The Revolutionary Movement of 1848-9 in Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Germany. With some examination of the previous thirty-three years ... With ... illustrations

Front matter

THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848-9. Es reden und traumen die Menschen viel Von bessern kiinftigen Tagen ; Nach einem gliicklichen, goldenen Ziel Sieht man sie rennen und jagen. Die Welt wird alt, und wird wieder jung ; Doch der Mensch hofft immer Verbesserung. Es ist kein leerer schmeichelnder Wahn, Erzeugt im Gehirne des Thoren. Im Herzen ktindet es laut sich an : Zu was Besserm sind wir geboren ; Und was die innere Stimme spricht, Das taiischt die hoffende Seele nicht. Schiller. LMuyfiAe/ THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT OF 1848-0 IN ITALY, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, AND GERMANY. WITH SOME EXAMINATION OF THE PREVIOUS THIRTY-THREE YEARS. BY C. EDMUND MAURICE, — /i_ AOTHOR OP " THE LIVES OF ENGLISH POPULAR LEADERS IN THE MIDDLE AGES." WITH AN ENGRAVED FRONTJSPJECE AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS. LONDON : GEORGE BELL AND SONS, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 1887. [The right of translation is reserved.] CHISWICK PRESS : — C. WHITTINGHAM AND CO., TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE.

Preface

. The following book is the result of many years' work. It aims at showing the links which connected together the various movements in Germany, Italy, and the Austrian Empire in 1848-9. Many as are the books which have been written on the various parts of that struggle, I do not know of any attempt to link them together. How adventurous this effort is I am most painfully aware, and none the less so because I happen to know that the task was undertaken and abandoned by at least one writer who has many qualifications for it to which I can lay no claim. I allude to my friend Dr. Eugene Oswald, who has most generously assisted me in carrying out the work for which he was unable to spare the time. But I may say without arrogance that however deficient my history may be in the learning and ability which Dr. Oswald's would have shown, as well as in that lifelikeness which his personal share in the important rising in Baden would have enabled him to give to the descriptions ; yet I shall at least have no temptation to any one-sided estimate of the merits of the various races concerned in the struggle, a tempta tion from which the most candid German could hardly escape. My only danger in that matter would be that I might be tempted to speak too favourably of all the movements of those various races ; seeing VI

PREFACE.

. that during my investigations in the cities affected by these movements, I received the most extreme courtesy and kindness from German and Bohemian, Magyar and Szekler, Saxon and Roumanian, Serb, Croat, and Italian ; and I feel nothing but pain at any word of criticism I have uttered in these pages that may jar on the susceptibilities of any of those races. It will be noticed, of course, that I have omitted from this history any account of the French Revolu tion. My reasons for this have been given at the beginning of the seventh chapter. But I may add to what I have said there that I had long felt the dis proportionate importance which many people attached to the French Revolution of 1848, in regard to its immediate influence on Europe. From Palermo, not from Paris, came the first revolutionary outburst.

From Presburg, not from Paris, came the word that shook Metternich from power, and secured a European character to the Revolution. Under these circum stances, I conceived the idea of telling the story of the European Revolution, without touching on the French part of it, except in the most incidental manner; so that the students of this period may be able fairly to estimate the other influences which pro duced these great results, unblinded by the splen dour which anything done in Paris seems always to have for the student of revolution. One other peculiarity in my book also needs some explanation. I have, as far as possible, avoided refer ences to authorities in notes. Such references only worry the general reader, while the student will, I think, be more helped by the list of authorities which I append to this preface.

PREFACE.

. VII It now only remains for me to thank those friends who have helped me in my work. — For the German part of the Revolution, I have received much help from the kind loan of the " Neue Rheinische Zeitung " by the late Dr. Karl Marx. For the special Baden part of it I received help not only from Dr. Oswald but also from Dr. Karl Blind, who lent me pamphlets not otherwise accessible. For the Bohemian part of the narrative I owe much to the kind help of Dr. Gabler, Mr. Naprstek, Count Leo Thun the younger, and Dr. Rieger. For hints about the Viennese struggle I owe thanks to Dr. von Frankl, the well-known poet of the revolution, and also to Dr. Friedjung. For some general hints on the Slavonic question I am much indebted to Baron Helfert ; and my obliga tion to Dr. Herbs t I have acknowledged in a note.

For general Hungarian information I owe thanks to Mr. Pulszky, to Miss Toulmin Smith, to General Klapka, to my kind friend Professor Felmeri of Klausenburg, to Dr. Lindner, Mr. Kovacs, Mr. Kovary, Mr. Boros, of the same town, and to Mr. Szabo, now Librarian of Klausenburg University, formerly a distinguished officer in General Bern's army; also to Mr. Fekete, Mr. Sandor, and Professor Koncz of Maros Vasarhely; and last but not least to Mr. Paget, the author of " Hungary and Tran sylvania." For special hints about the Saxon question I am indebted, amongst others, to Dr. Teutsch, to Professor Senz, and to the late " Obergespan " of Hermannstadt, Herr von Brennerberg, whose loss to the district I can well understand, since the acquaint - ance of a week enabled me to appreciate the singular justice of his mind, as well as his uniform kindness; while for information from the Roumanian point of

PREFACE.

. VIII view I owe thanks to Mr. Barritzu. For information on Serb questions I am indebted principally to Mr. Polit, and Mr. Hadjic of Neusatz, and Mr. Boscovic of Belgrade, for whose acquaintance I have to thank the late Servian Minister in England, Mr. Mijatovic. The same introducer I have to thank for the kindness shown me by Mr. Matkovicu of Agram. In the last mentioned town I also received useful information and help from Mr. Subek, and from the Librarian of the South Slavonic Academy. For help in Italian work I have to thank my old friend Madame Venturi, Signor Ernesto Nathan, Signor Cardinali, Signor Berti, Professor Villari, Signor Guastalla, Professor Aurelio Saffi (the Ex- Triumvir of Rome), Signor Galli, Dr. Sacchi, the Syndic of Goito, the Librarian of the Biblioteca di Brera at Milan, and my friend Signor Pizzi. — For help of various kinds I have to thank Miss Wedgwood, Miss Irby, Dr. Brandl and Mr. Garnett of the British Museum.

I have also to acknowledge the kindness of Mr. Diosy in allowing a copy to be taken of his picture of Kossuth, for insertion in my book. This favour, with other help, I owe to my friend Mr. B. Gunszt. CONTENTS. PAGE Authorities Consulted xi Chief Races of Austrian Empire xvii Table of Dates xix Chapter I. The Triumph of Despotism 1 ,, II. First Efforts of Constitutionalism . . 19 „ III. Faith and Law against Despotism . . . 52 ,, IV. Language and Learning against Despotism 88 „ V. Despotism retiring before Constitutionalism 117 ,, VI. First Mutterings of the Storm . . . 168 „ VII. The Downfall of Despotism .... 216 „ VIII. The Struggle of the Races 275 „ IX. The Revolution Breaks into Separate Parts 334 ,, X. Last Efforts of Constitutionalism . . 101 „ XI. The Death Struggle of Freedom . . . 431 Index LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Giuseppe Mazzini Frontispiece. Kossuth Lajos .... .to face page 84 Robert Blum .... . , 224 II Vascello. Rome ..... „ General History. Metternich's Memoirs. Menzel's Geschichte der letzten vierzig Jahre. GERMANY. General German History. Aridt, Life of. Blum, Life of. Gorres, Life of. Marx, Neue Rheinische Zeitung. Perthes, Life of. Stein, Life of, by Professor Seeley. Stenographischer Bericht des deutschen Vor Parlaments zu Frankfort. des Fiinfziger Ausschiisses. der deutschen Constituirenden Versammlung. Zimmermann Deutsche Revolution. PRUSSIA. Humboldt Brief- Weclisel mit einem Jungen Freunde. Letters to Varnhagen von Euse. Schmalz Berichtigung einer Stelle in der Bredow-Venturinischen Chronik fur das Jahr 1808. BADEN. Goegg (Aman.d) Riickblick aus die Badische Revolution (from La Ligne des Peuples).

La Liberte de Penser (a journal containing pamphlets, &c, on the Baden Revolution). Morel Der Marz-Aufstand und Die Badische Revolution. Struve (Gustav) Geschichte der Volks Erhebungen in Baden. „ (Amalie) Erinnerungen, &c. SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN. Adressen an eine hohe deutsche Versammlung, &c, von Kiel. Bunsen. Memoir on Constitutional Rights of the Duchies. Droysen. The Policy of Denmark towards the Duchies. SWITZERLAND. Der Untergang des Sonderbundes. AUSTRIA. General History. Helfert. Geschichte Oesterreichs. Springer. Geschichte Oesterreichs seit der Wiener Frieden, 1809. Pillersdorf. Riickblick aus die politische Bewegung in Oesterreich. VIENNA. Dunder. Denkschrift iiber die Wiener October Revolution. Griiner. Geschichte der October Revolution. Reschauer. Das Jahr 1848. Reichstag's Gallerie, &c. Verhandlungen des Oesterreichischen Landtages 1848.

Violand. Die Sociale Geschichte der Revolution in Oesterreich.' Wiener Boten. BOHEMIA. Miiller. Die merkwurdigsten Tage Prags in der Pfingst — Woche des Jahres 1848. Pameti (Pamphlets and proclamations, &c, in the Archives of Prague). Schopf. Volks Bewegung in Prag. Standische Verhaltnisse des Konigreichs Bohmen. Stiles. Austria in 1848-9. Tomain. Das Bohmische Staatsrecht. GALICIA. Ausschliisse iiber die jungsten Ereignisse in Polen. Krasinski. Panslavismus und Germanismus. Krolikowski. Memoire sur l'Etat de Cracovie, 1840. Zaleski. Die Polnische Frage. HUNGARY. General History. Beschwerden und Klagen der Slaven in Ungarn, 1843. Bohmisch-Slavische Helden in der Panslavismus. Deak, Life of. Gorgei. My Life and Acts in Hungary. Irby (Miss). Across the Carpathians. Klapka. Memoirs of the War of Independence in Hungary.

Kossuth, Memoir of in a History of Hungary by E. 0. S. Kovari (Laslo) Okmanytar az 1848-9. (This book, though written in Hungarian, contains some important documents in German, of which alone I have been able to make use.) Mailath (Count Johann) Geschichte von Oesterreich. „ Der Ungarische Reichstag in 1830. Paget. Hungary and Transylvania. Pulszky. Meine Zeit mein Leben. ,, (Madame). Memoirs of a Hungarian Lady. Smith (Toulmin). Parallels between Constitution and Constitutional History of England and Hungary. Szechenyi (Vortrag iiber) Ludwig Fezstory. Zur Geschichte des Ungarischen Freiheits-Kampfes Autentische Berichte. CROATIA AND SLAVONIA. Aktenstiicke zur Geschichte des Croatisch Slavonischen Landtages, by Pejakovif. Agramer Zeitung, 1843-8. Deutsche Viertels-Jahr-Schrift (article called Mittheilungen aus Serbien).

Le Due. La Croatie et la Confederation Italienne. Serbes de Hongrie, &c. Verhandlungen des Agramer Landtags in October, 1845. Other pamphlets on the Croatian question. TRANSYLVANIA. Bern. Feldzug in Siebenbiirgen, by Czecz. Bonar. Transylvania, its Products and People. Deutsche Worte, a magazine. Friedenfels, Joseph Bedeus von Scharberg. Klausenbnrg, Collection of documents in Library of. Lauriani. Die Romiinen der Oesterreichischer Monarchie. Maros Vasarhely, Collection of Baron Apor at. Roth. Der Sprach-Kampf in Siebenbiirgen. Scharberg. Die Verfassung Siebenbiirgens. Unterhaltungen aus der Gegenwart. Vereinigung Siebenbiirgens mit Ungarn vom Standpunkte der Sachsischen Nation beleuchtet. Zieglauer. Die Reform-Bewegung in Siebenbiirgen. ITALY. General History. Alfieri. Opere. Autobiography.

Bianchi (Nicomede), Storia della politica Austriaca rispetto ai Sovrani ed ai Governi Italiani dell' anno 1791, al Maggio del 1857. Coppi. Annali dTtalia. DAmato. Panteon dei Martiri della liberta Italiana. Farini. Lo Stato Romano (really including much of other parts) . Foscolo (Ugo) Scritte politici inediti. Jacopo Ortis. Lettera a Conte Verri. Lettera a Conte di Ficquelmont. — — (Vita di). Pecchio. Gallenga. Italy in 1848. Gioberti Vincenzo (biography by V. G. in I Contemporanei Italiani). Del Primato Morale e Civile degli Italiani. Gualterio. Gli Ultimi Rivolgimenti Italiani. Delle Negative date dal Conte Solaro della Margherita. La Concordia (paper published at Genoa). La Farina. Storia dell Italia dopo il Settembre del 1847. Manzoni ( Alessandro) . Cenni Sulla vita Sua. Miscellanee politiche Genovesi (pamphlets, songs, &c, published at Genoa, and bearing on the revolution).

Mazzini, Life and Writings of (translated by E. A. V.). Panizzi, Lettere ad, di uomini illustri, &c. Ranalli. Istorie Italiane dal 1846 al 1853. LOMBARDY AND VENETIA, Andryane. Memoires d'un prisonnier d'Etat. Anfossi (Francesco). Memorie sulla campagna di Lombardia del 1848. Biblioteca di Brera (Milan), Collections of Caricatures, Pamphlets, and Proclamations in. Cantu (Cesare). Editions and Lives of Monti and Parini. Casati. Nuove rivelazioni su i fatti di Milano nel 1847-8. Cattaneo. Dell' Insurrezione di Milano. ,, Archivio Triennale. Dandolo. Italian Volunteers and Lombard Rifle Brigade. Gazzetta di Milano, 1848. Manin, Documents et pieces autentiques laissees par. Quadro politico di Milano (collection of pamphlets, &c). Vedovi (Timoleone). I martiri di san Georgio e di Belfiore. NAPLES AND SICILY.

Colletta. History of Naples (translated). Ruggiero Settimo. Per Gabriele Colonna. PIEDMONT. Balbo (Cesare) autobiography. ,, Speranze d'ltalia. Brofferio. Storia di Piemonte. „ I miei Tempi. Solaro della Margherita, Vita di per Biginelli. ,, Memorandum Storico- Politico. „ Avvedimenti Politici. ROMAN STATES. Artaud. Vie de Pie 7. Vie de Pie 8. Balleydier. Storia della Revoluzione di Roma. Beghelli. La Republica Romana del 1849. Brasini. L' 8 Agosto 1848, Bologna. „ La Resistenza di Bologna nelle otto Giornate di Maggio, 1849. D'Azeglio (Massimo) Degli ultimi casi di Romagna. „ Correspondance Politique. Monitorio Romano, 1848 and 1849. Orsini. Memoirs. Pasolini (Memoir of), by his son, translated. Protocollo della Republica Romana. AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. Republica Italiana del 1849 (anonymous clerical).

Rossi (Pellegrino). Vita di per Raggi (including other notices of him). Torre (Federico). Memorie Storiche sull' intervento Francese (unfinished). TUSCANY. Guerrazzi (Domenico) Apologia della Vita Politica. (His novels should also be read to estimate his influence.) CHIEF RACES OF AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. Hungary. Magyars, ruling race ; found in most parts of the Kingdom, but most largely in the Northern parts. Semi-Turkish race (non- Aryan). Various creeds ; Calvinism the most distinctive {i.e., the one that has most connected itself with the racestruggles). Chief town, Buda-Pesth. Croats, chiefly found in Croatia, but sometimes in Slavonia and Dalmatia. Creed, Roman Catholic ; Slavonic race ; chief town, Agram. Saxons, found in S.E. of Transylvania. Creed, mainly Lutheran ; race, German ; chief town, Hermannstadt.

Serbs, found chiefly in Slavonia, but also in Banat, Bacska, and in smaller numbers in other parts of Hungary. Creed, Greek Church ; race, Slavonic ; chief towns, Neusatz and Carlowitz. Slovaks, found in North Hungary. Creed, Lutheran ; race, Slavonic. Szekler, found in N.E. of Transylvania. Creeds, various ; race, same as Magyars ; chief town, Maros Vasarhely. Roumanian, or WallacJc, in all parts of Transylvania, and a few in the Banat. Creed, Greek Church ; race, mixed Dacian and Italian ; chief town, Blasendorf . Italians, found in Dalmatia and Istria. Western Austria. Germans, found everywhere, but chiefly in Archduchy. Creed, mainly Roman Catholic ; chief town, Vienna. Slovenes, found in Krain, Carinthia, and Styria. Race, Slavonic. Czechs, in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. Creed, chiefly Roman Catholic ; race, Slavonic ; chief town, Prague.

Galicia. Poles, found in all parts. Creed, Roman Catholic ; race, Slavonic ; chief town, Lemberg. Ruthenians. Creed, Greek Church ; race, Slavonic. b 1846, April 25 Charles Albert defies Austria about the salt-tax. June 15. July 8. Election of Pius IX. King of Denmark asserts his right to absorb Schleswig-Holstein. Pius IX's. amnesty. „ 16. 1847. Jan. 3. July 5. Landtag summoned to Berlin. Pope grants Civic Guard to Rome. Clerical conspiracy suppressed in Rome. Austrian occupation of Ferrara. 14. 16. 20. Swiss Diet resolves to dissolve Sonderbund. Unsuccessful rising in Messina. Sept. 1. 12 Meeting of South German Liberals at Offenburg. 29. Metternich formally expresses his approval of the Sonderbund. Nov. 4. „ 24. Motion carried at Pesth for taxation of nobles. Troops of the Swiss Diet occupy Luzern.

Nazari makes his motion for reform in Milan. Agreement for Austrian troops to evacuate Dec. 9. 16. Ferrara. 27. Ciceruacchio asks the Pope to join the Italian League. 1848. Jan. 2 and 3. Smoking riots at Milan. „ 12. Sicilian rising begins. 19. Arrest of Manin and Tommaseo at Venice. 29. Neapolitan Constitution granted. XX Feb. 4. Leopold of Tuscany promises Constitution. „ 12. Pope appoints first lay Ministers. 22. Martial law proclaimed in Lombardy. 27. Meeting at Mannheim to demand German 1848 Parliament. Mar. 2. Second Chamber of Baden demands repeal of Carlsbad Decrees. Downfall of Ministry in Bavaria. 3. Kossuth's speech at Presburg. 11. First meeting at the Wenzelsbad in Prague. „ 13. Rising in Vienna. Workmen's petition in Berlin. Granting of Liberal Ministry by King of Saxony. 15.

Abdication of Metternich. 16. Students' rising in Pesth. Rising in Berlin. Granting of Constitution by Pope. 17. Serb meeting at Pesth. 18 to 22. Five days of Milan. 22. Rising in Venice. 23. Manin chosen President of Venetian Republic. Jellacic made Ban of Croatia. Charles Albert declares war on Austria. 25. Prussian Assembly opens. 26. King of Naples deposed by Sicilians. 31. Meeting of Vor-Parlament at Frankfort. April 2. Bundestag repeals Carlsbad Decrees. „ 4. Bundestag authorises Prussia to act for Germany in Schleswig-Holstein. 8. First battle of Goito. 11. Palacky refuses to join the Committee of Fifty at Frankfort. 16. First Baden insurrection. ,, 29. Papal allocution against the Italian war. May 1. Slavs summoned to meet in Prague. ,, 3. Mamiani Ministry formed. ,, 13. Meeting of Serbs at Carlowitz.

Provisional Government at Milan declare for fusion. 15. Coup d'etat in Naples. Second rising in Vienna. Meeting of Roumanians at Blasendorf. May 18. First meeting of Constituent Assembly at Frankfort. Flight of Emperor of Austria to Innspruck. „ 28. Battle of Curtatone. „ 29. Unsuccessful riot in Milan. Completion of vote of fusion. 30. Slavonic Congress in Prague. Abolition of Transylvanian Parliament. Surrender of Peschiera to Charles Albert. June 2. First encounter belween Magyars and Roumanians. 3. Separate Provisional Government formed in Bohemia. 11. Hrabowsky's attack on Carlowitz. Fall of Vicenza. 12 to 18. Rising in Prague. 19. Ferdinand declares Jellacic a traitor. 29. Jellacic made Dictator by Croatians. Archduke John chosen Administrator of the German Empire. July 4. Venice accepts the fusion with Piedmont. ,, 22.

Kossuth supports vote for sending troops against Italians. Aug. 5. Capitulation of Milan. 8. Expnlsion of Austrians from Bologna. 11. Restoration of Manin's dictatorship in Venice. 26. Truce of Malmo signed. 31. Abolition of feudal dues in Vienna. Sept. 5. Frankfort Assembly condemns the Truce of Malmo. 9. Jellacic crosses the Drave. 11. Meeting of Roumanians to protest against Hungarian conscription. 16. Frankfort Assembly rescinds its vote about the Truce of Malmo. „ 18. Emeute in Frankfort. 21. The "Struve Putsch." „ 25. Official appointment of Lamberg at Buda Pesth. 28. Murder of Lamberg. 1848, Oct. 3 Jellacic declared Dictator of Hungary. Murder of Latour. 6, „ 7 Croat army surrenders to the Hungarians. Ferdinand flies to Innspruck. „ 8, Kossuth threatens death to those who won't hang out the Hungarian flag. 10.

Auersperg and Jellacic join forces. Bohemian deputies meet in Prague. Puchner's appeal to the Transylvanians. Hungarian troops cross the Austrian frontier. First meeting of Kremsier Parliament. 11. 18. 21. 22. Battle of Schwechat. 30. Nov. 1. Windischgratz enters Vienna. Blum shot. 9. 15. Murder of Rossi. Prussian Assembly votes that no more taxes be paid. 24. Flight of Pope. 28. Prussian Assembly decide to leave Berlin. Cavaignac announces intended expedition to Rome. Dec. 2. Abdication of Ferdinand. 5. Final dissolution of Prussian Parliament. Address from Forli asking for Constituent „ 13. Assembly. 18. Frankfort Parliament abolishes feudal dues. Hungarian Committee of Defence retreats to „ 31. Debreczin. 1849. Jan. 11. Frankfort Parliament votes for exclusion of Austria from Germany. „ 22.

Gorgei sends Waizen Declaration to Windischgratz. Feb. 1. Saxons apply for help to Russians. 6. 8. Re-occupation of Ferrara by Austrian troops. Flight of Grand Duke from Tuscany. Proclamation of Roman Republic. ,. 9. „ 19. „ 21. Gorgei superseded by Dembinski. Announcement that the Austrians have crossed the Po. 26. Opening of Prussian Parliament. Mar. 7. Dissolution of the Kremsier Parliament. „ 11. Capture of Hermannstadt by Bern. ,, 12. Charles Albert declares war on Austria. ,, 20. Formal announcement of new Austrian Constitution. ,, 23. Battle of Novara. Abdication of Charles Albert. „ 28. Frankfort Parliament decides to offer Crown of Germany to King of Prussia. „ 29. Mazzini, Saffi, and Armellini made Triumvirs. April 1. Capture of Brescia by Haynau. ,, 3. King of Prussia refuses the Crown of Germany. ,, 14.

Declaration of Hungarian Independence. „ 17. Final meeting of Sicilian Parliament. ,, 24. French arrive before Civita Vecchia. ,, 25. Re-occupation of Pesth by the Hungarians. ,, 27. Dissolution of Prussian Parliament. May 14. Beginning of third Baden insurrection. King of Prussia recalls Prussian members from Frankfort Parliament. ,, 15. Neapolitans capture Palermo. „ 20. Bologna captured by Austrians. ,, 26. Proposals of Lesseps accepted by Triumvirs. ,, 30. Frankfort Parliament resolves to adjourn to Stuttgart. 31. Oudinot rejects Lesseps' Convention. June 4. Russian proclamation of intended invasion of Hungary. „ 13. Ledru Rollin's insurrection in Paris. „ 17. First Russian victory in Transylvania. „ 18. Final dissolution of German Parliament. ,, 19. Austrians capture Ancona. ,, 30. Roman Assembly decides to yield.

Prussians surround Rastatt, which is centre of Baden movement. July 3. French enter Rome. „ 15. Papal Government restored. „ 28. Death of Charles Albert. Hungarian Diet dissolves itself. Aug. 5. Capture of Hermannstadt by Russians. 1849. Aug. 11. Gorgei made Dictator. Kossuth flies from Hungary. ,, 13. Gorgei surrenders at Vilagos. „ 28. Austrians enter Venice. Sept. 26. Klapka surrenders Komorn.

Chapter I. The Triumph Of Despotism

1815—1819. Condition of Europe in 1815. — Metternich's position. — Character of Alexander of Russia. — Metternich's attitude towards religion. — Madame de Krudener. — The Holy Alliance. — Aspira tions of the Germans. — Stein v. Metternich. — Schmalz's pamphlet. — The Rhine Province. — Arndt and Gorres. — The Small States of Germany. — Wiirtemberg. — Weimar. — The Jena demonstration. — The Burschenschaft. — The Wartburg demonstration. — The Murder of Kotzebue. — The Carlsbad decrees. — The Final- Act of Vienna. — Metternich's triumph. In the year 1814 Napoleon Buonaparte ceased to reign over Europe, and, after a very short interregnum, Clement Metternich reigned in his stead. Ever since the fall of Stadion, and the collapse of Austria in 1809, this statesman had exercised the chief influence in Austrian affairs ; and, by his skilful diplomacy, the Emperor had been enabled to play a part in Europe which, though neither honourable nor dignified, was eminently calculated to enable that Prince to take a leading position in politics, when the other Powers were exhausted by war, and uncertain of what was to follow.

But Francis of Austria, though in agreement with Metternich, was really his hand rather than his head ; and thus the crafty Minister easily assumed the real headship of Europe, while professing to be the humble servant of the Emperor of Austria. B 1848-9. The system of the new ruler resembled that of Napoleon in its contempt for the rights of men and of nations ; but it was to be varnished over with an appearance of legality, a seeming respect for the rights of kings, and a determination to preserve peace and avoid dramatic sensations, which made it welcome to Europe, after eighteen years of almost incessant wars or rumours of wars. As he looked round upon the countries that had fallen under his rule, the contemplation of the existing state of Europe seemed to promise the new monarch a fairly successful reign.

France had been satisfied by the preservation of Alsace and Lorraine, and by the sense that, from having been the focus of revolution, she had now become the corner-stone of legitimacy. England had at first seemed to give pledges to the cause of liberty by her promise of independence to Genoa, and her guarantee of the Sicilian Constitution ; but with the help of Castlereagh, whom Metternich described as " that upright and enlightened states man," the Austrian Government had succeeded in persuading the English to consent to look on quietly while Genoa was absorbed in the Kingdom of Sardinia, and while the Anglo-Sicilian Constitution was destroyed by Ferdinand of Naples ; and the English zeal for independence had been happily diverted from the support of constitutions and civic liberties to the championship of the most contemptible of Napoleon's puppets, the King of Saxony.

The King of Prussia, who in 1813 had seemed in danger of becoming the champion of popular rights and German freedom, was now, with his usual feeble ness, swaying towards the side of despotism ; and any irritation which he may have felt at the opposition to his claim upon Saxony, had been removed by the concession of the Rhine Province. Among the smaller sovereigns of Europe, the King of Sardinia and the Pope alone showed any signs of rebellion against the new ruler of Europe. The former had objected to the continued occupation of Alessandria by Austrian forces ; while the representatives of the Pope had even entered a protest against that vague and dangerous clause in the Treaty of Vienna which gave Austria a right to occupy Ferrara. But, on the other hand, the King of Sardinia had shown more zeal than any other ruler of Italy in restoring the old feudal and absolutist regime which the French had overthrown.

And though Cardinal Consalvi, the chief adviser of the Pope, was following for the present a semi-Liberal policy, he might as yet be considered as only having established a workable Government in Rome. And a Pope who had been kidnapped by Napoleon was hardly likely to offer much opposition to the man who, in his own opinion, was the overthrower of Napoleon. Yet there were two difficulties which seemed likely to hinder the prosperity of Metternich's reign. These were the character of Alexander I. of Russia, and the aspirations of the German nation. Alexander, indeed, if occasionally irritating Metter nich, evidently afforded him considerable amusement, and the sort of pleasure which every man finds in a suitable subject for the exercise of his peculiar talents. For Alexander was eminently a man to be managed.

Enthusiastic, dreamy, and vain ; now bent on schemes of conquest, now on the development of some ideal of liberty, now filled with some confused 1848-9. religious mysticism ; at one time eager to divide the world with Napoleon, then anxious to restore Poland to its independence ; now listening to the appeals of Metternich to his fears, at another time to the nobler and more liberal suggestions of Stein and Pozzo di Borgo j1 only consistent in the one desire to play an impressive and melodramatic part in European affairs. But, amusing as Alexander was to Metternich, there were circumstances connected with the condition of Europe which might make his weak love of display as dangerous to Metternich's policy as a more determined opponent could be. There were still scattered over Europe traces of the old aspirations after liberty which had been first kindled by the French Revolution, and again awakened by the rising against Napoleon.

Setting aside, for the moment, the leaders of German thought, there were men who had hoped that even Napoleon might give liberty to Poland ; there were Spanish popular leaders who had risen for the independence of their country j Lombards who had sat in the Assembly of the Cis- Alpine Republic ; Carbonari in Naples, who had fought under Murat, and who had at one time received some little encouragement, even from their present King. If the Czar of Russia should put himself $t the head of such a combination as this, the consequences to Europe might indeed be serious. But the stars in their courses fought for Metternich ; and a force, which he had considered almost as dangerous as the character of Alexander, proved the means of securing the Czar to the side of despotism. 1 A Corsican of noble birth who left his country after it fell under the rule of France, and whose influence was used with Alexander to encourage him in a Liberal policy.

Nothing is more characteristic of Metternich and his system than his attitude towards any kind of religious feeling. It might have been supposed that the anti-religious spirit which had shown itself in the fiercest period of the French Revolution, and, to a large extent, also in the career of Napoleon, would have induced the restorers of the old system to appeal both to clerical feeling and religious sentiment, as the most hopeful bulwark of legitimate despotism. Metternich was far wiser. He knew, in spite of the accidental circumstances which had connected Atheism with the fiercer forms of Jacobinism, that, from the time of Moses to the time of George Wash ington, religious feeling had constantly been a tremendous force on the side of liberty ; and although he might try to believe that to himself alone was due the fall of Napoleon, yet he could not but be aware that there were many who still fancied that the popular risings in Spain and Germany had con tributed to that end, and that in both these cases the element of religious feeling had helped to strengthen the popular enthusiasm.

He felt, too, that however much the clergy might at times have been made the tools of despotism, they did represent a spiritual force which might become dangerous to those who relied on the power of armies, the tradi tions of earthly kings, or the tricks of diplomatists. Much, therefore, as he may have disliked the levelling and liberating part of the policy of Joseph II., Metter nich shared the hostility of that Prince to the power of the clergy. Nor was it purely from calculations of policy that Metternich was disposed to check religious enthusiasm. Like so many of the nobles of his time, he had come 1848-9. under the influence of the French philosophers of the eighteenth century ; his hard and cynical spirit had easily caught the impress of their teaching ; and he found it no difficult matter to flavour Voltairianism with a slight tincture of respectable orthodox Toryism.