A general history of Rome from the foundation of the city to the fall of Augustulus, B.C. 753-A.D. 476

Front matter

i^sl

CORNELL

UNIVERSITY

Chapter II

Formation of the Soman people — Mythology and tradition — The Sieuli, the i/igures, thePelasgians, the Aborigines, the Arcadians, the Etruscans, the Sabines, and the Latins ; comparison of their religious ideas and social usages — Traces of their respective characters in the Eoman polity — Descent of the great Eoman families from these peoples respectively 6

CHAPTER in.

Ihe earliest legends of Eome ; Hercules and Caous, Evander, ^ueas, and the Alban kings — The alleged foundation of the city by Eomulus — The first ftoi-kings of Eome 14

Chapter V

The Constitution of the Eoman Commonwealth on the expulsion of the kings, and its pretended foundation on the polity of Servius . . 27

Chapter VI

The first consuls — The first dictator — The first secession of the plebs — Eeconciliation effected by Menenius Agrippa — The first tribunes of the plebs S3 xiv CONTENTS.

CPIAPTER Vir.

FAOE

First struggle of tte plebeians for a share of the public lands — Their part espoused by the consul Spurius Cassius — The stories of the Fabii and the battle at the Cremera, of Coriolanus, and of Cincinnatus — Constant ■H-ars between Borne and the neighbouring tribes, the ^qui, the Volsci, and the Veientes, and the losses she suffered 37

Chapter VIII

Kfforts of the plebeians to obtain equal laws with the patricians — Commission obtained with this Tiow by Terentilius Harsa — Dissensions in the city — Tbo Capitol seized by Appius Herdonius — The law of Icilius — Treachery of the patricians and murder of Dentatus — Appointment of the decemvirs to prepare a national code — The Twelve Tables — Violence of Appius Claudius and story of Virginia — Character of the decemviral legislation 46

Chapter IX

Continuation of the struggle between the patricians and plebeians — The liiw of Canuleius gives the right of intermarriage, B.C. 445 — The consuls replaced by military tribunes, B.C. 420— Crime and punishment of Sp. Maelius, B.C. 439 — Victory at the Algidus over the jEqui and Volsci, B.C. 431 — The great war with Voii— Military pay first given to the legionaries — Veil captured, B.C. 396, u.c. 358 51

Chapter X

The Gaulish invasion of Italy— Battle of the AUia and burning of Eome — Victory of Camillus, u.o. 364, B.C. 390

Chapter XI

Continued quarrels of the two orders— The cause of the plebeians espoused by Manhus— His overthrow by the dictator Cossus— The Liciuian law earned by the tribunes— One of the con.suls to be henceforth always a plebeian— Institution of the prslors and curule adiles— Death of Camillus BC. 365, in a great pestilence-Lectisternium and alleged devotion of Mottus Curtius ....

Chapter XII

Continued progress of the plebeians towards equality with the patricians-Foreign wars: frequent creation of dictators: wars with the Gauls: exploits of Manhus Torquatus and Valerius Corvus-Commeucement of the contest of Rome with Samnium— War witii the f atins, and their final association with the Eomans, but with eenerallv inferior rights 6=uci.uiij

CONTENTS. XV-

CHAPTER Xm.

Alexander, King of Epirus, invades Italy— The Eomans unite with him against the Samnites — Continuation of the Samnite war — ^Pontius makes the Eoman army pass under the yoke at Caudium — ^The Eomans retrieve their disgrace, but suffer disaster at Lautulse in an engagement with the Campanians — The Samnites again defeated: Campania reduced— The Eomans equip a naval armament. — (b.c. 332-311.) . . 72

Chapter XIV

Continuation of war with the Samnites, the Etruscans, and the Gauls : battle of the Vadimonian Ijike — Censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus, and of A. Fabius — The scribe Flavins publishes the forms of legal actions — The Ogulnian law — Defeat of the Gauls in the battle of Sentinum — The Samnite Pontius Telesinus defeated, captured, and put to death — Conclusion of the Samnite war — Second battle of the Vadimonian lake and defeat of the Gauls — ^Progress of the Eomans in the SouthofItaly.—{B.c, 310-282.) ,....,,. 78

Chapter XV

The war with Pyrrhus — Successes of the Eomans. — (B.Ci 282-271.) . 85

Chapter XVI

Number of the Eoman citizens at this period — The twenty-one original tribes supplemented by twelve additional tribes — Distinction between the Civitas optimo jure, the Latin right, and the Italic — Establishment of the Eoman colonies — Construction of roads 89

CHAPTER XVn.

Eome brought face to face with Carthage — The Greek historian, Polybius, and the early Eoman annalists — ^From this period the history of Eome rests upon a generally secure basis . , . , , .97

CHAPTER XVni.

Commencement of the First Punic war — The Eomans laud in Sicily and obtain great successes — ^The Carthaginians retain command of the sea — The first fleet of the Eomans ; the sea-fight and victory of Duilius — Eegnlus leads an expedition into Africa — Carthage is saved by the aid of the Spartan Xanthippus — Story of the death of Eegulus not to be believed — Great efforts and alternate successes on both sides — ^The Carthaginians sue for peace and relinquish their hold of Sicily.— (B.C. 264-241.) , . 102 cvi CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIX,

Jnterval between the First and Second Punic war — The Eomans occupy themselves with the reduction of Sardinia and Corsica, with conquests in Ulyria, and interfere in the affairs of Greece — ^They eifeet the conquest of the Cisalpine Gauls — The Carthaginians are engaged in a contest with their revolted mercenaries — The rivalry of Hamiloar and Eanno — The war party under Hamilcar obtain the predominance — Progress of the Carthaginians in Spain, and reduction of Saguntum by Hannibal — Progress of internal Corruption at Rome — The Ploralia and the shows of gladiators. — (b.c. 240-219.) 112

CHAPTER XX.

Hannibal crosses the Alps and invades Italy — The battles of the Trebi^, the Ticinus, and the Lake Trasimenus — Great defeat of the Romans at Cannse — Hannibal withdraws into the south of Italy, and tries to raise the Greeks and Campanians. — (b.c. 218-216.) .... 127

CHAPTER XXI.

Continuation of the Second Punic war — Operations of the Romans in Spain and Sicily — Reduction of Syracuse by Marcellus — Dissipation of Hannibal's army at Capua— He makes himself master of Tarentmn and shows himself before Rome — The Romans conquer at Capua and Tarentum, and cruelly chastise them — Hasdrubal reaches Italy, but is defeated and slain at Metaurus — P. Scipio carries the war into Africa — Hannibal is recalled and defeated at Zama — Carthage submits to an ignominious peace. — (b.c. 216-201.) ...,., 138

CHAPTER XXII.

The good fortune of the Romans traced to the superiority of their character and the merits of their policy— Eagerness of the Italians to combat at their side— Rome confronted with Greece— State of the Grecian world after the breaking up of Alexander's empire— Feebleness of Athens, Thebes, and Sparta^The Achjean league: the JEtolians; the Macedonians jgn

CHAPTER XXIII.

The Eomans commence the conquest of the East— Flamininus encounters the Macedonians— The victory at Cynoscephalse- Philippus, king of Macedon, sues for peace— Flamininus declares the freedom of Greece —

CONTENTS. xvii

CHAPTER XXIV.

PAGie War with Antiochns, king of Syria — He is defeated in the battle of Magnesia, and is required to ■withdraw from his acquisitions in Asia Minor — ^Formation of a kingdom of Asia in dependence upon Rome — War with the Celtiberians and Lusitanians in Spain — Complete reduction of Cisalpine Gaul and Sardinia. — (b.c. lOl-lTS.) . •• .165

CHAPTER XXV.

Deaths of three great men at the same period : Hannibal, Seipio Africanus, and Philopcemen — Eome appealed to as arbiter or patron by many Eastern states and potentates — War with Perseus (third Macedonian war) decided by the battle of Pydna — Captivity and death of Perseus, and annexation of his kingdom — ^I'arther aggressions' of Eome in the Eastr— The Achaean league dissolved by Metellus, and Corinth taken and sacked by Mmnmius — Greece becomes a Roman province — Carthage denounced by Cato — The Third Punic war — Capture and destruction of Carthage by P. Seipio JEmilianus — Celebration of secular games in the 608th year of the city — Wars in Spain — Resistance of Viriathus and the Lusitanians — Catastrophe of Mancinus — Fall of Numantia.— (b.c. 183-133.) 171

CHAPTER XXVI.

General account of the Roman empire after the conquest of Greece and Carthage — Internal constitution of the city — The comitia of the curies, the centuries, and the tribes — Their aristocratic character — Their respective functions — The Senate initiates legislative measures; the consuls convene the centuries, and the tribunes convene the tribes, io sanction them — The nobles, the Senate, and the knights — Appointment by the Senate to the highest provincial commands — Election to the magistracies of the city obtain,ed by profusion in shows and gratuities — Struggle between the Senate and the knights for the emoluments of office in the provinces 179 ■

CHAPTER XXVII.

State of religion at this period and progress of disbelief in the national system — The study of the Greek language and literature — Early histories of Rome written by the Grecian freedmen of the noble houses — Ennius an imitator of Homer — Influence of the Grecian women — Depravation of morals — Divorces — Bacchanalian mysteries — The Romans adopt the forms and rhythms of Gireek composition — Further change of manners in the direction of Greek models — First symptoms of a, tendency towards monarchy — Resistance to foreign corruption by Cato the Censor 1S7 xviii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XXVIir.

PAOE

Tiberius Gracchus observes the growing depopulation of Italy, and conceives the project of raising the condition of the Eoman commonalty — As tribune of the people he proposes a distribution of lands — Eesistance of the Senate and nobles— Tiberius slain in a riot.— (b.c. 133.)

CHAPTER XXIX.

Scipio JEmilianus defends the interests of the nobles against the claims of the commons — The Italian states seek to force themselves into the privileges of the Eoman aristocracy, and choose Scipio as their champion — His mysterious death — The commons undertake the cause of the Italians — Caius Gracchus, tribune of the people, advocates an agrarian law, and other measiwes in the interest of the commons — He founds colonies at Gapua, Tarentum, and Carthage — The Senate arms the consul Opimius with extraordinary powers, and he is overthrown and slain.— (B.C. 130-121.) . . . . . 200

CHAPTER XXX.

The agrarian laws become ineffective — Appearance of the Cimbri and Teutones in Gaul, and defeat of Papirius Carbo — Disasters of the Eomans in attempting to defend the transalpine province — Affairs of Numidia — War with Jugurtha, Metellus, and Marius— Marius becomes tribune and consul — He reorganises the Eoman army, and overthrows Jugurtha — Numidia made a province — The Cyrenaica bequeathed to Eome — Marius undertakes the -war against the Cimbri and Teutones — The great victories of Aquse Sextise and Vercellse — His fifth consulship. — (B.C. 121-101.) 206

CHAPTER XXXI.

Insurrection of slaves in Italy, and in Sicily under Athenio — Marius consul for the sixth time — Struggles between the factions of the city for the privilege of the judicia — Impeachment of Csepio — The ' gold of Tolosa' — Election of chief pontiff transferred to the plebs, but restricted to a patrician candidate — Sedition of Satuminus — ^The Italians advance a claim to the Eoman franchise, and combine with the plebeian faction — M. Livius Drusus urges their claim, and is assassinated by the consul Philippus — Impeachment and defence of .ffimiliuB Scaurus — Eevolt of the Italians — The Social or Marsic war — Names of the leaders on both sides — The franchise conceded by the lex Plautia Papiria.— <B.c. 100-88.) 21S

CONTENTS. six

CHAPTER XXXII.

FAGB

Rise of P. Cornelius Sulla — Mithridates, king of Pontus, defies the republic and causes a massacre of Roman citizens in Asia Minor — Quarrel between Marius and Sulla — Marius compelled to flee from the city — His wanderings and adventures — Sulla takes the command in Asia — Cinna creates disturbance, and is expelled from the city — Marius and Cinna unite and occupy Home, and make a bloody proscription of the Senatorial party — Murder of Octavius, Crassus, Antonius, and Morula — Marius attains his seventh consulship, and dies, possibly by his own hand — Eepifted sacrifice of Q. Mucins Scaevola at his funeral.— (b.c. &8-86:) 225

CHAPTER XXXm.

Cinna effaces the last distinction between the Romans and the Italians — Adjustment of debts — Sulla conducts the war against Mithridates — Sack of Athens — Sulla overthrows Pimbria and Cinna, and returns to Italy — ^Burning of the Capitol — The younger Marius blockaded in Praeneste — Carbo and Sertorius driven out of Italy — Overthrow of the Samnites — Fall of Prasneste — Battle of the Colline Gate — Sulla enters Rome — His proscription of the Marian faction — Massacres and confiscations — Settlement of Sulla's veterans on Italian lands — Ruin of Etruria by Sulla — ^Employs Cn. Pompeius and spares C. Julius Caesar. — (B.C. 86-82.) 233

CHAPTER XXXIV.

The Consul Carbo put to death in Sicily by Pompeius — Sulla appointed, dictator, without limit of' time — He reconstitutes the republic in the interest of the oligarchy — He reconstructs the Senate, gives to it supreme legislative authority, restores to it the judicia, and curtails the power of the tribunes — Further legislation of Sulla — Evil efiect of his military colonies — Sumptuary laws — Sulla resigns the dictatorship — His fanatical belief in his own good fortune — His death — Review of the spirit of Sulla's policy — Its inefBciency and speedy overthrow — His military services great and durable. — (b.c. 82-78.) . . . 242

CHAPTER XXXV.

Renewal of civil wars — Revolt of the Iberians under Sertorius, and maritime confederacy of the pirates — The government of the provinces by the pro-consuls— General system of extortion and plunder — Impoverishment of the provincials by usury — Political impeachments — History of G. Verres as an example of provincial misgovemment —

- General relaxation of morality . ,,.,.,. 249

XT CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XXXVI.

PAGB

Chiefs of the oligarchy, Metellns Pius, Catulus, and Lepidus— Pompoius a soldier of fortune — Revolt of Lepidus — His defeat and death — itevolt of Sertoriua in Spain— He defeats Mefellus, who is replaced by Pompeius — He is assassinated by Perperna— The revolt quelled by Pompeius — The popular party reassert their claims in the city — General incapacity of the oligarchical government — Outbreak of the gladiators in Campania, under Spartacus, finally crushed by Pompeius — Policy of Pompeius in Iberia and Gaul — He returns to Eome, and is elected consul before the legal age, with M. Crassus for his colleague — Character arid first appearance of C. Julius Csesar in public life.— (b.c. 78—70.) 255

CHAPTER XXXYII.

Consulship of Pompeius and Crassus, e.g. 70— Their encouragement of the popular party — Csesnr impeaches certain provincial governors — ■ Cicero pleads against Yerres, Trho retires into exile — Censors appointed to purge the Senate — Vanity of Pompeius — The Gabinian law appointing him to the command against the Cilician pirates — His success in this enterprise— Is supported by Csesar, who studies to detach him from the Senate — Lucullus conducts a, war against Mithridates and Tigranes — His victory at Tigranocerta — He is recalled to Home by the intrigues of Pompeius— The Manilian law confers supreme command in the East on Pompeius — Successes of Pompeius — The Euphrates declared to be the boundary of the empire — Pompeius expels the Seleucidse from Palestine — ^Death of Mithridates — Settlement of the East. — (b.c. 70-63.) 264

CHAPTER XXXVm.

Position of the oligarchical party — Character of M. Porcius Cato — Progress of Csesar in popular favour — Cicero supports Pompeius and

Crassus, and advocates the bill of Manilius — Mancetivres of Caesar

Process of Rabirius — Intrigues of Catilina — His early career — Crassus and Csesar suspected of plotting with him — His influence over the young nobility — View of Eoman society — Coarseness of the men, and frivolity of the women — Decline of religion and spread of superstition — The Catilinarian conspiracy— The Optimates prepare to encounter it, and employ Cicero to expose and overthrow it — Catilina is rejected for the consulship — His plans revealed to Cicero, consul in 64, and laid before the Senate and people — Cicero authorised to provide for the

safety of the state — Catilina allowed to quit the city His associates

seized 275

CONTEXTS. xxi

CHAPTER XXXIX.

The conspirators capitally sentenced and executed — The insurrection suppressed with the defeat and death of Catilina — Elections for the year 62— Conflict between the tribunes Oato and Metellus Nepos — Threats of impeachment against Cicero — The Senate refuses to combine with the knights — Clodius profanes the mysteries of the Bona Dea — Attitude of Pompeius on his return to Rome — Caesar prsetor in Spain — Pompeius celebrates a magnificent triumph — He is affronted by the Senate, and turns towards the popular party. — (e.g. 63-60.) . . 287

CHAPTER XL.

The nobles lean upon Cato — Ciewo and Pompeius draw nearer together — Caesar quits Spain, and sues for the consulship with the assistance of Pompeius and Crassus^-The ' first Triumvirate ' — Caesar's consulship, B.C. 59 — An important epoch — He advances the claims of the people and the provinces — Caesar assumes the command in Illyricum and the Cisalpine — The people insist on adding to it the transalpine province — Caesar gives his daughter Julia, in marriage to Pompeius — Tribunate of Clodius hostile to the Senate — He impeaches Cicero before the people, and drives him into exile — Cato is removed from Eome by an odious mission to Cyprus — Clodius offends Pompeius and Caesar— Cicero is recalled.— (B.C. 60-57.) 294

CHAPTER XLI.

Caesar in Gaul — ^His campaigns in the east, the west, the north, and the south — His advance into Germany, and two invasions of Britain, B.C. 68-54 — Pompeius obtains an extraordinary commission for supplying the city— ^-Question of restoring Ptolemaeus to Egypt with an armed force — Pompeius bafied by the Senate — Caesar's intrigues at Lucca — Pompeius and Crassus consuls for B.C. 55 — They extend Caesar's government for a term of five years — Tumults in the city — Danger of Pompeius — ^Alarm and death of Julia — Caesar's administration in Gaul-^Kevolt in the north-east, and subjugation of the Remi, the Treviri, and the Nervii B.c. 53 — Revolt of the central states— Affair of Alesia and surrender of Vercingetorix — Conquest of Gaul completed B.C. 61 — Csesar organises the country in his own interest — -His popularity with his soldiers. — (b.c. 68-51.) 301

CHAPTER XLH.

Reception of the report of Caesar's successes at Rome — Pompeius takes Spain and Crassus receives Syria for his province — Crassus goes forth from the city and is denounced by the, tribune Ateius — His proceedings in the East — His attack upon Parthia — ^Difficulties of his march beyond the Euphrates — Disaster at Carrhae — Crassus and a large part of his army fall into the hands of the Parthians — Crassus slain, and his remains insulted — (b.c. 55-53.) .310 xxii COMXiiMa.

CHAPTER XLIII.

PAOS

Interregnum, and intrigues in the city — Reign of violence — Clodius slain in a fray with Milo — The nobles eifect the appointment of Pompeius sole consul B.C. 52 — Pompeius detaches himself from Caesar — He surrenders Milo to be tried and banished — Tranquillity is restored — Caesar's buildings in Eome — He demands a second consulship as necessary for his personal safety — He is affronted by the Senatorial party — Indecision of Pompeius — Cicero proconsul in Cilicia — Pompeius falls sick, but recovers — The sympathy of the Italians raises his confidence in himself — Caesar's precarious position at the opening of the year 50 — He is threatened Tvith the loss of his province, while Pompeius refuses to surrender Spain — Curio supports Caesar as tribune, dedares his person endangered, and seeks Caesar in his camp, while Pompeius arms in defence of the city 316

CHAPTER XLIV.

Eeview of the situation — General tendency of the Eoman world towards monarchy — Caesar's policy points to the fusion of Eome and her subjects in one nation under a second Alexander — Caesar crosses the Rubicon — Pompeius quits Rome for the South of Italy — Caesar pursues and takes many places — Surrender of Corfinium — Caesar's clemency — Pompeius carries his army across the Adriatic — Dismay of the senators at his policy — Caesar reaches Rome and rifles the temple of Saturn— Curio defeated and slain in Africa — Caesar reduces the province of Spain, and takes Massilia — He is created dictator— He effects salutary fiscal measures, recalls exiles, and then resigns the office— Causes himself to be nominated consul with Servilius, and repairs with legitimate powers to his army at Brundisium. — (b.c. 49.) ■,..,. 326.

CHAPTER XLV

Review of the forces pitted against each other— Caesar crosses into Epirus and blockades Pompeius in his camp at Petra— Pompeius makes a successful sally— Caesar withdraws from the coast, and the two armies meet at Pharsaha, in Thessaly— Caesar's great victory— Flight of Pompeius— He seeks an asylum at the court of Ptolemaeus, king of Egypt-His assassination— Caesar follows in pursuit, and reaches Alexandria from Syria, and takes the part of Cleopatra against PtolemffiUB— The Alexandrine war-Ca^sar in great peril, finally successful- Death of Ptolemaeus -Caesar engages in war with Pharnaces— His ea'^v victory— State of affairs in the city— Cffisar a second and a third time d,ctator-His campaign in Africa-Battle of Tlmpsus ; discomfiture of tlie republicans, and suicide of Cato. — (b c. 48-i6.) . . 336

CONTEXTS. xxiii

CHAPTER XL VI.

PAas

Honours showered upon Caesar at Rome- -His four triumphs, his games and largesses — Campaign in Spain— Battle of Munda — Defeat and death of Cnseus Pompeius — Csesar's fifth triumph— Eepresentatives of all nations at Eome— Caesar introduces foreigners into the Senate — Further distinctions heaped upon him — Dictatorship and consulship for fire years ; the imperium, tribunate, principate, and chief pontificate for life also — Caesar's policy of unification — He plans the redaction of a code of laws — He reforms the calendar — His great constructive works completed or only designed— Csesar's private life and manners — His irreligion and superstition — Cleopatra at Eome — Her influence over Caesar— The people resent it — Csesar finds himself ill at ease in the city, and makes preparations for a great war in the East. — (b.c. 46-44.) . 349

CHAPTER XLVn.

C. Octavius begins his career in the camp at Apollonia — Conspiracy formed against Caesar "by Cassius and others — Character, of M. Junius Brutus — Assassination of Caesar — The liberators assemble in the Capitol — The people unfavourable to them — They negotiate with M. Antonius — An amnesty proclaimed — Caesar's ' acts ' confirmed, with his assignment of provinces to Brutus, Cassius, and others of the conspirators — Caesar's will and bequests to the people' — His funeral obsequies in the Forum — Artful harangue of Antonius — Movement among the people — Antonius becomes paramount in the city — He obtains a sanction for all Caesar's projected ' acts ' — His arbitrary proceedings — Futility of the assassination ^ 358

CHAPTER XLVni.

Octavius returns to Eome, and claims the inheritance of Csesar — Antonius disregards his pretensions — The Senate and people favour him — The liberators assume command in their provinces — Antonius attacks Cicero in the Senate — Cicero retorts — The Philippics or speeches against Antonius — Octavius seduces some legions of Antonius — ^Antonius betakes himself to the Cisalpine — Octavius joins the consuls in making war upon him — ^Antonius defeats Pansa, but is defeated by Hirtius — Both the consuls slain — The republicans resume confidence — Octavius suddenly combines with Antonius — Octavius becomes consul — Eout and death of Deoimus Brutus— Compact between Octavius, Antonius, and Lepidus, or second Triumvirate — The proscriptions at Eome, and murder of Cicero — The triumvirs prepare for war against the republican leaders— (b.c. 44-42.) 367 xsiT CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XLIX.

PAGB

Brutus recruits his legions at Athens-The poet Horace takes service with him— Brutus and Cassius prepare for war and plunder their own pronnces for supplies— They encounter Antonius and Octajnus in the two battles of Philippi in Macedonia -Their defeat and death— The triumvirs make a division of the empire— Octavius returns toRome to plant the veteraus on Italian land— Antonius repairs to the Jiast, and falls into the snares of Cleopatra— The interview on the Cydnus— Fuhna raises a revolt in Italy against Octavius -War of l-erusia- Treaty of Brundisium between Octavius and Antonius— Sextus obtains a share in the empire— Octavius undertakes a maritime war against Sextus— Excellent services of M. Agrippa— Victory off Naulochus— Death of Sextus and disgrace of Lepidus.— (b.c. 42-36.) . . . S78

CHAPTER L.

Octavius returns to Eome— His moderation and prudence acquire him popularity — Antonius invades Parthia— His disastrous retreat — His revels in Egypt and Syria — Successful campaign in Armenia — Octavius employs himself with warfare in the Alps and in Dalmatia— Antonius repulses Octavia — He makes great preparations for war, taking up his quarters at Samos — The treason of Antonius revealed in his testament — Octavius, supported by the sentiment of the Boman people, declares war against Egypt — Antonius collects his forces— Octavius contrives to land an army in Epirus— Desertions from the Antonian side — His losses by laud and sea— Battle of Actium— Antonius flees to Egypt— Vain attempts at defence — Cleopatra betrays Antonius, who commits suicide — Death of Cleopatra — Egypt formed into a Koman province . . 386

CHAPTER LI.

Octavius returns to Eome n.o. 29, and celebrates a triple triumph — He assumes ; 1. The military command-in-chief, with the title of Imperator prefixed to his name. 2. The functions of the Censorship, but without the title. 3. The Principate, or first pWe in the Senate, i. The Potestas Consularis in the city and the pro^nnces-, division of Imperial and Senatorial provinces. 5. The Potestas Tribunicia. 6. The Sovereign Pontificate. 7. The name of Augustus — He is worshipped in the provinces — His moderation in the extension of the Roman franchise— The policy of Augustus compared with that of Julius Caesar — Ethical schools of the day — Aiigustus repudiates all speculative, opinions — Cosmopolitan tendency of the era exemplified iu language, law, and religion — Augustus leans against this tendency, and makes common cause with the Senate and nobles— The Romans reconciled to monarchical government — The emperor's simplicity of manners — The poets of the court contribute to make him popular. — The Senate and People concur in hailing him as 'Father of his country' . . .397

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER Ln.

xsv

Division of the provinces between the Emperor and the Senate Military

organisation of the Empire — The naval stations — The finances — Extent

and population — ^Population of the city — ^Agrippa and Maecenas

Military operations under Augustus : His reduction of the Cantabri— Britain not attempted — .Silius Gallus in Arabia — ^Augustus in the East — The standards of Crassus recovered from the Parthians — Celebration of Secular Games — Augustus in Gaul — Operations against the Pannonians, the Dalmatians, and the Germans on the Ehine — ^Defeat of LoUius — Crafty policy of Licinus — Reduction of the Alpine tribes . 409

X)HAPTER Lni.

The imperial family — Drusus Nero on the Ehine — His surname Germanicus — His premature death — ^Tiberius Nero in Pannonia — Death of Agrippa — Caius and Lucius, his sons by Julia — Tiberius marries Julia ; parts Jcom her — She is banished to an island ; he retires to Ehodes — He is received again into favour; associated in the Tribunician power — His ejEpedition to the Elbe, a.d. 4. — His expedition against the Marcomanni, a.d. 6. — Eevolt in Pannonia — Troubles in the imperial family — Seclusion of the younger Julia and of Agrippa Postumus — Banishment of the poet Ovid — Disaster to Varus in Germany — Consternation in the city — Tiberius resumes the command on the Ehine and earns a triumph — The young Gemianieus left in command — ^Augustus causes a census to be held ; compiles his 'Breviarium,' and dies a.d. 14 417

CHAPTER LIV.

The birth of Jesus Christ — It occurred in a period of general peace — Peaceful policy of Augustus — Assumption of power by Tiberius — Discontent of the Legions on the Danube and the Ehine appeased by Drusus and Germanieus — Campaigns of Germanicus — Eecovery of the eagles of Varus — Germanicus recalled and sent to Syria — His death ascribed to foul means — Process against Plancus — Eemarks on the law of • Majestas ' and the proceedings of the ' delators,' or iiiformers. — (a.d. U-20.'> 428

CHAPTER LV.

Tiberius brings forward bis son Drusus — Sejanus rises in his favour, removes Drusus by poison, and aspires to the hand of his widow, Livilla — ^^Induces Tiberius to withdraw to Caprese, and intrigues against Agrippina — Death of Livia, a.d. 29 — Banishment of Agrippina — Confinement of her son Drusus — Sejanus appointed consul for five years — He begins to lose favour with Tiberius, and is craftily over-