE Chap. VII. — Ptolemy Euergetes, Ptolemy Philopator, and Ptolemy Epiphanes. 246 Ptolemy Euergetes ; he marches against Syria .... 208 The queen's hair made into a constellation 209 Seleucus flies to Egypt from his brother 210 Euergetes regains the booty of Cambyses ; his popularity ib. His buildings at Thebes, in the Oasis, at Esne, at Canopus 211 He invades Ethiopia; inscription at Adule 213 The Jewish tribute delayed ib. Greece helped against Antigonus 214 Aristophanes the grammarian ; accents invented .... 215 Eratosthenes the geographer and chronologist 216 Carneades and the New Academy 218 Apollonius ; his Argonautics.

The Ibis ib. Lycophron ; his Alcandra ; foretells Roman greatness 219 Jesus the son of Sirach 220 Conon ; Apollonius of Perga ; conic sections ib. Character of the Alexandrian authors 221 The coins 223 221 Ptolemy Philopator, puts to death his mother and brother 224 The extent of his kingdom 226 Antiochus invades Egypt ; battle of Raphia 227 Ptolemy tries to enter the temple at Jerusalem ; the alarm of the Jews 228 The Jews of Alexandria lose their privileges 229 Egyptian troops ; large ships ib. Ambassadors from Rome, and from the Jews 23 I Philopator's vices, follies, and luxuries ib. Alexandria supplied with corn at the public expense . . 232 Sphærus, Eratosthenes, and Timæus 233 The coins 235 204 Ptolemy Epiphanes, a minor ib. Rebellion against the ministers ; their murder 236 The Alexandrians beg the Roman senate to guard the kingdom 239 Rome rises as Egypt sinks 241 Rebellion of Lycopolis ; the king's cruelty 243 1 96 The king declared of age ; the Rosetta stone 245 He marries Cleopatra daughter of Antiochus 248 The foreign provinces lost to Egypt 249 Chap. VIII. — Ptolemy Philometor, and Ptolemy Euergetes II. 180 Ptolemy Philometor, a minor 251 1 73 His coronation ib.

Antiochus Epiphanes conquers Egypt 252 1 69 The younger Ptolemy declares himself king, as Euergetes II ib. The brothers join their forces against Antiochus .... xx CONTENTS. , PAGE Antiochus again enters Egypt ; retreats at the command of Popilius ■ • • • * " " 1 63 Philometor goes to Rome for help against his brother, and is replaced on the throne; Cyrene given to Euergetes • - • ., Euergetes goes to Rome to complain i°- Philometor refuses to obey the senate 256 He conquers Euergetes in Cyprus, and forgives him . . 2o7 The Jews build a temple at Leontopolis 259 They bear high offices in Egypt ~60 Temples built at Parembole, at Antæopolis, at Ombos, and at Apollinopolis Magna ib- Offerings made for the dead 262 Aristarchus the critic ; Moschus his pupil ; Bion .... 263 The critics correct the text of Homer 265 Pamphilus the physician ; Nicander 266 Hipparchus the astronomer ; Hero the mechanic .... ib.

The coins 268 Wars in Syria 1°- Philometor's death ; his family 270 145 Ptolemy Euergetes II 271 Ptolemy Eupator murdered by his uncle ; the king's cruelties ">• His coronation ; second marriage ; his person 272 Scipio Africanus the Roman ambassador ; Panætius the Stoic .ib. The Jews of Judea write to Egypt ; the books of Maccabees 274 The Alexandrians rebel; Euergetes withdraws to Cyprus ; murders his son 276 He regains his throne ; the wars in Syria 277 The voyage to India discovered 279 The king's writings ; salaries in the Museum 281 Learned men ; library of Pergamus ; parchment used 282 Chap. IX. — The reigns of Cleopatra Cocce and Ptolemy Soter II. ■ Cleopatra Cocce and Ptolemy Alexander ; Ptolemy Soter II. ; Cleopatra and Berenice; Ptolemy Alexander II.; Ptolemy Neus Dionysus. 116 Cleopatra Cocce and Ptolemy Soter II 285 Wicked marriages of the young princes ib.

Wars in Syria 286 The Jews rise in power in Alexandria 287 Soter expelled to Cyprus 288 106 Cleopatra Cocce and Ptolemy Alexander I ib. Wars in Syria 289 Ptolemy Apion leaves Cyrene to the Romans by will 291 Cleopatra murdered by Alexander ; Alexander expelled ib. 87 Ptolemy Soter II 293 Thebes rebels and is conquered 294 Lucullus the Roman ambassador ; the philosophers of the Academy 296 81 Cleopatra Berenice ; her marriage and murder .... CONTENTS. xxi B. C PAGE 80 Ptolemy Alexander II. ; is killed by his guards . . . 299 80 Ptolemy Neus Dionysus ; his vices 300 The Roman coins with Egyptian emblems 301 The Jews lose rank in Egypt 302 Auletes driven out of Egyyt, goes to Rome for help . . 303 57 Cleopatra Tryphæna and Berenice made queens . . 304 Roman intrigues and Egyptian bribes 305 55 Ptolemy Auletes restored by Gabinius 306 The Romans in Egypt 308 Diodorus Siculus travels in Egypt ; describes the country 309 Chap. X. — The reign of Cleopatra and her brothers ; Julius Cæsar, and Mark Antony.

Cleopatra flies to Syria and returns with an army .... 318 Pompey's death 319 Cæsar's wars in Alexandria; Ptolemy drowned .... ib. The library burnt 321 Cæsarion born ; Cleopatra visits Rome 322 The low state of literature ; the buildings 324 Antony sends for Cleopatra ; her costly fare 326 He murders Arsinoe ; their luxuries and vices 328 The new library from Pergamus 330 Antony's power ; his coins 331 The battle of Actium 333 Antony and Cleopatra kill themselves 335 Octavianus master of Egypt; Cæsarion killed 336 Review of the reigns of the Ptolemies 338 Chap. XL — Egypt a Roman province. The Emperors of the Julian and Claudian families. 30 Augustus ; his new laws 344 24 The Julian year brought into use 346 The survey of Egypt ib. The Jews' privileges confirmed 347 The Egyptian triumph at Rome ib.