Cassell's Illustrated History of the Russo-Turkish War, etc

Chapter I

page The Herzegovina, and its relations to Turkey— The Insurrection of 1875— Active Propaganda— Excesses of the Turkish Troops— Progress of the Rebellion— Action of the Powers — Disastrous Condition of the Ottoman Empire — Pecuniary Embarrassment, and Partial Suspension of Interest on the Foreign Loan — Effect on Europe— Purchase by the English Government of Shares in the Suez Canal — The Andrassy Note— Its Acceptance in England and in Turkey— Fighting in the Herzegovina— Fruitless Attempt at Pacification — Extravagant Demands of the Insurgents — Increased Financial Difficulties at Constantinople— Salonica and its Associations — Outbreak of Religious Fanaticism — The Berlin Memorandum, expressing the View's of Russia, Austria, and Germany — Its insolent Pretensions, and covert Threat of War — The Memorandum supported by Italy and France— Refusal of the British Government to abet the Design— Policy of the Three Northern Empires ....... 1

Chapter II

English Opinion on the Eastern Question in May, 1876 — Bulgaria and its People — Dissensions between the Bulgarians and the Greeks in respect of the National Church — The Jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople repudiated by the Bulgarians — Various Religious Bodies in Bulgaria — Liberal Policy of the Porte — The Bulgarians and the Russians — Intrigues of Russia in European Turkey — Attempts to revolutionise Bulgaria— Greek Agents and their Disappointments — Condition of Bulgaria in 1875-G — Russian Designs in the East of Europe — Secret Societies in Russia for the Propagation of Revolutionary Doctrines— The Sclavonic Race, and its Position in European Turkey — Ambition of tbe Czars to reign at Constantinople — The National Sentiment and the Sentiment of Race — The Sclavonic Committee and its Branches — Objects of the Propaganda, and Methods by which it is worked — Opinions of the Moscow Gazette — Insurrectionary Movements in Turkey prompted by Pan-Sclavism — The Bulgarian Rising of 1876 — The Revolt stimulated and sustained by Revolutionary Agents — Premature Commencement of the Insurrection — Massacre of Mussulmans, 'with Circumstances of great Cruelty — Employment of Volunteers by the Turks— Goneral Description of the Disturbed Province — Philipi»opolis and its Characteristics . . . . . . .11

Chapter III

Influence of the Russian Ambassador over Sultan Abdul- Aziz— Irregular Forced of the Turkish Empire— The Bashi-Bazouks — The Circassians and their History — Violent Suppression of the Bulgarian Rising— Commission of great Atrocities by the Turks — Narrative by the Constantinople Correspondent of the Daily News — The Subject discussed in the British Parliament — Statements by Mr. Disraeli and Lord Derby — Unjust Imputations against the Prime Minister and Sir Henry Elliot — Reasons why the Government was not better informed— Turkish Official Reports— Inquiry by the Special Commissioner of the Daily News (Mr. J. A. MacGahan)— Horrible Condition of Batak— Reports of Mr. Schuyler, the American Consul-General for Turkey- Mission of Mr. Baring, Secretary to the British Legation at Constantinople — Principal Features of that Gentleman's Report — Contradictions between his Assertions and those of Mr. Schuyler — Programme of the Insurgents — Testimony of two Christian Commissioners — Reasons for doubting some of the worst Narratives — Maltreatment of Prisoners — Rewards bestowed on the Chief Wrong-doers — Anarchical Condition of Bulgaria after the Suppression of the Revolt — Trial of the Persons implicated — Alleged Renewal of the Outrages in the Autumn of 1876— Probability that the Statements were exaggerated . . . . .36

Chapter IV

Political Discontent at Constantinople— Demands of the Softas— Ministerial Changes — Mehemet Ruchdi made Grand Vizier — Influence of Midhat Pasha over his Colleagues in the Cabinet— Determination of the Ministers to Depose Sultan Abdul-Aziz— Measures by which the Deposition was effected— Proclamation of Murad V. — Imperial Hatt, foreshadowing Reforms — Suicide of the deposed Sultan — Assassination of Turkish Ministers by Hassan, a disgraced Circassian Officer— Designs of Servia— Secret Understanding between the Servian Prince and the Russian Emperor — Geographical Character of Servia, and previous History of the Country— Struggles of the Principality to obtain Freedom from Ottoman Rule— Progress of the Servians since their Partial Independence— Prince Milan and his Policy— Declaration of War by Servia against Turkey— War also Declared by Montenegro — Historical Sketch of the Montenegrins— Servia under the Government of Milosch Obrenowitsch — Unjustifiable Character of the Servian Attack on Turkey— Evil Influence of Russia— Progressive Steps by which a War of Fanaticism had been created ..................

CHATTER V. Bo-finning of the Servian War— Insincerity of the Pretences by which the War was preceded- Interchange of Notes with Turkey— Servia and the South Sclavonic Nationalities— Numbers and Composition of the Servian Army— The Servian Troops pass tho Fortified Position of the Turks at Nisch— Defeat of the Army on several Occasions — Servia eutered by the Turks— Serious Reverse of the Servians before Aleximitz — Russian Volunteers in the Servian Forces— Cowardice of the Servians — Proposals for an Armistice — Suspension of Hostilities agreed to — Montenegrin Successes — Prince Milan proclaimed King of Servia by the Army— The Dignity not accepted— Suggestions by Lord Derby for bringing the War to a Close— Renewal of Hostilities — CONTENTS.

VI PAS_ S7 Crushing Defeats of the Servians and their Russian Auxiliaries-Fall of Alexinatz and Occupation of Dehgrad-Auother Revolution at Constantinople-Murad V. succeeded by Abdul-Hamid II.-The Autumn Agitation in England on the bubjoct ot the Bulgarian Atrocities-Outbreak of Religious Fanaticism-Excitement of Public Opinion-Views of Mr. Gladstone on tne Eastern Question-Retrospect in Re-ard to the Conduct of Russia on the Question of Black Sea Neutralization-Subserviency of Mr. Gladstone to the Policy of Russia-Pamphlet by that Statesman on " Bulgarian Horrors -Exaggerated Statements, False Arguments, and Dangerous Conclusions-Mr. Carlyle on Russia and Turkey-Lord Beaeonsfleld s Speech at Aylesbnry-Influence of the Secret Societies-Vacillation of Lord Derby-His Despatch to Sir Henry Elliot reproving the Sultan and his Government for their Conduct in connection with the Bulgarian Massacres-Questionable Policy oi that Despatch-Development of English Opinion during the Autumn of 1876-Vigorous Attacks on Russia-The Turning of the Tide .... SO

Chapter VI

Commencement of a New Phase in the Events— Russia coming more unreservedly on the Scene— Proposals by the Czar for a Joint Military Occupation of Bosnia and Bulgaria— Lord Derby on the Settlement of Affairs— Views of Austria— Protest by England against the Presence of Russian Volunteers in Servia— Excited State of Popular Feeling in Russia and Turkey- English Plan of Reform rejected by the Porte, which propounds its own Scheme— Formal Demand by Russia on Turkey for an Armistice of a Month or Six Weeks— Suggestion by Turkey of an Armistice of Six Months— Discussion on the Subject— The Russian Ultimatum — Acceptance of the Shorter Armistice — Ideas of the English Government — Pacific Assurances of the Russian Emperor— Bad Faith of the Northern Power— Proposals by Lord Derby for a Conference— Speech of Lord Beaeonsfleld at Guildhall— Speech of the Emperor Alexander at Moscow— Despatch of Prince Gortschakoff on the Treaty of 1856— Objects and Methods of Proceeding of the Turkish Government— Anti-Turkish Opinions of Lord Derby— Lord Beaeonsfleld and the Golos— Departure of Lord Salisbury from London to attend the Conference at Constantinople— His Instructions— Suggestions for Turkish Reform, and for the obtaining of Guarantees—The "National Conference" at St. James's Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • .64

Chapter VII

Journey of Lord Salisbury to Constantinople — His Visits to Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and Rome — Opinions of the French, German, Austrian, and Italian Governments on the Conference and its Objects — Position of Germany with respect to the Eastern Question — The Alliance of the Three Emperors — Ambiguous Utterances of Prince Bismarck — Article in the Agence Russe on the approaching Conference — Proposal for a Belgian Occupation of Bulgaria — Article in the Novaeja Vremia — Question as to whether the Christians of Turkey were placed by the Treaty of 1856 under a European Protectorate — Mr. Gladstone's Speech on the Subject in the House of Commons — Fallacy pervading the View usually accepted — Lord Salisbury and General Ignatieff — First Meeting of the Preliminary Conference at Constantinople (Dec. 11th) — Demands on Turkey by the Powers — Austrian and Greek Objections to them — Encouragement given to the South Sclavonic Element — Hesitating Attitude of the English Government — Earnest Warnings of Sir Henry Elliot— Evident Determination of the Turks to resist Dictation to the last Extremity — Russia and Turkey both arming — Appointment of Midhat Pasha as Grand Vizier — First Meeting of the Plenary Conference (Dec. 23rd.)— Proclamation of the Turkish Constitution Us chief Provisions — Probabilities of the Future — The Plenipotentiaries attending the Conference — Proceedings in the Earlier"3tages of the Discussion — The Sultan and the English Plenipotentiary ............. 76

Chapter VIII

Opening of the Year 1877— Fourth Plenary Meeting of the Conference— Refusal of the Turks to discuss the Chief Proposals of the Ambassadors— Interview of Lord Salisbury with the Grand Vizier — Resort to the Language of Intimidation— Statement by Midhat Pasha of the Reasons why the Sultan could not accede to the Demands of the Powers— Counter-Proposals of the Turkish Minister— Odian Effendi, Special Envoy to London— Sittings of the Conference on the 4th, 8th, and nth of January- Complaints of the Turkish Plenipotentiaries that the demands of the Powers exceeded the Bases of the English Programme Ineffectual Attempt to answer their Arguments— Considerable Reduction in the Terms proposed by the Six Powers — Meeting of the 15th of January— Warnings by the Marquis of Salisbury— The New Proposals— Commissions of Control still to he retained— Ineffectual Nature of the Guarantee— Ninth Meeting of the Conference, on the 20th of January— Final Decision of the Porte— Speech of the Russian Minister— Termination of the Conference, and Departure of the Ambassadors— Russian Military Preparations and Financial Embarrassments— Money Troubles in Turkey— Popular Feeling in the Ottoman Empire- Debate in the Grand Council— Hungarian Sympathy with Turkey, and its Causes— Deputation of Hungarian Students to Constantinople—Dilatory Proceedings of the Turkish Government with reference to the Perpetrators of the Bulgarian Massacres —Mr. Gladstone's Pamphlet, " Lessons in Massacre "—Characteristic Exaggerations— Acts of Reparation hi the Philippopolis District— Failure of Justice— The Elections under the New Constitution— Fall of Midhat Pasha ....

Chapter IX

Prince GortschakofFs Circular Despatch on the Failure of the Conference-Circular Despatch of the Turkish Government- Character of the latter Document-The Withdrawal of Sir Henry Elliot from Constantinople-Russian preparations for attacking Turkey-Speeches of Mr. Gladstone in the British Parliament-The Question of Treaty Obligations-Exposition of Government Policy by Mr. Gathorne Hardy-Ambiguous Position of the Cabinet-Publication at Constantinople of a Pamphlet on the Secret Intrigues of Russia-Conclusion of Peace with Sevvia— Opening of the Ottoman Parliament— Speech from the Throne-Promises of Reform-The Chances of Success-Disturbed Condition of the Ottoman Empire-Spread of Disaffection m Turkey-Agitation m the European Money Markets-Arguments of the Peace Party in Russia-Mission of General I-natieff to the European Courts-Lord Salisbury and Opinion at St. Petersburg-The Protocol-Preliminary Discussions-Signature of the Documont— Accompanying Qualifications— Peace or War ?../.... jog

Chapter X

Remarks on the Protocol, and the Original Designs of Russia in proposing it— Russia's Device to gain Time— Reception of the Protocol by the Turkish Government— Determination to resist its Demands— Rupture of Negotiations with Monteuegro— CONTENTS. PAGB Circular of the Ottoman Government in Reply to the Protocol— Interview of Musurus Pasha with Lord Derby— The Emperor of Russia with the Army in Bessarabia— Departure of the Russian Representatives from Constantinople — Arrival of Mr. Layard as Temporary Ambassador from England, vice Sir Henry Elliot— His Views of Turkish Politics— Retirement of Prince Bismarck from the Active Conduct of German Affairs -Warlike Manifesto of the Emperor of Russia (April 24th) -Circular of Prince Gortschakoff to the Five Powers— Turkish Circular in Reply— Appeal to the Eighth Article of the Treaty of Paris (1856)— Address of the Sultan to his Armies— Despatch of Lord Derby to the British Ambassador at St. Petersburg (May 1st)— Vacillation and Insincerity of the English Government ..... ..... 113

Chapter XI

Composition of the Russian Army— Its State previous to 1874 — Evils and Hardships of the Old System— The Reforms of 1874, and their Chief Provisions— Exceptions to the Ride that every Male is liable to Military Service— Hard Life of the Russian Soldier —System of Punishments— Military Education— Deficiency of good Officers— Virtues and Defects of Russian Troops— Dishonesty among the Officers, owing to insufficient Pay — The Cossacks — Origin and Early Services of those Military Tribes — Their present Organization and Position in the Russian Army — Personal Appearance and Disposition — Strengthening of the Russian Forces in all Departments since 1860 — Report of General Milutin, Minister of War — Russian Field Artillery — The Army of the Caucasus — General Loris Melikoff and the Grand Duke Nicholas — Mr. Archibald Forbes on the Characteristics of the Russian Soldier — Corruption and Favouritism in the Military Administration — Instances of gross Peculation — The Russian Navy— Monitors, Turret-ships, and Ironclad Vessels— Manning of the Fleet— Errors committed by the Russian Naval Authorities — Unarmoured Ships in the Russian Fleet — Character of the Naval Officers and Crews ..... 123

Chapter XII

The Turkish Military System — Reform of the Ottoman Army by Mahmud II. — The Army an Instrument of Mohammedanism — Composition of the Forces — The Regulars, the Reserves, and the Militia — Military Schools — Exemption from Service to be obtained by Purchase — Character of the Turkish Soldiers — Want of Instruction in the Officers— Defects in the Sanitary Arrangements of the Army — Imperfect Drill — Armament of the Several Corps — Strength of the Turkish Army in the Balkans and Armenia at the Outbreak of War — Composition of the Corps of Zaptiehs, or Military Police — The Forces of Egypt — Influence of Religious Fanaticism on Mussulman Soldiers — The Turkish Navy — Size and Armament of the Principal Ironclads — Turkish Sailors and Commanding Officers — Admiral Hobart Pasha and his Antecedents — Defences against Russian Invasion — The Danube — Fortresses on the Southern Bank of that River — Importance of Varna as a Strategical Position — Capabilities of Schumla as a Position of Defence— Tirnova— General Character of the Balkans, with Reference to Defence — Passes through the Mountains — The Frontiers in Asia— Military Position of Armenia .......... 154

Chapter XIII

Crossing of the Turkish Frontiers in Europe and Asia by the Russian Armies— Breach of Rules, and Organized Duplicity— Bad Faith of the Roumanian Government — Conclusion of a Secret Convention with Russia — Position of Hostility towards Turkey assumed by Roumania — Circular of the Ottoman Government with Respect to the Conduct of Prince Charles and his Ministers- Progress of the Russian Troops towards the Danube — Unfavourable State of the Weather — Preparations for active Hostilities — Naval Operations of the Turks against Russian Coast Towns — Gallant Exploit of Admiral Hobart Pasha on the Danube — Early Operations in Asia — The Emperor of Russia at Odessa, Kieff, and Moscow — Speech to the Moscow Estates — Opinion in Russia as to the War — Opinion in Turkey — Loyalty of the Turkish Christians— Feeling of the Greeks — Informal Reply of Russia to the Despatch of Lord Derby— Mr. Gladstone's Resolutions— Meeting in Support of them at St. James's Hall — Division in the Liberal Party as to the Propriety of the Course suggested— Modification of the Resolutions — Progress of the Debate— Government Statement with Regard to British Interests — Defeat of Mr. Gladstone by a large Majority — Mysterious Intimations of Mr. Carly le— Isolation of Turkey — Subserviency of Persia to Russian Interests . . . . .148

Chapter XIV

The War in Armenia — Atrocities on both Sides — Rising in Abhasia — Advance of the Russians — Scattered Actions — Capture of Ardahan by the Invaders — Sukhum-Kale taken by the Turks — Incentives to a Religious War — The Armenian Christians- Pastoral Letter of the Patriarch — Siege of Kars— Operations against the Soghanli Dagh— Retreat of Mukhtar Pasha towards Erzeroum — Dissatisfaction at Constantinople— Advance of General Loris Melikotf through the Passes of the Soghanli Dagh — Further Retreat of the Turks — Erzeroum Imperilled— Difficul ties of the Russian Position — Concentration of the Turkish Forces — Retreat of the Russian Right — Heavy Fighting before Kars — Further Insurrectionary Movements in Abhasia — Defeat of the Turks at Zeidikan— Victories of Mukhtar Pasha— Attack on the Turkish Centre at the Soghanli Dagh— Retreat of the Russians— Failure of the Campaign — Withdrawal of the Invaders from then* advanced Positions — Active Pursuit by the Turks — Relief of Kars— Bayazid threatened by the Kurds, but relieved by General Tergukasoff— Naval Operations in the Black Sea- Panic at Odessa — Inactivity of the Turkish and Russian Fleets .......... 161

Chapter XV

Affairs on the Danube— Slow Progress of the Invaders— Blowing-up of a Turkish Turret-Ship— Taking of a Gunboat— Sinking of a Monitor by a Russian Torpedo— Turkish Apathy— Misconduct of the War— Debate in the Chamber of Deputies at Constantinople—Agitation among the Softas— Address of the Metropolitan of Kiscbeneflf to the Emperor of Russia— Address of the Sultan to the Expeditionary Force sent against Sukhum-KaW— The Religious Question— Mohammedans and Christians- Decree of the Prophet, granting complete Toleration to Christian Subjects— Disregard of the Rules there laid down— Causes tending to the development of Fanaticism— The Czar and the Roumanians— Visit of the Servian Prince to the Russian Emperor at Ployesti— Explanations to the Porte— Disaffected State of Bulgaria— Military Operations in Montenegro and the Herzegovina —Despatch of Lord Derby to Count Schouvaloff on English Interests in connection with the War— Reply of Prince Gortschakoff on the Motives and Designs of Russia— The Temptations of Ambition and Success ....... CONTENTS. VIII

Chapter XVI. Pags

First Causes of the Rivalry between Turks and Russians— History of Russia— Aboriginal Sarmatian Tribes— Origin of the Russian Nationality— Conquest of Novgorod by Rurik, the Scandinavian— Attacks on Constantinople by the Russians in early Tunes- Prophecy with respect to the Imperial City— Conversion of Olga to Christianity— Reign of Sviatoslaf— The Grand Duke Vladimir and his Reforms— Anarchy succeeding his Death— Reign of Taroslaf— Vladimir Monomachos and his Last Testament —Primitive Kingship and its Duties— Martial Character of the Russian Annals— Novgorod an Exception— Establishment of a Free Republican Government in that City— Power and Influence of Novgorod— Decay of its Prosperity— Present Appearance of the Town— Russia invaded by the Mongol Tartars— Ravages of the Golden Horde— Vassalage of the Russian Princes to Tartar Khans— Defeat of the Tartars on the River Don— Dissension among their Communities— Magnificence of their Capital on the Lower Volga— Then Toleration of Christianity— Humiliation of the Russian Princes— Ivan Vasilivitch, First Czar of Muscovy , —Inglorious Reign of Vasilii Ivanovitch— Strange Career of Ivan the Terrible— Bad and Good Deeds of that Monarch- Development of Civilisation in Russia in the Sixteenth Century— Intercourse between the Russians and the English at that Period— Admiration of Queen Elizabeth at the Russian Court— Character of the Muscovites early in the Seventeenth Century • ■ .182 CHAPTER XVH.

Russian History continued— Feodor I. and the Dictator Boris Godunof— Alleged Assassination of the Child Dimitri, Heir to the Throne— Different Versions of the Story— Military Services of Boris— Legalisation of the System of Serfage— Death of Feodor I.— Distracted State of Russia during a Period of Interregnum— Politic Conduct of Boris— His Acceptance of the Throne at the Request of the People— Incidents of his Reign— Liberal and Despotic Measures— Temporary Successes, followed by Famine and Anarchy — Appearance in Poland of "the False Dimitri" — Extraordinary Statement of the Pretender to the Russian Throne— His Claims supported by Poland— His Entry into Russia at the Head of a small Polish Army — Military Successes— Death of Boris— Dimitri enters Moscow in Triumph, and succeeds to the Crown— Unpopularity of His Rule- Outbreak of a Conspiracy, and Murder of Dimitri— Another Period of Anarchy— Appearance of fresh Claimants to the Throne — Election of the First of the Romanoffs— Ceremonies at the Inauguration of the Russian Czars— Oriental Splendour of the Muscovite Court — Invasion of Russia by the Poles and Swedes— Wars with the Cossacks and Turks — Social Reforms of the Emperor Alexis — Early Incidents in the Reign of Peter the Great — Character of that Monarch — Barbarous Condition of Russia in his Days— Ambition of Peter to make his Country a great Naval Power— His Visits to Holland and to England — Building of St. Petersburg— Assumption by Peter of the Title of Emperor — Suspicious Death of his Eldest Son, Alexis — The Extreme Despotism of Peter's Government, and its Effects on Modern Russian History— Reigns of later Sovereigns . . .194

Chapter XVIII

Russian History continued— Conspiracy of the Empress Catharine against her Husband— Peter III. deposed, and shortly afterwards murdered — Reforms instituted by Catharine — Her Policy with respect to Poland — Previous History of that Country — Noble Career of John Sobieski — His Defeat of the Turks before the Walls of Vienna — Miserable Condition of Poland, owing to the Predominance of the Aristocracy — Ineffectual Attempts of Sobieski to introduce Reforms — Decline of the Polish Power, and Subserviency of the Country to Russia — Reign of Stanislaus Augustus — Religious Oppression by the Roman Catholics, and Interference of the Empress Catharine — League of Russia, Prussia, and Austria, against Poland — Partition of that Country ' in 1772, 1793, and 1795 — Subsequent History of Poland — Despotic Rule of Russia, and Fruitless Attempts at Insurrection — Present State of the Polish Nationality — Domestic Policy of Catharine — Reigns of Paul, Alexander I., and Nicholas — Accession of the Present Sovereign — Emancipation of the Serfs — Enormous Extension of Russian Power — Social Condition of the Empire .................. 207

Chapter XIX

History of the Turks — Origin of the Race in the Deserts of Tartary — Their Settlement between the Euxine and Caspian Seas- Association of the Turks with the Saracens, leading to their Conversion to Mohammedanism — Establishment of the Turkish Power in Asia Minor — Successful Career of Ertoghrul — Conquests of Othman, or Osman — The Capital of the Turkish Dominions fixed at Broussa — Decline of the Greek Empire — Its Distracted Condition in the Fourteenth Century — The Turks invited into Europe, to assist a Claimant to the Throne of Constantinople — Their Conquests under Orchan and his Successors — Crushing Defeat of the Christians at Kossova, in Servia — Death of Amurath I. — Formation of the Corps of Janizaries — Corruption of Turkish Manners — Martial Career of Sultan Bayazid, or Bajazet — His Defeat by Timur, the Tartar Khan — Interregnum in Turkey — Reign of Mohammed I. — Amurath II. and his Achievements — His Contests with the Christians under John Huniades— Bad Faith of the Hungarians and their Allies— Terrific Defeat of the Christians at Varna, in 1444 — Extraordinary Career of Scanderbeg— Death of Amurath II. — Political Condition of the Turkish Empire in the Middle of the Fifteenth Century — Recent Reforms — Energy of the Turks under the Rule of Mohammed II. ... 221

Chapter XX

Turkish History continued— Commencement of the Reign of Mohammed II.— His secret Policy with respect to the Eastern Empire- Degraded Condition of Constantinople— Projects of Mohammed for Conquering the City— He builds a Fortress on the European Side of the Bosphorus, with a View to closing the Straits— Remonstrances of the Emperor Constantine— Threatening Reply of the Sultan— Warlike Preparations— Enormous Cannon cast at Adrianople— Arbitrary Actions of Mohammed— Fatal Apathy of the Byzantines— Attempt of the Emperor to effect a Union of the Greek and Latin Churches— Ancient Byzantium and Modern Constantinople— Surroundings of the City— Its Defences at the Time of Mohammed II.— Preparations for the Attack— Splendid Appearance of the Sultan's Army— Spirited Defence of the Constantinopolitans— Progress of the Siege— Arrival of Greek Vessels to the Relief of the Citizens, and Defeat of the Turkish Galleys— The Ottoman Fleet carried overland to the Golden Horn— Dissensions in the City— Futile Negotiations between the Emperor and the Sultan— The Grand Assault ordered— Capture of Constantinople on the 29th of May, 1453— Death of the Emperor Constantine— Treatment of the City and of the Inhabitants by the Sultan— The Imperial Family of the Palæologi— Effects on Europe of the Fall of Constnn+'iople ............... oqq CONTENTS. IX

Chapter XXI

-AGB Turkish History continued— Effects of the Fall of Constantinople— Balance between Islamism and Christianity temporarily impaired, but soon restored— Conquest of Greece by Mohammed II.— Suppression of the Empire of Trebizond — Martial Career of the Sultan— His Reverses and his Victories— Character of. the Man and of his Reign— Feeble Rule of Bayazid II.— Civil War in Asia— Incidents in the Reign of Bayazid— Mutinous Spirit of the Janizaries— Treacherous Cruelty of the Sultan— Deposition of Bayazid— War with Persia under Selim I.— Persecution of the Shiites— Conquest of Syria and Egypt— Extraordinary Series of Triumphs— Succession of the Sultan to the Spiritual Perogatives of the Caliphs— Preparations for the Conquest of Persia, and Death of Selim— The Two Barbarossas, and their Conquest of Algiers— Military Achievements of Solyman the Magnificent Terror inspired by the Ottoman Navy— Political Rule of Solyman— His Merits as a Sovereign— Feeble Character of Selm II. —Depredations of the Barbary Pirates on the Christian Countries of the Mediterranean— The Battle of Lepanto Great Defeat of the Ottomans— Results of the Christian Victory lost by Want of Energy and Cohesion— Secret Treaty with Venice —The Decline of Turkish Power to be dated from the Reign of Selim II.— Causes of that Decline, as indicated by various Historians . . . . . . . , . . . m , t p _ 247 CHAPTER XXn.

Turkish History continued— Decline of Turkey as a Conquering Power— Development of Indolence and Sensuality— The Fall of the Turkish Empire anticipated in the First Half of the Seventeenth Century— Speculations of Dr. Heylyn— Predatory Incursions of the Cossacks — War with Persia — Character of Amurath IV. — Recovery of the European Powers from their Depression — Turbulence of the Janizaries— Accumulated Disasters— English Embassy to Constantinople in the Reign of Charles II.— Paul Rycaut's Account of the Turks at that Period— Turkish Fear of the Russians in the Second Half of the Seventeenth Century —Causes of Turkish Decay, according to Rycaut — Treatment of the Christians— Contemptuous Toleration and Harsh Obstruction — Renegades from Christianity — The Austrian Empire as a Rival to the Ottoman Power — War on the Danube- Heroic Efforts of Mustapha II.— The Peace of Carlowitz— Reign of Achmet III. — War between Russia and Turkey (1768-74)— The Treaty of Kainardji— Commencement of the Russian Protectorate over the Eastern Christians— Amelioration in the Condition of the Christians antecedent to Russian Interference— Predominance of Russia in the East— Acquisition of the Crimea— War of 1787-91— Misfortunes of the Turks— The Treaty of Jassy— Russia in the Black Sea— Civil War in the Turkish Empire- Invasion of Egypt by the French under Bonaparte— Turkey at War with England and Russia— The Reforms of Selim III. — Deposition and Murder of Selim — Brief Reign of Mustapha IV. ........ 263

Chapter XXIII

Tiu-kish History continued — Turbulent Commencement of the Reign of Mahmud II. — Rising of the Janizaries — Destruction of the Palace of the Grand Vizier, and Death of Bairaktar — The Sultan besieged in the Seraglio — Desperate Fighting in the Streets of Constantinople — Assassination of Mustapha and his Women — Restoration of Tranquillity — Proposed Conditions of Peace between Russia and Turkey — Serious Reverses of the latter — The Peace of Bucharest (May, 1812) — Distracted Condition of the Turkish Empire — Romantic Career of Ali Pasha — Commencement of the Revolt in Greece — Claims of the Greek Race — Ineffectual Rising — The Movement in the Morea — Spread of the Rebellion over other Parts of Greece — Enthusiasm for the Greek Cause in England — Shelley and Byron — Progress of the Struggle — Ferocity of the Combatants on both sides— Intervention by England, France, and Russia — Refusal by Sultan Mahmud to accept Terms from the Powers — The Battle of Navarino, and its Results — Internal Reforms of the Sultan — Destruction of the Janizaries — The Treaty of Akerman — Renewed War with Russia — Disasters of 1828-9 — The Peace of Adrianople — Action of England in Opposition to Russia — Troubles with Egypt — The Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi— Death of Mahmud II. ............. 275

Chapter XXIV

Turkish History concluded— Accession of Abdul-Medjid — Progress of Affairs in Syria and Egypt — The Hatti-Sherif of November, 1839, confirming and enlarging the Reforms of the late Sultan — Negotiations with Mehemet Ali — Interposition of England, Russia, Austria, and Prussia —Action of the Four Allied Powers in Syria — Submission of Mehemet Ali — Singular Career of that Ruler — Toleration in Turkey under the Sceptre of Abdul-Medjid — Favourable Opinion of Lord Shaftesbury in 1854 — Social Reforms and Development of Prosperity — Position of Turkey towards the Rest of Europe — The Sultan and the Hungarian Refugees — Design of the Emperor Nicholas — His sounding of the British Government in 1844 — The Dispute between France and Russia with Respect to the Guardianship of the Holy Places (1850-53) — Extravagant Demands of Russia — Ultimatum of Prince Menschikoff — His Retirement from Constantinople on the Rejection of the Russian Demands by Turkey — Manifesto of the Czar — Crossing of the Pruth by the Russians — United Action of France and England — Position of Napoleon III. — Preliminaries of the War of 1853-6 — Turkish Disaster at Sinope — Russian Advances towards England — Sir Hamilton Seymour's Conversations with the Czar about " the Sick Man" — Declaration of War by France and England against Russia — The Crimean War and the Peace of 1856 — Subsequent Condition of Turkey .......... 287