The Popular History of England, from the earliest times ... to the Reform Bill of 1884 ... Illustrated, etc

Front matter

Popularq CiVil Military F\ELIGIOU^<eK. •FROMTHEEARLIEST-TIMES- T0THE-REF0RM-BILLOF-1884 LONDON: BLACKIE SON 49 Z< 50 OLD BAILEY; GLASGOW, EDINBURGH DUBLIN. THE POPULAR HISTORY OF ENGLAND, CIVIL, MILITARY, AND RELIGIOUS. THE POPULAR HISTOKY OF ENGLAND CIVIL, MILITARY, AND RELIGIOUS, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE REFORM BILL OF 1884. BY CHARLES MACFARLANE, AUTHOK OF "OCR INDIAN EMPIRE;" "THE PICTORIAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND;" ETC. AND THOMAS ARCHER, F.R.H.S. AUTHOR OF "FIFTY YEARS OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PROGRESS;" ETC. ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS DESIGNS, PORTRAITS, COSTUMES, MAPS, &c VOLUME I. LONDON: BLACKIE & SON, 49 and 50 OLD BAILEY, E.C. GLASGOW, EDINBURGH, AND DUBLIN. 1886. GLASGOW: W. O. ELACKIE AND CO., PRINTERS} VILLAFIELP.

Preface

. In this work is narrated the History of England, the oldest among the European states. The story, apart from any claims that the history of his own country has upon the attention of every intelligent Englishman, is in itself of the most fascinating and varied interest. For, beginning at a period when the very name "England" was not yet heard, the historian has to recount the vicissitudes and changes through which our country and its inhabitants have passed during no fewer than eighteen centuries of the world's existence, narrating and describing the influence of kings, nobles, statesmen, clergy, and others on the progress of the nation; all that is inter esting and important in our numerous contests with foreign foes and in the wars waged between contending parties within the kingdom itself; the gradual growth of civilization and worldly prosperity; the various phases and changes of religious and ecclesiastical affairs; and the wonderful growth and expansion of the English race and of Britain's power and dominions, till the Empire now embraces nearly a sixth of the area and a fourth of the population of the whole globe.

The design has been to produce in the Popular History of England a family and household book — a national history fitted for the use of every British home. Such a work, if not entirely free from party predilections, must at least be free from party violence and misrepresentation. It must be so complete as to include the whole national narrative, from the earliest period to the present day. It must be so full, as to comprise not only every important circumstance, but also minor accessories; and, at the same time, so compendious as not to dismay ordinary readers by its unmanageable bulk and too minute detail. And, with all this, a living spirit must breathe throughout the whole. Past ages and their facts must be treated, not as hard dry abstractions, but as vital realities with which the present generation are connected, and in which they ought to sympathize; while the style of the narrative — clear, concise, and in telligible to general readers — should, at the same time, be consistent with the dignity of histoiy and importance of the theme.

Moreover, a work so written, and for so high a purpose, must strictly adhere to truth throughout, even though party or national feeling should seek to colour or suppress it; and the inculcation of sound knowledge and virtuous principles ought to be a higher object with the writer than the dramatic interest of his facts, or the poetical graces of which they are susceptible. Such has been the aim kept steadily in view throughout these volumes; and if the high standard of excellence here indicated has not been reached, even to have neared such a standard will scarcely be accounted a failure CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

Book I

British and RoMjIN Period; from B.C. 55 to a.d. 449. Section I. From the Invasion by Julius Cæsar. b.c. 55-a.d. 43 . . ""I Section II. Roman Conquest of BriTjIin— Caractacus— Boadicea— Agricola— Severus— Vortigern calls in the Saxons, a.d. 43-449, .12 Section III. Religion of the Ancient Britons, and the First Introduction of Christianity, . . 21

Book II

The Period from the Arrival of the Saxons to the Arrival of the Normans, a.d. 449-1066. Section I. The Heptarchy. a.d. 449-825, .28 Section II. Union of the Heptarchy— Scandinavian Pirates— Danes— Alfred, a.d. 825-901, ... 35 Section III. King Edward to Hariiicanute. a.d. 901-1042 46 Section IV. Edward the Confessor to the Normjin Conquest, a.d. 1042-1066, 58 Section V. Scottish Annals, &c 72 Section VI. Religion in Saxon Times, 77

Book III

The Period from the Norman Conquest to the Death of King John. a.d. 1066-1216. Section I. William L surnamed the Conqueror, a.d. 1066-10S7, 83 Section II. William II. surnamed Rufus. a.d. 1087-1100, 101 Section III. Henry I. surnamed Beauclerc. A.D. 1100-1135, 107 Section IV Stephen (Earl of Blois). a.d. 1135-1154 116 Section V. Henry II. surnamed Plantagenet. a.d. 1154-1189 126 Section VI. Richard I. surnamed Cœur de Lion. a.d. 1189-1199, 152 Section VII. John surnamed Sans-Terre or Lackland, a.d. 1199-1216, 171 Section VIII. Scottish Annals, &c. a.d. 1066-1216, 181 Section IX. The History of Religion. a.d. 1066-1216, 187

Book IV

The Period from the Accession of Henry III. to the end of the Reign of Richard II. a.d. 1216-1399. Section I. Henry III. surnamed of Winchester, a.d. 1216-1272, 195 Section II. Edward I. surnamed Longshanks. a.d. 1272-1307, 206 Section III. Edward II. surnamed of Caernarvon, a.d. 1307-1327, 228 Section IV Edward III. a.d. 1327-1377 237 Section V Richard II. surnamed of Bordeaux, a.d. 1377-1399, 253 Section VL The History of Religion, a.d. 1216-1399, CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

Book V

The Period from the Accession of Henry IV. to the end of the Reign of Richard III. a.d. 1399-1485. PAGE Section I. Henry IV. surnamed Bolingbroke. a.d. 1399-1413, 2"5 Section II. Henry V. surnamed of Monmouth. a.d. 1413-1422 276 Section III. Henry VI. surnamed of Windsor, a.d. 1422-1461, 293 Section IV. Edward IV. A.D. 1461-1483 319 Section V. Edward V. a.d. 1483, 331 Section VI. Richard III. surnamed Crookback. a.d. 1483-1485, ......... 335 Scottish Annals, • • 338 Section VII. The History of Religion, a.d. 1399-1485, 342

Book VI

The Period from the Accession of Henry VII. to the end of the Reign of Elizabeth. a.d. 1485-1603. Section I. Henry VII. surnamed of Richmond. a.d. 1485-1509, 353 Section II. Henry VIII. a.d. 1509-1547 373 Section III. Edward VI. a.d. 1547-1553 ' 442 Section IV. Mary I. a.d. 1553-1558 469 Section V. Elizabeth, a.d. 1558-1603, 488 Section VI. The History of Religion, a.d. 1485-1603, 568

Book VII

The Period from the Accession of James I. to the Restoration of Charles II. a.d. 1603-1660. Section I. James I. (James VI. of Scotland). A.D. 1603-1625 LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS. VOL. I. DRAWN BT PACE Simon de Montfort and the Barons demanding Reforms from Henry III., . Sir John Gilbert, R.A. Frontis. Relics of Druidical Times J. WyJceham Archer, . to face 24 Map of Saxon England, E. Weller, .... 30-31 Alfred the Great submitting his Laws to the Witan John Bridges, . . to face 44 Canute on the River Nene listening to the Choir of Ely Minster, . . . II'. Cave Thomas, . ,, 56 Harold presents himself to Edward the Confessor 73. Maclise, R.A., . „ 66 Relics of Saxon Times J. Wyieham Archer, . ,, 80 Richard Cœur de Lion on his Death-bed at Chaluz forgiving Bertrand de Gurdun, John Cross, ... ,, 170 The Houses of York and Lancaster, their Origin and Re-union.

Genealogy of the Kings from Edward III. to Henry VII., with their Armorial Bearings and Badges, J.L. Williams, . . 238-239 Wicliffe on his Sick-bed assailed by the Friars E. Wehnert, . . to face 262 Hotspur's Interview with King Henry's Messenger after the Battle of Homildon Hill A. Simon, R.A., . „ 268 Burial of the Murdered Sons of Edward IV. in the Tower, .... John Cross, . . . „ 336 Costumes in England from time of Edward III. to Elizabeth, /. Wykeham Archer, ,. 354 Henry VIII. and his Queens Holbein and others, . ,, 374 The Trial of Queen Anne Boleyn before the King's Commissioners, . . . James Godirin, . . ,. 410 Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire. Cistercian Monastery founded in 1132, suppressed during reign of Henry VIII., J. L. Williams, . . 418-419 Tudor and Stuart Sovereigns: Mary I. to Charles II., ....

Zucchers, Vandyke, and others, to face 468 Lady Jane Grey at the Place of Execution James Godwin, . . ,, 476 Laurence Saunders the Martyr bidding Farewell to his Child, . . . . C. W. Cope, R.A. , . ,, 482 Queen Elizabeth signing the Death-warrant of Mary Queen of Scots, . . A. Liezen Mayer, . „ 554 Medals commemorating the Defeat of the Spanish Armada J.L. Williams, . . ,, 562 Tut. Arrest of John Brown, a Lollard, burned at Ashford in 1517, . . . Alex. Johnston, . . „ 574 Guy Fawke8 brought before James I. and his Council, Sir John Gilbert, R.A. , ,, THE POPULAR HISTORY OF ENGLAND, CIVIL, MILITARY, AND RELIGIOUS. SUPPLIED ONLY TO SUBSCRIBERS. THE POPULAR HISTORY OF ENGLAND, CIVIL, MILITARY, AND RELIGIOUS, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE REFORM BILL OF 1884. By CHARLES MACFARLANE. AUTHOR OF "OUR INJJIAX EMPIRE;" "THE PICTORIAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND;" ETC. a'nd THOMAS ARCHER, F.R.H.S., AUTHOR OP "FIFTY YEARS OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PROGRESS ;" ETC.

Illustrated by numerous Designs by Eminent Artists, Authentic Portraits, Costumes, Maps, &c A HISTORY of our own country should hold a chief place among the books which every one of us should possess, and with the contents of which we all ought to be familiarly acquainted. Surely there is no man imbued with even the smallest spark of patriotism who does not desire to know the story of his country, the vicissitudes through which it has passed, and the career of those remarkable men who, in bygone years, by their deeds and their wisdom helped to mould the people into a nation, and to build up those two most marvellous fabrics of modern times, The British Empire and the British Constitution. The tale is a wondrous one: fascinating as a romance; full of chivalrous exploits, and of high and lofty example for every condition of life.

Beginning at a period when the very name " England " did not exist, the Popular History of England describes the invasion of the Romans, and the establishment of their rule in Britain, with the overthrow of Druidism, and the introduction of civilization and Christianity. Next follows the conquest of the country by our then heathen ancestors the Saxons and Angles, resulting in the establishment of a number of states, finally consolidated into a monarchy. To this period belongs the story of Alfred the Great, founder of the British navy, and one of the rulers whose names shine brightest in our country's annals. From the coming of William the Conqueror with his Normans and the overthrow of the Saxon rule — an event which profoundly influenced the national life and institutions — the narrative has to describe in detail the gradual rise and growth of the Kingdom, and finally of the Empire, under a series of sovereigns, unbroken save by the Commonwealth, till the story terminates with the Reform Bill of 1884, in the reign of our present beloved sovereign, Her Majesty Queen Victoria.

Among the events of greatest interest in English history after the country had taken rank with the foremost realms in Europe, may be noted the determined demand of the Barons which forced King John to grant that palladium of our liberties, Magna Charta — the romantic career of Richard I., the Lion-hearted, the exemplar of Crusader knights — the wars with France, and the doughty deeds through which a large portion of that country was long kept under our sway — the Wars of the Roses — the Reformation of Religion — the contests between king and people which resulted in the formation of the Commonwealth — the Restoration under Charles IL, and the Revolution under William of Orange— therise and establishment of government through an elected Parliament and responsible ministers— the Union of Scotland with England— the rise of the Colonies and extension of the Empire, till it now embraces nearly a sixth of the area, and a fourth of the population of the whole globe.

In passing in review the later years of our history there will come under clear and unbiassed consideration, the rise and development of the Volunteer movement, the Abys sinian, Russo-Turkish, Franco-German, Afghan, Zulu, and Egyptian wars— the progress of literature and the power of the press — the effects upon the country of the Education Act of 1870 — the measures adopted for the improvement of the condition of Ireland — the Crofter Agitation in Scotland, and other topics of minor but still serious importance too numerous to be specified in a prospectus. The narrative thus successively includes the main features of all that is interesting and important in our numerous contests with foreign foes and in the wars waged between con tending parties within the kingdom itself; it describes the efforts of kings, nobles, states men, the clergy, and others, in promoting the progress of the nation, the attempts of those who acted in a contrary sense, and the means taken to oppose their intentions and overthrow their schemes; the gradual growth of civilization and worldly prosperity; and the various phases and changes of religious and ecclesiastical affairs.

The actors in these great events appear upon the stage of history, perform their parts in the great Drama, and succeed each other with such rapid and enthralling interest, as to render the story of English history the most attractive of narratives, whether for private reading or for the family circle. It would be trite to insist upon the value, from an educational point of view, of the study of the history of one's own country, for that is recognized by all intelligent persons. It is not, however, quite so obvious to every one that a knowledge of history is of direct practical importance in regard to the duties and pursuits of life. Yet it cannot be denied that we are all concerned in the effects of past events, and those who interest themselves in public affairs must have observed that by those events the policy of to-day is greatly affected and directed.

It is mainly by a knowledge of the past that we can hope to forecast and provide for the future, and one of the first qualifications for enabling a citizen to take a useful part in the direction of public affairs is a full and accurate knowledge of history. The Popular History of England justifies its title by the succinct, yet sufficiently ample and highly interesting manner in which the subjects are treated, by its compact form, moderate price, and extensive series of pictorial illustrations. These last, numerous and varied in character, comprise representations of important events from pictures by eminent artists, groups of portraits of sovereigns, statesmen, warriors, philosophers, and philanthro pists, the modes of dress at various periods, and several useful maps. Some of the historical designs will be beautifully produced in colour.

The Work will be of imperial 8vo size, and printed on fine paper. It will be completed in 21 Parts at 2s. each, most of them containing ninety-six pages of letterpress; or in 7 Divisions at 6s. each, done up in stiff paper covers. Each Part will be accompanied with three 8vo pages of pictorial illustrations, or their equivalent, and of these one in each alternate part will be in colour. When completed the work will form three large handsome volumes, which for general attractiveness, copiousness of illustration, and moderate price, will compare favourably with any History of England hitherto published. BLACKIE & SON; LONDON, GLASGOW, EDINBURGH, AND DUBLIN. ' — . — iimcj^ n^^m^^a^m^^m^m^mu^m^^m3 SIR JOHN GILBERT. THOMAS BOLT0N. SIMON DE MONTFORT AND THE BARONS DEMANDING REFORMS FROM HENRY III.

A.D. 1258. BLACKeB <*J (ON LONDON GLASGOW, AND KDI N DCJRGH. JOHN BRIDGES. -"-=■«= ".■"■■m 3 J. D COOPER. ALFRED THE GREAT SUBMITTING HIS LAWS TO THE WITAN. hi ac hie & SON ■ LONDON, QLA5GOW, AND BDINBUHGH WILLIAM CAVE THOMAS. F. WENTWORTH. CANUTE ON THE RIVER NENE LISTENING TO THE CHOIR OF ELY MINSTER. *' Merrily [sweetly] sung the monies within Ely, When Cunt*-- kin!,' rowed there by, — Row, my knights, row near the land, And hear we these monks' song." — See page 55. A. ELMORE, R.A. HOTSPUR'S INTERVIEW WITH KING HENRY'S MESSENGER AFTER THE BATTLE OF HOMILDON HILL. ' bring a slovenly unhandsome corse Betwixt the wind and his nobility." — King Henry IV. part I. ac. i. sc. \ LILAC Kit & SON : LONDON, GLASGOW, & BDINBURJH JOHN CROSS. RUTTERWORTH AND HEATH BURIAL OF THE MURDERED SONS OF EDWARD IV.

IN THE TOWER. BLACK!!'. & SON? LONDON, GLASGOW, & EDINBURGH IR JOHN GILBERT. _, BUTTERWORTH GUY FAWKES BROUGHT BEFORE JAMES I. AND HIS COUNCIL. DLACKIB A SON: LONDON, GLASGOW, 4 EDINBURGH RELICS OF DRUIDICAL TIMES. BLACKIB 4 SON! LONDON, GLASGOW. & EDINBURGH 3LACK1B & SON! LONDON, GLASGOW, & EDlNRURGH RELICS OF SAXON TIMES. HISTORY OF ENGLAND.

Book I. British And Roman Period

; FROM B.C. 55 TO A.D. 449. Section I. FROM THE INVASION BY JULIUS CÆSAR, B.C. 55, TO A.D. 43. The conquests of Julius Cæsar in Gaul brought him within sight of the coast of Britain ; and having established the Roman authority in the nearest countries on the continent, which are now called France and Belgium, it was almost as natural for him to aim at the possession of our island as for the masters of Italy to invade Sicily, or the conquerors of India the contiguous island of Ce}7- lon. The disjunction of Britain from the rest of the world, and the stormy but na-row sea that flows between it and the main, were circumstances just sufficient to give a bold and romantic character to the enterprise, without being real barriers to a skilful and courageous general. But there were other motives to impel Cæsar.

Britain, or the far greater part of it, was inhabited by a people of the same race, language, and religion as the Gauls, and during his recent and most arduous campaigns the islanders had assisted their neighbours and kindred of the continent, sending important aid more particularly to the Veneti, who occupied Vannes in Bretagne, and to other people of Western Gaul who lived near the sea-coast. Cæsar, indeed, says himself that in all his wars with the Gauls, the enemies of the republic had always received assistance from Britain, and that this fact made him resolve to pass over into the island. This island, moreover, seems to have had the character of a sort of Holy land among the Celtic nations, and to have been considered the great centre and stronghold of the Druids, the revered priesthood of an iron superstition that bound men, and tribes, and nations together, and inflamed them far more than patriotism again9t the Roman conquerors.

With respect to Druidism, Britain perhaps stood in the same relation to Gaul that the island of Mona or Anglesey bore to Britain ; and when the Romans had established themselves in Gaul they had the same motives for attacking our island that they had a century later, when thev had fixed themselves in Britain, for falling upon Anglesey, as the centre of the Druids and of British union, and the source of the remaining national resistance. It is to be remembered, also, that, whatever may have been the views of personal ambition from which Cæsar principally acted, the Romans really had the best of all pleas for their wars with the Gauls, who had been their constant enemies for centuries, and originally their assailants. Their possession of Italy, indeed, could not be considered as secure until they had subdued, or at least impressed with a sufficient dread of their arms, the fierce and restless nations both of Gaul and Germany, some of whom— down almost to the age of Cæsar — had not ceased occasionally to break through the barrier of the Alps, and to carry fire and sword into the home territories of the republic.

These and the other northern barbarians, as they were called, had had their eye upon the cultivated fields of the Italic peninsula ever since the irruption o*" Bcllovesus in the time of the elder Tarquin ; and the war the Gauls were now carrying on with Cæsar was only a part of the long contest which did not terminate till the empire was overpowered at last by its natural enemies nearly five centuries afterwards. In the mean time it was the turn of the Gauls to find the Roman valour, in its highest condition of discipline and efficienev, irresistible ; and the Britons, as the active allies of the Gauls, could not expect to escape sharing in their chas tisement. According to a curious passage in Suetonius, it was reported that Cæsar was tempted to invade Britain by the hopes of finding pearls.* Such an inducement seems scarcely of sufficient importance, although we know that pearls were very highly esteemed by the ancients, and Pliny, the Naturalist, tells us that Cæsar ottered or de dicated a breastplate to Venus ornamented with pearls which he pretended to have found in Britain.

But Cæsar might bo tempted by other real and more valuable productions, and he could not be ignorant of the existence of the British lead and tin which the Phœnicians had imported into the Mediterranean ages before his time, and in which the Phocæan colony of Massilia or Mar seilles was actually carrying on a trade. Cæsar himself, indeed, says nothing of this ; but within a few miles of our coasts, and among a people with whom the British had constant intercourse, he must have acquired more in formation than appears respecting the natural fertility of the soil, and the mineral and other productions of the island. From evident reasons, indeed, the Gauls in general might not be very communicative on these sub jects ; but among that people Cæsar had allies and some steady friends, who must have been able and ready to satisfy all his inquiries.

His subservient instrument Comius, who will presently appear upon the scene, must have possessed much of the information required. His love of conquest and glory alone might have been suffi cient incentive to Cæsar, but a recent and philosophic writer assigns other probable motives for his expeditions into Britain, — such as his desire of dazzling his country men, and of seeming to he absorbed by objects remote from internal ambition by expeditions against a new world, or of furnishing himself with a pretence for pro longing his provincial command, and keeping up an army devoted to him, till the time should arrive for the execu tion of his projects against liberty at Rome.f Whatever were his motives, in the year 55 before Christ, Cæsar resolved to cross the British Channel, not, as he has himself told us, to make then a conquest, for which the season was too far advanced, but in order * Vit.

Jul. Cæs. ch. 47. f Sir James Mackintosh, Hist. Eng. Vol. J. l HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. [b.c. 55 — a.d. 43. 6 effects, on the return of their ambassadors with Comius, as Cæsar's envoy, they made that prince a prisoner, loaded him with chains, prepared for their defence as well as the shortness of time would permit ; and when the Romans looked from their ships to the steep white cliffs above them, they saw them covered all over by the armed Britons. Finding that this was not a convenient landing-place, Cæsar resolved to lie by till the third hour after noon, in order, he says, to wait the arrival of the rest of his fleet. Some laggard vessels appear to have come up, but the eighteen transports, bearing the cavalry, were nowhere seen. Cæsar, however, favoured by both wind and tide, proceeded at the appointed hour, and sailing about seven miles further along the coast, prepared to land his forces on an open, flat shore which presents itself between Walmer Castle and Sandwich.* The Britons on the cliffs, perceiving his design, followed his motions, and sending their cavalry and war-chariots before, marched rapidly on with their main force to oppose his landing anywhere.

Cæsar confesses that the opposition of the natives was a bold one, and that the difficulties he had to encounter were very great on many accounts ; but superior skill and discipline, and the employment of some military engines on board the war-galleys, to which the British were unaccustomed, and which projected missiles of various kinds, at last triumphed over them, and he disembarked his two legions. We must not omit the act of the standard-bearer of the tenth legion, which has been thought deserving of particular commemoration by his general. While the Roman soldiers were hesitating to leave the ships, chiefly deterred, according to Cæsar's account, by the depth of the water, this officer, having first solemnly besought the gods that what he was about to do might prove fortunate for the legion, and then exclaiming with a loud voice, " Follow me, my fellow-soldiers, unless you will give up your eagle to the enemy !

I, at least, will do my duty to the republic and to our general !" leaped into the sea as he spoke, and dashed with his ensign among the enemy's ranks. The men instantly followed their heroic leader ; and the soldiers in the other ships, excited by the example, also crowded forward along with them. The two armies were for some time mixed in combat ; but at length the Britons withdrew in disorder from the wellcontested beach. As their cavalry, however, was not yet arrived, the Romans could not pursue them, or advance into the island, or render the victory complete. The native maritime tribes, thus defeated, sought the advantages of a hollow peace. They dispatched ambassadors to Cæsar, offeringhostages and an entire submission. They liberated Comius, and restored him to his employer, throwing the blame of the harsh treatment his envoy had met with upon the multitude or common people, and entreating Cæsar to excuse a fault which proceeded solely from the popular igno rance.

The conqueror, after reproaching them for sending of their own accord ambassadors into Gaul to sue for peace, and then making war upon him without any reason, forgave them their offences, and ordered them to send in a certain number of hostages, as security for their good behaviour in future. Some of these hostages were presented immediately, and the Britons promised to de liver the rest, who lived at a distance, in the course of a few days. The native forces then seemed entirely dis banded., and the several chiefs came to Cæsar's camp to offer allegiance, and negotiate or intrigue for their own separate interests. merely to take a view of the island, learn the nature of the inhabitants, and survey the coasts, harbours, and landing-places. He says that the Gauis were ignorant of all these things; that few of them, except merchants, ever visited the island ; and that the merchants themselves only knew the sea-coasts opposite to Gaul.

Having called together the merchants from all parts of Gaul, he questioned them concerning the size of the island, the power and customs of its inhabitants, their mode of warfare, and the harbours they had capable of receiving large ships. He adds, that on none of these points could they give him information ; but, on this public occasion, the silence of the traders probably proceeded rather from unwillingness and caution than ignorance, while it is equally probable that the conqueror received a little more information than he avows. He says, however, that for these reasons he thought it expedient, before he embarked himself, to dispatch C. Volusenus, with a single galley, to obtain some knowledge of these things ; commanding him, as soon as he had obtained this necessary knowledge, to return to head-quarters with all haste.

He then himself marched with his whole army into the territory of the Morini, a nation or tribe of the Gauls who inhabited the sea-coast between Calais and Boulogne, — "because thence was the shortest passage into Britain." Here he collected many ships from the neighbouring ports. Meanwhile many of the British states, having been warned of Cæsar's premeditated expedition by the merchants that resorted to their island, sent over ambassadors to him with an offer of hostages and submission to the Roman authority. He received these ambassadors most kindly, and, exhorting them to continue in the same pacific intentions, sent them back to their own country, dispatching with them Comius, a Gaul, whom he had made king of the Atrebatians, a Belgic nation then settled in Artois. Cæsar's choice of this envoy was well directed.

The Belgæ at a comparatively recent period had colonized, and they still occupied, all the south-eastern coasts of Britain ; and these colonists, much more civilized than the rest of the islanders, no doubt held frequent commercial and friendly intercourse with the Atrebatians in Artois, and the rest of the Belgic stock settled in other places. Cæsar himself says not only that Comius was a man in whose virtue, wisdom, and fidelity he placed great confidence, but one " whose authority in the island of Britain was very considerable." He therefore charged Comius to visit as many of the British states as he could, and persuade them to enter into an alliance with the Romans ; informing them, at the same time, that Cæsar intended to visit the island in person as soon as possible. C. Volusenus appears to have done little service with his galley.

He took a view of the British coast as far as was possible for one who had resolved not to quit his vessel or trust himself into the hands of the natives, and on the fifth day of his expedition returned to head-quarters. With such information as he had, Cæsar embarked the infantry of two legions, making about 12,000 men, on board eighty transports, and set sail from Portus Itius, or Witsand, between Calais and Boulogne. The cavalry, embarked in eighteen other transports, were detained by contrary winds at a port about eight miles off, but Cæsar left orders for them to follow as soon as the weather permitted. This force, however, as will be seen, could never make itself available, and hence mainly arose the reverses of the campaign. At ten o'clock on a morning in autumn (Tlalley, the astronomer, in a paper in the Philosophical Transactions, has almost demonstrated that it must have been on the 26th of August) Cæsar reached the British coast, near Dover, at about the worst possible point to effect a landing in face of an enemy, and the Britons were not disposed to be friends.