Greek Life and Thought, from the age of Alexander to the Roman Conquest

Front matter

FROM THE AGE OF ALEXANDER TO THE ROMAN CONQUEST BY J. P. MAHAFFY FELLOW ETC. OF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN J HON. FELLOW OF QUEEN'S COLLEGE, OXFORD ; KNIGHT OF THE ORDER OF THE REDEEMER ; AUTHOR OF 'prolegomena to ancient history'; ' rant's philosophy for English readers'; 'social life in greece*; ' rambles and studies in greece*; 'a history of greek literature,' etc. Honiott MACMILLAN AND CO. AND NEW YORK I887 AU rights reserved AMICO EDGARDO VINCENT AMICUS AUCTOR ERRATA P. 251, last line, for 'Catullus,' read 'Ovid.' P. 462, lines 11-13, read 'over one hundred miles from the Euphrates and the Cilician gates, and still more remote from the Black Sea.'

Preface

This book is intended as the natural sequel to my Social Life in Greece from Homer to Menander, which is now before the public in its fifth edition. The new title I had at first adopted was accordingly Social Life in Greece from Menander to Polybius, but, as the work grew, I found it necessary to modify considerably the original plan. For, in the first place, Greek life after the conquests of Alexander extends far beyond the bounds of Greece, and its most interesting phases are in Syria and Egypt. In Greek Life and Tliought I mean, therefore, to include all the life of Greek-born, or Greek-speaking, people, wherever they dwelt. Perhaps I should have called it Hellenistic Life and Thought, but the proper force of that adjective, as distinct from Hellenic, requires explanation ; and, moreover, the book does not exclude later Hellenedom, or strictly Greek society, as distinguished from the Hellenism of a

PREFACE.

VIII foreigners, such as Jews or Bactrians. Indeed, the Hellenism of the last of these is still too obscure and uncertain to find a place in a volume like this, which rather sets down results than processes of investigation. In the second place, as this book was not in tended exclusively for scholars, it became necessary to introduce some account of the history and litera ture of the age as the background for the estimate of life and manners, which is my main object. I might possibly have assumed a knowledge of this history and literature in the scholar, though, even for scholars, the epoch is one of great complication and obscurity, lying outside the bounds of ordinary classical reading ; but, from the general reader, this special knowledge could not possibly be expected. Hence there is more actual history in the present" volume than in its predecessor, and its limits are marked, not by great authors, but by great political events.

So much I may preface in vindication of the title. Those who desire a compendious review of the events of the period over which we are about to travel will now find it in my Story of Alexander's Empire (F. Unwin, 1887), where the main facts and dates are set down with some brief hints of the

PREFACE.

IX topics expanded in the present volume. At the same time I have added a chronological table to this volume.1 There remains yet a third portion of the same great subject still untouched — the Spiritual life of Hellenism under the Roman Empire. An author has no right to make apologies for a work which he offers to the public. Yet, it is fair to note that as I have had no predecessor on this subject, and have been obliged to gather materials from many scattered sources, it is very probable that some evidence of importance has escaped me. This is not likely to be the case in those portions of the book where I have had the advantage of using Droysen's History of Hellenism, or Hertzberg's History of Greece under tlie Romans. But the former of these books stops with the battle of Sellasia and the death of Antigonus Doson, while the latter confines itself to the direct relations of Rome with Greece, and therefore begins later in the epoch chosen, nor does it even then touch on Asiatic or Egyptian Hellenism.

The Jewish reaction had to be sought in a wholly different field of literature — Josephus, Aristeas, Clemens Alexandrinus, and the 1 It must be remembered that many of the dates in this period are disputed, and many not to be accurately determined. Fortunately, approximate dates are sufficient for a study of social life.

PREFACE.

X theological historians who have in recent times studied the Apocrypha. Polybius, of course, is our main source for the latter chapters, and the reader will find him largely quoted from Hultsch's edition. I have in conclusion to express my obligations to Professor Atkinson and Mr. George Mac-millan for many corrections, and to Mr. E. S. Shuckburgh for allowing me to use passages from his yet unpublished translation of Polybius. Trinity College, Dublin, \oth October 1887. CONTENTS PAGE Chronological Table xiii Introduction ......... xxxiii CHAP. I. The Immediate Effect of Alexander's Conquests on Social Life in Greece . . . . i ii. The Revolution in Hellenic Life made by Alexander's Ideas . . . . . .17 in. The Diadochi as Executors of Alexander's Ideas 32 iv. The Younger Generation of Diadochi, and the Princesses of their Day ..... 49 v. Home Politics during the Wars of the Diadochi 71 vi.

The Relation of Art and Literature to the Social Life of the Period .... 101 vii. The Serious Side of Greek Society — The Religion of the Day . . . . . .130 viii. The Golden Age of the Hellenistic World . 151 ix. Alexandria and its Rivals . . . * . .160 x. The Alexandria of Philadelphus, Antioch, etc 199 xi. The Literature of Alexandria under the First and Second Ptolemies ..... 222 xii. Alexandrian Literature — continued . . . CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE xiii. The City Life of the Third Century b.c, and its Effects upon the Civilisation of the Age 290 xiv. Pergamum and its Position in the Hellenistic World ........ 309 xv. The Mercantile Aspects of Hellenism, Leagues and Federations, Arbitration, Public Credit 330 xvi. The Greece of Aratus ..... 356 xvii. The Inner Life of the Period . . . 371 xviii.

The Crisis of Hellenism ..... 392 xix. The Gradual Subjection of Hellenism to Rome — The Crisis in Greece and the Settlement of Asia Minor ....... 434 xx. Decaying Hellenism in Syria — Its Collision with Judaism ....... 459 xxi. Decaying Hellenism in Egypt .... 497 xxn. Polybius and his Age 519 xxin. The Importation of Hellenism to Rome . . 558 Appendix .......... 579 Index . . . . . .'* . . . .585 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE THE FORTY-FIVE YEARS' WAR. DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. ist Settlement — Perdikkas, Seleucus, Craterus, and Casander take the highest offices in the Regency for Alexander's Heir, while in — Macedonia and Greece. Svria. Egvpt. Phrygia, Asia Minor N., and Asia Minor S. The Hellespont and Thrace. B.C. 323 Antipater. The far Easte Laomedon. em Provinces are Ptolemy. Antigonus. Eumenes.

Asander. Leonnatus. Lysimachus. Revolt in Greece. Lamian War, battle of Crannon. Leonnatus killed. Antipater's settlement of Athens. Death of Demosthenes. War against Ætolians. not here consider! 1 Ptolemy secures the body of Alexander, and resists Perdikkas. 'd, because they lie beyond the bounds of Hell Conquest of Cappadocia by Perdikkas and' Eumenes. [enism proper. [Epicurus comes to Athens. Death of Diogenes the Cynic. 322 Flight of Antigonus to Antipater. Death of Perdikkas in Egypt. Death of Craterus in Cappadocia, fighting against Eumenes. :hool. 321 Death of Aristo ■Jtle. Theophras :us succeeds him as head of the Peripatetic Sc 2] nd Settlement AT TRIPAKADEISUS IN SYRIA. Antipater confirmed and made Regent. Laomedon confirmed. Ptolemy confirmed in all African posses- I sions. Antigonus confirmed and made Commander of the Forces for the Regency.

Most of the other satrapies changed, but into obscure hands. Eumenes outlawed. Lysimachus confirmed. Mission of Demades to Antipater, and his death. Capture of Palestine by Ptol- War of Antigonus against Eumenes. Eumenes besieged in Nora. Alketas defeated in Pisidia. Antigonus master of all Asia Minor. Eumenes in Cilicia, and continued war with Antigonus. Antigonus repudiates Polysperchon. Death of Antipater — and in consequence new struggle for the office ef Regent and the central authority — who makes Polysperchon Regent. Casander flies to Asia. . Polysperchon declares all the Greeks free. Death of Phocion. Polysperchon at war in Peloponnesus. Casander recovers power over Athens, and settles it under his commandant, Demetrius Phalereus. Death of Arridæus and Eurydice at the hands of Olympias. [Agathocles tyrant of Syracuse. ] Census at Athens.

Casander master of Macedon. Olympias's death. Decree of Sophocles against the Philosophers. emy. 319 Naval victories of Antigonus at the Hellespont. 3'8 , 3'7 Eumenes flies to Eastern Provinces, and carries on the war against Antigonus. 316 Antigonus lord of Syria. Ptolemy settled but threatened in Palestine by Antigonus. Betrayal and death of Eumenes. Antigonus lord of the East. Flight of Seleucus from Babylon to Ptolemy. Asander still in Caria and Lycia. Lysimachus established in Thrace and in Mysia, holding the Hellespont. Coalition ol all the other sati I *aps against the dominant power of Antigonus. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Macedonia and Greece. Syria and Babylon. Egypt. Asia Minor and the Islands. The Hellespont and Thrace. B.C. 315 Roxane and her son in Casander' s power. Antigonus's proclamation against him, and of liberty to all the Greeks.

War of Antigonus and Casander's generals in Greece. Rebuilding of Thebes by Casander. Successes of Casander against Polysperchon and the generals of Antigonus. Antigonus conquers Phœnicia and Palestine on his way to attack Egypt. War of Antigonus against the coalition in Asia Minor. Defeat and renewed revolt of Asander. * 314 313 Continuation of desultory operations in various directions a!3 through the provinces. 312 Demetrius attacks Ptolemy in Palestine, and is defeated at Gaza. Ptolemy sends back Seleucus to Babylon. Victory of Demetrius at Myus in Syria. 3" The satraps make peace with Antigonus on the basis of the status quo, so abandoning Seleucus in Babylon. Ptolemy's decree at Pe-tep. Ptolemy's at Pe-tep. decree Alexander III. recognised as king, and Casander his guardian. Murder of Alexander III. and Roxane by Casander. [Agathocles in Africa. ] Murder of the bastard Herakles (the last heir of Alexander).

The Spartan Cleonymus goes to serve in Magna Græcia. Ptolemy's proclamation to enforce the liberty of the Greek cities. Ptolemy threatened by Agathocles from the West. 3°9 Foundation of Lysimacheia (near Cardia) by Lysimachus. 308 Foundation of Antigoneiaon the Orontes. Foundation of Antigoneia in the Troad by Antigonus. 3°7 306 Demetrius, son of Antigonus, comes to Athens, and expels Demetrius Phalereus and Casander's forces. The Athenians first revive for him the title of king. All the satraps assume thetitleofkings. Theidea of regency abandoned. Decree of Sophocles at Athens against the philosophers. Struggle of Demetrius Pol. and Casander for Greece. Refoundation of Sicyon as Demetrias. Antigonus's expedition against Egypt and its defeat. Demetrius carries on naval wars at Cyprus, and defeats Ptolemy at Salamis.

Siege of Rhodes by Demetrius. 305 3°3 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Macedonia and Thrace. Syria and Babylon. Egypt. Asia Minor and the Islands. The Hellespont and Thrace. B.C. 302 Demetrius again at 2d coalition of the Athens. other satraps against Antigonus. Demetrius and Casan- ... ... ... Lysimachus invades and der still at war in Greece. conquers Phrygia. 3OI Conquest of Pales- ... Campaign of Antigonus against tine and Cœle-Syria Lysimachus. by Ptolemy. Demetrius and Casan- ... ... Great battle of Ipsus, death of der adjourn the war to Antigonus, and Demetrius a Asia. fugitive with only naval forces. New division of the provinces of Antigonus, omitting Ptolemy, who had not fought at Ipsus. Casander holds Macedonia and Greece, Lysimachus obtains all Asia Minor, with control of the Greek cities on the coast.

Seleucus holds all the East and Syria. Matrimonial alliances between Demetrius and Seleucus on the one hand, Ptolemy and Lysimachus on the other, showing the jealousies arising from the division of the provinces after Ipsus. 300 Agathocles of Sicily ... Pyrrhus of Epirus conquers Corcyra. sent a hostage for Demetrius to Egypt. 298 The Athenians prepare for war against Demetrius, and combine with Casander. Zipoetes assumes the title of king in Bithynia. 297 Death of Casander, Samaria destroyed ... ... Lysimachus at war with the succeeded by his son by Demetrius. Getæ. Philip IV. , who dies the following year. Lachares tyrant of Athens. Death of Casander. Antipater and Alexander, brothers of Philip IV., struggle for his crown. Demetrius Pol. expels Lachares, and again en-' ters Athens in triumph.

War of Demetrius in Greece. Pyrrhus king of Epirus. Demetrius assassinates the young Alexander IV. of Macedon. Demetrius Poliorcetes King of Macedon. He puts a garrison in Athens and Thebes. Peace with Lysimachus, who cedes Antipater's rights to Demetrius. Revolt of Thebes from Demetrius. Death of Menander. Alliance of Agathocles of Syracuse with Demetrius. War of Demetrius against Pyrrhus and the Ætolians. Demetrius Phalereus goes to Egypt. 295 Ptolemy restores Pyrrhus to Epirus. 294 The young Antipater of Macedon flies to Lysimachus. 292 Lysimachus enticed into the steppes and captured by the Getæ. 291 Lysimachus liberated. 290 XX CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Macedonia and Greece. Syria and Babylon. Egypt. Asia Minor and the Islands. The Hellespont and Thrace. B.C. 288 [Death of Agathocles, tyrant. ] Demetrius makes peace with Pyrrhus, and begins great preparations for a new conquest of the East.

Coalition of the three powers against Demetrius, who invite Pyrrhus to join. Demetrius's soldiers desert him both against Lysimachus and Pyrrhus. 287 Demetrius flies from his kingdom, and Phila commits suicide. Olympiodorus proclaims freedom at Athens, but Piræus is held by Antigonus. Demetrius passes into Asia Minor, which he raisesagainst Lysimachus, whose son, Agathocles, drives him into Cilicia. Lysimachus divides Macedon with Pyrrhus. Lysimachus defeats and expels Pyrrhus from Macedonia. Demetrius appeals to Seleucus. Last struggles and capture of Demetrius by Seleucus. Lysimachus now master of Macedon, Thrace, and most of Asia Minor. Hetakes Heracleia in Pontus. Ptolemy Keraunus goes to Lysimachus's court. 286 285 Ptolemy I. surrenders the kingdom to his second son,. Ptolemy Philadelphus.

Death of Demetrius in Syria. Agathocles, the heir apparent, murdered by Ptolemy Keraunus and Arsinoe. Ptolemy Keraunus flies to Seleucus. Seleucus declares war. Death of Ptolemy I. 282 Seleucus conquers most of Asia Minor. Battle of Korupedion, in which Lysimachus is killed. 281 Seleucus is now master of almost all the empire of Alexander, and proceeds to Macedonia. Murder of Seleucus by Ptolemy Keraunus, who assumes the crown of Macedon. Pyrrhus goes to Italy. Antiochus I. (Soter) succeeds to the throne. Philetærus holds Pergamum. 280 Ptolemy II. seizes Syria as far as Damascus. The children of Lysimachus murdered by Ptolemy Keraunus at Casandria. Rise of the Achæan 279 League. [Battle of Heracleia in Italy.] Invasion of the Galatæ or Celts, who devastate all Macedonia and Thrace. Keraunus killed in battle.

Anarchy. Apollodorus, tyrant of Casandria. Defeat of Brennus at Delphi. [Pyrrhus goes to Sicily. ] Antigonus orders Macedonia as king. 278 The Galatæ in the service of Nicomedes I. of Bithynia. War with Antiochus. Settlement of the Galatæ in Galatia. Antigonus defeats the Galatæ at Lysimacheia. Kingdom of Tylis in Thrace formed. Warwith Macedon. 277 :u.li. The nt iw era of the Hellenisti ic kingdoms commences here. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Macedonia and Greece. Svria and Babylon. gypt. Asia Minor and the Islands. Rome. B.C. 276 Ægion joins the Achæan League. 275 Pyrrhus returns to Italy from Sicily, defeated at Beneventum. Pyrrhus returns to Epirus. 274 273 Embassy of Ptolemy Philadelphus to Rome. Death of Pyrrhus at 272 271 270 Argos. Birth of Aratus of Sicyon. Death of Epicurus and of Strato.

Conquest of Southern Italy by Rome. 269 268 Hiero II. King of Syracuse. Silver coinage introduced. Ariminum and Beneventum colonies. 267 266 265 264 263 Death of Zeno the Stoic. [Rise of Acoka in India.] First Syrian war. Revolt of Magas of Cyrene. Ariobarzanes III. Chremonidean War. Nicomedia founded. Accession of Eumenes I. Death of Nicomedes. The Bithynian succession dispute. Defeats Antiochus Soter at Sardis. First Punic war. Hiero's peace with Rome. Peaceof Macedon with Athens. Peace with Syria and alliance with Cyrene. 262 Birth of Antigonus Doson. Gladiators' feat exhibited. 261 Antiochus Theos succeeds. 260 First Roman fleet. '*>° Death of Magas of 255 Cyrene. Demetrius the Fair at Cyrene. 252 251 Birth of Philopœmen. Aratus frees Sicyon. Revolt of Diodotus in Bactria. Rise of Arsaces and the Parthian kingdom.

Death of Demetrius the Fair in Cyrene. 250 Ziaeias's accession. Expedition of Regulus. 249 247 Murder of Queen Berenice by Laodice. Ptolemy III.'s accession. Defeated and taken by Xanthippus Hamilcar Barca, Carthaginian general. Birth of Hannibal. 246 Seleucus II. 's(Callinicus) accession. Letter of Seleucus to the Senate at Rome. His expedition to Asia. Appoints Xanthippus to satrapy of Mesopotamia. Rhodes and the Greek cities at war with Egypt. 245 Defeat of Antigonus by the Egyptians at Andros. Aratus Commander of the League. Agis IV., King of Sparta. Aratus liberates Corinth. Death of Agis IV. The Senate answer Seleucus in Greek, demanding freedom for Ilion. 244 243 241 Accession of Attalus I. « Victory of Catulus, and close of the war. Livius begins to exhibit plays. 240 Attalus's victory over the Galatæ.

Mithridates IV. , King of Pontus. 239 Death of Antigonus Gonatas. Demetrius II. succeeds. Peace with Egypt. Birth of Ennius. Intervention of Romans for Acarnania with the Ætolians. Hamilcar goes to Spain. War of Seleucus II . in the East. The decree of Can- 238 opus. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Asia Minor and the Islands. Rome. Syria and Babylon. Egypt. Macedonia and Greece. B.C. 237 War of Seleucus with his brother Antiochus Hierax. Antiochus Hierax in Asia Minor. 235 233 Lydiades surrenders his tyranny, and Megalopolis joins the League. Illyrian raids. Apollodorus Carystius, the comic poet, flourishing at Athens. Illyrian raids. Temple of Janus shut. Naevius exhibits plays. 232 231 Machon, the comic poet, flourishing at Alexandria. War with Queen Teuta of Illyria. Death of Hamilcar, Hasdrubal succeeds.

First diplomatic relations with Greece (Acarnania). , 230 229 228 Death of Demetrius II. Accession of Antigonus Doson. Various Greek tyrants resign. Teuta subdues the Consul. Postumius winters in Illyria. The Romans admitted to Hellenic games and feasts. Cleomenes III., King of Sparta. Death of Lydiades. I Cleomenes'scoupd'dtat. Prusias's accession. 227 Seleucus III. killed, Seleucus IV. (Ker- 1 aunus) succeeds. Earthquake at Rhodes. 226 i 223 Cleomenic war preparing. Aratus's treaty with Antigonus Doson. !* Achæus satrap of Asia Minor (for Seleucus). Gallic war. 222 Antiochus III. 's accession. Ptolemy III. died, and Ptolemy IV. 's accession. Hannibal succeeds Hasdrubal in Spain. 221 Battle of Sellasia. Death of Antigonus Doson. Philip V.'s accession. Social war in Greece. War in Coele-Syria.

Attalus besieged by Achæus. War of Rhodes with Byzantium. Ariarathes IV. 's accession. 220 219 218 Philip sacks Thermus. War with Egypt. War with Syria. Attalus at war with the Greek cities of Æolis. Demetrius of Pharos conquered by Rome. Outbreak of second Punic war. Battle of Trebia. Battle of Thrasimene. 217 Peace made in Greece and Macedonia. Battle of Raphia. 216 Treaty of Antiochus the Great and Attalus. Battle of Cannæ. 215 214 213 212 Treaty of Philip and Hannibal. Philip in Illyria. Death of Aratus. Achæus captured at Sardis. Capture of Tarentum by Hannibal. Fall of Syracuse. Fall of Capua. 211 210 Lævinus at the Ætolian Parliament. War of Romans and Ætolians against Philip. Machanidas, tyrant of Sparta. First Macedonian War. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Macedonia and Greece. Syria and Babylon.

Egypt. Asia Minor and the Islands. Rome. B.C. 209 Philopcemen hipparch of the Achæan League. 208 Marcellus the consul slain. Defeat of Hasdrubal at the Metaurus. 207 Philopœmen Commander of the League. Death of Chrysippus the Stoic. Machanidas slain. 206 Peace of Ætolians with Philip. Nabis tyrant of Sparta. Death of Ptolemy IV. Ptolemy V.'s (Epiphanes) accession. Scipio's visit to Syphax in Africa. 205 204 End of Macedonian war. Treaty with Philip. 203 Treaty of Philip with Antiochus III. to plunder Egypt. Treaty with Philip. Rhodians and Attalus support Egypt against Philip. 202 201 Quarrel of Philip with Athens. Philopœmen again Commander. Capture of Abydos by Philip. War with Rome. Battle of Zama. Peace with Carthage. 200 Mission to Rome. Aristophanes the critic now at Alexandria. Attalus visits Athens.

Second Macedonian war. Philopœmen leaves for Crete. The historians Zeno and Antisthenes at Rhodes. 199 I Antiochus defeats Scopas at Panion , and conquers Cœle-Syria. Flamininus consul. 197 196 195 Defeat of Phihp at Cynoscephalæ, and peace. Declaration of freedom at the Isthmian games. Campaign against Nabis. The three fortresses evacuated. Flamininus's departure. Hannibal arrives at Ephesus. Antiochus makes conquests in Thrace. Scopas put to death. Death of Attalus I. Eumenes II. succeeds at Pergamum. Wars against Insubres and Boii. 194 Eratosthenes dies, and is succeeded in the Alexandrian Library by Apollonius Rhodius. Ptolemy marries the Syrian Cleopatra. Public games (Megalesia) first celebrated at Rome, with reserved seats for senators. Roman ultimatum. Ariarathes IV. marries Antiochis, daughter of Antiochus III. 193 192 Philopœmen Commander.

Antiochus invited to Greece by the Ætolians. Expedition of Antiochus to Greece. Glabrio and Cato commanding against Antiochus in Greece. igi He winters in Chalcis. Defeated at Thermopylæ. Battle of Magnesia. Peace with Rome. I Naval operations of Rhodes, etc. , against Antiochus and Hannibal. 190 189 Ætolians subdued by Rome. The Achæan League reaches its greatest extension. Discontent at Sparta, and Philopœmen's conquest of it. Pharnaces King of Pontus. Rhodes and Pergamum rewarded by Rome. Campaign of C. Manlius Vulso through Asia Minor. Antiochus (Epiphanes) hostage at Rome. Ligurian wars in process. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Macedonia and Greece. Syria and Babylon. Egypt. Asia Minor and the Islands. Rome. B.C. 187 Antiochus III. dies. Seleucus Philopator's accession. Alliance with Achæans. Flaminian way begun. 186 Interference of Romans with the Achæan League.

Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus. Complaints against Philip brought to Rome. Complaints of Sparta against the Achæan League. Discussions of Achæans, Spartans, etc., before the Senate. Death of Plautus. The Senate declares for noninterference. Mission of T. Flamininus to Greece and the East. 185 184 Philip humiliated by Rome. Death of Philopœmen. 183 Conquest of Messene by the League. Peace with Sparta. Death of Apollonius Rhodius. Aristonymus succeeds to the Library. Sinope conquered by Pharnaces. 182 Apparent peace and contentment in Pelo- ... Ptolemy V. dies. Ptolemy VI. 's (Philometor) accession. Death of Hannibal. War among the Asiatic dynasts. Prusias II. 's accession. Mission of Eumenes to Rome. Missions of Ariarathes and Pharnaces to Rome. Mission of CaHicrates, Aratus, and Lydiades (the younger).

Istrian wars. , 181 180 ponnesus. * Rome insists on the restoration of the Spartan exiles. Callicrates Commander. Death of Philip V. Perseus's accession. Peace and treaty between Eumenes, Prusias, and Ariarathes, as against Pharnaces and Mithridates. ... ... Gradual interference with Rhodes. End of the Ligurian wars. 175 Eumenes's statues razed. Perseus' s demonstration at Delphi, and mission to Carthage. Seleucus • Philopator dies. Antiochus I V. 's (Epiphanes) accession, He sends splendid gifts to Greece. Artaxias of Armenia conquered by Antiochus IV. 174 173 Roman missions to northern Greece. Roman troops sent to Apollonia. Third Macedonia war. 172 Diplomatic preparation for Macedonian war. Intrigues of Charops in Epirus. Successes of Perseus. Eumenes goes to complain at Rome. 171 Antiochus invades Egypt.

War with Syria. Defeat of Licinius Crassus by Perseus. 170 169 Fruitless campaign of Mancinus. Quintus Marcius crosses Mount Olympus without result. Battle of Pydna (June 22). Second expedition to Memphis. Third campaign in Egypt. do. Joint reign of the two Ptolemies. do. Death of Ennius. 168 Fourth campaign. Antiochus plunders and profanes the temple of Jerusalem. The war stopped by the circle of Popilius Lænas, and Alexandria saved by Roman interference. M. Æ. Paullus, consul. 167 Macedonia divided into separate republics. Epirus depopulated. Eumenes humiliated by Rome. Rhodes commercially ruined. Triumph of Paullus. Dramatic show of Anicius the prætor. Polybius at Rome. Andria of Terence performed. 166 Mission from Athens to Rome. The Achæans deported to Italy. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Macedonia and Greece.

Syria and Babylon. Egypt. Asia Minor and the Islands. Rome. B.C. 165 Antiochus IV. in Upper Asia. Antiochus V. (Eupator) succeeds Epiphanes. Rhodian citizens executed and extradited for anti-Roman policy. Treaty and peace with Rome. 164 The Achæans appeal at Rome. Commmission sent to Macedonia to restore order. Terence's Hecyra. 163 Ptolemy Physcon settled at Cyrene. Both the Ptolemies go to Rome to appeal. Ariarathes V.'s accession. Demetrius Soter escapes from Rome, succeeds Eupator. Murder of the Roman envoy at Syrian Laodicea. Terence's Heautontim. l62 161 Terence's Eunuchus and Phormio, Edict against philosophers and rhetors at Rome. Renewed appeal of Achæans. Death of Æmilius Paullus. Terence's Adelphi. Crates at Rome. Death of Terence. 160 159 Attalus II. succeeds Eumenes. 158 Death of Charops.

Ariarathes expelled by Demetrius Soter from Cappadocia, in favour of Orophernes. Ariarathes appeals at Rome against Orophernes, and is restored with the help of Attalus II. Raid of Athens upon Oropus. Aristarchus now famous. Mithridates Euergetes's accession in Pontus. War of Attalus with Prusias. Dalmatian war. Mission to coerce Prusias and protect Attalus. Carneades, Diogenes, and Critolaus sent on an embassy by Athens to Rome. Pacuvius and Attius now producing tragedies. !55 The Achæans again appeal for the liberation of the hostages. 154 Ptolemy Physcon again at Rome to appeal against his brother. 153 The Rhodians appeal for help to the League, and are refused. The exiles return from Italy. War between Rhodes and Crete. Celtiberian war begins. 'SO Alexander Bala's accession. The Egyptian Cleopatra married to Bala.

Nicomedes Epiphanes's accession in Bithynia. Death of Cato. Spartans appeal to Rome against the Achæan League.. QuintusMetellussent against the Macedonian pretender. 149 Diæus Commander of the League. War of Achæans with Sparta. Insurrection of the pretender Philip in Macedonia. 148 Diæus again Commander. A new pretender in Macedonia. Rupture with Carthage (third Punic war). Scipio Æmilianus and Polybius go to Africa. Birth of Lucilius. Mission of L. Aur. Orestes to Greece. Mission of S. Julius Cæsar to Greece, and new policy. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Macedonia and Greece. Syria and Babylon. Egypt. Asia Minor and the Islands. Rome. B.C. 146 Critolaus Commander. Meeting of the League at Corinth. War declared. Metellus conquers at Scarpheia in Locris. Mummius arrives, defeats the Achæans and destroys Corinth.

Demetrius Nicator's accession. Death of Ptolemy VI. (in Syria). Ptolemy VII. (Physcon) succeeds. Macedonia to be made a province. Destruction of Carthage. Viriathus in Spain. me paramount in the Hellenistic world.

Introduction

ANY one who comes to study the Hellenic Renais sance in England, which has assumed such force and such extension in our own day, cannot but be surprised at the abrupt way in which all its studies stop about halfway on in Greek History. By a sort of tacit consent the battle of Chæronea is considered the minor limit of all that was good and perfect in Greek thought and life. The conquests of Alexander, the high culture of Seleucia and Alexandria, the profound thinking of the later schools, the deep learning, the splendid art, the multiform politics of Hellenism — all this is shut out from the schoolboy, as forming no part of the Greek he is to know, and none of it is ever again taken up— with the exception of Theocritus — by the superannuated schoolboy who holds fellow ships and masterships at English Colleges, and regards himself as a perfectly trained Greek scholar. A man may consider himself, and be considered by the classical English public, an adequate and even

INTRODUCTION.

distinguished Greek Professor, who has never read or even possessed a copy of Strabo, Diodorus, or Polybius, who has never seen the poems of Aratus, Callimachus, or Apollonius, and who does not know a single date in Greek history between the death of Alexander and the battle of Cynoscephalæ. From that time onward the accident that Greece enters into the field of Roman history lifts the veil, and the student comes upon a Hellenistic world, so different from the old Hellenic republics, that but for the permanence of names and places the people might be difficult to recognise. But after the conquest of Greece by Mummius, Greece as a living moment in the world's history is forgotten. Philippi, Pharsalia, and Actium might as well have been fought in Asia or in Spain, and the literary activity of the Greeks under the empire is rather avoided than neglected by modern Hellenists.

For there is a notion abroad among the 'pure scholars,' as they are pleased to call themselves, that the study of any but the golden age of Greek literature is a contamination of their spotless Atticism. The occurrence of later forms, or of constructions unused by Aristophanes, is so foul a stain, that not the infinite richness of story in Polybius, or the splendid morals in Plutarch, or the large information in Strabo, or the wit in Lucian, or

INTRODUCTION.

XXXV the unconscious sublimity in the Gospels, can save them from being rejected as ' bad Greek,' and excluded from school and college studies. This is no doubt the first and most efficient cause of our general ignorance of what is catted Hellenism, as opposed to Hellenedom. The golden age — in liter ary style, though by no means in philosophy or in art — ended with Demosthenes, and this question of style has overridden larger and higher considerations. No better Greek study than Plutarch's Lives could pos sibly be appointed for boys — with one exception, that of style ; and so the intricacies of Demosthenes, the subtleties of Plato, or the contortions of Thucydides are given them to read in preference. Great results are indeed required to justify this strict exclusiveness. A curious accident has, however, aided the ' pure scholars,' and made their triumph in our generation almost complete.

Our greatest Greek historian, Grote, was not at all one of their number. His perception of the exact meaning of tenses or particles was such as to excite the rage and contempt of their now forgotten coryphæus. But Grote was a radical and a democrat, and composed his great political pamphlet in twelve volumes to show the splendours of republican government. Hence he could only traduce Alexander the Great, and turn with indig-