Travels in little-known parts of Asia Minor; with illustrations of biblical literature and researches in archæology. With maps and illustrations

Preface

. The first portion of the journey narrated in trie following pages takes the Reader over ground already trodden by former travellers, but it has been diversified by incidents of unusual interest, and I bave taken occasion to bring forward many facts, gathered during a long residence in the region. Farther on in the work will be found an episode of the remarkable Revival of Evan gelical Christianity, which has been going on in Western Asia for the last forty years, chiefly, but not exclusively, among the Armenians, one of its most interesting races, a people who long maintained, even with the sacrifice of their lives, the pure doctrines they had received from Gregory the great " Illuminator." I have, also, slightly touched upon the present phase of this great mental revolution wherein the new-born Evangelical element strives to make itself indigenous, and struggles to free itself from the foreign trammels which impede its legitimate influence and diffusion.

The customs, habits, and civilization of Tocat, vol. l. . a Preface. II are specially described as affording an example of the social condition of the Peninsula ; this city having long held a high rank on account of the prosperity of its manufactures and the refinement of its population, and being the place of retirement for many wealthy Arme nians who have elsewhere succeeded in acquiring fortunes. To the students of Holy Writ many of these customs will serve to illustrate the Sacred Text more effectually than any other branch of exegesis. The trip to the Chamlu Bel Mountains, and the visit to the interesting cone of granite which is now called, as in the days of Strabo, the Star Mountain, with the ruins of the Cyclopean fort on its summit, have never been attempted by any traveller before.

In the journey we performed from Tocat westward to Smyrna — a road rarely touched by the foot of a European since the disastrous passage of the Crusaders over a portion of it — the Student of Natural History will find particular notices of the " Teftik," or Angora goat, of the Cara manian sheep, and of the Bactrian camel : and I would specially invite the attention of archæo logists to our visit to the Yazili "Rayah sculptures, where Mr. Texier gathered most of his well-earned fame ; to the early remains at Euyuk, with their Sphinxes and bas-reliefs, now Preface. III described for the first time ; to the figure of Sesostris, so well described by Herodotus ; and to the colossal statue carved out of the rocks of Sipylus, first identified by the Author with Homer's Niobe. Interesting discoveries, made later in the vicinity of Smyrna, could not well be com pressed within the limits of the present work ; but, I hope, at some future day, to publish them for the gratification of the lover of antiquarian lore.

Occasional contributions will be found, in the course of this work, to the growingly attractive science of Physical Geography. At the close is a list of elevations taken with the barometer, and these are occasionally dispersed along the course of the narrative in order to enable the Reader somewhat to fix his ever-changing position. The instrument used was one of Green's portable Barometers (of New York) with the latest improvements of Professor Guyot of Princeton. The results were worked out with the aid of the Professor's valuable tables ; I cannot too highly recommend both to the Scientific traveller. The Barometer bore itself admirably during our four months' expedition, including the forty-one days' travel on horse back from Tocat to Smyrna. It was not in the least injured when our servant's horse fell upon Preface.

IV the stones during a night gallop, considerably bruising himself and his rider. The numerous cuts which illustrate the pages of this work are faithful copies of the original drawings, every one of which was sketched upon the spot. I have been driven from my chosen field of thirty years' labour for presuming to defend the religious liberties and rights of the sixty new born Evangelical churches of Western Asia, and for expressing views based upon a broader expe rience and more generous sentiments than have fallen to the lot of my persecutors. Here, in this quiet retreat, among the Berkshire hills, surrounded by sympathy and affection, I have reviewed through the eyes of loved ones — who have supplied the (I trust temporary) dimness of my own — these pages, which speak of a land I love and of a people among whom I was born, and in the midst of whom I should wish to die.

I desire no brighter destiny for these volumes than to excite in some kindred breast the longings I feel for the regeneration of the East and my love for Oriental lore. December 8, 1869. CONTENTS OF VOL. I. Introduction Page 1

Chapter I

Fellow travellers — Start from Smyrna — Encroachment of river deposits — Oriental travellers — Lost language — Landing at Galata — Suburb of Hasskeuy — Native Christians — Armenian Evangelical Church — College at Bebek — Pagans in disguise — Bible students — Young Turkey 14 CHAPTEE II. On board the Black Sea boat — A man overboard — Amastra — Wreck of a French steamer — Ineboli — Quarantine regulations — Sea-sick animals — Samsoon — Landing in boats — Fevers — Wooden houses — Physical features of the neighbourhood — Circassian emigrants — Scattering the exiles — Arabas — Poor prospects of Christianity in Samsoon — Lighthouse — Scene from the verandah — M. Cavaleri — Preparations for a land journey — Outfit — Saddle — Bit — Horse-shoe — Tent 33 CHAPTEE III. Start from Samsoon — Olive groves — The Two Hours' Cafe — Last glimpse of the sea — Bad roads — The Ak Dagh — Charming scenery — The Jackal Khan — Log houses — Nature of soil — Animals — Birds — Perilous travelling — The tahtaravan — Cavak — its Castle — Pleasant company — The Kara Dagh — Lost in the forest — Ahmed Serai' — Delinos Khan — The guard-house — Plain of Marsovan — Village of Aghoran — The Soosachan Soo — Arrival at Amasia Contents of Volume I. VI CHAPTEE IV.

Amasia — Ancient Acropolis — Curious excavations — Tombs of the Kings — Ancient aqueduct — The Krug House — Position of Amasia — Experiment in colonizing and preaching in the native languages — Failure of the former — European enterprise in Turkey — Departure from Amasia — Mosques — Valley and village of lnebazar Page 87 CHAPTEE V. Sunday in the tent — Turtle-doves — Festival of the Bai'ram — Village priest — Dispute with the Imam — The Oolemas — An eccentric dervish — Kuzulbash muleteers — Chengel Bekjilik — Guards of the pass — Eagles and partridges — Denizens of the mountains — Valley of the Iris — Buffaloes — Toorkhal — Menzil horses — The Kaz Ova — Jelat Khan — Koords — The "merle rouge" — Arrival at Tocat — Affectionate welcome 113 CHAPTEE VI. Incidents of seven years' missionary labour — i^mall beginning at Tocat — Entry into the town — Dere Bey — The Mission House — Garden — First public services — Prejudices of the female sex — Prayer-meetings for females — Favourable results — — school for theological instruction — Labours of the students — Discussion with the Armenian bishop — Violent opposition — Feudal system — The Lesghies — Means of defence — Anecdote — Henry Martyn — his grave — Monument to his memory — Death of Henrico 142 CHAPTEE VII.

Progress of the Theological School — Temporary closing of the institution — Its re-organization — The Mission House burnt down — Estimation of loss and damage — Causes aud origin of the fire — Its immediate effects on the Mission — Gleam of sunlight — Sympathy with our losses — Renewed labours- Introduction of vaccination Contents of Volume I. VII CHAPTEE VIII. Position of Tocat — River Iris — Vineyards — Watchmen — Exodus to the country — Streets of Tocat — Copper foundry — Mining and miners — Castle — Gardens — Old style of house — Household furniture — City prison — Prison at Sivas — Native homes — Cooking utensils — Mode of taking meals — Fuel — Light Page 206 o CHAPTEE IX.

Jewels and ornaments — The censer ■ — Coiffures — Necklaces — Ear-rings — Ankle-rings — Nose-rings — Agricultural implements — Plough — Spade — Hoe — Joiner's tools — Writing materials — Alphabet — Flint guns — Music and musical instruments — Songs — " Improvisatores " — Bardic contest — Manners and customs — - Treatment of infants — Family names — Nicknames — Dress 234 CHAPTEE X. Social intercourse of the sexes — Preliminaries to marriage — Divorce — Marriage festivities — Toilet of the bride — Carrying home the dowry — Midnight procession — Marriage ceremony : Armenian and Turkish — The bride in her adopted home — Lax state of morals — Christianity versus Islamism — Care of the sick — Strange remedies — Prevailing diseases — Vaccination — Funeral customs — Graves and tombs — Cemeteries . . 262 CHAPTEE XL Population of the Peninsula — Yuruks — Kuzulbashes — Koords — Turkmen ■ — Greeks — Armenians — Jews — Osmanly race — Lesghies — Gipsies — General appearance of the country — Physical features — Dogs — Birds of prey — The magpie — The stork — Songsters — Jackals — The jerboa — Partridges — Hares — The roebuck — Wild boar — The lynx — Wolves — Bears Contents of Volume I. VIII CHAPTEE XII.

Trip to Niksar — Ruins of Comnena Pontica — Rock tombs — Floating timber — Monastery of Bizery — A tekkeh — Trees collecting moisture — Beautiful scenery — Village of Deunekseh — Basket towers — Arrival at Niksar — Conversation with visitors — Visit to the castle — Artillery — Governor of Niksar — Thermal spring — Ancient Armenian Church — Desire for reformation — Public meeting — Return to Tocat Page VOL. I. Bear-hunting Frontispiece. PAGE Turkish Ladies' Sleeping Berth 17 Greek Signet Stone 20 Horse-shoe 55 Framework of Tent 57 Covering of Tent 58 Chakallii Khan : door of stable 66 Log Khan on the Samsoon Road 67 The Town of Amasia 87 Aqueduct i 90 Greek Inscriptions 104 Wooden Jar 109 Churning 131 Tocat Cemetery .. .'. 169 Henry Martyn's Tomb 172 View of the Castle and position of Tocat from the North-east 207 The Watchman's Tower in the Vineyards 211 Ancient Mosque, Medreseh, and Khan at Tocat 218 Andiron — Jezveh — Ibruk 227 Wooden Table 229 Basin — Pitcher 231 Small Osier Table 232 Frontlet of Gold and Precious Stones worn by the Women . . 237 VOL. I. b Volume I. X PAGE Necklaces — Antique Gold Ear-ring 238 Plougli 241 Spade 243 Bagpipe 248 Armenian Bridal Procession 271 Turkish Tombs 290 Armenians 298 Armenian Lady 299 Bear Cubs in their nest 319 Bear-hunting , 320 Tomb, or Cell of St. Chrysostom, cut into a boulder .. .. 323 Deunekseh, Kiizulbash Village TRAVELS IN ASIA MOOR.

Introduction

. TTJERE literary reputation the object of the writer ' ' of the following pages, he would greatly hesitate to lay them before an English-speaking public. The long use of five or six different languages, both in the general intercourse of social life and in the perform ance of his professional duties, has produced upon his mind and his habits of thinking an effect which those alone can fully appreciate who have fallen into the same predicament. He finds himself alternately thinking in each and all of these dialects, and rendering the idioms of the one in the words of another, until he is conscious that he has quite lost the faculty of distinguishing, in all cases, to what language belongs any particular shade of idea, or mode of speech which he happens to find best suited to his purpose. There is every reason to believe that this mental process will be found reflected upon these pages, and, without troubling his readers with a disquisition upon its ad vantages or blemishes, the author would sincerely apolo gize for any inconvenience it may cost them. vol. I. B Introduction. 2 Some of the views contained in these pages will, doubtless, appear unusual and even strange to many of his friends whose good opinion he highly values.

He, however, begs to say, in his own defence, that he has enjoyed unusually favourable opportunities for obtaining reliable information upon the topics which are here discussed. Born in the country and among the people he describes, but educated abroad, and carefully bearing in mind, during a long residence in the East, the influence of European civilization and of modem Evangelical Christianity, he has been in a most favour able position for study and observation during the thirty years he has spent in the prosecution of missionary labours in the Levant. Ten years he resided at the capital, connected with each branch of labour in turn, and making extensive journeys in different parts of the country ; he spent seven years in an isolated position in the very heart of the country ; and his more recent abode has been at Smvrna, between Oriental and Occi dental influences and ideas, as well as in the very centre and focus, as it may well be called, of antiquarian remi niscences.

He has long felt that there was an unac countable lack of interest in the peculiar characteristics and civilization of the East on the part of many now residing there, who should be capable of appreciating them, which has caused them to neglect their oppor tunities of making valuable additions to our Occidental literature, and of leading to such a revival of Evangelical piety in the East as will accord with its own peculiar Introduction. 3 genius, and thus take a deeper root in its soil. He has endeavoured in the following pages — imperfectly, indeed — to atone for the neglect of others, who, though doubt less superior in ability, have not, he believes, been equally favoured with respect to opportunity. The most cursory reader of history cannot have failed to notice that there has ever been, evenat an early period, a notable difference between Occidental and Oriental civilization; and each has preserved certain characteristics peculiar to itself, although they have never wholly ceased, for any length of time, to exert an influence the one upon the other.

We may, indeed, safely assert that it is chiefly this unceasing ebb and flow between the two continents which has prevented the stagnation of mind that has prevailed in the re mainder of the globe, securing for 'their peoples the highest position in the intellectual and practical ad vance of the human race. The wave of civilization originally set outward from the cradle of mankind in the East ; but it soon returned under Grecian and Roman influences. It then went back again towards Europe, under the powerful impetus first of Christi anity, then of Islam, and finally of the revival of ancient classic literature ; but it is now sweeping eastward to its original source, through the irresistible force of the civilization of Modern Europe. But, with all this, it is impossible to close our eyes to the fact that the Occi dental and the Oriental mind differ in some important particulars: or rather — in order to avoid falling into Introduction. 4 the vapours of philosophy — the aggregate develop ments which we call social life present some marked and striking contrasts.

It is probably difficult, if not impossible, clearly to express this difference in a few words; yet the oft-repeated definition appears to us sufficiently correct which makes the family the model and ideal of social relations in the East, while the army is the type of Occidental, or, to speak with still greater precision, of modern Occidental civilization. This definition will be found to hold in many important respects, though its universal application is quite impossible. We find its best illustration, perhaps, in the constitution of the family in the two continents. In the West, when a son is married, he usually leaves the parental roof, and, if he do not set up in business on his own separate account, his relation to his father is regulated on the same principles as obtain in the case of a partnership.

In the East, on the contrary, the sons bring their wives to the parental home, where a particular room is allotted to each, while the house keeping remains one. The sons continue to assist their father, and live in complete subordination to him ; and they bring home their gains to the common purse, which is controlled by the father alone, and furnishes alike the supplies required by the whole household. We thus frequently meet with families which consist of fifty and even seventy-five members, all living under one roof, and having all things in common. And this, too, accounts for the indefiniteness of the Turkish Introduction. 5 census, which enumerates the houses or households alone, but does not particularly inquire into the number of persons of which each is composed. The property is divided only upon the death of the father, and often not until that of the widowed mother.

The correctness of the above definition may be further illustrated by reference to another marked feature of society in the East, viz. the absence of anything like aris tocracy, the very idea of which does not seem to have entered the minds of Orientals. It might be claimed that we have an approach to it in the fact that there is a distinction of races, among which the Osmanly possesses the superiority. But a little closer attention cannot fail to show that this is a mistake. The only distinction of races is made on the ground of religious faith. The moment a man embraces the faith of Islam, be he a pure gipsy or a negro by blood, the highest offices of Church and State lie within his reach, the Crown alone excepted. The commander-in-chief, Omer Pasha, is a renegade German. Safir Pasha would long ago have been made Grand Admiral had he con sented to apostatize.

The Christianity and the Moham medism of the East alike teach the common brotherhood and equality of all men ; and the doctrine of the latter is particularly democratic in this respect, making the differences among men to depend chiefly upon the decrees of Fate (Kismet). And the frequent changes of fortune, whereby many suddenly rise from the bottom to the very summit of the ladder, are partly to be Introduction. ascribed to this idea, and tend to strengthen its hold upon the mind. But, however appropriate may be considered the definition which makes the family the model of Eastern society, and the army that of the West, it must yet be acknowledged that there are innumerable minute, yet not unimportant, items to which it would be difficult to apply it. Take, for instance, the outward posture of worship.

The Oriental takes off his shoes, and draws his cap or turban still lower down upon his forehead ; while the Occidental takes off his hat, and would deem it highly disrespectful to present himself with naked feet. Were we, indeed, to attempt to point out the contrasts between Eastern and Western ideas and customs, which seem arbitrary and can show " neither rhyme nor reason " for being as they are, we should have to write a volume ; nor should we succeed any better did we attempt to decide in any particular case, or even in a general manner, which of the two is preferable. The alternate inroads made by each of these two sets of ideas, which we call civilizations, into each other's domains has doubtless exerted a powerful influence in modifying them and diminishing their con trasts. But, while the writer believes that the Asia of modern times has already vastly improved, and is des tined still more to benefit by the influx of modern Euro pean ideas, he is compelled to state his conviction that the wave is sweeping away much that is really good and valuable, and substituting for it many things that are Introduction. 7 of a doubtful nature or positively bad ; especially since it not unfrequently happens that their character is so changed by the altered circumstances and surroundings, that what is eminently beneficial and praiseworthy in Europe becomes the contrary in Asia.

To mention but one instance out of hundreds which could easily be pointed out, — the cheap manufactures of Europe have destroyed many important branches of industry in the East; and they have not merely impoverished the country, but are fast spreading the taste for ever changing fashions, which are taking the place of the graceful and convenient costumes worn since the days of the Patriarchs. Ancient customs and primæval habits, which recalled with remarkable truthfulness the de lineations contained in the Hebrew and the Christian Scriptures, are fast disappearing and becoming the subjects of antiquarian research ; and the important aid which modern Asia afforded to the Biblical scholar in the interpretation of difficult portions of Holy Writ, is fast perishing under the irresistible inroads of mongrel customs that can never be thoroughly or completely naturalized.

The differences existing between the Eastern and the Western worlds are in nothing more distinct than in their political organization. The statement is often made that the Government of the Sublime Porte — and those of Oriental nations generally may be included — is an unmitigated despotism ; and this is, doubtless, true ; for there is no limit known to its power or Introduction. authority, in the eyes of the law or of the constitution of the State. But such a despotism means a very different thing in the East from what it would in the West. The reason of it is that, in the latter, it would imply centralization, which has never existed in the East, and probably never will, whether from any pecu liarity in the mental constitution of the people, or from any other reason we may choose to give for it.

In Europe, one of the effects of despotism has often consisted in a network of spies, which has been thrown over the land, -enabling the Government to control, not only the actions, but even the tongues of its subjects, and, to a very considerable extent, their very thoughts. There is nothing of the kind in the East. Men may talk treason all day long, and no one will care for it. Even the censorship of the press is an European innovation, to which the people do not submit, and which the officials themselves enforce only as far as is necessary to secure a Bakshish. The fact is, every man exercises uncontrolled authority in his own sphere, and may play the despot therein as much as he thinks suitable to his interests. It is the family or patriarchal idea. No limit is recognised to the authority of the husband or the father, and political organization is but a reflection of social life.

Whatever misdeeds an official may commit, it is not in accordance with either theory or practice to call him to account for them, unless it be as a fair opportunity for his superior to spunge him ; when influential persons Introduction. 9 complain of him, he is removed, as an act of courtesy to them, and is generally promoted thereby to a more lucrative post. Even murder of the blackest dye may be atoned for by the payment of 300Z., should the nearest blood relation consent ; and this is usually brought about by the fear of retaliation on the part of the relatives. But the affairs of society are chiefly controlled by the incessant play of the personal influence of the few who, in every community, surpass the rest in position or wealth ; and to whom every member of the community has managed in some way to attach himself for his own protection from violence and in justice.

This cursory view of the difference between Euro pean and Asiatic civilization should not be concluded without referring to what may truly be considered the most important element of the latter — we mean religious faith and profession, as far as they affect the constitution of society. Most countries of Europe have a State religion, whose ministers are supported by taxes levied from the whole community ; this religion is professed by most of the officers of the State, and its adherents enjoy, in its exercise, certain privileges and immunities which are denied to others, while all are placed upon a common footing in the application of the criminal or the civil law. In Turkey, as well as in the East generally, every religion which is not proscribed, is, in an important sense, a religion of the State.

Its chief officers exercise their authority Introduction. 10 in matters both civil and religious. All the direct taxes have to pass through their hands, if they are Rayas, i.e. Christians or Jews. The heads of the Raya communities are generally chosen by their own people, but they have to be confirmed and installed into office by the Osmanly authorities. They are made per sonally responsible for the sum total of the direct taxes, which they collect as they see fit, the Turkish police assisting them whenever called upon. But though, in this sense, all religions seem to be placed upon a common footing, this equality of rights dis appears as soon as the members of the Raya com munities stand before a tribunal of justice in litiga tion with the Muslems. Eor in all matters which affect a Muslem, the testimony of a Christian or a Jew is inadmissible.

The consequence is that false witnesses are in such demand that Muslems, ready to swear to anything required of them, are always found at the door of the Mehkemeh. It is a reeular profession, and brings a good income. For there is, in fact, no punishment either for perjury, or for bribing judge or witnesses. But the position which we have described as occupied by different religions in the State is denied to heathenism, which Mohammed has commanded to be everywhere destroyed by the sword. Hence the Kuzulbashes and the Turkmens, who still adhere to their ancient heathen doctrines and practices, save themselves from proscription by making an outward profession of Islam ; but, in spite of this, Introduction. 11 they are often persecuted, and whole villages of them are burned and sacked, and their population put to the sword.

The Armeno-Catholics and the Pro testants have each in turn, in like manner, found them selves in the position of outlaws, until the Sublime Porte, yielding to the influence of Roman Catholic and Protestant Europe, recognised them as part and parcel of the State by appointing responsible officers to repre sent them at the capital. Much has been said of the oppression of Christians in Turkey; but the nature of this oppression is not always clearly understood. We have already stated that their position before the law secures to the Muslems the power to oppress and rob them to their hearts' content. But their sufferings are chiefly trace able to the bigotry and fanaticism of the ruling race ; and in this respect it cannot be denied that there has been an immense change for the better during the last forty years.

When Greece was wrested from. the Turks, and the victorious army of Russia encamped upon the Bosphorus ; when England vanquished Mo hammed Ali at St. Jean d'Acre ; and still more, when Turkey was saved from destruction by the united forces of England and France, — the Turk was constrained to acknowledge the vast superiority of the European Giaour over the Muslem. Time was when it was be lieved in Turkey that no European sovereign ventured to assume the crown without the previous permission of the mighty Sultan. But the late visit of his Majesty Introduction. 12 the Sultan to the crowned heads of Europe has greatly brought down their pride; for, according to their universal etiquette, the inferior always waits upon his superior. These successive humiliations have wrought a great change in their dealings with the Rayas.

Before the Janissaries were disbanded, they used to shoot clown the Christians along the thoroughfares as a pastime or for practice; and there was scarcely a Christian house of respectable appearance, even in the capital, which they had not repeatedly rifled of its contents. Europeans could not travel unless disguised as Turks. Now, the native Christians often wear a hat as a protection ; and the Rayas are treated with far greater gentleness from fear of European interference ; they are even represented in the pro vincial and town councils by their own co-religionists. The report was spread, not long ago, through the land, that 70,000 Turks had become Christians in the capital ; it produced no sensation. Half a century ago a general massacre of the Christians would have been the unavoidable consequence.

The Turks who have renounced their religion and who have embraced Christianity are unmolested, and they even preach the Gospel with impunity. Bigotry is rapidly disappearing wherever the Turks come in contact with European civilization, and still more where they have much intercourse with native Protestants. There is, indeed, a general complaint among the few Muslems that are left, that their religion is fast dying away ; Introduction. 13 yet there is but little change in such parts of the interior as are the most isolated from foreign contact. Religious liberty cannot, then, be said to exist in Turkey, for Christians and Jews are not upon a footing of equality with the Muslems before the law. The position they occupy is the position of slaves alone, and will be such until their testimony is admitted in all cases before the tribunals of justice.