A general history of Rome ... to the fall of Augustulus

Preface

. The Breviary or Compendium of Roman affairs by Eutropius extends from the foundation of Rome to the reign of Jovian, in the year of the city 1117, as commonly reckoned, or a.d. 364. The summary which is now offered to the reader reaches more than a century further, and terminates A.r/.c. 1229, a.d. 476. This, it will be allowed, is a long period to embrace within the limits of a single volume, to which it seems convenient to confine it. It will be well to preface the work with a few words in explanation of its object and its method. The title of a General History is given to this book, first, because it is addressed to no special class of readers, but rather to the reading public in general, who may desire to be informed of the most noted incidents in the Roman annals, the most remarkable characters which play their part upon the Roman stage, and the main course of events, together with their causes and con sequences.

With this object directly in view the writer has no occasion to load his pages with references, or justify his statements by notes and critical discussions, for which his prescribed limits would allow him no room. It is for the orator, says the great critic of antiquity, to argue and persuade ; the historian may confine himself to narration. But in cutting myself off from the resource of notes and references, I must at the same time refrain VI

PREFACE.

. from disquisitions and speculations which cannot be con ducted safely or fairly without them. These I must leave to the critical inquirer and the professed student; my pages are addressed, as I have said, to the general reader, who will be content to accept the conclusions which I present to him. In former works, which cover a large part of the course now before us, I have gone fully into the critical analysis of our historical authorities. In this shorter compendium I take the liberty of adopting the results at which I then arrived, and often of merely abridging my earlier naiTative.1 But this little work may also claim the title of General, inasmuch as it traverses the whole career of Roman history from the reputed foundation of the city to its capture by the Vandals, and the extinction of the Western Empire a few years later.

Roman history travels through three principal stages, which it may be interesting to define more particularly. 1. The first of these may be designated as the 'antiquarian.' The reputed history of the great conquering people presents this striking peculiarity, that while it con tinues for several centuries to be merely legendary both in its main features and its details, it is found on exami nation to be curiously adjusted to the existence of many actual institutions. The institutions survived ; it is certain that they must have had an historical origin ; their origin appears to be accounted for by the narrative before us. It is the function of the antiquarian to trace these institu tions to their real foundation, to distinguish between the accounts we can accept as historical, and those we are bound to reject as fictitious or imaginary; he must 1 I beg to acknowledge my obligation to the proprietors of the Encyclopædia Britannica for the use they have allowed me to make of my article on 'Roman History' in that publication, and especially of the chapter on the history of ' The City.'

PREFACE.

. VII collect, compare, and sift the authorities, full as they are of inconsistency and contradiction ; he must analyse and criticize them at every step ; and while he is obliged to advance many conjectures, he must explain the grounds on which he forms them, and show the means by which they may be defended. After all the critical labours of Niebuhr and his successors in the art of historical con struction, we have really advanced but little beyond the rude destructive process of Perizonius and Beaufort; we have trampled upon a great deal which the earlier critics had upset before us, but we can hardly be said to have raised any substantial edifice in its place, since we have so generally agreed to reject as visionaiy the most brilliant theories of our great German master. The local discoveries of Mr. Parker have their historical value, inas much as they confirm the reputed sequence of events in various interesting particulars ; but the inconsistencies of the narrative can still only be explained by referring them to legends and traditions of no historical character.

For myself, I am constrained to admit that there is scarcely one particular of importance throughout three centuries of our pretended annals on the exact truth of which we can securely rely. Nevertheless, the history of Rome must not be written without the relation of these particulars, as they have been handed down to us by the ancients. They were accepted as historical by the Romans themselves, and as so accepted they played their part in forming the cha racter of the people, and even in directing its career. They sank deeply into the heart and moulded the genius of the Roman race. They constitute the basis of half the best Roman poetry, and swayed thereby the imagination of both conquerors and rulers. Virgil and Ovid more especially can be but half-understood by anyone who is not conversant with the poetic myths of Liyy ; the course

PREFACE.

. VIII of Roman thought and action can be but imperfectly appreciated by those who are not aware how strongly they were influenced by the legends which taught the people that they were the favourites of the gods, and that this favour had been manifested to them on a hundred imaginary battle-fields. It is impossible, as I have said, to sift our early records critically in a work like the pre sent ; but it would be a great mistake to pass them over altogether. I have not disguised how little stress I lay upon them as historical documents ; but my plain course was to relate the story which the Romans have themselves transmitted to us much as they would have themselves related it, for the sake of its antiquarian interest, while at the same time I do not fail to warn the reader of the insecurity of the ground over which it leads him. 2.

The second period of the Roman history may be designated as the ' dramatic' No other annals, it may be fairly said, either ancient or even modern, are so rich as these in the representation of human character. There is no personage of mark that comes across the stage, from the fifth to the ninth century of Rome, who does not leave a distinct personal impression on our recollection. Prom the Scipios to M. Aurelius we seem to traverse a long gallery of national portraits, every one of which brings a real individual man before us. The Sulla, the Marius, and the Cæsar of Roman history are there presented to us each with traits of character as subtly distinguished from the others as the Macbeth, the John, the Richard of our great English dramatist. The Brutus, the Cassius, the Antony of the historians stand apart from one another as clearly on their pages as in the tragic scenes of the most illustrious master of human character.

Shakspeare, it will be re membered, has made no attempt to delineate any leading personage of the Grecian annals. Of all the heroes of Athens and Sparta there was none presented to him to

PREFACE.

. IX whom, as a painter of human portraits, he felt his genius attracted. But it would be worthy of a Shakspeare to dis criminate between the shades of astuteness in an Augustus and a Tiberius, of selfish cruelty in a Caligula and a Nero, of military bluntness in a Vespasian and a Trajan ; between the roving curiosity of a Hadrian and the morbid self inspection of an Aurelius. But all these characters have been passed in review in the course of the works on Roman history which I have formerly published. The portion of the present volume which deals with their careers is for the most part abridged from those ampler narratives; but I hope that in the lighter touch with which they are here treated I have not failed to preserve the truth and spirit of their portraits. 3. There is yet a third period or stage in Roman history, and one which to my own mind exceeds in vital interest either of the preceding, but I am at a loss for any single word to describe it.

With the age of the Antonines commences the dissolution of ancient society, and the wonderful transmutation of ideas whichissued in the general reception of the Christian religion. We enter at this crisis upon a history of opinion. The arts lan guish ; arms, except on the distant frontiers of the empire, are piled upon the ground ; but the exercise of thought is more widely spread and more generally active than ever. After the second century of our era the political history of the times becomes imperfect and fragmentary. The writers who have professed to transmit it have no grasp of the actual connexion of events. They have no insight nor sympathy with individual character, and the portraits they have left us are mere unfinished sketches or careless daubs. Few public men stand prominently forward on their canvas, and these few, such as Constantine, Theo dosius, Stilicho, or Alaric, seem still to elude our ex amination, so blurred and featureless are the likenesses

PREFACE.

. X which are offered us of them. But the history of these times is the history of masses rather than of individuals, of opinions rather than of events, of social rather than of civil or political movements. We lack human characters to analyse, but we have human ideas and moral principles placed vividly before us, in records which are of deep and enduring interest. The story of the conflict between the old and the new belief, such as we can decipher from these materials, is one of grave significance, and one to which we may be more particularly attracted at the present day from the similar strife of religious opinion which is now active among ourselves. The discussions of the third and fourth centuries were not less vigorous nor less wide reaching, than those of our own. But to describe this latter period of Roman history effectively it would again be necessary to enter into critical investigations beyond the scope of these pages.

A few years ago I could only have referred the curious reader to the great work of Gibbon, to arrange and interpret for him the existing monuments of antiquity from which it is to be collected. Since then Champagny, De Broglie, and Ozanam have treated of these times in full detail, and with a direct view to the history of opinion. It is to be regretted, indeed, that these able writers are too subject to the ecclesiastical influences of the Romish creed, and allow themselves, in my judgment, to overstep the true line of moderation both as to the Chris tiau system they commend and the system they depreciate. Nor must I forget to specify the exact critical review of the ' destruction of Paganism,' by Beugnot and Chastel, nor the impartial contributions to the history of the time in the admirable works of Ampereand Amedee Thierry.

The English reader needs hardly to be referred to the fair and generous appreciation of all schools and parties by our own lamented Milman. For my own part, I have been con strained by the limits I have assigned myself to treat this

PREFACE.

. XI portion of nry subject also with a studied reserve, passing lightly over matters which require for their full elucidation a careful comparison of authorities and balance of critical opinions. Nor am I unaware that a history of the disso lution of Paganism, and the development of Christian usage and doctrine, should be the work of the philosopher rather than of the historian ; that it requires not only the ripest scholarship but the most vigorous powers of com bination and reflection ; that, as it seems to me to be the worthiest object of all literary ambition, so it is perhaps the most delicate and difficult of any. To such a task I have long since confessed myself unequal : Et mea jam longo meruit ratis æquore portum. PAGE 6 27 33 CONTENTS

Chapter I

The site of Rome ; its configuration and geological formation — Glance at the Italian peninsula ; at the basin of the Mediterranean ; at the empire beyond it 1

Chapter II

Formation of the Roman people — Mythology and tradition — The Siculi, the Ligures, the Pelasgians, the Aborigines, the Arcadians, the Etruscans, the Sabines, and the Latins ; comparison of their religious idea9 and social usages — Traces of their respective characters in the Roman polity — Descent of the great Roman families from these peoples respectively ............

Chapter VII

First struggle of the plebeians for a share of the public lands — Their part espoused by the consul Spurius Cassius — The stories of the Fabii and the battle at the Cremera, of Coriolanus, and of Cincinnatus — Constant wars between Rome and the neighbouring tribes, the Æqui, the Volsci, and the Veientes, and the losses she suffered

Chapter VIII

Efforts of the plebeians to obtain equal laws with the patricians — Commission obtained with this view by Terentilius Harsa — Dissensions in the city — The Capitol seized by Appius Herdonius — The law of Icilius — Treachery of the patricians and murder of Dentatus — Appointment of the decemvirs to prepare a national code — The Twelve Tables — Violence of Appius Claudius and story of Virginia — Character of the decemvirai legislation ............

Chapter IX

Continuation of the struggle between the patricians aud plebeians — The law of Canuleius gives the right of intermarriage, B.C. 445 — The consuls replaced by military tribunes, B.C. 420 — Crime and punishment of Sp. Mælius, B.C. 439 — Victory at the Algidus over theÆqui and Volsci, B.C. 431 — The great war with Veii — Military pay first given to the legionaries — Veii captured, B.C. 396, u.c. 358 51

Chapter X

The Gaulish invasion of Italy — Battle of the Allia and burning of Rome — Victory of Camillus, u.c. 361, B.C. 390 56

CHAPTER XL

Continued quarrels of the two orders — The cause of the plebeians espoused by Manlius — His overthrow by the dictator Cossus — The Licinian law carried by the tribunes — One of the consuls to be henceforth always a plebeian— Institution of the prætors and curule ædiles— Death of Camillus, B.C. 365, in a great pestilence— Lectisternium and alleged devotion of Mettus Curtius gg

Chapter XII

Continued progress of the plebeians towards equality with the patricians — Foreign wars : frequent creation of dictators : wars with the Gauls : exploits of Manlius Torquatus and Valerius Corvus Commencement of the contest of Rome with Samnium — "War with the Latins, and their final association with the Romans, but with generally inferior rights CONTENTS. XV pau: ■2 i 85

Chapter XIII

Alexander, King of Epirus, invades Italy — The Romans unite with him against the Samnites — Continuation of the Samnite war — Pontius makes the Roman army pass under the yoke at Caudium — The Romans retrieve their disgrace, but suffer disaster at Lautulæ in an engagement with the Campanians — The Samnites again defeated: Campania reduced — The Romans equip a naval armament. — (n.c. 332-311.) .

Chapter XIV

Continuation of war with the Samnites, the Etruscans, and the Gauls : battle of the Vadimonian lake — Censorship of Appius Claudius Cæcus, and of A. Fabius — The scribe Flavius publishes the forms of legal actions — The Ogulnian law — Defeat of the Gauls in the battle of Sentinum — The Samnite Pontius Tolesinus defeated, captured, and put to death — Conclusion of the Samnite war — Second battle of the Vadimonian lake and defeat of the Gauls — Progress of the Romans in the South of Italy.— (b.c. 310-282.) 78

Chapter XVI

Number of the Roman citizens at this period — The twenty-one original tribes supplemented by twelve additional tribes — Distinction between the Civitas optimo jure, the Latin right, and the Italic — Establishment of the Roman colonies — Construction of roads 89

Chapter XVII

Rome brought face to face with Carthage — The Greek historian, Polybius, and the early Roman annalists — From this period the history of Rome rests upon a generally secure basis ...... 97

Chapter XVIII

Commencement of the First Punic war — The Romans land in Sicily and obtain great successes — The Carthaginians retain command of the sea — The first fleet of the Romans ; the sea-fight and victory of Duilius — Regulus leads an expedition into Africa — Carthage is saved by the aid of the Spartan Xanthippus — Story of the death of Regulus not to be believed — Great efforts and alternate successes on both sides — The Carthaginians sue for peace and relinquish their hold of Sicily— (b.c 264-241.) 102 i a CONTENTS. TAQE 112

Chapter XIX

Interval between the First and Second Punic war — The Romans occupy themselves with the reduction of Sardinia and Corsica, with conquests in Illyria, and interfere in the affairs of Greece — They effect the conquest of the Cisalpine Gauls — The Carthaginians are engaged in a contest with their revolted mercenaries — The rivalry of Hamilcar and Hanno — The war party under Hamilcar obtain the predominance — Progress of the Carthaginians in Spain, and reduction of Saguntum by Hannibal — Progress of internal corruption at Rome — The Floralia and the shows of gladiators. — (b.c. 240-219.)

Chapter XX

Hannibal crosses the Alps and invades Italy — The battles of the Trebia, the Ticinus, and the Lake Trasimenus — Great defeat of the Romans at Cannæ — Hannibal withdraws into the south of Italy, and tries to raise the Greeks and Campanians. — (b.c. 218-216.) .... 127

Chapter XXI

/ Continuation of the Second Punic war — Operations of the Romans in Spain and Sicily— Reduction of Syracuse by Marcellus — Dissipation of Hannibal's army at Capua — He makes himself master of Tarentum aud shows himself before Rome — The Romans conquer at Capua and Tarentum, and cruelly chastise them — Hasdrubal reaches Italy, but is defeated and slain at Metaurus — P. Scipio carries the war into Africa — Hannibal is recalled and defeated at Zama — Carthage submits to an ignominious peace. — (b.c. 216-201.) ...... 138

Chapter XXII

The good fortune of the Romans traced to the superiority of their character and the merits of their policy — Eagerness of the Italians to combat at their side — Rome confronted with Greece — State of the Grecian world after the breaking up of Alexander's empire — Feebleness of Athens, Thebes, and Sparta — The Achæan league; the Ætolians ; the Macedonians . . . . . . . . .150

Chapter XXIII

The Romans commence the conquest of the East — Flamininus encounters the Macedonians — The victory at Cynoscephalæ — Philippus, king of Macedon, sues for peace — Flamininus declares the freedom of Greece. — (B.c. 200-195.) CONTENTS. XVII

Chapter XXIV. I'agb

War with Antiochus, king of Syria — He is defeated in the battle of Magnesia, and is required to withdraw from his acquisitions in Asia Minor — Formation of a kingdom of Asia in dependence upon Rome — War with the Celtiberians and Lusitanians in Spain — Complete reduction of Cisalpine Gaul and Sardinia. — (b.c. 191-178.) . . . 1G5

Chapter XXV

Deaths of three great men at the same period : Hannibal, Scipio Africanns, and Philopœmen — Rome appealed to as arbiter or patron by many Eastern states and potentates — War with Perseus (third Macedonian war) decided by the battle of Pydna — Captivity and death of Perseus, and annexation of his kingdom — Farther aggressions of Rome in the- East — The Achæan league dissolved by Metellns, and Corinth taken and sacked by Mnmmius — Greece becomes a Roman province — Carthage denounced by Cato — The Third Punic war — Capture and destruction of Carthage by P. Scipio Æmilianus — Celebration of secular games in the 608th year of the city — Wars in Spain — Resistance of Viriathus and the Lusitanians — Catastrophe of Mancinus — Fall of Numantia.— (b.c. 183-133.) 171

Chapter XXVI

General account of the Roman empire after the conquest of Greece and Carthage — Internal constitution of the city — The comitia of the curies, the centuries, and the tribes — Their aristocratic character — Their respective functions — The Senate initiates legislative measures ; the consuls convene the centuries, and the tribunes convene the tribes, to sanction them — The nobles, the Senate, and the knights — Appointment by the Senate to the highest provincial commands — Election to the magistracies of the city obtained by profusion in shows and gratuities — Struggle between the Senate and the knights for the emoluments of office in the provinces 179

Chapter XXVII

State of religion at this period and progress of disbelief in the national system — The study of the Greek language and literature — Early histories of Rome written by the Grecian freedmen of the noble houses — Ennius an imitator of Homer — Influence of the Grecian women — Depravation of morals — Divorces — Bacchanalian mysteries — The Romans adopt the forms and rhythms of Greek composition — Further change of manners in the direction of Greek models — First symptoms of a tendency towards monarchy — Resistance to. foreign corruption by Cato the Censor 187 z CONTENTS. PAOE

Chapter XXVIII

Tiberius Gracchus observes the growing depopulation of Italy, and conceives the project of raising the condition of the Roman commonalty — As tribune of the people he proposes a distribution of lands — Resistance of the Senate and nobles— Tiberius slain in a riot. — (b.c. 133.) 192

Chapter XXIX

Scipio Æmilianus defends the interests of the nobles against the claims of the commons — -The Italian states seek to force themselves into the privileges of the Roman aristocracy, and choose Scipio as their champion — His mysterious death — The commons undertake the cause of the Italians — Caius Gracchus, tribune of the people, advocates an agrarian law, and other measures in the interest of the commons — He founds colonies at Capua, Tarentum, and Carthage — The Senate arms the consul Opimius with extraordinary powers, and he is overthrown and slain. — (b.c. 130-121.) . .... 200

Chapter XXX

The agrarian laws become ineffective — Appearance of the Cimbri and Teutones in Gaul, and defeat of Papirius Carbo — Disasters of the Romans in attempting to defend the transalpine province— Affairs of Numidia— War with Jugurtha, Metellus, and Marius — Marius becomes tribune and consul — He reorganises the Roman army, and overthrows Jugurtha— Numidia made a province — The Cyrenaica bequeathed to Rome — Marius undertakes the war against the Cimbri and Teutones — The great victories of Aquæ Sextiæ and Vercellæ — His fifth consulship. —(b.c. 121-101.) 206

Chapter XXXI

Insurrection of slaves in Italy, and in Sicily under Athenio — Marius consul for the sixth time — Struggles between the factions of the city for the privilege of the judicia — Impeachment of Cæpio — The ' gold of Tolosa' — Election of chief pontiff transferred to the plebs, but restricted to a patrician candidate — Sedition of Saturninus — The Italians advance a claim to the Roman franchise, and combine with the plebeian faction — M. Livius Drusus urges their claim, and is assassinated by the consul Philippus — Impeachment and defence of Æmilius Scaurus — Revolt of the Italians — The Social or Marsic war — Names of the leaders on both sides — The franchise conceded by the lex Plautia Papiria. — (b.c. 100-88.) CONTENTS. XIX

Chapter XXXII. Page

Rise of P. Cornelius Sulla — Mithridates, king of Pontus, defies the republic and causes a massacre of Roman citizens in Asia Minor — Quarrel between Marius and Sulla — Marius compelled to flee from the city —His wanderings and adventures — Sulla takes the command in Asia — Cinna creates disturbance, and is expelled from the city — Marius and Cinna unite aud occupy Rome, and make a bloody proscription of the Senatorial party — Murder of Octavius, Crassus, Antonius, and Merula — Marias attains his seventh consulship, and dies, possibly by his own hand — Reputed sacrifice of Q. Mucius Scævola at his funeral. — (b.c. 88-86.) 22.5

Chapter XXXIII

Cinna effaces the last distinction between the Romans and the Italians — Adjustment of debts — Sulla conducts the war against Mithridates — Sack of Athens — Sulla overthrows Fimbria and Cinna, and returns to Italy — Burning of the Capitol — The younger Marius blockaded in Præneste — Carbo and Sertorius driven out of Italy — Overthrow of the Samnites — Fall of Præneste — Battle of the Colline Gate — Sulla enters Rome — His proscription of the Marian faction — Massacres and confiscations — Settlement of Sulla's veterans on Italian lands — Ruin of Etruria by Sulla — Employs Cn. Pompeius and spares C. Julius Cæsar. — (B.C. 86-82.) 233

Chapter XXXIV

The Consul Carbo put to death in Sicily by Pompeius — Sulla appointed dictator, without limit of time — He reconstitutes the republic in the interest of the oligarchy — He reconstructs the Senate, gives to it supreme legislative authority, restores to it the judicia, and curtails the power of the tribunes — Further legislation of Sulla — Evil effect of his military colonies — Sumptuary laws — Sulla resigns the dictatorship — His fanatical belief in his own good fortune — His death — Review of the spirit of Sulla's policy — Its inefficiency and speedy overthrow — His military services great and durable. — (b.c. 82-78.) . . . 242

Chapter XXXV

Renewal of civil wars — Revolt of the Iberians under Sertorius, and maritime confederacy of the pirates — The government of the provinces by the pro-consuls — General sj'stem of extortion and plunder — Impoverishment of the provincials by usury — Political impeachments — History of C. Verres as an example of provincial misgovernment — General relaxation of morality XX CONTENTS. PAGE

CHAPTER XXXVL

Chiefs of the oligarchy, Metellus Pius, Catulus, and Lepidus— Pompeius a soldier of fortune — Revolt of Lepidus — His defeat and death — Revolt of Sertorius in Spain — He defeats Metellus, who is replaced by Pompeius — He is assassinated by Perperna — The revolt quelled by Pompeius — The popular party reassert their claims in the city — General incapacity of the oligarchical government — Outbreak of the gladiators in Campauia, under Spartacus, finally crushed by Pompeius — Policy of Pompeius in Iberia and Gaul — He returns to Rome, and is elected consul before the legal age, with M. Crassus for his colleague — Character and first appearance of C. Julius Cæsar in public life.— (b.c. 78—70.) 255

Chapter XXXVII

Consulship of Pompeius and Crassus, E.C. 70 — Their encouragement of the popular party — Cæsar impeaches certain provincial governors — Cicero pleads against Verres, who retires into exile — Censors appointed to purge the Senate — Vanity of Pompeius — The Gabinian law appointing him to the command against the Cilician pirates — His success in this enterprise — Is supported by Cæsar, who studies to detach him from the Senate — Lueullus conducts a war against Mithridates and Tigranes — His victory at Tigranocerta — He is recalled to Rome by the intrigues of Pompeius — The Manilian law confers supreme command in the East on Pompeius — Successes of Pompeius — The Euphrates declared to be the boundary of the empire — Pompeius expels the Seleucidæ from Palestine — Death of Mithridates — Settlement of the East — (b c 70-63.) 264

Chapter Xxxviii

Position of the oligarchical party — Character of M. Porcius Cato Progress of Cæsar in popular favour— Cicero supports Pompeius and Crassus, and advocates the bill of Manilius — Manœuvres of Cæsar Process of Rabirius — Intrigues of Catilina — His early career Crassus and Cæsar suspected of plotting with him — His influence over the young nobility — View of Roman society — Coarseness of the men, and frivolity of the women — Decline of religion and spread of superstition — The Catilinarian conspiracy — The Optimates prepare to encounter it, and employ Cicero to expose and overthrow it — Catilina is rejected for the consulship — His plans revealed to Cicero, consul in 64, and laid before the Senate and people — Cicero authorised to provide for the 6afety of the state — Catilina allowed to quit the city His associates seized CONTENTS. XXI PAGE 287

Chapter XXXIX

The conspirators capitally sentenced and executed — The insurrection suppressed with the defeat and death of Catilina — Elections for the year 62 — Conflict between the tribunes Cato and Metellus Nepos— Threats of impeachment against Cicero — The Senate refuses to combine with tile knights — Clodius profanes the mysteries of the Bona Dea — Attitude of Pompeius on his return to Rome — Cæsar prætor in Spain — Pompeius celebrates a magnificent triumph — He is affronted by the Senate, and turns towards the popxdar party. — (b.c 63-60.)

Chapter XL

The nobles lean upon Cato — Cicero and Pompeius draw nearer together — Cæsar quits Spain, and sues for the consulship with the assistance of Pompeius and Crassus — The ' first Triumvirate ' — Cæsar's consulship, b.c 59 — An important epoch — He advances the claims of the people and the provinces — Cæsar assumes the command in Illyricum and the Cisalpine — The people insist on adding to it the transalpine province — Cæsar gives his daughter Julia in marriage to Pompeius — Tribunate of Clodius hostile to the Senate — He impeaches Cicero before the people, and drives him into exile — Cato is removed from Rome by an odious mission to Cyprus — Clodius offends Pompeius and Cæsar — Cicero is recalled.— (B.C. 60-57.) 294