Bible Lands, their modern customs and manners illustrative of Scripture

Front matter

Frontispiece. Gate os nn Egyptian Governor, BIBLE LANDS THEIR MODERN CUSTOMS AND MANNERS ILLUSTRATIVE OF SCKinTHll 15y LŒNliY J. VAN - LENXl£l\ 1U>. 11777/ .l/.l/'N .LY/> WOODCUTS LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET By the same Author. TRAVELS IN ASIA MINOR. With Observations on the State of Society, and a Description of Anti quarian Researches and Discoveries, together with au Account of Missionary Labours, Illustrations of Biblical Literature and Archæology. With Map and Illustrations, 2 vols. post 8vo. * Dr. Van-Lennep has written an interesting book respecting regions which in the present day of geographical inquiry, do not receive the attention they deserve at the hands either of travellers or antiquaries. He confines his descriptions of scenery and remaik-* upon the people entirely to what h& himself saw ; and having a great deal of matter to narrate, he has not been under the necessity, like several modern travellers, of eking out the substance of his information by referring to observations of other explorers, or by manufactured digressions of a scientific character.' — Record.

Introduction

. Eighteen hundred years ago the last page of the Holy Scrip tures was penned. Since that time the lands of the Bible have passed through various vicissitudes, and been overrun and occupied by many strange nations. Yet it is acknowledged that in no other portion of the globe have traditions, customs, and even modes of thought, been preserved with greater fidelity and tenacity. This is the uniform testimony of all who visit the East. To use the language of one of the most gifted Oriental travelers of modern times: "The unchanged habits ofthe East render it a kind of living Pompeii. The outward appearances, which, in the case of the Greeks and Romans, we know only through art and writing, the marble, fresco, and parchment, in the case of the Jewish history we know through the forms of actual men, living and moving before us, wearing almost the same garb, speaking in almost the same language, and certainly with the same general turns of speech, and tone, and manners."* How important, then, to the Biblical scholar is the study of the modern East, not only of its antiquities, intensely interesting as they are, but of the manners and customs of its present inhabit ants!

The remarkable reproduction of Biblical life in the East of our day is an unanswerable argument for the authenticity of the sacred writings; they could not have been written in any other country, nor by any other people than Orientals. As a French writer justly remarks: "These customs, so unchanged; these manners, which have remained the same through the lapse of eighteen centuries, impart strength and vividness to our faith. "f The minute and literal correctness of the foregoing testimonies will appear as we proceed in the present -work, whose object is to throw such light as can be derived from the manners and customs of the modern inhabitants of Bible lands upon the social, religious, and political life of Bible times. Our subject is * Stanley, " Jewish Church," i., 12. t Leon Paul, 110.

INTRODUCTION.

. not entirely new ; many things have been mentioned by travelers and Orientalists. Some of these, however, were ignorant of the languages of the country they visited, and therefore unable to hold any intercourse with the people. Others only followed the beaten lines of travel, and therefore saw only the worst phases of human nature. Some visited but a small part of the field, though perhaps the most important ; their views and statements are apt to be one-sided, and too sweeping. Others have failed to get at the homes of the people, have learned things only by hear say, or have viewed every object through the lens of prejudice, sometimes too favorable, but oftener unjust. We make no claim to immunity from fault, but having spent almost a lifetime in the East, and enjoyed unrivaled opportunities of intercourse with all classes of the people, we have no such excuse to plead if we fail to furnish our readers with reliable and comprehensive information upon the topic of our choice.

Let it not be supposed, however, that our object is the mere gratification of a laudable curiosity respecting the interesting countries which have been the scene of Biblical history. We believe the customs ofthe modern East to be the only key that can unlock the sense of many a valuable text of Scripture and bring it to view. This has repeatedly been proved by expe rience, and a more thorough acquaintance with the East will doubtless multiply these valuable interpretations. We may, perhaps, not inaptly compare the Scriptures to a manuscript somewhat torn and defaced by the tooth of time ; a well-preserved copy of a portion has come to hand, and may certainly be used in restoring the original. The Biblical style is often ren dered obscure to us Occidentals by the omission of details quite needless to the Oriental mind; and we may surely supply this omission from the living picture of Eastern manners which a kind Providence has placed before us.

While studying the customs of the East, it has often seemed to us that many of them must be the necessary result of the climate and physical resources of the country, and have therefore been adopted by every nation and race that has successively peopled the land. We have, therefore, in the first part of tho present work, undertaken to point out whatever characterizes or serves to explain the physical condition and natural productions of Bible lands, and to describe the customs to which they have given birth, never losing sight of the parallel contained in the pages of Holy Writ, and noting any changes that may have oc-

INTRODUCTION.

. 7 curred since they were penned. But let the reader bear in mind that we are not writing a treatise on the geography, botany, or natural history of the lands of the Bible. Many valuable works have already appeared on these and kindred subjects, and the general reader will find all the information he needs iu an ency clopedia or Bible dictionary. We merely propose to throw light upon the Scriptures by tracing such a picture of Bible lands as lies before the mind of an intelligent Oriental ; so that we shall omit much interesting matter of a scientific character, because it has no particular bearing upon our subject. In every nation, however, usages are found which can not be explained or accounted for by a reference to the physical character ofthe country. These customs have an historical original, lost and forgotten, perhaps, in the lapse of time, but still main taining its sway over the minds and manners of those who have inherited them.

The fact that the customs now prevalent in Bible lands are so different from those of the West, and yet es sentially identical with the ancient manners of the East, is of the greatest practical importance to the Biblical student. The Hebrew commonwealth has perished ; its people are scattered among all the nations of the earth, whose manners they have adopted. The principal clue, therefore, to what they once were, and our chief means of explaining much that is obscure in Holy Writ, will be found in the customs of the modern East. And we propose, in the second part of the present work, to consider all such details of Oriental life as appear to have, in the main, an historical origin. A few words of explanation must be added before we proceed to our subject. We have felt considerable hesitation as to the use of some words improperly called Oriental, and of the incor rect spelling of others that are really so, simply lest we should lay ourselves open to the charge of pedantry.

It has, however, seemed to us that in such a book as this we could plead neither ignorance nor a bad habit. We have, therefore, written Mo hammed, instead of Mahomet; Bedawy (plural, Bedawin), in stead of Bedouin ; and mosk, instead of mosque. On the other hand, we have not called the religion of Mohammed Mohammed anism, but Islam, its universal name in the East (not Islamism, nor the religion of Islam) ; and his followers not Mohammedans, but, as they call themselves, Muslims (not Mussulmans; Mus limin is the plural of Muslim. We have not interfered, however, with words which have

INTRODUCTION.

. harmlessly become incorporated in the English language-such as Sultan, Koran, Mecca, etc., which some write Sooltau, Kuran, and Mekkeh. There are almost as many systems of spelling Oriental words as prominent writers upon the East. Compelled to make a choice, the following method has been adopted as most easy and natural to English-speaking peoples : Vowels. a always broad, as in father. e as in met, set, fell. i " " sit, mill. o " " bone, roll. u like the French u in ruse. Hard for English-speaking lips. eu " " " eu"jeu " " " " " « " u in but. oo as in room. Consonants. g always hard, as in gap, get, give. gh like the Greek y and Parisian r. _;' as the latter part of the English j, which is really composed of two sounds, i. e., d and,/. It is like s in measure. h is a slight aspirate, and kh a stronger one. ch as in cheap. sh " " sheep. dh " hard th in this. th " soft th in things.

In order to prevent misapprehension, we have generally placed an h after a final a or e, where it would be unnecessary were our system always kept in mind. Tho chapters on the Physical Geography and Ethnology of Bible lands have been read and approved by my friend, Profess or Guyot, of Princeton, to whom I was already indebted for the most valuable suggestions they contain. It is as needless to point out the value thus conferred upon those portions of the work, as it is to inform the public of the immense erudition of the learned professor, which is equaled only by the enthusiasm for the study of nature with which he inoculates all who come in contact with him or his works. CONTENTS.

Appendix

I gl3

APPENDIX.

II Mo INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS ol7 INDEX OF SUBJECTS ILLUSTRATIONS. PAOK FAGE Gate ofau Egyptian Governor .... Frontispiece. An Arab Chief 15 Vertical Section, north and south, from Mount Ararat to Bagdad (Babylon), and from Damascus to Egypt, with the Course of the Jordan 19 Mount Sinai (Ras Safsafeh) 37 Public Fountain at Jerusalem 42 Woman carrying Water 43 Ancient and Modern Water-pitchers — 44 One of the Wells of Beer-sheba, with its Wateriug-troughs 47 Well at Thyatira, built of ancient Marbles 4S Tank or Pool of Bethesda, Jerusalem.. . 49 Interior of a Cistern near Aleppo 61 Cistern under the Temple area at Jerusalem 51 Perpendicular Plan of Rock Cistern at Tocat 52 Saracenic Aqueduct over the Meles, near Smyrna 54 Water Pillars 55 Ancient and Modern Skin-bottles 57 Wooden Water-jug 57 Coin of Apamea 58 Assyrian Warrior swimming on au inflated Skin 5S Inflated Skin Raft.

From Assyrian Sculpture 59 Modern Kelek, with Tent 59 Ancient Kufa GO Modern Kufa GO Oriental Ships Cl Shell-fish eaten in the Levant GS Ancient Egyptian Drag-net 70 Assyrian Swimmer. From an ancient Sculpture 72 Modern Plow, Share, Yoke, Mattock, and Goad 76 Arab Farmer plowing 7G Ox-cart bearing Sheaves 79 Oriental Ox-cart SO Cart ofthe ancient Tokhari SI Oxen treading the Corn 82 Threshing-floor S2 Tares 84 The Hand-mill 87 A public Oven 89 Portable Ovens: Ancient aud Modern. . 90 Modern Shadoof. 97 Aucient Shadoof 93 Persian River-wheel 101 Priming -saw, Pocket-knife, Hoe, and Mattock 102 Sakkieh, or Well-wheel 104 Pigeon-houses 107 Common Pigeon of Palestine 108 Watchman's Booth 109 Oriental Spade and Roman Bepalium.. . 114 Pyrghos, Koolah, or Tower in the Vineyard 117 Modern Wine-press 118 Ancient Egyptian Wine-press US Oriental Baskets 120 Aged Olive-trees 127 Aucieut Olive-press 129 Women working at the Olive-press 130 Modern Clay aud Tiu Lamps 132 Aucient Terra-cotta Lamps 132 Cedars of Lebanon 154 Oriental Woodman's Axe 155 The Apple of Sodom 159 Valonea Acorn 159 Stone-piue Cone aud Nuts 1G3 The Lily ofthe Field— Meadow Auemoue ICG The Opium Poppy 107 Buffaloes in Palestine 17G Wild Ox of Central Asia 177 Chase of the Wild Ox, or Reem 178 Moufflon, or Wild Sheep of Western Asia 180 Shepherd playing on the Nay, or Flute.. 187 Ancient Sling 18S Native Haversack, orSachel, made of an entire Lamb-skin 189 Oriental Shepherd-dog. 191 Shepherd-dog.

From Babylonian Sculpture 192 The Broad -tailed Sheep in Persia 2500 Years ago 195 Broad-tailed Sheep, unshorn 19G Broad-tailed Sheep, shoru 197 The Broad - tailed Sheep, according to Harris 19S Etruscan Sheep. From a Vase 199 Four-horned Ram 200 The Paseng, or Wild Goat of Western Asia 2n2 ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE PAGB Sennacherib on his Throne. An Assyrian Sculpture 343 Mar Yohanau 3*7 The Emir B'shir Sbehab, Prince of the Lebanon 3^ The Arab Emir, Ab'del-Kadir 351 Heads of Captives held by Rameses II., King of Egypt. Sculpture at Abou Simbel, n.o. 1300 353 Captive of Rameses III., n.o, 1170 354 King of Jndah. An Egyptian Sculpture 355 Samaritan Hebrews bearing Tribute. An Assyrian Sculpture 356 Jewish Captives. Au Assyrian Sculpture 35T The Abyssinian Chief, Belgadda-Arca.. . 3C1 Ancieut Persian.

A Persepolitau Sculpture 3G4 Aucient Persian 365 Armenian Merchant, Costume of fifty Tears ago . . 368 Georgian of Tiflis 370 Circassian Warrior 371 Oriental Gypsy with the Gypsy Lock 373 Turkish Lady iu modern Costume 373 Greek Gentleman in his Native Costume 374 Arabic Running - hand : the Language Turkish, with the Seal instead of a Signature 392 Modem Seals, 393 Ancient Seal Impression ou Clay 394 Sealed Letter, Penknife, Scissors, and Pen 397 Turkmen's Tent 400 Ancient Tent. Assyrian Sculpture 400 Arab Tent 491 Tent-pin, or Hook, and Mallet (Aucient aud Modern) 401 Wooden Mortar and Pestle 404 Babylonian bakedBrick, with Nebuchadnezzar's Name: 12 Inches square aud 3 Inches thick 419 Village with couical Roofs, near Aleppo 423 Aucient Assyriau House 424 Projecting Fronts of Houses, Damascus. 427 Council-chamber at Tocat 428 Inner Court ofa House iu Damascus — 430 A Man carrying his Keys 432 Gypsum Alcove 434 Ceiling Ornament in Gypsum 435 The Law on the Door-post 435 A Summer-house, of Wood, at Tocat 445 Wall of Jerusalem 448 Tower at Ramleh 449 The Jaffa Gate (anciently the Fish Gate) at Jerusalem 461 The Strait Gate '..'.'. !".".'.

"'.'.'.'. . 453 A Street iu Damascus 456 Plan of an Oriental Room '. 460 Oriental Chairs and Stool 461 The Teftik, or Angora Goat 203 Milking a Goat. From a Babylonish Gem 207 The modern Arab Horse 209 Koordish and Koordish Cavalry. . .faces 215 The modern Arab Horse 218 Sculptured Horse at Per sepolis 218 Woman riding sideways. From a Vase found at Rnvo, in Italy 223 Assyrian Women riding astride on a Mule 224 Eastern Litter 226 Ass Colt pursued by a Hound 229 Ass with "Egyptian Saddle." From Beni- Hassan 230 Bactrian Camel, seen in Asia Minor 234 Bactrian Camels. From the Nimrood Obelisk. 235 Foot and Stomach of the Camel 237 Head of a Camel 23S Overworked Camel 241 Claw at the end ofthe Lion's Tail. Assyrian Sculpture 248 Maneless Lion at Euyuk, in Asia Minor. — Side View 249 Front View of the Same 249 The Kai'm Hurmul, in Cœle-Syria 255 Carvings on the KaTm Hurmul 256 The Roebuck of Western Asia 259 Bear, from an Assyrian brass Bowl 260 Household Articles found in an Ancient Dunghill 267 Vulture carrying ofl*- the Entrails of the Slain.

A Nineveh Sculpture 268 The long-tailed Magpie 269 The Rashama, or "Bird of Pharaoh ".. . 270 The Crow of WeBtem Asia 271 The Asiatic Hyena 271 Jackal. Syrian Fox 279 The Jerboa 285 The Ferret 286 Oriental Swallows and Nest 288 The Crane 290 The Oriental Quail 292 Site of the second Miracle of Quails 296 A Pair of Turtle-doves 298 The Titmouse and its Nest 300 The Eastern Oriole 301 The noopoe 301 The Rock Partridge 302 The Stork and its Nest 302 The Chameleon aud its Tongue 312 The Asiatic Locust 313 Locusts. From a Babylonian Gem 314 The Rose-colored Starling 316 Flight of Locusts in Southern Russia. . . 317 Silk-worm, Cocoon, Larva, Butterfly, and Eggs 321 Mahmood II. and Attendants faces 337 Modern Oriental Jews: left, Asia Minor; right, Persia ILLUSTRATIONS ta _:_ PAGE An Upper Window 462 Mangal, or Chatiiig-dish, for Charcoal.. . 464 Oriental Kitchen-range 465 Kitchen Utensils 4GG Ladles: Aucient and Modem 466 Two Men pounding iu one Mortar.

Egyptian Sculpture 467 Coffee-pot and Cups 463 Earthen Jars aud Water-pots 469 Ancient Jar 439 Common Table aud Tray 472 Village Table 472 Collation wicker Table 472 Servant bringing Dishes 474 The Oriental Cup 475 The Assyrian Cup 475 Basin aud Ewer 47G Candlesticks 478 Hanging Lamps 479 Plan of au Oriental public Bath 4S4 Interior of an Oriental Bath 4S6 Ancient Bathing. 490 Au Oriental Gentleman 509 Weapons carried iu the Girdle 514 Ancient Girdles 515 Modern Oriental Head-dresses 518 Ancient Turbans 520 Oriental Shoes, Boots, aud Clogs 522 Muslim Lady in the Uarim— the Jacket. 524 Frontlet worn by Ladies 52G The Law upon the Forehead 527 The Lebanon Horn 52S Various Head-jewels of married Women 530 Jewish Horn at Algiers 530 Eastern Necklaces 532 Lady's portable Looking-glass 534 " " " —back of Mirror 535 Veiled Woman 537 The bridal Crown, or Dodos 640 Ancient Dodos '. 547 Marriage Procession 550 Ancient Terra-cotta Lamps and Oil Vessels 554 Ancient and Modern Egyptian Mode of carrying little Children 5G3 Ancient Egyptian Women spinning 564 Modern Oriental Spinning-wheel 564 Oriental Distaff. 565 An Oriental Cradle ". . 569 Bells fasteued to a Child's Ankle 570 Ancient baptismal Font at Ephesus 572 Children's ancient Terra-cotta Toys 573 Ancient Terra-cotta Flageolet 574 Stone Door of Sepulchre 580 Seal on Tomb-door 581 Oriental Graves 582 Tomb of Polycarp at Smyrna 583 Parsee Cemetery 585 Ancient Mourning: laying the Hand upon the Ilead, and crying 5SG Ancient Tear-bottles 5S7 The ancient Salaam, or Temenah, in Egypt aud Persia 591 The Servant's Hands before his Master 593 Jeweled Censers 594 Rose-water Bottle 595 Ancient Modes of Sitting like the Modern 598 Ancient Egyptians at Dinner 601 The modern Zoorua and Davool 603 The modern Darubukkeh 009 Aucieut Musicians and Showmeu eutertainiug Workmen 609 Oriental Bagpipe 610 Ancient Egyptian military Music 611 The Nay (Flute), and Case 61 1 Ancieut Egyptian Performer ou the Nay G12 The Tamboora, or Lute 612 The Ood, or Guitar 613 The Kemenjeh, or Violin 614 The Kanoon, or Santur 615 The Tambouriue, or Timbrel 615 Oriental brass Castanets 61tf Assyriau and Egyptian Tambourineplayers 616 An Orieutal Orchestra 618 Ancient Egyptians singiug 620 Dancing to the clapping of Hauds 624 Au Egyptian Almeh 62G Ancieut Egyptian Almehs GS.8 Putting out the Eyes ofa Prisoner 635 Hallos Audience of the Shah of Persia..

G39 Pharaoh upon his Throne 040 Throne of the Shah of Persia at Teheran C42 The Sultan's Throne at Constantinople. 643 Mahmood Shah, of Persia 646 Bowing to the King 643 Adoriug the Assyrian King: the State Umbrella 649 Egyptian Prostration 649 Oriental Guns 071 Oriental Pistols 672 Cotton-mailed Cavalry of Begharmi, in Central Africa 673 Turkish Helmet 674 Modern Turkish and Ancient Assyrian Helmets 674 Ancient aud Modern Shields 675 Modern Oriental Weapons 67S Parthiau and Assyrian Cavalry 682 The Ring iu the Nose 683 Fire-altar at Nakhshi-Rustam 700 Fire-temple near Bakoo 701 Bronze Asntaroth 706 Jupiter Corypnean, Smyrna. Ancient Terra Cotta 706 Terra-cotta Statue of Boodh. Discovered in an ancient Tomb at Smyrna. . . 707 Ear-ring, with Cupid ILLUSTRATIONS, PAGE PAGE Koordish bronze Cock 710 Druse Calf, of Bronze 711 The Caaba, or Temple at Mecca 715 The Mihrab, Pulpit, and Candlestick in the Mosk 719 Pulpit in the Mosk of the Metnallies, Cairo 721 Candlestick.

From a Gem found at Ephesus 722 Mosk Fnuutain 723 Greek Priest 732 Armenian Bishop, with Hood 733 Whirling Dervish 733 Begging Dervish 734 Performance of the Whirling Dervishes. 762 Self -torture of Religions Devotee 766 Muslim Devotee cutting himself like the Prophets of Baal 769 Merchant's Shop in Cairo 777 An Oriental Cafe 779 Ancient Razor-blade and Beads 781 Street in the Bazar at Cairo 782 Lid of Sarcophagus. From the Tombs of the Kings of Judah 7S5 Gate-way of Medreseh, at Sivas 788 Ancient Egyptian Drill 792 Modern Carpenters' aud Masons' Tools. 793 Interior of a Caravanseray, or Inn 804 COLORED MAPS. Phvsioai. Map of Bible Lands faces Pari I, -Stiinologioal Map of Biule Lands faces Parr il. To face page 15. An Arab Chief

PART I. CUSTOMS WHICH HAYE THEIR ORIGIN IN THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OE

BIBLE LANDS. THE BIBLE CUSTOMS OF BIBLE LANDS.

Chapter I. Physical Characteristics Of The Lands Of The Bible In General

AND OF PALESTINE IN PARTICULAR. NO study of the East can be thorough and satisfactory which is not based upon tbe knowledge of its geography, or, in other words, its physical features. Our first step, therefore, in these interesting investigations must be to call the reader's at tention to our "Physical Map of Bible Lands," and to guide him in the study of its most important features. The land portion of this map, it will be observed, is colored with three different tints ; — green, red, and white — -indicating three different degrees of elevation above the level ofthe sea. The green represents the alluvial lands, which do not exceed 1000 feet in height: the red indicates an elevation of 1000 to 8000 feet; and the ivhite every thing above the last-mentioned height, necessarily cornprising only lofty mountains and mountain ranges.

The first peculiarity that arrests our attention in the study ofthe map is the comparative isolation of this region of coun try from the rest of the world. It lies, indeed, in the very centre of the Eastern hemisphere, in the heart of three conti nents; yet it is bounded and surrounded by no less than five seas, which, during the early ages of our race, must have served the purpose of so many ditches, or fosses, around a castle, while the comparatives narrow spaces which separate them form rugged defenses ofthe cradle ofthe human race.' But let us examine more particularly these encircling natural barriers. The "stormy Euxine," or Black Sea, nearly destitute of har- BIBLE LANDS. bors on its southern and eastern coasts, occupies the north-west corner, and the Caspian, a low marshy lake, lying eighty-five feet below sea-level, and always neglected of men, bounds the land on the north-east.

Between these two seas stretches the great wall of the Caucasian range, rising at Mount Elboorz to a height of 18,500 feet, and covered in many parts with perpetual snow. It can be crossed only at the " Iron Gate," through the defile of Dariel, in the centre, and at the two ex tremities. The Persian Gulf occupies the south-eastern corner of the map, while the space between its shores and those of the Caspian Sea is blocked up by the lofty ranges of Zaghros and Demawend, and further guarded by the deserts of Iran. From the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea, whose navigation has ever been unsafe, lies the great Arabian Desert — dry, sandy, prac ticable only for the hardy Arab, and forming a plateau aver aging 2000 feet in height. The Isthmus of Suez, on the south west, is but a hundred miles in width, and consists of a sandy tract broken only by a salt-water marsh.

Lastly, the broad Mediterranean spreads out upon the west and passes on to the Ægean, thickly studded with rocky islands, and thence to the Propontis and the Euxine. Here we have a series of defen sive moats, as it were: these are the straits of the Dardanelles and those ofthe Bosphorus; and there is yet a third at the en trance to the Sea of Azof, which is now, called the Straits of Kertch. Thus we see that the spot selected by Divine Provi dence for the birth of our race, and the earliest experiments of human life and society, was isolated yet central — isolated, that the experiments might be less liable to disturbance, and cen tral, that hence the world might be peopled, civilized, and Christianized. But we must point out another feature illustrated by our map. The figures which mark the exact elevations of the land above the sea indicate that there is a plateau, averaging about 4000 feet in height, and varying from 150 to 800 miles in width, which runs almost exactly east and west, though at its eastern end it is deflected toward the south by the Caspian Sea.

On the west it comprises the whole peninsula of Asia Minor; in the centre, Koordistan and Armenia; and eastward the king dom of Persia. This plateau, however, has not a uniform level surface, but presents a great variety of forms, from the lofty peak and mountain to the fertile valley and fruitful plain. The average elevation of 4000 feet is that of the level ground, and not ofthe mountains; these are so lofty along the edges ofthe plateau as to make it appear higher than it really is. The cul minating or highest part of this plateau consists osa plain, sur rounded by a complete circle of mountains, beneath which it lies in its rich livery of green, with the Lake of Van occupying the centre, like a jewel in its casket. The surface ofthe lake is 5115 feet above the sea-level. From this region four great rivers flow to three ofthe neighboring seas: the Fazi to the Euxine, the Aras to the Caspian, and the Tigris and Euphra tes to the Persian Gulf.* They all carry fertility to the lands through which they flow.

Ancient traditions place the prov ince of Eden in this highest portion of Armenia, anciently called Ararat; and it appears to furnish all the conditions of the Mosaic narrative. This also seems to have been the site of the Noachian deluge, whose waters were gradually drained off by the streams to the lower grounds. No trace now appears of such a cataclysm, nor could any be looked for. The accompanying vertical cut will give a clearer idea of this region ; it extends from the valley of the Aras and Tiflis, on the right, to Bagdad, or Babylon, in Mesopotamia, on the left, and ex hibits the positions of the lakes of Ooroomia and Van, and of Mount Ararat, Ravendooz, and some other peaks. The plateau we have described contains every .variety of climate and production to be found in the temperate zone.

Tt even possesses its own deserts of sand or salt, as in Iran and the centre of Asia Minor. "We shall not speak of the steppes or of the alluvial lands which lie to the north ofthe great plateau, for they are scarce ly alluded to in the Scriptures; but on the south there are two alluvial plains of great fertility, created by the rivers that still enrich them, which invite our attention. The one lies south of the great plateau, and under its shelter : it is watered by the Euphrates and the Tigris; and much of it lying between these rivers, it has received the name of Mesopotamia. It has been occupied at different periods by some of the most renowned dynasties, i, e., those of Assyria and Chaldea in Scripture times ; * Gen. ii., 10-14. while at a later period it has constituted the chief wealth ofthe Persian, Alexandrian, Parthian, and Saracen empires, until re duced to an almost unbroken desert by the iron heel of the Turk.

The other plain lies just within the limits of an adjacent con tinent. It is the land of the Pharaohs, the rich valley of the Nile, from five to fifty miles in width and five hundred and fifty in length, the site of one of the earliest and most won derful seats of civilization, which has played no mean part in the Biblical drama. Between Egypt and Mesopotamia lies the little land of Ca naan, or Israel — Palestine, the chief scene of Bible history, and the most interesting spot on the face of the earth. To this we must now turn our attention, and consider some of its physical peculiarities. The first thing likely to impress one, in looking at Palestine upon the map, is its small size. How strange that so diminu tive a land should have played so important a part in the world's history 1 But this fact stands not alone.

Greece, Switzerland, and Holland are also small, but have done great and memorable deeds. Some have doubted whether Palestine could support a population of three millions even in David's time, when its limits were the broadest, and it had become the entrepot of the commerce of India.* Computing the surface of the land at 11,200 geographical square miles, we have an aver age of 267 souls to the square mile, whereas prosperous Great Britain has but 246. It should, however, be remembered that England possesses large tracts of unproductive soil belonging to a favored class. German Bohemia, though hilly, supports a population of 254 to the square mile, while the fertile alluvial plains of Belgium feed no less than 438. Modern China supports 288. There are no data by which we can estimate the present population of Palestine, but we are safe in saying that every country of Western Asia has greatly deteriorated in fertility during the last twelve centuries.

Egypt, according to Herodotus, anciently contained seven millions of inhabitants; yet its present population is but two and a half millions, f Babylonia was once the most fertile spot upon the face ofthe * 1 Clu'on. xxi., 6. t Lane, i., 27-29. earth. According to Strabo, barley produced three hundred fold; and Pliny states that there were two crops of wheat a year. This was accomplished by a system of irrigation which converted the entire plain between the two rivers, as well as the outer banks of the Euphrates and the Tigris below Nine veh, into a continuous garden, supporting a numerous popula tion of well-to-do farmers and gardeners, the source and secret of the prosperity and power of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires.* But now this whole region is little more than a desert. The yearly incursions of the Arabs compel the in habitants to seek the protection of the walled towns, whose governors more slowly, but as surely, rob them of their little all.