Advance Japan: a nation thoroughly in earnest. ... Illustrations by R. Isayama

Front matter

■ I H.I.M. the Emperor of Japan. (Born Nov. 3, 1S52 ; acceded Feb. 13, 1867 ; crowned Oct. 13, 1868.) ADVANCE JAPAN A NATION THOROUGHLY IN EARNEST. BV J. MORRIS, ■ — J*r FORMERLY OF THE IMPERIAL PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT, TOKtO : AUTHOR OF "WAR IN KOREA," "A SAMURAl's DAUGHTER," ETC, ETC. Illustrations by R. Isayama, Military Artist of the Huzen Clan, Southern Japan. LONDON : VV. H. ALLEN & CO., LIMITED, 13, WATERLOO PL.\CE, PALL MALL, S.W. PUF1USH1:.KS TO THIi INDIA OFFICE 1895. (All rights reserved.) WYMAN AND SONS, LIMITED, PRINTERS, LONDON AND REDHILL. To His Imperial Majesty, THE EMPEROR OF JAP.A.N, UNDER WHOSE LIGHTENED AND BENEVOLENT RULE THE EMPIRE HAS ADVANCED TO A POSITION IN THE FRONT RANK AMONG THE POWERS OF THE WORLD, AND HAS 17N<, RAFTED THE ARTS AND SCIENCES OF THE WEST UPON THAT- OLDER CIVILIS.A.TION OF THE ORIENT WHICH FOR MANY CENTURIES HAD DISTINGUISHED THE TERRITORY OF DAI NI-HON, i|I?is uol'ume is most respcctf'ul'sw inscribe*) BY HIS MAJESTY'S FORMER SERVANT IN THE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS, THE AUTHOR.

FIRST LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. His Excellency T. Kato, Japanese Ambassador to Great Britain. Sir Edwin Arnold, K.C.I.E., C.S.I. T. Hayashi, Esq., Japanese Consul-General in London. Wm. Anderson, Esq., M.R.C.S., Chairman of the Japan Society. Y. Nakai, Esq., Manager of the Yokohama Specie Bank. A. DiOSY, Esq., Hon. Sec. of the Japan Society. R. Tayui, Esq., Chancellor of the Japanese Consulate-General. DESIGN ON COVER. The Japanese National flags support the ribbon and medal awarded by the Emperor for valour, which takes the place in Japan of our Victoria Cross. There are many recipients of it in connection with the late Chinese War. The five-pointed Star and Cherry-blossom are respectively the badges of the Japanese .Army and Navy. The Chrysanthemum is the Official Crest of Japan, and the adjoining leaf and flower of the Kiri tree form the private badge of the Japanese Emperor.

Preface

. rjPHE contest just concluded between Japan and A China had the effect of directing public attention to the serious side of the Japanese character. A people capable of waging warfare so systematically and successfully cannot fail to occupy a most prominent position in the twentieth century, now so near its dawn. But though they have shown themselves to be well equipped for the fray, the tendency is distinctly towards the re-establishment of peaceful intercourse with China, on that footing of perfect equality which was unattain able so long as the people of the Middle Kingdom held in derision the efforts of the Japanese nation to excel in the arts of the Occident. Now that the supremacy of Japan in the matter of armaments has been acknowledged by her ancient rival, the way has been paved for a reconciliation which shall have widespreading effects not only upon the future of the two nations more immediately concerned, but upon the policy of the Great Powers of the West. Japan has

PREFACE.

. X taken up a position from which she cannot recede, and, without being aggressive, she will strive not only to maintain that position but to continually improve it. The ambition she cherishes will not attain its fruition until she has constituted herself as powerful a force on the eastern flank of Asia as is the United Kingdom on the north-west edge of Europe. In no way has she sought more diligently to strengthen herself than in the formation of a potent fleet, and the adequate training of her sailors. She has added to her resources by the capture of her enemy's vessels, as did the British in days of old, and she has devoted large sums, in the current estimates, to the supply of gigantic line-of battle ships which will be in no way inferior to those of highly-organised European navies. The acquisition of Formosa gives Japan a vastly improved strategical position in Far Eastern Waters, and though she has chosen to relinquish her claim to Liao-Tung, she has benefited in no inconsiderable de gree by her magnanimous renunciation of her right to an increased indemnity.

Such treatment of a fallen foe will raise Japan immeasurably in the world's esteem, and is in harmony with the repeated utterances of the Japanese Emperor disclaiming any intention of inflict ing needless privations upon the Chinese people at large, with whom his Majesty had no quarrel. Such generosity will not be lost upon those at the head of affairs in' Peking, and the actual outcome of the military struggle may not improbably be the revival of

PREFACE.

. XI those cordial relations between the two Powers of the Orient which existed in past centuries. Though the conditions are reversed, and the former pupil has be come the tutor, it will be none the less advantageous to China in the end that the practical result of the war has been to convince her Government of the utter folly of longer rejecting the lessons of the age. In the last chapter of this book I have sought to indicate the direction in which a mutual understand ing between the recent combatants may bring about important events bearing upon the future trade of European countries. The way to China now lies through Japan, for unquestionably Japan has made a deeper and more lasting impression upon her neigh bour than had previously been made by any other nation. The blow has been all the more severely felt by China in that the Power which inflicted it was one which she had previously affected to hold in contempt.

The consciousness that the Japanese Emperor has shown moderation in his hour of triumph will not tend to lessen the humiliation of the vanquished, but it may render a return to intimate friendship not only possible, but comparatively speedy of accomplishment. The form which its outward expression may take is a matter in which the Western Powers are keenly inter ested, but it is likewise one in which they may not be enlightened for some time to come. Negotiations will proceed very leisurely, now that peace has been secured, and the outer circle of nations may have to judge of

PREFACE.

. XII their tenour mainly by results. The future conceals nothing more calculated to amaze the casual observer than the effects which are certain to follow in the train of re-established amity in the East. Everyone admits that the opening-up of China to general intercourse would be fraught with stupendous consequences, though few care to pursue the subject so far as to ascertain in what way the change may be effected. In this necessarily imperfect work I have sought to draw attention to some of those characteristics of the Japanese and their undertakings which have tended to make of them at this hour a nation to be honoured. Their ancient history has been touched upon with a view of showing that they always had in them the materials of a great and powerful people. In many respects it has been found impossible, within ordinary limits, to enumerate even a tithe of the notable qualities and features of their daily existence.

Only the salient points have been touched upon, and attention has been invited rather to the practical side of the national dis position than to the exquisite productions of their fine arts, or to the innate poetry of their nature. Those who would pursue these branches of study have a wealth of material at hand in the admirable works of Sir Edwin Arnold, Mr. Basil Hall Chamberlain, Mr. William .Anderson, Mr. Josiah Conder, and many other writers eminently qualified to deal with such subjects effectively. Upon ethnological points the massive product of Dr. Rein's investigations will be found to satisfy, in volume

PREFACE.

. XIII form, every demand which the student may make upon it. Personally I have revived my recollections of places and incidents, with which I was well acquainted years ago, by the perusal of the publications of the late Mr. J. R. Black, to whom I have alluded in connection with the establishment of newspapers in Japan. I must also express my indebtedness to the columns of the Yokohama Press for some of the earlier history of the settlement, and to other contemporary works which have enabled me to recall to memory associations with which I was familiar in a long residence in the Japanese Empire. My stay in the interior in connection with public works gave me uncommon facilities for acquiring a knowledge of the habits and ideas of the rustic population, and I was fully prepared to find the raw material of the .Army, as gathered by conscription, capable of being worked up into the splendid force which Japan has recently placed in the field, and for the exhibition of that dauntless heroism which has marked its achievements in Korea and Manchuria.

The men went into battle singing the praises of their monarch in a verse which is venerable for its antiquity as a musical as well as a literary composition : — Kimi ga Yo wa Chi yo ni, Ya chiyo ni, Sazare ishi no Iwa wa to narite, Koke no musu made. Sir Edwin Arnold has very kindly given me his version of this :

PREFACE.

. XIV THE NATIONAL ANTHEM OF JAPAN. May our Lord's dominion last Till a thousand years have passed, Twice four thousand times o'ertold ! Firm as changeless rock, earth-rooted, Moss of ages uncomputed Grow upon it, green and old ! Edwin Arnold. I trust that in my endeavour to attract attention to those solid qualities of perseverance and determination to excel which mark the Japanese people, I shall have afforded some inkling of the sturdy mechanical bent which has contributed in no small degree to raise them to the position they now occupy. The practical phases of their character are so interwoven with the romantic and poetical that there has been no little danger of the distinction being altogether lost to Europeans, who have to judge only by what they see of the nation's products. Within the past few months the Japanese have appeared to many in entirely a new light.

To me they have ever been an intensely painstaking, hard working, frugal, and thoughtful people, imbued with a resolve to succeed in whatever they undertake, and with the innate conviction that nothing is beyond their powers of attainment. My effort to portray them in this character will go far, I hope, to secure for me, with the general reader, that measure of cordial forbearance in regard to the short comings of my book of which I stand so palpably in need. J. M. London, May, iRt)j. CONTENTS.

Chapter I

— Administration. PAGE The Emperor and Empress — Insignia — Cabinet Ministers — The Present Parliament — Pay of Members — The Administration in Korea — The Leader of the Opposition — Provincial Assemblies ... ... ... ... i

Chapter II

— The Japanese Islands. Geographical Position — The Mainland — Territorial Divisions — Tukaido — The Peerless Mountain — Hakon6 Lake — The Ex-Shogun's Retreat — Biwa Lake —Turbulent Rivers — Area and Population — Mountains — Harbours— Climate ... 13

Chapter III

-Natural History. Quadrupeds — Birds — Fishes — Trees — Fruits — Flowers — Vines — Cereals — Land under Cultivation — Vegetables — The Tea Shrub ... 49

Chapter IV

— Diet, Dress, and Manners- Table Etiquette — The Ordinary Bill of Fare — Tea-drinking— Dress— The Household — Washing Da> — Girlhood in Japan — Study and Play — Music— Arrangement of Flowers 71

Chapter V

— Early History of the Nation. The Shogun Period — Jinmu Tenno— Buddhism Introduced — Early Writings — Heroes of Old — Advent of Christianity — Causes which led to the Restoration — Kublai Khan's Invasion — Emigration Prohibited — Japanese Wars of the Roses — Yoritomo — True Relation of Shogun to Mikado— Tokugawa Regime — Daimio's Revenues ... 91

Chapter VI

— The Restoration. Foreign Treaties — Early Efforts to Trade — Prominent Leaders — Railways and other Public Works Undertaken— Compulsory Education — Vaccination — Cotton Mills ... 122

Chapter VII

— Early Years of Meiji. Remonstrances from Satsuma— Education — The Saga Insurrection — Formosa Expedition — China Alarmed — Coast Survey — Administration of Justice— Relief of the Poor — Exhibition ... ... ... ... ... 16: CONTENTS. XVI

Chapter XIII

— Armaments. The Organisation of the Forces— List of the Fleet, and its Capabilities— The Murata Rifle— Personnel of the Army, and of the Navy— Colleges— Hospitals— The Red Cross Brigade — Field Ambulances — Warships built in Japan 325

Chapter XIV

-War with China. The Campaign against Satsuma in 1876 — The War with China 1894-5— Yalu Naval Fight — Assault and Capture of Ping- Yang and Chiu-lien-cheng — Port Arthur— Wei-hai-Wei — The Lessons of the War 336

Chapter XV

— Colonisation and Trade. The Progress made in Yeso — Prospects in Formosa — Opening of New Ports to Commerce — Facilities for Employment of Foreign Capital— Banking and Bank-notes ... 376

Chapter XVI

— The Future of Japan. Predictions of 186S not Verified — A Policy of Selection— Japan will open China — Will urge on Railway Enterprise there — The Empires have Something in Common — Railway Profits to Pay War Indemnity — Drill-Sergeants for China — Japan can Supply Arms — Her Large Market there — Will use her Power Wisely — Will Introduce Modern Mechanical Arts — Holds the Key to China — In Earnest 397

Appendix

. The Tukaido Route — The Ko-shiu Kai-do Route — The Nakasendo Route (Central Mountain Road) — The Sanyodo Route— The San-in-do Route— The Tosando (Oshiu-Kai-do)— Nan-Kai-do (Island of Shikoku) — Sai-Kai-do (Island of Kiushiu)— Hokkaido (Island of Yeso) — Population — Trade at Ports: 1894 — Meteorological Observations — Cotton-Spinning — Mines — Posts and Telegraphs — Telephones—Electric Lighting — Railways in Japan — Average Cost of Food, etc., in Japan ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE I. H. I. M. The Emperor of Japan ... ... Frontispiece. i. A Red Cross Hospital ... ... ... ... ... 3 3. Viscount Mutsu Munemitsu ... ... ... ... 6 4. General Saigo Tsugumichi ... ... ... ... 7 5. H. I. H. Prince Komatsu 8 6. Provinces and Products (Map) ... ... ... ... 15 7. Railway Train Southward Bound from Tokio ... ... 19 8.

Fujiyama from Hara, on the Tokaido ... ... ... 29 9. Nagoya Castle ... ... ... ... ... ... 36 10. A Japanese Tea-house ... ... ... ... ... 39 n. A Dragon Fly 48 12. Carpenter's Tools ... ... ... ... ... ... 59 13. The Art of Floral Arrangement ... ... ... ... 63 14. Harp, Violin, and Guitar ... ... ... ... ... 72 15. An Industrious Sempstress ... ... ... ... 75 16. Hand-ball 81 17. Washing Day 85 18. Tobacco-pouch and Pipe-case ... ... ... ... 89 19. A Dragon Fly ... ... ... ... ... ... 90 20. Precincts of Asakusa Temple ... ... ... ... 97 21. The Classic Dance ... ... ... ... ... ... 101 22. lyeyasu's Castle and Moat at Tokio ... ... ... 108 23. Interior of Buddhist Temple ... ... ... ... in; 24. The Foreign Office, Tokio ... ... ... ... 131 25. The Nobles' College, Tokio 137 26. Imperial College of Engineering ... ... ... ... 143 27.

Medals Awarded at Tokio Exhibition ... ... ... 147 28. Before the Police Superintendent... ... ... ... 151 b ILLUSTRATIONS. XVIII l'AGE 29. The Cruiser Chiyoda '°3 30. Doctor Ishiguio ... ... ••• ••• ■•• ••• l°4 31. General Nodzu ... ... ... ••• ■•• ■■- '71 32. Admiral Ito '72 33. Admiral Kawamura 183 34. Marshal Yamagata 185 35. H.I.H. Prince Arisugawa 186 36. Shinbashi Railway Station 189 37. Where Rest the Dead 197 38. Poetry amid the Cherry-blossoms 205 39. Homeward from the Picnic 209 40. Ministry of Communications 213 41. The Specie Bank, Yokohama 221 42. Fujiyama, from Mishima ... ... ... ... ... 225 43. Kobe Municipal Hall 229 44. A Bridge at Kameido 233 45. A Japanese-built Torpedo-boat 237 46. Ama-no-Hashidate, near Miyadzu 241 47. The Jin-riki-sha ... ... ... ... ... ... 248 48.

Shrine at Nikko 255 49. Pleasure-boat on the Sumida River ... ... ... 265 50. Railways in Japan (Map) ,.. ... ... ... ... 267 51. Telegraphs in Japan (Map) ... ... ... ... 275 52. Telegraphs at Hamana Inlet ... ... ... ... 281 53. Japanese Printing 289 54. The Japanese Syllabary ... ... ... ... ... 295 55. Early Efforts 297 56. Perusing the Morning Newspaper ... ... ... 300 57. Example of Japanese Cover to Historical Book ... 305 58. Mining Railway Crossing the Main Line ... ... 311 59. Lighthouses and Harbours ... ... ... ... 317 60. Kumamoto Castle ... ... ... ... ... ... 321 61. Army Department Headquarters ... ... ... ... 327 62. Bringing in the Dead ... ... ... ... ... 331 63. Cruiser Takachiho ... ... ... ... ... ... 333 64. Captain of Matsushima ... ... ... ... ... 234 65. General Kawakami ... ... ... ... ... ... 1LLUSTRA TIONS.

XIX PAGE 66. Yalu Battle, Stages l, 2 and 3 345 67. The Gunboat Akagi 348 68. Yalu Battle, Stages 4 and 5 ... ... ... ... 349 69. Port Arthur ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 359 70. Marshal Oyama ... ... ... ... ... ... 361 71. Admiral Hirai ... ... ... ... ... ... 365 72. General Kodama ... ... ... ... ... ... 367 73. Wei-hai-Wei Harbour ... ... ... ... ... 369 74. Map of Formosa ... ... ... ... ... ... 383 75. Japanese Ten-Yen Bank Note (Face) ... ... ... 393 76. Japanese Ten- Yen Bank Note (Reverse) ... ... 394 77. Japanese One- Yen Note (Face) ... ... ... ... 395 78. Japanese One-Yen Note (Reverse) ... ... ... 396 79. The Cruiser Yoshinc ... ... ... ... ... 398 80. Chinese Prisoners Guarded by Japanese Infantry ... 403 81. Watching the Attack near Port Arthur ... ... ... 409 82. The Cruiser Sit ma (Built in Japan) ... ... ... 411 83. The Cruiser Hashidate (Built in Japan) ... ... ... 412 84. In Honour of the Slain ... ... ... ... ...

Chapter I. Administration He Emperor And Empress

—The Emperor Mutsuhito was born on the 3rd November, 1852, and succeeded his father, Komei Tenno, on the 13th February, 1867. His coronation took place on October 13th, 1868. In 1869 he married Haruko, daughter of a noble holding high rank at the Court of Kioto. She is ordinarily known as the Kogo-sama, and her title, taken in conjunction with her own name, may be translated Empress of Spring. The Emperor is rather tall for his race, standing five feet eight inches, of rather dark complexion, but possess ing fine open features and high forehead, his bearing 1: being dignified, and his walk alert and active. The general expression of his countenance is benign, though shaded at times by a certain solemnity. His consort is likewise comparatively tall, being about five feet four inches, and possessing the slim figure and oval features of the Japanese aristocracy.

She is consulted by the Emperor very generally in State affairs, to the con sideration of which she brings a cultivated intellect and a vast amount of shrewd common-sense. She takes in tense personal interest in the welfare of the women of her nation, and is largely occupied in works of charity and benevolence. During the war with China she has actively supervised the proceedings of the Nursing Organisation, of which she is the president, and has personally prepared lint and bandages to be sent to the field hospitals. In the earlier years of his monarchy the Emperor had constant trials, due to the insurrections fomented by rival factions, through which his most trusted Mini sters were lost to him ; one fell by the sword of the assassin, one died a natural death, and in two cases insubordination was followed in the end by actual rebellion.

He was still very young when called from the seclusion of the Kioto Palace to take an active share in the conduct of public affairs, with a realm torn asunder by the violence of contending parties and conflicting interests. But his earnestness of purpose and steadfast solicitude for the ultimate good of his subj'ects has carried him through all difficulties. By the wisdom A Red Cross Hospital. ADMINISTRA TION. 5 and practical sagacity which he has displayed at crises in the life of the nation, he has won respect, not only from his own people, but in countries far afield. If he has been loyally supported in his efforts by the counsel of able Ministers, it is due to his personal selection, and not to the mere accident of political supremacy that he is surrounded by men of the greatest ability and discretion, men who would have been regarded under any circumstances as possessing the highest qualities of statesmanship and the loftiest patriotism.

His children died young, and for a time the Throne was without a direct heir. The actual significance of the term Mikado is Great Place. Other designations ofthe Emperor are Tenno = King of Heaven; Tenshi =Son of Heaven ; K6tei= Sublime Ruler; Go-sho= Imperial Place; Kinrisama = Lord of the Palace. Honours conferred by the Tenshi are the highest distinctions which can fall to the lot of any subject. The symbols of Imperial power are the mirror, as an image of the sun-goddess ; the ball of rock crystal, the sword, and the brocaded banner. The Imperial coat of arms is the chrysanthemum flower ; at the same time the emblem of the sun. It has 16 rounded petals. The family badge of the Emperors represents three leaves and clusters of flowers of the Kiri (Paulowni Imperialist. Both emblems are shown in the design which appears on the cover of this book.

By the Constitution, which was promulgated in 1889, the Emperor is the supreme head of the realm, and combines in himself all the rights of sovereignty. He exercises entire executive power, with the advice and as sistance of his Cabinet Ministers, who are responsible to him alone, and are appointed by himself. In addition, he consults the Privy Council, whose members are directed by him, to deliberate on important affairs of State. His Majesty has absolute authority to declare war, make peace, or conclude treaties with foreign Powers. Cabinet Ministers^ — -The Imperial Cabinet now numbers nine mem bers ; they are : — President ofthe Cabi- Viscount Mutsu (Minister for Foreign Affairs). net and Prime Minister, Count Ito Hirobumi. Minister of Justice, M. Yoshikawa Akimasa. Minister for Home Affairs, Count Inouye Kaoru.

Minister of Communications, Count Kuroda Kiyotaka. Minister for War, Marshal Yamagata Aritomo. Minister for Agriculture and Commerce, Admiral Yenomoto Buyo. Minister for Foreign Affairs, M. Mutsu Munemitsu. Minister for Education, M. Inouye K6. ADaMINISTRA tion. 7 Minister for the Navy, Count Saigo Tsugumichi. Minister of Finance, M. Watanabe Kunitake. The Parliament.— The Imperial Diet (Tei-Koku Gi-Kwai), as now constituted, includes the House of Peers and the House of Representatives, and would correspond to our Lords and Commons but that the Jap anese Legislative Assemblies number only 300 members in each instance. The Jap anese House of Peers (Kizoku In) has five classes of members. In the first rank are the males ofthe Imperial Family who are over 20 years of age ; the second rank includes those of princely houses not GenerpVL Saigo Tsugumichi (Minister of the Navy). directly connected with the Throne, and all nobles of the grade of Marquis, the age qualification being 25 years and upwards.

Counts, Viscounts, and Barons rank next, also over 25 years old, who have been elected to the Diet by their respective orders, the stipulation being that the number shall not exceed in any case more than a fifth of the total of each order, which practically limits the representation to 16 Counts, 71 Viscounts, and 6 Barons ; the fourth rank includes persons over 30 years of age whom the Emperor has raised to the House of Peers in recognition of their erudition, or of some distinguished service rendered by them to the State. So far the grades of membership are identical with our own, save that the ecclesiastical body is wholly unrepresented in Japan. But there is a fifth class of persons in cluded in the Tokio House of Peers, for which we have no precise equivalent. In each prefecture of the Em pire those persons over 30 years of age, to the number of 15, who pay most in the way of direct national taxes on land or industries are nominated by the Emperor to elect one of their number to sit in the House of Peers.

Thus there are about 50 of II. I. H. Prince Komatsu (Cousin to the Emperor). the members in the Upper House who are directly the representatives of the chief landed and industrial in terests of the nation, elected by the suffrages of the plutocracy. These, as well as the Counts, Viscounts, and Barons of class three, are elected to the Diet for a term of seven years. Membership of the first, second, and fourth ranks is for life. A stipulation is made that the fourth and fifth classes shall together never exceed 1 50 members, or half of the total roll-call. Pay of Members. — The House of Representatives ■ADMINISTRA TION. 9 (Shugi In) is occupied by 300 members chosen by ballot from the electoral divisions of the realm, a fixed number being returned to serve from each district. The pro portion is as nearly as possible one member for 137,000 inhabitants, and the term is four years.

Candidates must be at least 30 years of age, and must pay not less than 1 $ yen for one year in the shape of direct national taxes, or if income tax, must have paid it for three years. They need not actually be resident in the dis tricts they represent. Salaries are paid at the rate of 800 yen annually, and also travelling allowances, the members not being at liberty to refuse these emolu ments even were they disposed to do so. ln English money, at present rates of exchange, the salary is about equal to per annum, the session lasting three or four months. The elected and nominated members of the House of Peers receive similar stipends, and the pay of the Presi dents of the two Houses is fixed at 4,000 yen each, that ofthe Vice-Presidents being 2,000 yen each. Granting that the sums involved are but trifling ac cording to our calculation, it must be remembered that frugality in Japan is so universal that an income of even £100 a year is sufficient to maintain a small family in comparative comfort and respectability.

Japan has, at all events, solved the vexed question of payment of Members of Parliament, in a way which seems to be thoroughly satisfactory. The electors themselves must qualify by an annual payment of 1 5 yen in direct national taxes, must be at least 25 years of age, must actually reside permanently in the district to be represented, and have dwelt there during the twelve months preceding an election. The Imperial Diet controls the finances of the Em pire, and the administration of justice. Voting is carried on by secret ballot, on the system of scrutin de liste. Every enactment must have the consent of both Houses of the Diet, and be ratified by the Emperor, before it passes into law. Either House may initiate projects of legislation, and may make representations thereon, or upon any other subject, to the Cabinet, and may in certain events address the Crown direct.

The Em peror convokes the Diet, opens, closes, and prorogues its sessions, and dissolves the Lower House at his will. Provincial Assemblies. — In 1 878 a decidedly pro gressive step was taken in regard to representative institutions by the establishment of Provincial Assem blies throughout the realm. It is true they were merely local boards, meeting for a month in each year, usually in March, but they have the control of local taxation, subject to the Governor of the Ken, and through him to the Minister for the time being of the Home Depart ment. This privilege of Home Rule is exercised by the selected representatives, who must be qualified by a three years' residence, must pay a land tax of not less than £2 annually, and must be over 25 years old. The ADaXIINISTRA TION. 11 election is by ballot, and the electors must qualify by the. annual payment of £i land tax, must be over 20 years old, and must be on the register.

The opportunity thus afforded by the local representative body to ex press its dissatisfaction with the acts of the Ken-rei, or Governor, has been now and then taken advantage of, and the assembly has declined to pass the required regulations for the imposition of local taxes. These district or county councils, as we should call them, have proved in the long run, however, of great utility, and have been the nurseries of the higher legislative bodies more recently brought into operation. The Administration in Korea. — Count Inouye Kaoru, at present in Korea, resided for some years in London for the purpose of studying our political and municipal institutions, public works, and finance. He returned to Japan in the " early seventies " in titae to take office under the present Prime Minister as head of the Public Works Department, and has filled other high positions with great success.

His mission to Korea, where he will probably reside throughout the current year, has for its object the reorganisation of the public service, and generally to advise the King of the Penin sular Kingdom upon matters relating to the establish ment of an improved system of government, a task which he is eminently qualified to perform. When the revolutionary troubles were rife in 1867 he was cut down and left for dead by one of the Shogun's adherents. The cold of a winter night staunched the bleeding from his wounds, and he survived, with more than one scar, to tell the dreadful tale. The Leader ot the Opposition. — Count Okuma Shigenobu, formerly the Finance Minister ofthe Crown, is now in the cold shade of opposition, being the head of the " Progressive " or Radical Party in Japan, and as such receded from the Cabinet some years ago.