Essays on the nature, causes and effects of national antipathies, credulity and enthusiasm: with an historical review of the revolutions of empires, ... from the earliest ages to the death of Alexander the Great

Preface

. Essays are a species of writing of the greatest utility, and of the most general interest; their lan guage, which ought to be simple, perspicuous, and energetic, is addressed more to the understanding than the passions ; not that it should be so entirely unadorned as to be dry and insipid, — so purely men tal, as to admit of no figurative or hyperbolical ex pression. Some of the finest specimens of English composition, are to be found among the Essayists, — as well for ease, elegance, and gracefulness, as for purity, energy, and even sublimity. But it is not on this, their principal merit rests : in them, truth is dis passionately sought after, — her irresistible weapons dexterously and successfully wielded; — by them, error is detected and exposed, — liberty, in all her forms, asserted and maintained, — and the general cause of humanity promoted. What may be the merit of these Essays, it is not for the writer to iy

PREFACE.

. determine ; of one thing he is certain, that he has endeavoured to render them useful, entertaining, and worthy the approbation and esteem of the public. Some persons, perhaps, will be ready to ask, what end the author proposes to himself in publishing ? and he might reply, that, As to promote the general good of mankind ought to be the first object of a writer, and, as few works are published, which do not further it in some degree, he has proposed to himself this great object. But some one, it may be, would readily observe, that the author who wrote a large volume on the nightingale, wrote a larger preface, to prove he intended the public good. — Or, if he was to answer this query by stating, that he intended to aid the general cause of truth, literature, and science, some one might sarcastically sing — " Tis pleasing, sure, to see one's name in print, A book's a book, although there's nothing in't." — Or if he should answer this prying question by saying, that, after having studied languages, — searched into the works of the learned dead, — waded through histories; after having traced the progress of art and science, — attended to the wiles of the political, — turned aside the veil of superstition, — given the closest attention and application to discern the nature of man, he thinks he has some preten sions to publish as an author; someone would, per haps, dryly remark: — Finis to this, my would-be learned friend, In writing foolish books, — there is no end.

PREFACE.

. V Leaving, therefore, every one to guess, think, jest, or speak, what his pursuits or inclinations may suggest, he intends to pursue the peaceful tenour of his way. Of the Historical Review it may be proper to observe, that, though it is perhaps more comprehensive than might be expected from its limits, it is not designed so much for historical information, as to give a compendious view of the religious and political state, and of the great changes, of the ancient world. Man, in all his relations — in every shade of character — in the philosophy of his mind — in the history of his habits — is constantly the theme of the author. The king, the courtier, the philosopher, and the priest — in their pursuits, in the tendency of their passions and their objects, in their wisdom and their folly, in the heights of prosperity, and in the depths of adversity — are brought before the contemplations of the reader.

It also notices the state of the great mass of mankind, — marks the rise and progress of art and science, — the origin and advancement of civilization. On every subject on which there is a difference of opinion among the learned, the reader is left at liberty to form his own judgment; yet, on every occasion, the author has indulged in a free and impartial investigation, with out which, religion is bigotry, and learning mere pageantry. In Chronology, I have followed no particular system, knowing well the impossibility of reconciling different authors, both ancient and modern, with each other. Vi

PREFACE.

. Nor have I fixed upon any particular epoch for the discovery of most of the arts and sciences, but have left this to the decision of the evidence of ancient records ; I have only supposed, and not without ample testimony, that they were all discovered and much improved before the Trojan war. The Deluge, I believe, was topical, or limited to a certain part of the earth ; by the rejection of this truth, many authors have been driven into the grossest absur dities. Josephus was so pressed with the evidence of their great antiquity, that he says, the rudiments of them were engraved upon a pillar by Seth, which was standing after the deluge. The author of the History of Hindoostan is compelled, from the evidence of the early existence of this nation, and of its proficiency in the arts and sciences, to suppose they were preserved with Noah in the ark.

These con jectures go to prove the opposite of what they are intended, viz. that the earth was very populous, and civilization in a very high state of improvement, in the age of the flood. In this volume, some opinions will be found, which are opposed ter the most generally received notions, and will be looked upon with suspicion, if not with dread. If those doctrines which are held by many as sacred truths, should be brought within the meaning of the comprehensive term Supersti tion, and should be proved to be such, the author, with his book, by many, will in all probability be immediately condemned. But neither the novelty, nor the antiquity, nor the prevalency of a doc-

PREFACE.

. Vll trine, proves it to be either true or false. Error has held almost universal sway over mankind ; Truth has been long warring against her powerful auxiliaries and vast empire. Like another Hydra, with a hundred, or rather a hundred thousand heads, Error has terrified men into an acquiescence and obedience ; whilst Truth, like another Hercules, has severed these heads from the trunk : yet others have sprung up with equal rapidity, until impartiality and liberality of sentiment, like another Iolas, sears, and renders them unproductive and lifeless, and, it is to be hoped, will finally destroy the monster from the face of the earth. The effects of Error are, de lusion and wretchedness, — of the principles of Truth, enjoyment and felicity. The progress, therefore, of these principles is the highest good to Man, and an effort to elicit truth, at least merits his approbation and support.

Sheffield, March 31st, 1828. CONTENTS. Essays. PAGE The Causes, Nature, and Effects of National Antipathies, 1 Credulity of the Ancients, 58 Enthusiasm, 85 Historical Review. Part 1 110 Patt II ESSAYS. THE CAUSES, NATURE, AND EFFECTS OF NATIONAL ANTIPATHIES. Causes : Religion, Custom, Prejudice, Jealousy, and Ambition. — Nature : In its nature it is similar to those Antipathies which exist between individuals of opposing interests, inclinations, and pursuits, — Effects : The most obvious effects are, wars and contentions for every sort of superiority — superiority in bravery and military science; in commercial greatness and wealth ; in literature, antiquity, inventions, and genius. Mankind may very properly be c& sidered one family, under the superin tend ency of one common Parent and Creator of all.

For whatever distinc tions of casts, tribes, nations, or deno minations, have sprung up among men wherever there is reason, with those attendant qualities and powers peculiar to man, whether he dwell in the frigid, temperate, or torrid zone, there can be A no real or essential difference, on which to found a separate cast or genus. Reason and understanding are the distinguishing characteristics of a human being ; and wherever these are, however degraded the station, however obscured by inveterate custom, or sullied by vicious habits, however miserable, poor, or despicable, there is the same inestimable though unpolished gem ; the same ethereal though latent spark of intellect ; and in the most ignorant and wretched of human beings, the highest and mightiest of mortals beholds a brother. And where there is a same ness of nature, there must be kindred isflerests, and ought to be mutual attach ments : for, as all the members of the human frame sympathize with one that suffers, so ought the members of the human family to sympathize with each other.

But the opposite of this is the truth. It is very rare to find a species of animals that will devour each other ; yet man is the ordinary prey of man. Society is often divided into a certain number of real or imaginary grades, the more powerful and designing, preying upon the weaker and more credulous by the means of force and fraud. If such then is the real state of things, in communities established, ostensibly at least, with the design of promoting the prosperity and felicity of the whole, we need not make it a matter of sur prise, that different communities mani fest and retain mutual antipathies. Selfishness, in all its modifications, casts a dark cloud over the sun of reason in man, and gives rise to many pernicious propensities ; as, the unbounded desire of wealth, the lust of power, and the ambition of a deathless fame.

Nor is its influence limited to individuals only, it extends itself to states, kingdoms, and empires : nations glory, as well as princes, citizens, and subjects, in the display of their immense wealth, in mag nificent and stately edifices, in great designs, and in surprising productions ; and, as gold is said to be the sinews of war, in the splendour of military equipage, as well as in the vastness of martial prowess. Every people is also immoderately partial to its own natural and artificial advantages and productions, blindly at tached even to its own national failings and inconveniences. The native Indian almost adores his arrows and his battle axe, proudly adorning himself with the spoils of those who have fallen victims to his dexterity or valour ; the Esqui maux embraces the inhospitable shores of the polar regions with an affection it is impossible to overcome ; whilst the European slave glories in his superior policy and science.

The prejudices in favour of one's own country, though they may be less obvious where there is a proxi mity of climate and situation, are found to exist between every state and people. Before I proceed with the immediate subject of this essay, it will perhaps be necessary to define correctly what is to be understood by the term — national antipathies. In doing this, we shall be assisted, in some degree, by attending to the etymology of the word antipathy. It is compounded of the Greek, anti and pathos, defined by contra affectus ; that is, that which is opposed to passion or affection. In a physical sense, for few words have a greater number of acceptations, it imports a mutual con trariety or opposition of one thing to another. Water has a natural antipathy to fire ; light to darkness ; and cold to heat.

But when this term has a refer ence to nations, it is difficult to express precisely what it means. Perhaps, however, it consists in that mutual aver sion, an aversion bordering upon, and generating enmity and hostile disposi tions, which subsists, speaking generally, between the individual members and collective bodies of different states, communities, and kingdoms. In the infancy of the human race, laws had no existence ; every family was as a separate kingdom, governed by the father, as by a paternal monarch. Some of these families or infant states would flourish more than others, according as A they were protected by their own valour, or were industrious in their habits ; for, while valour was the means of protection and safety, industry furnished the means of supporting with greater facility themselves and a numerous offspring.

As these germs of societies increased in strength and number, and as they would soon have opposing interests, contentions and wars would naturally arise among them. The weaker tribes would frequently be oppressed and injured by their more powerful neighbours, who would rely, in most instances perhaps, more upon their prowess and bravery for support, than upon their own providence and industry. Revenge is natural to man, — is one of the first and most prevalent passions and principles he adopts for the regulation of his conduct. If the injured tribe could not, therefore, take vengeance on its enemy during the life of the chief, he inculcated it upon his offspring, as an indispensable duty, to redress the real or supposed grievances after his decease. This is the case with most uncivilized tribes in the present day ; particularly with those of New Zealand.

In the progress towards civilization, when man had to emerge from barbarity by the energy of his own mind and ingenuity, nature and custom were aided by superstition, and the enmities of individuals were transfused into whole tribes, and trans mitted from generation to generation. When any natural propensity in man is aided by custom and superstition, centuries pass away before any change, however desirable, can possibly be effected. Indeed, man, on his entrance into the world, is susceptible of almost any sort of impressions ; he may be modelled into the most lovely and beautiful personification of virtue, or may be transformed into the most de grading and hideous picture of vice. Custom wields an iron sceptre overman kind ; Superstition, like a mighty wiz ard, diffuses her enchantments over the face of the earth, against whose reign the few who discover her tyranny dare not to rise into open rebellion, for men adore with ecstacy their most bitter and virulent foes.

These, if we attend to the almost omnipotent influence they have over man, we shall find, are the most fruitful sources of national antipathies. It has been already observed, that, in the infancy of society, men would plun der and oppress each other; that en mities and wars would arise among them, which would be perpetuated from age to age ; that these would be in creased and strengthened afterwards by superstition and custom, — which is now to be proved. By superstition is meant all the false and forged religions that have obtained among men ; — by custom, those practices and pursuits by which men are formed in their manners of life and modes of thinking. In pursuing our subject, we shall pay some attention to the most ancient nations, among whom Egypt deserves the first consideration, both for her antiquity and celebrity.

This kingdom was in a great degree insulated from her neighbours by her religious and civil institutions. The secrets of her religion were written in hieroglyphical characters, intelligible only to her priests ; her customs and manners were such as habit and prejudice could only render tolerable. In her religious ceremonies were many things in themselves really ludicrous, but would appear much more so to the biassed minds of foreigners ; nor would many of her customs appear less so. Egypt far exceeds all the other nations of antiquity in the invention and knowledge of the mechanical arts and sciences; from her, perhaps, they all sprung, as from one prolific parent. But whilst she was venerated for her eminence in science, she was viewed with contempt on account of her singular manners, and her numerous and absurd superstitions.

In Persia and Greece, the females were confined to their own houses ; in the former country they were as closely confined as if they were actually imprisoned, having permission to see no persons but those who belonged to the family ; so were also the virgins of Greece, and it was considered in decent for a married woman to go beyond the limits of her own house. But, while their husbands tarried at home to spin and weave, the employ ment of females in other countries, the Egyptian wo m en went abroad to trad e and transact business in their places of public resort. A Greek or Persian, travelling into Egypt, would be naturally disgusted with the minute and frivolous customs of that people, for most of which he could see no reasonable motive ; he would, at the same time, be unconscious that he was subject to some that ap peared equally as much so to others ; those things appearing most reasonable to men in general, in which they have been brought up or educated.

These remarks will need only the illustration of a few of their most singular usages. How offensive it would be to the peo ple of other nations, to see the Egyptian and his beasts living in the same habi tation in the greatest concord and affection, and permitting this out of a religious veneration for them. To witness at the same moment, one per son tempering mortar with his hands, another working the water and flour to gether, of which they made bread, with his feet, — a part of the body necessarily exposed to all sorts of filth and dirt. They also ate the flesh of the bodies of many animals, but by no arguments could be induced to eat the head of any. Swine were considered by them such impure beasts, that if any one chanced to touch one, he ran immediately to a river, and, without taking off any of his clothes, leaped in, to wash away the imaginary pollution.

If a house was on fire, they permitted it to burn to the ground; but if a cat died, they shaved their eyebrows, if a dog, the whole body, and buried these animals in consecrated coffins with evident tokens of sorrow. These customs, viewed through the medium of a strong prejudice by the people of surrounding nations, naturally excited a degree of scorn, approaching to hatred ; whilst the Egyptians, because the former neglected them, and was addicted to others, which in their opinion were equally as opposed to reason, had such an antipathy to them, that they would by no means either salute them with a kiss, agreeably to ancient custom, or use the same knife, pot, or spit, nor even eat the flesh of an unblemished animal, which had been cut up with the knife of a Grecian or a foreigner. The religion of the Egyptians, no less than her customs, were such as to create disgust and aversion in the minds of the people of surrounding nations.

For, though Greece, along with some other countries, deified her heroes and heroines, such as Hercules and Ceres, Juno and Jupiter, yet they were mortals who had achieved some memorable exploits, or had bestowed some useful art, science, or invention, on their countrymen. But in Egypt, the meanest reptile was venerated and adored: to great numbers of them, temples were erected, whilst many of them were fed and guarded with the most unceasing care, and decorated with the richest ornaments ; and when any of them died, they were buried with more pomp, ceremony, and cost, than human beings of the highest rank and merit. Thus whilst the Egyp tians gloried in their deified brutes, they entertained the utmost antipathy to wards those who worshipped illustrious mortals ; whilst the Grecians imagined theirs to be, by far, the most rational religion, inasmuch as they venerated beings who had conferred most essen tial benefits on the human race ; and the antipathy of Egypt would be reflected back from Greece with invete rate malevolence. — What were the opinions and notions, which a more modern nation held of Egypt, may, in some degree, be gathered from one of her poets; who satirizes her thus : — Quis nescit, Volusi Bithynice, qualia demens Ægyptus portenta colat ? crocodilon adorat Pars hæc ; ilia pavet saturam serpentibus ibin, &c. Juven.

Sat. 15. " How Egypt, mad with superstition grown, Makes gods of monsters, but too well is known : B One sect devotion to Nile's serpent pays ; Others to Ibis, that on serpents preys. Where, Thebes, thy hundred gates lie unrepair u, And where maim'd Memnon's magic harp is heard, Where these are mould'ring, let the sots combine With pious care a monkey to enshrine ! Fish-gods you'll meet, with fins and scales o'ergrown ; Diana's dogs ador'd in ev'ry town, Her dogs have temples, but the goddess none ! Tis mortal sin an onion to devour, Each clove of garlic is a sacred pow'r. Religious nations sure, and blest abodes, Where ev'ry orchard is o'er-run with gods ! To kill is murder, sacrilege to eat, A kid or lamb — man's flesh is lawful meat !" Dryden. The enmity which existed between the Persians and Greeks, to those who are in any degree conversant with their history, must be palpably obvious.

Numerous causes tended to generate and strengthen it. Nothing could be more opposite than the customs and religions of these two nations. The Persians were pompous, effeminate, and servile ; the Grecians were brave, hardy, robust, and excessively fond of liberty. The felicity of the former consisted in languishing in voluptuousness ; the latter were enterprising, and gloried in an in vincible fortitude. What could be more contemptible to a Grecian than the gorgeous apparel and the ostentatious display of military trappings of the Persian warrior ? Whilst the simple rusticity of the Grecian soldier, would be viewed with scorn by his more polished and courteous neighbour. — It must not,-how ever, be omitted, that the ancient his torians account for the origin of this enmity, so inveterate between these nations, in another way.

They supposed it arose from those real or imaginary insults and injuries, the forcibly carrying away, and the violation of the persons, of each others beauties, so famous in ancient records. But these tales were discarded by some, laughed at by others, and disregarded by most. Parties in each country might desire, from mere wantonness, to retaliate ; but it is next to impossible that whole countries, after the lapse of so many centuries, should imbibe a settled hatred to each other from such an uncertain, frivolous, and ludicrous cause. Superstition will always, in every age, be found to be the most fertile soil for national antipathies. No doctrines or opinions take such deep hold of the human mind as those connected with religion ; and most false religions are cruel, — all, uncharitable and implacable.

This shall be fully illustrated in the pro gress of this Essay ; at present, those of the Grecians and Persians shall be at tended to as far as regards the subject. The intelligent, among the latter, reve renced the sun as an emblem of the in visible and eternal Deity ; but the vulgar adored it as the fountain of life, being, and intellect. That noble animal, the horse, was, as figurative of strength and fleetness, dedicated to the sun ; and the circle of the heavens was thought to be the only temple worthy so august a divinity. They associated with the sun, in their religious worship, the moon and stars, which they believed to be ani mated with a divine, ethereal principle. How much superior, therefore, without entering into further particulars, would the Persian consider his religion to be, to that of the Greeks, who erected temples of wood and stone, and adored statues made of the same gross, palpable material.

He would be scarcely con sidered as a being of the same species, who could worship mortals like himself, and perhaps would be placed a grade lower in the scale of intellect. At the same time, the Grecian would probably consider that man as approaching to a state of insanity, who could condescend to worship a being of whom he could have no certain knowledge. And there would, doubtless, for men are the same in all ages, be passing between these two nations the most sarcastical reproaches ; one party would be emphatically styled, the worshippers of the sun, and would be tauntingly asked at night perhaps, where is your god ? At the same time, it may be supposed, that the other party would retort by observing that the Grecian worshipped a being like himself. Perb2 haps the Persian would point to some puny or insignificant fellow, such as Homer's Thersites, whose figure was, — ■" such as might his soul proclaim ; One eye was blinking, and one leg was lame : His mountain-shoulders half his breast o'erspread ; Thin hairs bestrew'd his long mis-shapen head; Spleen to mankind his envious heart possest, And much he hated all— but most the blest." pointing to some such figure, he might exclaim — "There is an image of your divinity; worship, adore, pray to him!"

There is an antipathy to be found also, existing between nations of rival interests and ambition ; and before we altogether quit the ancients, this shall be elucidated by one instance from their history. We might, on this part of the subject, easily advert to the small states of Greece ; states which, from this cause, were perpetually warring and contending with each other ; these unceasingly sought, and finally effected, each others overthrow, until the independence of them all was involved in the monarchy of Macedonia. But the instance alluded to is more illustrative and apposite. Carthage was powerful by fleets, wealth, and commercial alliances ; Rome, by a keen-sighted policy, by mar tial discipline and valour. Each was ambitious to subdue its neighbour, to enlarge its dominions, and to reign with out the fear of a rival.

Carthage aided her ambition by a mercenary, cruel, and treacherous spirit of policy ; Rome, though no less ambitious than her com petitor, sought to gratify her lust of conquest by means of bravery, wisdom, and constancy. Sicily was the stage on which they first manifested their ani mosity to each other ; there, like two athletic wrestlers, equal in strength and skill, they contended for victory. In the pride of manly and almost gigantic vigour, (to follow up the metaphor,) they seized on each other: at one time, fr©m some unlucky incident, one of them was brought under, and almost subdued ; but, placing itself again in some favour able posture, it recovered breath and strength, reducing its antagonist, in its turn, to the same necessity, until Rome finally vanquished and subdued her foe. The ambition of conquest, the fear of rivalry, hurried them on to an immediate, sanguinary contest.

Rome might have led her victorious armies into Spain, which would have fallen an easy and wealthy prize to her bravery ; Carthage might have extended her conquests over the continent of Africa, and made her self much more formidable by the ex tent of her territories and the augmenta tion of her armies ; but, conscious of their own inherent strength, and jealous of the rising fame of each other, they scorned all subordinate objects, and meditated each others destruction. Hence, the citizens of these states fos tered an inveterate, mutual antipathy: perhaps a more deep-rooted and obsti nate one, was never found to exist be tween two competing countries. The following facts, familiar to all who are in any degree conversant with Roman and Carthaginian history, will serve to illustrate the foregoing remarks.

A victorious army of Roman soldiers, commanded by that renowned general, Regulus, approaches the walls of Car thage ; the inhabitants receive some foreign aid, and venture another engage ment; the Romans are defeated, many of them, along with their commander, are taken prisoners, and as a mark of infamy are made to pass under the yoke. Regulus is loaded with irons and cast into prison, where he remains for several years. Carthage in her turn suffers many defeats, and, weary of the war, sighs for peace. To accomplish this, Regulus is sent as an ambassador to his native country, being first sworn to return to captivity, if he could neither bring about a peace nor an exchange of prisoners. One would have thought that the pleasures of home, the smiles of friends, the endearing ties of rela tives, would have shaken the fortitude of the warrior.

But, what was the con duct of this Roman senator? It was directly opposite to the desire of his enemies. So virulent was his enmity to the Carthaginians, that he dissuaded his countrymen from peace, or even an exchange of prisoners ; and then returned to a voluntary exile and to death ! — On the other hand, we see Asdrubal, the father of Hannibal, leading his son to the altar of the gods, and constrain ing him to swear eternal hatred to the Roman name : whilst the renowned sage and patriot, the elder Cato, is said, seldom to have concluded a speech in the senate, without repeating these memorable words, " Carthage must be destroyed." Nor were these sentiments and feelings limited to a politic and patriotic few. Hannibal, animated with a hatred to the Roman name, passed with his army across the Alps to the fine, fertile plains of Italy, where, one would have thought, it would have sooner been exterminated by Roman valour, than even by the inclemency of those inhospitable mountains.

But this hardy captain of the age, engages and vanquishes the Romans. They raise another, a more numerous and powerful army than the former ; but the craftiness and skill of the wily Carthaginian is too much for the bravery of the far-famed Romans; and after repeated contests, he completely overthrows them at the battle of Cannæ, and sends a bushel of gold rings to his native city, to demon strate, by the number of knights slain, the greatness of his victory. After this signal defeat, and during the fifteen years Hannibal was in Italy, what was the conduct of the citizens of Rome? Does this pressure of calamities sink them into a state of despair? or do they call to their aid, by mercenary in ducements, foreign succours ; or servilely sue for peace ; or are these things so much as named? No! their invincible fortitude and firmness tacitly proclaims the sentiment of the patriot and philoso pher, Cato, — that the Africans must be conquered, and Carthage destroyed.