A concise History of England to the death of William IV

Front matter

HISTORY OF ENGLAND A CONCISE HISTORY OF ENGLAND TO THE DEATH OF WILLIAM IV. BY E. J. HOWELT, " A land of old and just renown." WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBURGH AND LONDON MDCCCbXXIII CONTENTS. CHAP. INCLUDES DATE PAGE I. ROMAN INVASION — ALFRED THE GREAT II. REST OF ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD B.C. 55-A.D. 901 1 a.d. 901-1066 5 fhiriitaii ftine. . 1066-87 12 . 1087-1100 15 . 1100-35 17 . 1135-54 21 III. WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR IV. WILLIAM RUFUS V. HENRY I. VI. STEPHEN Sttnr- VII. HENRY II. Vin. RICHARD I. . 1154-89 24 . 1189-99 31 . 1199-1216 38 . 1216-72 45 . 1272-1307 54 . 1307-27 64 . 1327-77 73 . 1377-99 88 . 1399-1413 97 IX. JOHN X. HENRY III. XI. EDWARD I. XII. EDWARD II. XIII. EDWARD III. XIV. RICHARD II. XV. HENRY IV. XVI. HENRY V. XVII. HENRY VI. . 1413-22 101 . 1422-61 107 . 1461-83 117 XVni.

EDWARD IV. XIX. EDWARD V. XX. RICHARD III. . 1483 124 . 1483-5 126 -ffulror %int. . 1485-1509 129 . 1509-47 135 . 1547-53 156 . 1553-8 162 . 1558-1603 172 XXI. HENRY VII. XXII. HENRY VIII. XXIII. EDWARD VL XXIV. MARY XXV. ELIZABETH £tuart SLt'tte. . 1603-25 195 . 1625-42 208 XXVI. JAMES I. XXVII. CHARLES I., TO END OF CAMPAIGN OF 1642 . 1643-9 221 XXVIII. ,, RETURN OF QUEEN — CLOSE . CONTENTS. VI INCLUDES DATE PAGK CHAP. (dmnmDnfofaltl) aitlr a>nter«*jnum. XXIX. COMMONWEALTH, TO DEATH OF CROMWELL . 1649-58 233 XXX. (j TO CLOSE, AND INTERREGNUM . 1658-60 245 Stuart !Ltnt metitaxtls. XXXI. CHARLES II., RESTORATION — TRIPLE ALLIANCE, . 1660-8 248 XXXII. ,, CABAL MINISTRY— DEATH OF SHAFTES bury .... 1668—83 255 XXXIII. ,, RYE-HOUSE PLOT — CLOSE . . 1683-5 265 XXXIV. JAMES II., ACCESSION — ACQUITTAL OF BISHOPS . 1685-8 267 DISAFFECTION IN BOTH SERVICES — CLOSE ....

XXXV. 1688-9 275 g>tuarts<©range SLtne. 1689-94 279 XXXVI. WILLIAM AND MARY . (©range %ine. 1694-1702 287 XXXVII. WILLIAM III. Stuart Utttt again lirstarrU. 1702-7 293 1707-14 3 DO XXXVIII. ANNE, ACCESSION — UNION WITH SCOTLAND XXXIX. „ CAMPAIGN OF 1707 — CLOSE 33run-*>&Hcft 3Lfne. 1714-27 309 1727-45 320 XL. GEORGE I. XLI. GEORGE II., ACCESSION — FALL OF LOUISBURG XLII. ,, PRINCE CHARLES' DESCENT — CLOSE . 1745-60 332 XLI 1 1. GEORGE III., ACCESSION — FORMATION OF GRAFTON MINISTRY .... 1760-6 350 XLIV. ,, REVIVAL OF DISPUTE WITH AMERICANS — THEIR ALLIANCE WITH FRANCE . 1766-78 • 361 XLV. „ DEATH OF CHATHAM — RESIGNATION OF LORD NORTH . . . 1778-82 378 XLVI. ,, ROCKINGHAM MINISTRY — FETE IN CHAMP DE MARS . . . 1782-90 391 XLVII. ,, WHIG QUARRELS— PEACE OF AMIENS . 1790-1802 403 XLVIII. ,, SUSPICIONS OF FRANCE — SECOND AT- . 1802-7 430 TACK ON COPENHAGEN XLIX.

Chapter I. Roman Invasion Alfred

It is doubtful when England was first settled. Some of the aborigines probably came from the shores of the Baltic and northern Germany, and others crossed from the coast of what is now France to Kent ; the first are supposed to have been Cimmerians or Cimbri, and the last Celts. Afterwards came the Belgæ, who belonged to the Teutonic family, and drove their predecessors from the south and east coasts to the interior of the island. No trustworthy history of these times has been preserved. "We will therefore content ourselves with stating that Julius Cæsar led an invasion to the coast of Kent, where his landing was resolutely opposed by the Britons ; but Roman discipline and valour prevailed over native bravery, and the invaders gained a footing in the island. Subsequent attacks under Claudius and Vespasian, in spite of gallant resistance, extended the Eoman dominion, which gradually overspread England as far north as the Eoman wall, from the Solway to the Tyne, and those of the natives who would not submit to the foreigners were driven into "Wales or Cornwall.

The Roman rule was not generally harsh, and though the Britons lost their independence, they gained many compensating advantages. That mighty and far-reaching power, which had crushed their nationahty, respected their religion, did not needlessly interfere with their customs, improved their old and founded new towns, made excel lent roads, traces of which still remain, dug canals, provided against. A inundation, and generally introduced among our barbarous ancestors the advantages, and even some of the luxuries, of a settled, and in many respects highly civilised government. "Verolamium, near fe. Albans, and Eboracum, now York, were then the chief places. However, the growing weakness of the Eoman Empire made distant a.d. 448 Britain a burdensome dependency, and the last Eoman governor left our shores, to the by no means unmixed delight of the Britons, who even made several unsuccessful attempts to induce the Eomans to return.

During the Roman dominion, Christianity dawned on the island. Several Fathers of the Church affirm that S. Paul was among the missionaries hither, but she had a lingering precarious life, and Druidism, a gloomy and cruel Paganism, was the creed of the bulk of the people. Accustomed as the Britons had become to foreign masters, they were as little prepared to keep as desirous to gain freedom. Becoming involved in disputes with their northern neighbours the a.d. 450 Picts, a turbulent and warlike people, the Britons invoked help from the Saxons, who then inhabited the north of Germany, and a few of whom, there is reason to think, were already settled in the eastern counties. This request was readily granted, and assisted by these auxiliaries, the Britons repelled the Pictish incursions, but shared the usual fate of nations too feeble to fight their own battles, and found their protectors would soon be their masters also.

The Saxons coveted the beautiful and fertile country as much as they despised its unwarlike inhabitants, and refusing to remain cooped up in the Isle of Thanet, which had been the reward of their services, proceeded to form permanent settlements in England. A long and desultory warfare followed with varying success, but the Saxons were constantly recruited from Germany, and the Britons were at length either subdued, or driven, like their forefathers, into northern France, the extreme north-western counties, Cornwall, or the Welsh mountains. Arthur, a Cornish prince of the sixth century, was the most celebrated British leader in this contest, and his deeds suave been a favourite theme of poetry and romance, but his repeated victories could not permanently stay the invading tide, and he at length fell in battle.

About this time Gregory, afterwards Bishop or Pope of Rome, saw some beautiful children exposed for sale in the slave market there, and struck by their appearance, inquired who they were, and whence they came. Being told they were English pagans (or in Latin, pagani Angli), he exclaimed, " Non Angli sed Angeli forent si essent Christiani." They would uot be English but angels if they were Christians. ANGLO-SAXON EPOCH. 3 When Gregory became Pope, he ordered a Benedictine prior, fe. Augustine, to attempt the conversion of the Britons. Augustine and his companions landed in Thanet, and soon succeeded 597 in converting the Kentish king, Ethelbert, and great numbers of his subjects. From this time Christianity advanced rapidly in England, and soon overspread the country. Augustine himself became the first Archbishop of Canterbury.

Thus England is indebted to the Roman see for the successful 598-686 extension, but not the original plantation, of its Church. Ethelbert collected the earliest code of laws existing in any modern tongue. As the Saxons nifistered the English, their conquests were chiefly divided into seven small kingdoms — viz., Kent, South Saxons, West Saxons or Wessex, East Saxons (Essex, Middlesex, and Herts), North umberland, East Anglia, and Mercia. The south of Scotland to the Firth of Forth was then included in Northumberland. These petty kingdoms, called the Saxon Heptarchy, were frequently at war with each other. Their boundaries were confused, their annals are intricate, of doubtful authenticity, and of little present importance. Suffice it, therefore, to say, that most of the heptarchy was at length consolidated into one state by Egbert, a king of Wessex.

"Winchester was 827 then and long afterwards the capital. There Egbert was crowned, and assumed his new title as first king of Angleland, or the Anglo-Saxons, including all England, except Cornwall, part of Devon, Cumberland, and Northumbria. He did not annex that kingdom or Mercia. The realm enjoyed only a short interval of rest. About the fifth year of Egbert's reign, the Danes appeared on the coast of Sheppy with many ships, landed, plundered, and harried the neighbourhood, and got off with their booty. A second descent followed on the Dorset shore, but this time they were attacked by Egbert, and driven back to their ships. Egbert, commonly known as the first king of England, reigned about forty-seven years altogether, and during the last ten, as undisputed sovereign of Angleland. He was active and warlike.

Ethelwolf, only surviving son of Egbert, succeeded, and was soon 836 obliged to lead his forces against the Danes ; but, less fortunate than his father, was beaten, and the corsairs carried off much plunder. Encouraged by success, and having the command of the sea, their depredations were more and more frequent. At length they were bold 851 enough to attempt the conquest of the country, but were beaten back with great loss near Ockley in Surrey. The feeble Ethelwolf sought repose by making Athelstan, his natural son, king of Kent, reserving to himself the rest of his dominions. Athelstan determined to attack the enemy on their favourite ele ment, equipped a fleet, and fought a successful sea fight with the Danes, who 'were also defeated on shore by Ceorle, a provincial governor. Nevertheless, the invaders were not disheartened nor inclined to leave their prey, and the next year they returned with a large fleet and pillaged London, but were soon afterwards totally defeated by Ethelwolf and Athelstan, and England enjoyed a few years' quiet. 855 Athelstan died in the lifetime of his father, whose last years were ;.857 embittered by the rebellion of Ethelbald, his next son and successor.

In Ethelwolf 's reign, tithes were granted to the Church, at the suggestion of S. Swithin, Bishop of Winchester. Ethelbald was a luxurious and debauched prince, whose reign was short and uneventful. 860 Another son of Ethelwolf, named Ethelbert, succeeded. In this reign the Danes reappeared in Hampshire and Thanet, and progressed, despite all the efforts and bribes of the English. 866 Ethelred, another brother, was the next king, and, like his predecessor, was chiefly occupied in resisting the Danes, against whom he fought many battles with constant valour, but httle success. This 871 king was at length mortally wounded in an engagement with the invaders near Morton, in Berkshire, and died, leaving to his successor a kingdom desolated by war, torn by internal quarrels, and half overrun by merciless foreigners. 872 Alfred, the last and most famous of these brothers, was then cahed to rescue his suffering country.

Marching promptly against the invaders, he fought several battles 878 with indifferent results, and the spirit of his subjects seeming quenched, the king could not for the time continue the struggle. He was obhged to place his family under the care of some trusty friends, abandon all signs of royalty, and disguise himself as a countryman, while the Danes overspread the country. Alfred remained some time hidden in Athelney Marsh, Somerset shire. Once his hostess, ignorant of his quahty, left him to attend to the baking of some cakes, but the king, on other things intent, let them burn, and the goodwife on her return rated him soundly for his carelessness. Hardships and misfortunes were borne by the king with the patience of a great mind, and after about a year, encouraged by an Enghsh success in Devonshire, he entered the Danish camp in the guise of a harper, was weh received, and got accurate information.

Retiring, he summoned his forces, cohected a considerable army, and defeated the invaders in a pitched battle with great slaughter. Few escaped, and they were soon obliged to surrender. Many Danes, including Gutlirum their leader, to whom Alfred became godfather, embraced Christianity, and at Guthrum's pressing request, were ahowed to settle in the north and east of England, where their influence is stih felt in the names of places and the appearance 879-885 of the people. Attempts of the Danes to re-establish their power ALFRED — EDMUND I. 5 involved them in fresh disasters by sea and land, and Alfred at length enjoyed an interval of tranquillity, and employed himself in the settle ment of his kingdom, and promoting the happiness of his people. He was interrupted by fresh attacks of the pertinacious Danes, whom he 893-899 again repeatedly defeated, and at last had several tried and hung as pirates.

Amongst his labours, he established a militia, equipped a navy, is said to have settled the divisions of counties, tythings, and hundreds, instituted trial by jury, drew up a code of laws which were strictly administered and very generahy obeyed. Nor was the royal time devoted to pubhc business only. He still dehghted in literature, translated the Gospels, wrote several books, is said to have largely assisted the young university of Oxford, and en couraged foreign scholars, while his regard for religion was as great as might have been expected from the rest of his character. This good prince died when only fifty, too soon for his country ; and 901 few, if any, question the propriety of his well-known title, Alfred the Great.

Chapter II. Edward The Elder Harold II

Edward, surnamed the Elder, second son of Alfred, succeeded ; but the throne was disputed by his nephew Ethelward, and the cousins main tained the contest till his death, soon after which Edward was recognised 905 by both parties. A Danish rebehion fohowed, but after a long civil war Edward again prevailed, as he did also over the Welsh prince, Rees ap Madoc. In 920 these wars he received much help from his sister Etheffieda, widow of the petty chief of Mercia. On her death he assumed its government, and the rest of his reign was tranquil. This king gave many proofs of courage and conduct, and his death is 925 said to have been generahy regretted. Athelstan, a natural son of Edward the Elder, next wore the crown, and was soon cahed on to put down Welsh tumults, and a formidable 927 confederacy of Scots, Britons, and Danes, in which he succeeded, and reduced the west of England, including the Scihy Isles and Northum bria.

He appears first to have cahed himself King of England, and died without issue after a fortunate and able reign of sixteen years. Edmund I., the eldest lawful son of Edward the Elder, succeeded. As usual, the 941 new king was quickly disturbed by the Danes and northern rebels. 0ct- They obhged him to yield the country north of Watling Street, hut on the death of their chief Anlaf, Edmund regained Northumbria. Cum 945 berland was also subdued, and given to the Scotch King Malcolm, on condition of his doing homage. Several salutary laws— some of which are extant — were made by King Edmund, who is said to have owed his 946 violent death to the vengeance of Leoff or Lioff, a robber who had been banished. Dying when twenty-six, he had, in a reign of only eight years, shown himself a wise as well as brave monarch. 947 Edred, brother of Edward, then became king.

The beginning of this reign was disturbed by a rebellion of the Danes, assisted by the King of Scots and the petty king of Northumbria. Edred twice defeated and pardoned the revolters, who rewarded his clemency by treacherously attacking his troops. Returning, the king again triumphed, and having completely reduced Northumbria, dethroned its petty king, and made it an Enghsh province. 952 The celebrated Benedictine monk Dunstan, Abbot of Glastonbury, and confessor to Edred, had great influence with the king, and caused him to rebuild the Abbey there, and several other monasteries. 955 Edred died after reigning about nine years, and Edwy, son of Edmund I., his successor, soon quarrelled with Dunstan. At the king's marriage a court feast was given, but the monarch was gallant enough to prefer his wife's society to carousing with his nobles.

Dunstan, perhaps fearing that the unpopularity so often occasioned by not complying with custom would attach to his sovereign, sought and remonstrated with him, and not succeeding, forgot the respect due to the king. Soon after Edwy charged Dunstan with malpractices as treasurer to Edred, banished him, and deprived him of his preferments. Stih further to mortify Dunstan, the king took part with the secular clergy, between whom and the monks a long quarrel had existed, and ejected the regulars from a number of benefices the rights to which were disputed. The monks were at this time greatly venerated, and the king's measures proved very unfortunate. A rebellion ensued, and Edgar the king's brother joined the insurgents, who soon found themselves strong enough to make Edwy put away his wife and divide the kingdom with his brother.

The former is said to have died of the mortification. 959 Edgar then became sole king. The story of his marriage is remarkable. Having heard glowing accounts of the beauty of Elfrida, daughter of the Earl of Devon, the king commissioned his favourite, Ethelwolf, to see and report on the lady. The messenger did not disclose his errand, feh in love with her himself, and they were secretly married. Ethelwolf returned to Court and treacherously told the king that Elfrida, although rich, was of very ordinary appearance ; and after an interval he obtained the royal leave to marry her himself, on account of her fortune. A hint of the truth probably reached the king. He was afterwards near Elfrida's EDGAR — ETHELRED THE UNREADY. 7 residence, and suddenly told Ethelwolf he should pay her a visit. Con science-stricken and surprised, the favourite could frame no excuse, and was driven to confide all to his wife, and trust to her love or pity to conceal her attractions.

Elfrida, indignant at the deception which had robbed her of the throne, utterly refused to screen her beauty or her husband, and the captivated monarch soon knew, as he had probably before suspected, the extent of Ethelwolf's duplicity. Soon after Ethelwolf was found dead, and the king married Elfrida. Edgar recalled Dunstan, and under his auspices the dispossessed monks were reinstated, and some attempts made to enforce celibacy on the clergy. The king made such extensive warlike preparations, both by sea and land, that no foreign enemy dared attack him, and his prudence preserved peace at home. He changed the Welsh tribute to wolves' heads, and freed the country from those animals. In this reign the About 970 present division of parishes was completed, and standard measures of capacity introduced.

Edgar was a sagacious statesman, a strict dis penser of justice, and a patron of learning, but is chargeable with superstition, licentiousness, and cruelty; he died aged 31, and was buried at Glastonbury. Edward, surnamed the Martyr, a son of Edgar 975 by a former marriage, was crowned as his successor by Dunstan, who acted as regent also, on account of the king's youth. After a short reign, the young sovereign was treacherously assassinated at the instigation of his stepmother Elfrida, to make room for her own son Ethelred. This weak son of a bad mother accordingly ascended the throne, and 979 began one of the most unfortunate reigns recorded in our annals. Before three years had elapsed the Danes recommenced their ravages, and meeting with no effectual resistance, plundered London, and carried 982 devastation far and wide.

Ethelred bribed them heavily, and thus purchased, and afterwards renewed, temporary security. The tax raised for the purpose was called Danegeld, and each hide of land paid one shilling, which afterwards was increased to seven. Dunstan died at this gloomy epoch, having exercised great religious 990 and political influence for a quarter of a century. Sweyn and Olave, kino-s of Denmark and Norway, devastated the northern counties, and 993-996 though repulsed before London, ravaged all the open country. Ethelred again purchased peace by a bribe, and Olave embraced Christianity, and finally left the country. Ethelred resolved to rid himself of the Danes by a general massacre, 1002 and despatched orders throughout the kingdom, naming a day for the execution of this barbarous plan. Such was the hatred generally caused by the pirates, and by the overbearing conduct of such of their country men as had settled here, that the king's orders were generally obeyed, 13 Nov. and very few Danes escaped.

Sweyn, king of Denmark, whose sister had been a victim, landed in the south-west, ravaged Devonshire, and soon obtained general success, as Ethebed's bad and foolish government had alienated his subjects' affections. Nevertheless, some of the English resisted obstinately, but Sweyn was at last completely victorious, and became the undisputed master of England, while Ethelred 1013 fled to the Duke of Normandy, his brother-in-law, who sheltered the fugitive and his family. 1014 However, the victor only sat on the throne a short time, and was succeeded at his death by his son Cnut or Canute. Canute was very unacceptable to the English, who recalled Ethelred ; and as his competitor was obliged to leave for Denmark, where the succession was also disputed, he had many chances in his favour. About a year afterwards Canute returned with a large army, and was making rapid progress at the death of Ethelred, who seemed to have learned no wisdom from niis 1016 fortunes and exile.

Edmund II., surnamed Ironsides, was acknowledged king by the party of his father Ethelred. The new king was a capable prince, and of great strength, courage, and resolution — whence his surname. Canute and Edmund maintained a fierce contest for the crown, during which the Dane invested London, and dug a deep canal to avoid the obstacle presented by London Bridge. Edmund relieved the city, and the struggle was at length ended by a partition, under which Canute took the north and Edmund the south of England. Very soon afterwards Edmund was assassinated by his treacherous brother-in-law Edric; and Canute, freed from his formidable neighbour, became sole king. The murderer was fittingly rewarded by Canute, who promised to exalt him above all his peers, and kept the promise by ordering 1017 Edric's head to be struck off and set on a gate of London.

Canute put to death Edmund's brother, and exiled the two infant children of the late king, hoping never to hear of them again. Then Canute took the politic step of assembling a Council at Oxford and confirming the Saxon laws ; he also married Emma, the widow of Ethelred, and engaged to leave England to the issue of the marriage ; after which he could venture to go and prosecute a successful war against the Swedes and Norwegians. This made him one of the most powerful princes of the time. He became popular, and was honoured with the title of great, caused justice to be strictly and impartially administered, and latterly devoted himself to the happiness of his subjects. Some of his flatterers had blasphemously affected to think him almighty, and he chose an effectual way of rebuking their criminal folly.

Seatinohimself on the shore during the flood tide, he addressed the water in these words, " 0 sea, thou art under my jurisidiction, and the land where I sit is mine ! I command thee to come no further ! " The water of course flowed as usual, and at length nearly surrounded the kino-. Then turning to the sycophants, he sternly commanded them to ascribe the divine attributes to God alone. In the latter part of his rei^n CNUT — EDWARD THE CONFESSOR. 9 Canute was very attentive to religious duties, and is said to have carried his humility to the extent of refusing to wear his crown, which was set on the head of a crucifix in Winchester Cathedral. He died at Shaftes- 1035 bury, after reigning nineteen years, and left three sons — Sweyn, who thereupon became King of Norway ; Harold, surnamed Harefoot, who succeeded his father in England ; and Hardicanute, who had Denmark.

Harold's throne was disturbed by his brother Hardicanute. Earl Good win, a powerful Saxon noble, espoused his cause, but Harold was able to persuade Goodwin to change sides, and he exerted his influence to such effect that Harold was acknowledged king of all England north of the Thames. Alfred, youngest son of Ethelred, miserably failed in an attempted invasion of the dominions of Harold Harefoot, who died childless. Then the accession of Hardicanute, who quickly presented 1040 himself, was undisputed. He had Harold Harefoot's body thrown into the Thames, and at the beginning of his reign he was generally popular ; but he taxed his subjects very heavil}7, showed no signs of goodness or ability, and was suddenly seized with a fit which proved mortal at the 1042 marriage entertainment of one of the Court. ° His subjects now had an opportunity to get rid of the Danish sovereigns, which they were not slow to use, and were helped by Earl Godio42 win, whose interest coincided with the people's wish, as Edward, the 4 June remaining son of Ethelred, who was the popular favourite, agreed to marry the Earl's daughter.

Prince Edward was accordingly raised to the throne, and abolished Danegeld, to the great delight of the people ; but his capacity was mean, his temper suspicious, and his tastes and habits Norman. The Court swarmed with Normans, and the royal favour placed these foreigners in the highest ecclesiastical dignities. -Meanwhile the king was on bad terms with his mother, and both disliking and fearing his intended wife's family, he long postponed his marriage ; it was at last solemnised, but the king would never cohabit 1044 with the queen. All this, and particularly his fondness for the Nor mans, made Edward unpopular. This partiality showed itself when the inhabitants of Dover severely handled a body of Normans who had 1051 killed one of the townsmen. Earl Godwin was ordered by Edward to punish the townspeople, but refused, and boldly remonstrated with the king.

He was, with his sons, temporarily banished and outlawed ; but such was the Thane's power that he soon obliged Edward to recall him. 1052 This <reat nobleman, whose influence extended over all the southern 1053 counties, was succeeded by his son Harold, who endeared himself to his countrymen by the courage and capacity he showed in defeating a Welsh 1055 plundering incursion, and on other occasions. He induced the king to "ive his brother Tosti the earldom of Northumberland, but would not reinstate him when expelled for tyranny, and he had thenceforth no love 1065 for Harold. As Edward was childless, Harold began to be spoken of as a worthy successor to the crown. Edward summoned his nephew Edward, called the Outlaw, surviving son of Ironside, to England, but he unluckily died, and left only one son of mean capacity.

Then the king, jealous of Harold as he had been of his father, favoured the pretensions of his kinsman Duke William of Normandy, to whom he is said to have 1065 left the kingdom. Harold being at the Duke's Court, the question of the succession was discussed, and either by William's adroitness or Harold's blundering, he was induced to promise to support his rival's claims. Harold even agreed to swear to do so, and relics of saints and martyrs were secretly placed under the altar. The oath having been administered, these were shown to admonish Harold of the unusually sacred character of his obligation. During the interval between the Earl's 1066 return to England and King Edward's death, Harold maintained and 5 Jan. eyen jucrease(i )jis popularity. Edward has been honoured with the title of Confessor, and like his successor Henry VI., he was fitter for the cloister than the throne.

This monarch is entitled to praise for pacific government, which, however, seems to have proceeded as much from indolence as wisdom. He had a code of laws compiled, which was long prized by the English, who looked fondly back to the comparatively tranquil reign of their native king. The church and monastery of 1066 Westminster were finished just before his death, a century after which he was canonised. Jan. Earl Harold at once clsiimed the vacant throne, and so prompt were his measures that he was crowned the day after the old king's death. He was soon disturbed by Norman ambassadors, who reminded him of his oath, and claimed its fulfilment ; but the king repudiated it as given 20 Sept. under duress, and dismissed them. Tostig had already failed in an attack on the Isle of Wight, and now, aided by the Norwegian king, Harfager, had landed in Northumberland with a formidable army, defeated Earls Edwin and Morcar, brothers of the queen, and plundered the northern counties.

Harold quickly marched north to meet the invaders. He forced the passage of the Derwent at Stamford Bridge, after a most gallant resistance, in which one Norwegian defender of the bridge killed forty 25 Sept. English. A general action followed ; and after a desperate contest of eight hours, the Norwegians were completely defeated, and both their leaders killed. Harold unadvisedly irritated his troops by keeping their share of the booty — a strange instance of short-sightedness as well as injustice, as he had good reason to expect a Norman attack. Meanwhile Duke William had been making extensive warlike preparations, besides which he did not forget to enlist the powerful aid of the Church by getting the papal sanction to his claim. At length he 28 Sept. embarked his troops, and landed unopposed at Pevensey, in Sussex while the king was in the north. 29 Sept.

Harold, with his usual spirit and despatch, turned on his fresh foe ■ but the Saxon troops were neither so numerous nor so devoted as before HAROLD II. 11 his unfortunate niggardliness. The native army took up a position about seven miles from William's host, with the intention of offering battle immediately. According to the old chroniclers, the Saxons passed the eve of the battle in revelry, — their enemies in watching and prayer. On that memorable October morning the armies were quickly engaged. 14 Oct. The long-bows of the Normans at first harassed Harold's troops ; but, rushing to close quarters, they checked the invaders, and obliged them to retire ; and a fresh attack met with no better success. The Saxon forces were ranged in compact ranks, formidably armed with bill-hooks. They seemed to defy attack, and stood with steadiness immovable.