The War in Syria

Front matter

THE WAR IN SYRIA. BY COMMODORE SIR CHARLES NAPIER, K.C.B., %C, IsC, tfC. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. LONDON: JOIIN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND. M.DCCC.XLII. London : ' Harrison and Co., Printers, St. Martin's Lane.

ADVERTISEMENT.

. In giving an account of the War in Syria, I have endeavoured to state the facts as they occurred, of most of which I -was an eye witness. The Levant Papers have furnished rue with much useful information, and I have endeavoured to make no statements that cannot be borne out either by them or by documents in my own possession. In writing a work of this kind I have been obliged to publish letters and extracts of letters from these Papers, in order to save the reader the trouble of examining them, and, indeed, it is not in the power of the public to get hold of Parliamentary Papers without a serious expense ; this I trust will be a sufficient excuse for the numerous documents that I have thought it necessary to give. May, 1S42. a VAGF. 1 12 CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME Chapter I. State of Affairs in the Levant in August, 1839— The Author's Interview with Hosrew Pacha — Sir Robert Stopford at Constantinople ; his Interview with the Sultan — Impolitic Junction of the English and French Fleets — Sir John Louis takes the command of the English Squadron — The Author tenders his Resignation ......

Introduction

. In writing the history of the War in Syria, I began after the battle of Nizib, and the defection of the Turkish fleet, which had well nigh laid Turkey prostrate at the feet of her powerful vassal; but it is necessary that the uninformed reader should be acquainted how Mehemet Ali, who began a simple soldier, should have risen to such a height of power as to attract the attention of the nations of Euroj>e, and cause them to come forward, at the imminent risk of a European war, to inter fere between the vassal and the master. Mehemet Ali is of low origin, and was born at Cavallo, in Roumelia, in 1769. He left his parents when young, and began his career as a tobacco-merchant, but soon tired of trade, be came a soldier, and was sent to Egypt, at the time of the French invasion, at the head of a body of Arnauts (Albanians.) After the eva cuation of Egypt by the French, he made him self extremely useful to Kourschid Pacha, the

INTRODUCTION.

. XII governor of Egypt, who was unpopular with the Mamelukes, and disliked by his own soldiers. Mehemet was too clever for the Governor, and soon began to see an opening for himself. Kourschid became jealous, and endeavoured to set rid of him ; but the future Pacha of Egypt had gained over his countrymen to his interest, and, with the assistance of the Mame lukes, deposed the Pacha, and stepped into his shoes. His own talent, and the weakness of the Porte, kept him in place; though many attempts were made to remove him. Mehemet Ali never openly opposed the Porte ; he was the most submissive of Pachas, and always managed to gain his point, and each unsuccessful attempt of the Porte to displace him left him more powerful than ever. When the British landed at Damietta, in 1807, Mehemet Ali ruled in Egypt, and it was principally owing to his energetic conduct that the expedition failed.

The massacre of the Mamelukes, which took place in 1811, cannot be justified, even according to Eastern ideas. That they were extremely troublesome and dangerous there cannot be a doubt ; they would have had no hesitation whatever in overthrowing Mehemet

INTRODUCTION.

. XIII Ali's government, and putting him to death ; and had he openly attacked them, he would have been justified ; but a breach of hospitality is a greater crime in the East than in the West. He had invited the Mamelukes to eat salt with him, and he treacherously attacked aud butchered them in the citadel of Cairo in cold blood. One alone escaped ; he took a desperate leap over the battlements, his horse was killed on the spot, and he alone, of between 400 and 500, survived to tell the story of the massacre of his fellows. About this time the Pacha began to extend his views beyond Egypt, and his first step was to take advantage of the opening afforded by the depredations of the Wahabees, a reforming military sect of Arabs, who had captured Mecca and Medina, plundered the caravans, and put a stop to the pilgrimages of the Faithful.

Less actuated, it may be fairly supposed, by religious zeal than by political wisdom, he procured orders from the Porte, by virtue of which he attacked, and at length, after several campaigns, succeeded in subduing them ; his two sons Toussoon and Ibrahim greatly exerting them selves in the war. The pachalic of the Holy Cities was in consequence granted by the Sultan

INTRODUCTION.

. to Ibrahim, but Mehemet Ali pushed his arms still further, and did not desist till he had got into his possession the most valuable parts of the coast of Arabia. Shortly after the massacre of the Mame lukes, Mehemet, with the assistance of Colonel Seve (now Souliman Pacha), an officer of merit in the French service, set to work to raise an army and to discipline it on the European model. The latter was no easy task; he had to contend against the habits and prejudices of the Arabs, but nevertheless, he succeeded in this, as he has done in most of his under takings. In 1824 he was enabled to send a powerful army and fleet to Greece to assist in putting down the insurrection ; here the Allies interfered; the "untoward" battle of Navarino destroyed his fleet, and not more than half his army returned to the land of their birth.

As a reward for his services, however, the government of Candia was conferred on him by the Porte. From this time to 1831 Mehemet Ali employed himself in improving his country, and perfecting his establishments ; and though according to our notions, the means he employed were not very mild or humane, the public works

INTRODUCTION.

. XV he executed in a short time were almost as wonderful as those of Peter the Great. His military and naval conscriptions, and other acts of tyranny, induced many of the inhabitants of Egypt to abandon their country and take refuge in Syria, and they were pro tected by Abdallah Pacha, the Governor of the province in which stands the celebrated fortress of St. Jean dAcre. This Pacha was under considerable obligation to Mehemet Ali ; but, nevertheless, disregarded all his remonstrances. Mehemet Ali was not a man to be trifled with ; and, under the pretence of recovering his Fellahs and punishing Abdallah Pacha, he took steps from which the far-famed Eastern Question at length arose. He assembled an army of 40,000 men, in cluding eight regiments of cavalry, and several thousand Bedouins, a large park of artillery and a battering train.

At the head of this army he placed his son Ibrahim Pacha. A squadron of five sail-of-the-line and several frigates were despatched to Acre in the month of November, 1831, a season of the year rather too late to commence a campaign. Neverthe less, Ibrahim having crossed the Desert, set himself down before Acre in December.

INTRODUCTION.

. The Grand Prince of Lebanon, the Emir Bechir, after much hesitation, paid him a visit in his camp before Acre, and brought presents of horses for Ibrahim and Abbas Pachas, and endeavoured to make his visit one of compliment only. Ibrahim, seeing the immense ad vantage of gaining him over to his interest, either by force or persuasion, detained him in his camp for several months, and at last obtained a promise of his co-operation ; he was then permitted to return to Ibteddin, leaving, however, his grandson, the Emir Mahmoud, as a hostage for his fidelity. The siege was conducted with so little skill both by land and sea, that six months elapsed before the fortress fell into the possession of Ibrahim Pacha, and then it was taken by storm. The following, extracted from the work of Mr. St. John, is the best account I have been able to procure*.

" Ibrahim on the 26th of May, ordering the generals, colonels, and chiefs of battalions into his tent, made the following arrangements for carrying the place by storm. Ahmed Bey, General of Bri gade, with the first battalion of the second regiment of infantry, was directed to mount the breach near * Egypt under Mohammed Jtf.i, vol. ii., pp. 493 — 490".

INTRODUCTION.

. XVII the tower of Kapoo-Boorjou; to the second battalion, the breach opposite Nebi-Saleh was assigned, and to the third, that of Zavie ; each assaulting party to be supported by a party in reserve. About an hour after midnight, scaling ladders were commanded to be brought to the trench near the tower of Keiim Boorjou. Each officer, moreover, received particular instructions. During the night the batteries kept up a continual fire upon the city, and immediately after sunrise the order for the assault was given. The breaches of Zavie and Nebi-Saleh were at once carried; but the detachment which had been directed against the tower of Kapoo-Boorjou, meeting with some resistance, exhibited signs of trepidation, and was about to give ground. Observing this, Ibrahim, sabre in hand, advanced towards them, and suc ceeded, by vehement menaces, in arresting their retrograde movement.

At the same time the reserve advanced to their support, and while a part of the men kept the enemy in check by a well-directed fire, the others threw up an intrenchment. '■' In the city, the Turkish soldiers, whose num bers had been reduced to about 2000, with the chivalrous Abdallah Pacha at their head, exhibited eminent proofs of bravery. In one hour and a half they made three different sallies, and though con stantly repulsed, left upon the minds of the besiegers a high idea of their indomptable intrepidity. The cannonading continued all day on both sides. At the breach of Zavie, the Arabs having penetrated

INTRODUCTION.

. to the gate near the tower of the Khazne, Abdallah Pacha, followed by his staff, attacked them in person, and driving them beyond the ditch where they were exposed to the fire of the besieged, they retired under the cover of their own battery. Ibrahim, supported by a great number of inferior officers, endeavoured to bring them once more to the charge; but they again gave way, and retired before the Turks. He now ordered one of his chaooshes to snatch the colours from the standard-bearer, and advance towards the enemy. The soldier refused to deliver them. A second was sent, and met with the same refusal; but the standard-bearer himself now marching forward to the breach, was followed by the Arabs, who returned to the charge with so much fury, that they succeeded in reaching the parapet, from behind which they dislodged the enemy with stones.

Such was the nature of the contest for hours, a series of successes and disasters, more fatal, however, to the Turks than to the Arabs, since, their numbers being small, every man was missed. At length the firing ceased on both sides ; and this sus pension of slaughter continued until half past five in the afternoon. "In this interval, the principal engineer was directed to reconnoitre a part of the wall, where Ibrahim supposed the scaling ladders might be suc cessfully applied; and his report confirming the suspicion of the General, orders were issued to com mence the escalade. As the operation was conducted

INTRODUCTION.

. XIX in the teeth of the enemy, who maintained a constant and murderous fire, the number of men who fell in effecting it was considerable ; but their efforts were at length crowned with success, and a party of horse also throwing themselves into the town, the besieged perceived that all further defence was impracticable, and demanded quarter. Immediately afterwards, a deputation consisting of certain officers of artillery, with the mufti and imam of Abdallah Pacha, arrived, imploring the clemency of the victor. They were graciously received by Ibrahim, who promised them his protection, and even allowed the officers to retain their arms. To Abdallah Pacha, life only was gua ranteed. By this time the city was filled with soldiers, and those excesses and atrocities, too common on the storming of towns, took place ; but such property as could be discovered was next day restored to the owners.

It has been asserted, upon the authority of an European consul, then in the city, that the soldiers of Ibrahim were allowed seven days' sack of the town ; but the author of this report is an ardent partisan of Abdallah Pacha; and it may be further remarked that, since Mohammed Ali aimed at gaining a permanent footing in Syria, the thing itself is im probable. "Abdallah Pacha, two days after the taking of Acre, was sent prisoner into Egypt, where he was received with the honours due to a brave man, and had a palace, situated on the island of Rhouda, assigned him for his residence."

INTRODUCTION.

. XX The Turkish Government were not unwilling to see Abdallah Pacha deprived of Acre, as they thought he had assumed an air of too much independence, and they also hoped that Mehemet Ali, who they saw with a jealous eye was becoming too powerful, would exhaust his resources by undertaking a campaign in Syria. After the capture of Acre the Porte soon began to perceive that Abdallah Pacha's position was taken possession of by a more powerful, a more ambitious, and a more dangerous vassal; they therefore ordered him immediately to withdraw from Syria, and not expecting compliance, collected an army of 20,000 men on the banks of the Orontes, and advanced another from Anatolia, to oppose him. Mehemet Ali, however, had no idea of satisfying himself with the capture of Acre. He had now passed the Rubicon, and he di rected Ibrahim to advance a part of his army on Balbeck to watch the operations of Hussein Pacha, who commanded the Ottoman army, and to occupy Damascus with the remainder.

Ali Pacha, who commanded the Turkish troops in that city, evacuated it without firing a shot, and retired on Horns, by the old road of Pal myra, and joined the Turkish army.

INTRODUCTION.

. XXI Ibrahim Pacha, having now possession of Damascus, advanced on Khan Kousseir, where he arrived on the 6th of July. The next morning he attacked and defeated a part of the Turkish army, and took 3000 prisoners and 13 field pieces. On the 8th the Egyptian army entered Horns, and took 1500 prisoners and 14 guns. The remains of the Ottoman army retired on Aleppo, and formed a junction with the force under Hussein Pacha ; from thence they continued their retreat, in two columns, on Beylan, and soon after Ibrahim took possession of Aleppo, where he halted a short time to reorganize his army, On the 29th he again came in sight of the Ottoman army, again attacked, and again defeated them, taking 25 guns and 2000 prisoners. On the following day the Egyptians entered Alexan dretta, where they found 14 guns and abundance of stores and provisions ; and the Turks now retired on Mount Taurus.

The Sultan becoming alarmed for the sta bility of his throne, made great exertions, and speedily collected an army of 50,000 men, and a good train of artillery, and placed them under the command of Rechid Pacha, the Grand Vizier. The Egyptian army had now

INTRODUCTION.

. assembled at Adana, and on the 14th of October they drove the Turks from the defiles of Mount Taurus, and on the 20th the Egyp tian advanced guard occupied Erekli, where they remained till the 27th of November. On the 13th of December, the whole army w-as put in motion, and arrived at Koniyeh on the 17th, the day after the Turks had evacu ated it. From that time to the 20th of December, various movements took place on both sides, and on the 21st the battle of Koniyeh was fought, when the Ottoman army was totally defeated and dispersed by Ibrahim Pacha, and the Grand Vizier taken prisoner. Nothing now hindered the conqueror from marching on Scutari, where he might have arrived early in January, and before the Russians had reached the Bosphorus. Had he followed this course, Constantinople would have been revolutionized, and the power of the Sultan overturned, and most probably Mehemet Ali would have been placed on the throne of Osman.

The Egyptian army did not leave Koniyeh till the 20th of January, 1833, and reached Kutayah on the 1st of February. The Rus sians had by that time arrived in the Bos-

INTRODUCTION.

. XXIII idioms, called in by the Sultan, who, being neglected by his natural friends, was obliged to apply to his natural enemy to protect him from the rebellion of one of his own subjects. The arrival of the Russian squadron and army in the Bosphorus decided Ibrahim to enter into negociations, and the Treaty of Kutayah, by which the Ottoman empire was saved from immediate destruction, was signed, the Pachalic of Adana and the whole of Syria (by far the most valuable part of their conquests,) being entrusted to Mehemet Ali and his son. This Treaty, so mortifying to the Sultan's pride, was followed by that of Unkiar Skelessi, and the consequent departure of the Russian squadron from the Bosphorus ; they had, how ever, learnt the road to Constantinople, which neither the British nor French Governments ought to have permitted, and the time is not far distant when they will profit by their experience.

Shortly after the Treaty of Kutayah, Ibra him retired within the defiles of the Taurus, and the whole province was formally put under the government of Mehemet Ali. Had the Pacha of Egypt been a wise man, aud ameliorated, in the slightest degree, the

INTRODUCTION.

. condition of the people he had released from the barbarous rule of the Turks, so as to have made them feel the difference, he might have consolidated his power both in Syria and Egypt, and restored these two fine countries to prosperity. His tribute to the Porte was small, and he possessed the power to render the people both prosperous and happy. The conduct of his army, too, when passing through Syria had been most exemplary, and the inhabitants had to their astonishment observed the wonderful difference between an irregular and undisciplined Turkish force and the order and regularity of the Egyptian troops, and, generally speaking, were most favourable to the change of masters. But Mehemet Ali, though possessing ten times the intelligence and energy of a Turk, was still an Oriental, and only knew how to govern the people entrusted to his charge with Eastern despotism.

The powers of Europe now turned their attention to Egypt with increased interest, and England Avas the first to establish a permanent agent and Consul at the Court of Alexandria ; her example was followed, shortly after, by the other great powers of Europe. Mehemet Ali had been permitted to send his officers to

INTRODUCTION.

. XXV England, and they were instructed in our dock yards in the art of ship-building, and were even received on board our ships to be instructed in seamanship and discipline. What greater proof could we have given of the interest we took in Mehemet Ali, than such a distinguished mark of favour? and what other conclusion could he have drawn, than that we were favourable to his government? The French were not behind us ; they even went farther. A French officer of distinction had disciplined the Pacha's army ; he had now also a French Admiral at the head of the navy ; and great credit is due to both for the state of order and discipline into which they have brought both arms of the service. Had Mehemet Ali been now satisfied, he might have lived to see the inhabitants of the countries he ruled rich aud prosperous, and invoking blessings on his head for having given them happiness, tranquillity, and security of property ; but the old man, either mistrusting Turkey, or having a lurking ambition to be seated on the throne of Osman, instead of reducing his armies, and remitting part of the imposts on the people, began his government in Syria by increasing the taxation, and afterwards vol. I. b

INTRODUCTION.

. introduced the conscription, of all measures the most unpopular in Eastern countries. Ibrahim was not insensible to the impru dence of those measures, and remonstrated with his father, and shortly after entirely withdrew from the management of the civil affairs of the country ; when Scheriff Pacha was appointed civil governor of Syria, and established the seat of government at Damascus. Mehemet Ali's first new financial measure was the ferdeh, a tax on all males from twelve years upwards, varying from fifteen to five hundred piastres, according to their means. This was paid by all classes and religions, and the Christians, who before paid a poll-tax, were also obliged to pay the ferdeh, in addition to the regular taxes. Forced contributions were also occasionally raised to supply the exigencies of the government.

According to Mr. Farren, the Syrian contributions was raised from 20,000 to 32,000 purses. The Governor and local officers, it is true, were not allowed to receive bribes; but the people gained little by this. Besides the regular taxes, and the occasional forced contributions, the government was in the habit of purchasing what was required for the mainte

INTRODUCTION.

. XXVII nance of the army at their own price, the inhabitants being obliged to deliver it into the government stores at their own risk and cost. They were also liable to be pressed to work at the public establishments, and even transported to distant parts of the country, receiving pay hardly sufficient to keep body and soul together. In addition to these oppressions, whenever the army was put in motion the inhabitants were obliged to furnish animals to transport baggage and provisions, and Avere paid two thirds less than the common wages of the country. If horses or mules were wanted for the government, they were seized without any respect to persons, and paid for at whatever price the authorities thought proper to give. Vessels for the transport of provisions and government stores were seized in like manner, and the owners paid about a third of the freight they could have gained in trade.

Tampering with the currency was a source of dishonest gain to the Pacha: taxes were ordered to be paid in certain coins, Mehemet Ali fixing the value always below its standard; in short, there was a system of legal pillage established from one end of the country to the other.

INTRODUCTION.

. These oppressions were nevertheless borne with, for they are common in Eastern governments; and, had not their new ruler commenced the disarmament of the people, and the forced levies, they probably would never have endeavoured to shake off his yoke. But his measures, odious in themselves, were rendered quite intolerable by the mode in which they were executed. According to Mr. Farren, the conscription in Syria amounted to 11 per cent, on the male population; the classes who were exempt from the conscription were obliged to find substitutes either by fine or purchase, and many who had been seized and drafted into regiments more than once, and obtained their discharge by purchase, were again seized, and their remonstrances wholly disregarded. "The periods," says Mr. Farren, in his excellent letter to Lord Lindsay*, "of the forced levies are kept secret, and generally commence on a Friday, when the mosques are resorted to.

At the hour of prayer numerous parties of soldiers are distributed through the quarters of the cities, and intelligence is conveyed to them by the firing of a gun of the moment to commence. They then rush * Letters from the Holy Land, vol.

INTRODUCTION.

. XXIX on all the citizens who may be in the streets, and drive or drag them struggling along to the great square of the Serai, when, having left them in its inclosure, they return to make fresh captives of all upon their routes. A short time suffices to spread a thrill of fear and despair throughout the city. Women may be seen rushing wildly through the streets, followed by their children, to seek the husband, son, or father, who but a few hours before had left them to provide for their daily wants, and now are separated, perhaps for ever, from their families without a parting benediction. "Within the inclosure, which files of armed troops surround, the wretched victims are crowded together, bowed down with despair, while, pressing upon every avenue, their wives and daughters and aged mothers may be seen, wildly darting their frenzied glances through the captives in search of a missing relative, or bursting into paroxysms of despair on beholding the lost objects of their fears; and, all around, the air is rent by the cries of these unfortunates, cursing, as I have heard them, the very name of their prophet, and invoking the Deity himself to avenge the cause of the poor and the oppressed.

The wretched con scripts are taken immediately before the medical men of the army, and, unless physically disqualified, are sent off to the Castle, confined there, dressed as soldiers, and in a week or fortnight, marched out of the place and drafted into the regiments. This is no exaggerated picture, and many travellers in

INTRODUCTION.

. XXX England— and one especially, Sir Edwin Pearson, who was lately with me at Damascus during one of these scenes,— can verify this statement, and attest the general wretchedness of the people. In the dead of the night the quarters of the city have been entered by armed soldiers, the houses forcibly opened, and their male inmates dragged from them. At these times the shops are closed for days, and all business is suspended. Considerable loss is consequently sustained by all classes, and as the debts that may be due by those who are seized are seldom or never recovered, large sums are lost in that manner to the citizens. " The soldiers avail themselves of the general panic to get money from the aged or maimed, — and even by entering houses and seizing children in them, who are liberated by their frightened mothers at any immediate sacrifice."

It is not surprising that people, thus driven to despair, should revolt. In the year 1834 the insurrections began in the Haouran, and spread afterwards to the country of the Druses and Naplousians. These insurrections, how7 ever, Mehemet Ali managed with his usual energy to put down, and established more security to the people from being plundered by anybody but himself; that, and a greater facility and safety in travelling through the country,

INTRODUCTION.

. XXXI appear to have been the only merits of Mehemet Ali's government in Syria. Thus things pro ceeded for a while, the Pacha exerting himself to fortify the passes of Taurus, and building barracks at Antioch and other places, particularly at St. Jean d'Acre, while Ibrahim and his officers laboured to introduce new cultures, as of the sugar-cane, the indigo plant, &c, and with some success ; but this could not reconcile the Syrians to the grinding monopolies and vexa tious burdens of their ruler, and very strong measures were required to keep up the Egyp tian authority. In the year 1838 Mehemet Ali first began to talk of independence, and announced to the Consuls his intention, at no distant period, of declaring himself. Shortly after this he set out on an expedition to the mines of Sennaar, and was absent some considerable time.

The Sultan, as might have been expected, had never ceased to form plans for the recovery of Syria to his rule, and as early as the year 1834 he had committed the charge of several of the pachalics of the eastern part of Asia Minor to a Circassian soldier, named Hafiz Pacha, in order that he might there raise an army for that purpose. Hafiz laboured with

INTRODUCTION.

. XXXII great zeal in the cause, and from the remote ness of the districts, his progress was unnoticed by the European Powers. At length, in the beginning of 1839 the Porte more openly made preparations for war; and on the 12th of February of that year, Count Mole for the first time brought the affairs of the East under the consideration of Lord Granville, the Bri tish Ambassador*; and Lord Palmerston repeatedly wrote to Lord Ponsonby to discourage, by every possible means, the Porte from again embroiling themselves in Avar with Mehemet Ali; declaring, at the same time, that if the Porte was attacked, assistance Avould be given ; but, if on the other hand they became the aggressors, it might change the whole face of affairs. Notwithstanding the advice giA7en to the Porte by the Allied Ministers at Constanti nople, the Sultan, relying on the reports of the efficiency of his army in Asia Minor, com municated to him by his General, gave direc tions for the advance of the Turkish army, and they actually marched beyond Bir, which is only sixty miles distant from Aleppo. Me hemet Ali determined, however, not to be the * See Levant Papers, Part I., p. 1.

INTRODUCTION.

. XXXIII aggressor, and directed Ibrahim to refrain from making any movement in advance. Russia and Austria becoming alarmed lest the peace of Europe should be disturbed, instructed their Consuls at Alexandria to request that Mehemet Ali would desire Ibra him to withdraw his troops towards Damascus, assuming that Ibrahim Avas the first to put his army in motion, which certainly Avas not the case. France seeing the possibility also of a rupture between the Porte and Mehemet Ali, expressed a strong desire that Great Britain would act in concert Avith her, and proposed to send a fleet of eight or nine sail of the line to the Levant, to co-operate with the British fleet, which she supposed would consist of ten sail of the line. Whether Mehemet Ali was sincere in his desire to avoid hostilities with the Porte or not, is not very easy to divine ; but his actions certainly seem in his favour.