Egypt under Mehemet Ali; translated from the German, by H. E. Lloyd

Preface

. The following work has lain in my portfolio for a considerable time, precisely as it now appears, in every essential point. A final revision was all that was requisite to complete it for publication. I believe this delay will not do the work any injury, for the interest of the public in the affairs of Egypt was at the time it was written almost blunted by the redun dant competition which prevailed, and they may now be glad to read an unaltered description of that country as it then was, and as it has unhappily ceased to be. This reflection, however, is of course of recent date; and if I am asked why I have so long delayed the publication of this work, I really know not what cause to assign. On the one hand, returning to my estate after an absence of seven years, my attention was more engaged in its improvement than in literary pursuits. VI

PREFACE.

. On the other hand, I was perhaps instigated by a feeling of modesty to abstain from inundating the public, year after year, with publications from the same pen, however indulgently those writings had been received by the greater portion of my readers. But though my modesty kept me in the back-ground, I could not conceal from myself that the very thing which I considered my greatest merit, namely my candour, and consequent independence, which raised me above paying unconditional respect to any party view, placed me in the unhappy predicament of the poor Bat — between the Birds and the Beasts. The Aristocrats thought me too liberal, the Liberals too aristocratic; the Formalists called me impious, the Unbelievers sanctimonious ; the Bureaucratie represented me as a semi-revolutionist, while the Democrats affirmed that I was a time-server — that I took good care not to give positive offence, and, when expediency required, flattered the ruling powers.

In short, I could not please anybody. Had the consequences of all this affected my literary reputation merely, they would have given me little concern ; but I had to learn to my cost, that these views

PREFACE.

. VII began to exercise a considerable influence on my social position, and did me real injury, both positively and negatively. Now, as I cannot play the hypocrite, and on the other hand feel little inclination to act the part of a Don Quixote — sacrificing myself without necessity, and without success — I thought it best to delay again appearing as an Author, till some pro pitious conjuncture should arrive. Besides this, there was one species of criticism that really vexed me: I mean that which constantly reproached me with being neither a poet nor a man of letters. If I had ever made such a pretension — even in the remotest degree — these critics would be perfectly in the right; but as I have never even dreamt of aspiring after such honours, the reproach is as absurd as if we were to despise the violet because it is not an oak.

Sterne, Lord Chesterfield, and Madame de Sevigne were neither poets nor literati, and happy should I esteem myself if I possessed but one hun dredth part of their reputation. This at least I may venture to say, that I have always written for good company, which never consists of pedants. But why, after so much bitter experience, appear

PREFACE.

. again upon the literary stage ? — Dear reader, there are some reasons wdiich I cannot communicate to you — and experience has doubtless taught you, that he who has once tasted the forbidden fruit, is but too prone to relapse into the same sin. Waldeansamkeit, February 29, 1841. CONTENTS.

Introduction

. As the following Work derives its title from, and will, in a great measure, relate to Mehemet Ali — a man in regard to whom I am of opinion that no one is more blindly judged of in Europe, — I must prefix, at the very outset, some general remarks, in order to state my view of the political events which have so materially and so deplorably changed all the relations of the East, since my return from Egypt. I am well aware that a defeated hero is always in the wrong, and that the fickle multitude ever judges according to the passing result, though in the sequel, when temporary passions and interests have subsided, a more philosophic view of the past places historical truth on its just basis. Thus, Napoleon, after having shone so long as a meteor, was degraded to the very dust, and universally calumniated, being for a time denied every degree of merit and goodness — because he had fallen !

Now, however, after the lapse of a quarter of a century, since he disappeared from the stage, the multitude again pay him the tribute of unbounded admiration and respect, and the same people who were wearied of him, and abandoned him

INTRODUCTION.

. in time of need, have, with the most profound veneration and religious pomp, brought home his mortal remains across the ocean. I do not, however, think of placing Mehemet Ali in tbe same rank with Napoleon, but both have points of resemblance, and in future times nations will do more justice to Mehemet Ali, and be constrained to acknowledge that they are pre-eminently indebted to the operations of his distinguished mind for that beneficent and mighty impetus, which has given to the East the germ of a new epoch of civilisation. True, it is only a germ ; but it is a fructifying germ, which he has faithfully cherished with indefatigable perseverance, with the highest degree of judgment of which he was capable, attended with the utmost success of which his times were susceptible. For, let us remember that the Mussulmans — standing quite out of Europe, in respect to the influences of civilisation — are, in the thirteenth century of their Hegira, almost in the same mediæval position as we were after the lapse of the same number of centuries from the appearance of our Divine Prophet ; a position from which we extricated ourselves, not only with vast and energetic toil and labour, but also through torrents of blood.

Hence, experience itself teaches us that an advance in civilisation in such a period, even though produced by the most energetic hand, cannot at once attain the state in • which we now stand. But what, let me ask, was our position in those middle ages? I believe that, with respect to cruelty and crime, rudeness and corruption of morals, arbitrary power and intolerance, and the insupportable yoke of the mighty, descending through

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. XV all classes, the state of Egypt, under Mehemet Ali, may be deemed splendid, in comparison with that of most of the countries of Europe in those dark ages. The incontestable merits of Mehemet Ali, which stand out in uncontrovertible facts before all men, are the following : — with admirable talent for organisation, he has introduced, into one of the most neglected countries of the world, order and security, those first desiderata of a civilised state ; and this he has effected to such an extent that, where formerly robbery and death threatened the traveller at every step, he may now, though laden with gold and costly wares, safely and fearlessly traverse the immense dominions of Mehemet Ali, from Mount Taurus to the frontiers of Abyssinia, as far as his sway extends between the Mediterranean, the Nile, and the Desert.

In the administration of justice, and in the govern ment of his territory, he has introduced greater equity, and more fixed rules, than at present exist in any other Oriental State. He has fettered fanaticism ; exercised greater toler ance in religious matters, than is found in many Christian States ; and he has not only protected the Christians in his own dominions, but has favoured them to such a degree as was deemed almost harsh towards the Mussulmans. He has not only animated the commerce of Egypt with Europe, but he has, in a great measure, created it anew ; and, by the most splendid establishments and institutions of all kinds he has revived, to the great advantage of Egypt, an interest in manufactures, which was wholly lost in that country.

INTRODUCTION.

. He was the first to encourage the cultivation of cotton, indigo, and sugar, which is now carried on with constantly-increasing success; and a great part of these productions is consumed in bis own countries, by the manufactories established at his expense. In like manner, he greatly improved the culture of silk in Syria, by the most extensive plantations of mulberry-trees, but which have been, for the most part, destroyed in the war carried on by the English for the liberation (!) of that country. For the improvement of future generations, he has founded a system of schools and education, of which not the smallest conception had existed in the East for hundreds of years, and he has expended immense sums for this purpose. He has erected more buildings, and has called more useful institutions into existence, than any Sovereign of Egypt, since the time of Saladin.

Besides all this, he, who found Egypt without a ship, and without a single disciplined soldier, has created the means of building twelye ships of the line and twice as many frigates and corvettes, and of form ing an army, disciplined in a European manner, of more than 100,000 men. And with these resources, the Albanian peasant, who did not learn to read till he was thirty-five years of age, the insignificant chief who, a hundred times in his life, did not know where he could repose his head in safety, has become a Prince, whose armies have twice made " tbe Sovereign of the Faithful,'1'' at Byzantium, tremble on his throne, and whose ever-increasing importance already began to assign him a place among the great powers of the world.

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. XVII At length, however, after such great deeds ' and victories, he was proscribed by European interest, as the dreaded Corsican had been before him (but with much less reason), and in this unequal contest has fallen with unforeseen rapidity. His discomfiture, as might have been expected, instantly aroused a swarm of detractors, of every shade and colour, who fell with increased fury upon the sick lion who had so long been the object of their envy; and, not content therewith, they proceeded at the same time triumphantly to pass sentence on those who had been so besotted as to consider this vanquished hero as an eminent and a great man, and had even publicly stated that such was their opinion. In Mehemet Adi's misfortune, we find very many points of resemblance with that of Napoleon ; thus, in the first place, he, in fact, fell only through a concur rence of the most untoward circumstances, which could not be foreseen, and which, for the most part, were quite beyond his control; secondly, at the decisive moment, he was abandoned by his most powerful ally, on whose co-operation he had founded all his plans ; thirdly and lastly, he did not follow up his preceding good fortune with the consistency of an Alexander or a Cæsar, nor did he perseveringly pursue an under taking till he brought it to a successful issue.

Had Napoleon or Mehemet Ali been in the place of Alexander, they would have concluded peace with the King of the Persians after the first battle — though not without the intention of recommencing hostilities at some future opportunity. But in prosperity, it is necessary completely to profit by opportunity, when vol. i. b

INTRODUCTION.

. it is present. In adversity, however, Mehemet Ali manifested more coolness and prudence than Napoleon, though his mode of procedure cannot be called heroic. From the very moment when Mehemet Ali found himself abandoned by France, and left to contend alone with the united powers of England and Austria, he may be said to have defended himself only pro forma, for he was too perspicacious not to see, at once, that he had no possible chance of success at the long run. But as he was neither obstinate nor vain enough to desire all or nothing, as the day was unpropitious, and the chances were all against him, he did not choose to stake all upon one card, and threw up tbe game. By this step he reserved to himself the possibility of recom mencing hostilities, if more favourable circumstances should offer.

When St. Jean d'Acre had been, properly speaking, not taken, but blown up and destroyed by the irresistible force of 500 cannon, at the distance of musket-shot, the Viceroy thought only of retaining what was not yet lost.* I know, from the best authority, that at the very commencement of the war, Ibrahim had received instructions to this effect from his father, and this circumstance will sufficiently account for the inertness and negative mode of carry ing on the war adopted by this General, who has otherwise proved himself so energetic and decisive. The part of a man like Mehemet Ali can, however, * The English themselves boasted, in the Morning Chronicle, at that time a Ministerial paper), that " by the immense advantage which their greatly-improved moveable sea-batteries now afforded, no for tress capable of bombardment from the sea could resist a fleet with 5 or 600 guns." These laurels, therefore, were easily gained.

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. XIX never be considered completed, so long as he holds all the elements of power in his own hand. With consummate skill and ability he has succeeded in maintaining this power, as well as his actual indepen dence ; and who among the children of men can predict whether Providence, which assigned him a high des tination in the history of the world, has indeed wholly deprived him of this office ? At all events, it is absurd to conclude, from the great diminution of his importance, that a man who, by his extraordinary actions, has for so many years fixed the eyes of the world upon him, is, in fact, no better than a juggler, who has hitherto amused Europe and the East with mere illusion and charlatanry, — a circumstance which, by the-by, would be less flattering to the deceived than to the deceiver.

It is, however, a fact, and a very remarkable one, that a chief cause of the rapid fall of Mehemet Ali is to be found in his most meritorious actions. By his efforts to raise the people of the East to a higher degree of culture — and, for the furtherance of this object, by his approximating more and more in his own person to European manners and customs ; by his endeavours to introduce many of them generally ;.and, by his proceedings, directing the whole course of his government towards the attainment of this object, so that even the Sultan, following his example, adopted the same course, an entirely new spirit was awakened in the East. Those nations which had so long been stationary, now began to perceive that they had need of foreign influence ; and that nothing, but blending with European civilisation (I do not mean mere servile XX

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. imitation, and still less religious conversion) could give them a new re-organisation of their own, and thus obtain for them a more secure and more happy internal condition than they had hitherto enjoyed under any Mahometan sceptre. A direct supremacy of European Powers had hence, for some considerable length of time, been deemed not only possible, but desirable ; as they would thus receive directly what Mehemet Ali could only give them indirectly and imperfectly. When therefore the English and Germans entered the lists against him, the population of Syria met them with open arms, and immediately fell off from the Egyptian Government, with the exception of Emir Beschir, who possessed more penetration, and had, besides, the same interest as Mehemet Ali. Notwithstanding this, the Syrians knew full well that, even under the iron rule of Ibrahim's sabre, and the oppressions of his unworthy favourites (for Mehemet Ali had, unfortunately, given up Syria without restriction to his son), they were much better oft' than they had ever been under the feeble government of the Sultan ; and that, on the other hand, if the old relations should return, they must fall into infinitely greater misery.

They were, however, sanguine, and had an indistinct hope of quite a new state of things — of a new Master, who should be given them by Europe, and not by Turkey. This notion was cherished by many in Syria, especially on the sea-coast and in Lebanon, where a great pro portion of the most influential inhabitants are Chris tians ; while the Druses, who are an equally powerful body, not only manifest no religious intolerance, but, on the contrary, easily accommodate themselves to any

INTRODUCTION.

. XXI creed.* Even a great number of educated Mussul mans entertained similar thoughts ; and I was asto nished to find that this idea (so diametrically opposed to the former fanatical views of these countries) obtained not only in Syria, but even in Asia Minor ; and though, doubtless, not clearly defined to the bulk of the population, yet evidently germinating among them, and already spread to a remarkable extent over the more reflecting part of the people. I am, therefore, stating no more than truth when I say that the present conquerors are mainly indebted to Mehemet Ali himself for the important advantage which they possess, of having the people on their side ; an advantage which tended to his overthrow (as the same endeavour undermined Mahmoud's power), but which, upon the whole, is a benefit to the East.

I shall merely add a few personal particulars, which I should pass over altogether, were it not necessary to state them for the sake of the weak-minded and the credulous. It has been asserted in several public journals that the reason I zealously take the part of Mehemet Ali, is only because he loaded me with presents and favours ; nay, these journals have almost asserted that I was as good as in his pay. With respect to the favours and partiality which I certainly did enjoy, and that for a long time, in no ordinary degree, I shall always entertain feelings of gratitude and personal satisfaction for them ; and * Emir Beschir professed to be both a Christian and a Mahometan at the same time ; and would have become a Jew, if his doing so would have procured him the sceptre of Syria.

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. the more so, as the Viceroy, at my sole intercession, unreservedly restored to one of the richest and most eminent merchants of Cairo the liberty which he had legally forfeited, with the loss of the greater part of his fortune. According to Oriental custom, I was considered for many months as the Prince's guest, and, as such, had free lodging and provisions both in Cairo and in Alexandria ; attended with a degree of splendour with which I would willingly have dis pensed, because it laid me under much constraint; and everybody knows well enough that the hospitality of the Great in the East must often be repaid doubly and trebly to their servants. Mehemet Ali was, besides, well aware that the Bey of Tunis had already treated me with the same munificence. With respect to presents, I affirm most unequivocally that I never received from Mehemet Ali any other gift than a foal ; and this I highly value, because he himself selected it for me from his stud at Shoubra.

Ibrahim Pasha, likewise, gave me two foals of his breed. The conveyance of these animals, for which I had to hire a ship on purpose to Trieste, cost me much more than they were worth, and among the genuine Arab horses, which I afterwards purchased in the Desert, there is not one which is not ten times as valuable as these three foals. It is a singular circumstance by the way, that Mehemet Ali's spirited stallion, which had become a good hunter, received a mortal injury in leaping over a stream, on the same day that St. dean D'Acre fell. Perhaps, however, I remained too long in Egypt.

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. XXIII The character of the Orientals is full of suspicion, and Mehemet Ali, more than any other person, has too often had good reason to distrust Europeans. The distinction with which he treated me, and the unmerited importance which he awarded me, excited the envy and ill-will of many influential persons, Europeans as well as Turks; independently of which, whenever Mehemet Ali required it, I communicated to him, quite unre servedly, and perhaps injudiciously, my views respecting everybody and everything. Accordingly I soon perceived that all sorts of intrigues were at work against me, but I cared not a straw about them. At this time, (that is, during my second residence at Cairo, when I had wholly declined Mehemet Ali's generous hospitality), I sent an article to the Augsburg "Algemeine Zeitung," which contained some very innocent remarks on the corpulency of Said Bey, the Viceroy's youngest son, to which, however, an unfavourable colouring was given, by the unlucky circumstance that the Editor thought fit to bead the article with the words " The Corpulent Prince."

This was translated and read to Mehemet Ali ; from that moment I observed a certain degree of coldness, and a decrease of familiarity in his manners, which grieved me, but against which I could do nothing, since any explanation would only have made the matter worse. It appears from all this (and I might have alluded to other circumstances of a similar character), that my relations with Mehemet Ali were not always un clouded, and that ultimately I could not have felt myself called upon, from personal motives, to take up my pen in his defence, had not the most sincere reverence for

INTRODUCTION.

. the eminent qualities and the great historical import ance of this Prince, induced me now, as it did then, impartially to say of him what I believe to be the truth, and thereby, as far as my feeble powers extend, to defend him against the unjust accusations, and the ill-founded judgments, with which German authors and journalists so perseveringly pursue him ; a circumstance which is the more singular, as the most dis tinguished men, both English and French, — and among them the brave Commodore who fought against him with so much energy, — have invariably done him more justice. EGYPT UNDER MEHEMET ALI.

Chapter I. Arrival At Alexandria

* glorious, ardent sun ushered in the morning of the ■**- new year of I8o7; a warm balsamic air breathed over the voluptuously rolling sea, but isolated black clouds hurriedly traversed the heavens, and frequently concealed from our sight the beneficent orb of day — an image of human life, even when most propitious. Mount Ida, clothed with the newly-drifted snow, shone splendidly in a sparkling robe of spotless white, relieved by the dark, deeply-indented garland of the rocks and mountains of Candia, which encompassed this classic beauty like a faithful body-guard. We glided gently along the smooth surface of the waters, in our comfortable felucca, and approached the brig Semindidshad, belonging to the Viceroy of Egypt, which was waiting for me in the naked, sterile bay of the island of Dur, and welcomed me with a salute of her guns.

An historical interest is attached to VOL. I. B this little brig, for Osman Pacha, the Viceroy's un grateful favourite, fled in this vessel to the Sultan, at Constantinople. I went on board with my small retinue, and in a few minutes found myself the only European (except ing one of my servants, who is a German,) among some hundred Candiots, Arabs, Turks, and Negroes, men of a strange countenance, and, for the most part, of a strange language ; each of them, however, was eager to testify his respect. The captain's cabin, which was supplied with all necessary conveniences, was obligingly assigned to me by Mustapha Pacha's order, and everything seemed to promise a most favourable voyage through the Lybian sea ; but I had too lively a remembrance of my usual fate on the ocean, confidently to indulge in any such hopes.

Towards evening we entered a part of the sea which was still agitated by the violent south wind of the preceding week. The waves beat furiously against us, and gave the most disagreeable shocks to our vessel, and th e favourable north wind by which we were impelled, rose, during the night, almost to a storm. I had, with much pains, arranged my cabin in apple-pie order, but alas, it soon came to a tragical end ! In a few moments all the tables, with papers, books, bottles and glasses, were overthrown with a terrible crash, and, while I held fast by my bed, at least to maintain my own post, a cask rolled across the deck, over the skylight of my sleeping cabin, and shattered the glass into a hundred pieces, which showered down upon me like pointed icicles. It was quite out of the question to think of clearing this chaotic mass, during the violent rocking of the brig, over which tho waves continually dashed ; beside this, all my servants were for many hours in such an agony of sea-sickness, that not one of them was visible for two days and nights, during all which time this storm lasted. , Had not an old negro, from Senaar, taken pity on me, I should have had no assistance whatever ; for neither the captain, of whom the negro said, with some contempt, " that he was himself sea-sick," nor any one ofthe crew, made their appearance.

In general, so much confusion seemed to prevail in the command, and all evolutions were performed so slowly, and with such noise — so different to what we are accustomed to in European men-of-war — that had I seen nothing more of Mehe met Ali's fleet than this brig, I should have formed a very unfavourable opinion of it. Nothing was to be done but to fortify myself with patience, to remain in bed as quietly as, under exist ing circumstances, was possible, and to leave my broken, scattered effects to roll themselves into order again as best they might. In this predicament I remained fifty hours with real Turkish phlegma, little affected by sea sickness, but quite unable to move. More than once I attempted, with no small pains, to per form the feat of drinking a cup of broth, which my compassionate negro presented to me in all the attitudes of a rope-dancer, in order to avoid spilling the half of it on my bed ; he also brought me a joint of mutton, which I endeavoured to pull to pieces with my fingers, so that at all events I might not be wholly deprived of necessary food. b The storm did not abate till after the space of nearly three days, during which we had made way by day with close-reefed sails, and by night had cautiously lain to, but had, notwithstanding, made from five to six knots an hour.

To my great joy I at length heard from one of my re suscitated servants, that the [Bay of Aboukir was visible on one side above the tossing waves, and that the Arsenal of Alexandria could be distinguished in the distant horizon. Though still greatly discom posed, and tormented with a violent headache — the usual effect of sea-sickness — I quickly threw on my cloak and ascended the deck. The ash-coloured waves still beat high against our vessel, which continued to rock from side to side, though in rather a more bearable degree than before. The sight of the sea, tinted by the waters of the Nile, and the view of Egypt, for which I had been longing so ardently, soon made me forget all my past sufferings and troubles. I rejoiced in the thought that, within a few hours, I should have the delight of setting my foot in the proud city of the immortal Macedonians, which, called into new life by a second Macedonian hero, and under him already raised to splendour, now lay before me with all its thousand romantic reminiscences, between the desert and the sea.

Alexandria, in its mingled oriental and European character, rose above the waves, and like a fata morgana, towered above the flat sandy banks, which sometimes appeared suddenly behind the foaming billows, and then again rapidly vanished from our sight. I saw before me, apparently resting on no solid basis, and as if floating in the air, glimmering white palaces, crenated walls, verdant palm-groves, and Pompey's lofty Pillar, fronted by a forest of masts, which extended from one end to the other of the noble harbour. A fort now stands on the site of the^ celebrated ancient Pharos of the Ptolemies, and the extensive residence of the Viceroy separates the new from the old harbour, which have changed places ; for the old harbour is the only one that is used, and the new harbour does not contain any ships, and is choked up by the sand.

The whole scene was in the highest degree striking and uncommon, and the nearer we approached, the more extraordinary did it appear ; the sight of the fleet especially, that colossal work which had been formed in the space of not more than eight years, by the hand of a creative genius, quite surprised me. It was the commencement of the festival of the Bairam, and, ten ships of the line, each of more than one hundred guns, six frigates, of above fifty, and twenty corvettes and brigs, were ranged in long rows, and adorned with innumerable flags and streamers of various colours, from the top-mast down to the very deck, and afforded a festive appearance of rare splendour. Scarcely had the pilot conducted us through the shallow entrance, when all the forts and vessels commenced a fire, which gave a complete notion of a naval engagement.