The Sword of Islam, or Suffering Armenia. Annals of Turkish Power and the Eastern Question

Preface

BY Right Reverend A. Sweatman, D.D., D.C.I. LORD BISHOP OF TORONTO. THE BRADLEY-GARRETSON CO., Ltd. Brantford and Toronto. 1S96 Entered according to Act of Parliament os Canada, In the year one thousand eight hundred and ninety-six, by the Bradley-Gnrietson Company, Limited, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture. CONTENTS

Chapter I

The Rise and Fall of Turkish Power. Origin of the Turks — The Ottoman dynasty — Rise and fall of various Mahometan powers — Sweep of Islamism through Asia Minor — Battle of Kassova — Conquest of Constantinople — Establishment of Turkish rule upon the ruins of the Greek Empire — A strong and aggressive Moslem state — Europe trembles before its soldiers — Wars with Christian states — Venice, Austria, Poland, and Hungary feel the force of Turkish arms and reckless bravery — Character and quality of the Mahometan soldier — Cruelty a predominant feature — Great rulers of the Empire — Despotism, debauchery, and corruption undermine the strength of the country and the vigour of the Sultan's rule 21-37

Chapter II

The Mahometan Creed. Influence of religion upon national characteristics and government — The secret of Turkish power and weakness — Precepts and practices of Mahomet — The Koran and the laws and institutions of Turkey — Mahometanism in Turkey, originally an aggressive, conquering force, now mainly a system for the preservation of a vicious system of government and an immoral code of laws — The fortunes of the Turkish Empire controlled by this fact — Islamism encourages ignorance, promotes domestic slavery, and through the pernicious influence of the harem destroys morality and crushes the better instincts of child-nature — Deception lawful against Christians — Moslem intolerance — Mahometan converts to Christianity condemned to death — Cruelty a characteristic of the Moslem creed 38-53

Chapter III

Modern Turkey. The Sultans of the century — Steady decadence of Turkish power — Corruption, misgovernment, and moral degradation the main reasons — Wars with CONTENTS. Russia, and the influence of that country — Prolonged exertions of Great Britain to obtain reform and melioration of Christian conditions — Natural opposition of Turkish officials — The strong effort of Mahmoud II. — Destruction of the Janizaries — Reigns of Abdul-Medjid and Abdul- Aziz — Mahometanism absolutely antagonistic to free government — The great work of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe — The Magna Charta of Turkey — An excellent but useless document — Midhat and Reschid Pashas — The Grand Vizier inferior to the Kislar Aga or Chief Eunuch — No hope of any real reform — The prophetic utterance of Lord Palmerston — The Berlin Treaty and Cyprus Convention 54*69

Chapter IV

Constantinople — the Centre of Islam. The shadow of the Sultan — Constantinople — Its beauty and ugliness — The home of secret crime and poisoned pleasure — Annals of a great and historic city — Its place in the world of diplomacy and war — The exquisite scenery of the Bosphorus, and the military importance of the Dardanelles — The strength and weakness of Abdul-Hamid II. — His character, pursuits, and power — -His ministers and instruments — His responsibility for Turkish rule and misrule — The personal embodiment of ignorance and historic bigotry — A product of his environment and creed — Some good qualities which only add to the sufferings of the people 70-85

Chapter V

Russia and Turkey. The early relations of these countries — The Muscovite profits by the decline of the Turk — Both are barbarian powers, despite the nominal Christianity of Russia — Treaty of 1774, and large Russian acquisition of territory Aims of Peter the Great and the Empress Catharine — A maritime outlet demanded by Russia — Constantinople its ultimate goal — Unity and continuity of its aggressive policy, whether in Turkey or the far East, whether striking at Stamboul or Cabool — War of 1S28 and Treaty of Adrianople — Russian intrigue, and the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi — Conquest of the Circassians and of vast countries in Central Asia The Crimean War — Protection of Christians a mere excuse for intervention in Turkish affairs — Modern intrigues, the War of 1877, and British poucy 86-101

Chapter VI

The Greek Church and Eastern Christianity. Commencement and early extension of Christianity in the East — Founding cf the Greek Church— The Patriarchs of Constantinople take the place CONTENTS. 7 in the East which the Popes of Rome held in the West — Severance of the Eastern and Western Churches — Decline and fall of the Greek Empire — Conversion of the Bulgarians and Russians — Government, principles, and practices of the Greek Church in Turkey and Russia — Its relationship to the Eastern Question, the aims of Russia, and the ambition of Greece — Differences between the Greek and other denomina tions of Eastern Christianity and Roman Catholicism — Eastern Chris tianity not always a help to Western missions — The Christian and the Moslem 102-115

Chapter VII

A Survey of European Turkey. A wonderful and perplexing mixture of races and creeds- — Hardly any state a unit in nationality or religion — Montenegro an exception to the rule — A grand race of Christian warriors— Prolonged struggles with the Turks — Their mountain homes, history, and customs — Other minor states — The Albanians — A warlike, active race, with marked tendencies to brigandage — Their connection with the Greeks, and antagonism to the Turks — Mixture of races and creeds in Macedonia — Claims to the territory by Bulgaria and Greece — Apparently hopeless rivalry of Bulgarians and Servians, of Greeks and Turks — United action of the Christian states of Tuikey apparently impossible — A separate view of the more important countries necessary in order to comprehend the situation 116-131

CHAPTER VIIL

The Struggles of Modern Greece. Grecian war for independence — Bitter hatred of the Turk — Qualities and character of the people, as compared with those of the ancient Greeks — Prolonged and oppressive rule of Turkey — Atrocities committed during the rebellion — Invasion of Ibrahim Pasha and intervention of France and England — The battle of Navarino and establishment of the Kingdom of Greece — Reign of Otho I. — The Greek Church in Greece — Its constitution and influence — The people in public and private life — Their character, morals, and faculty for self-government — Russian intrigues — The Greeks in other parts of Turkey a constant source of trouble to the Sultan — Memories of Cretan struggle and Turkish outrages — The Ionian Islands — Present position of the country, and the natural ambition to revive the empire of Constantine 132-148 CONTENTS.

Chapter IX

Bulgaria and the Turks. An ancient, kindly, and prospemus people — Misgovernment and oppression by the Turks since the conquest in the fourteenth century — The mass of the people belong to the Greek Church — The commencement of the terrible troubles of 1876— The people taxed to death— Cruelty and corruption of Turkish officials — An uprising, followed by the appearance of the Bashi-Bazouks and a record of barbarity and slaughter unequalled in the annals of Europe— England roused by the nature of the Bulgarian horrors, and by Mr. Gladstone's indignant eloquence — Effect upon British public opinion, and the policy of the Government during the ensuing Russo-Turkish war — The Congress of Berlin, and the practical independence of Bulgaria — Russian intrigues and war with Servia— Possible future of Bulgaria 151-166

Chapter X

Servia and Roumania. Two important and now independent states — Origin of their people, and the history of their severance from Turkey — Struggles for independence, and present relations with the Sultan — Austrian plots in Servia and Russian intrigues in Roumania — Other religious interests and natural characteristics — Rulers and institutions — The Treaty of Berlin — Their place in the ever-changing Eastern Question — Roumania a well-governed state with an excellent future before it, if not absorbed by Russia — Servia a quarrelsome state, with questionable prospects 169-181

CHAPTER XL

Bosnia and Herzegovina. Originally a part of Hungary — Conquest by the Turks — Subsequent efforts at independence — Austrian claims and intrigues — Revolt of 1S75 — Austrian intervention and invasion — Population of the two provinces — Characteristics and religious divisions of the people — Many Mahometans, but few Turks — Memories of Mahometan misgovernment and cruelty — Austrian protection and practical settlement of this branch of the Eastern Question 1S2-193

Chapter XII

Egypt and the Ottoman Power. Historical memories — Conquest by the Saracens, and then by the Turks Invasion by Bonaparte, and first British intervention — The rise of modern CONTENTS. 9 Egypt under Mehemet Ali — Career of Ibrahim Pasha, and invasion of Syria and Greece — The progress of his power and of French intrigues alarms Europe — A second British intervention — Egypt brought into sub mission again to Turkey — The present position of England and Turkey in the land of the Nile — Its place in the much-vexed Eastern Question, and the problem of establishing a Christian power in Constantinople. 194-209

Chapter XIII

Historic Armenia. In the mists of the past — The supposed site of the Garden of Eden — A very ancient state and people — Curious traditions and records — Conquest by Mithridates and the Parthians — Reign of Tigranes II. , and the Armenian victories in Syria — Collision with the Romans — Subjection to Persia — Early Christian conversion, and persecutions — Various dynasties and revolutions — Conquest by Timcur and the Saracens — The Moslem wave sweeps over Asia Minor — King Leo visits England — Disappearance of Armenia as a nation — Its survival in a scattered race — Origin, barbarism, and power of the Kurds — Present population, and divisions of ancient Armenia 210-228

Chapter XIV

Armenian Religion and Characteristics. One of the most ancient divisions of the Christian Church — Its history, constitution, and principles — Relationship to the Greek and Roman Catholic churches — King Tiridates of Armenia an earlier convert to Christianity than the Emperor Constantine — Influence of Arminianism in the East — Sacraments, doctrines, and liturgy of the Church— Character and scope of its clergy — Divisions in its ranks — Cleverness, and peaceful, progressive character of the Armenian people — Customs and home life — Entire absence of liberty and tolerance from the country — Turkish outrages — Business aptitude and success of the Armenian under fair conditions — His claim upon the protection of Christian Europe 231-244

Chapter XV

A Glance Over Asiatic Turkey. The birthplace of Christianity now the domain of the Moslem — The Holy Land and Syria, Mesopotamia, and the stamping ground of ancient empires sharing in a common state of stagnation — Divisions in Moslemism and Christianity — General condition of the countries and people of Turkish Asia — Russian schemes and Russian conquests — The Berlin CONTENTS. Treaty and British obligations under the Cyprus Convention— No country in Asia Minor sit to take up the falling reins of Ottoman power —Tremendous difficulties in the way of settlement— Oppression and submission characteristic of Eastern governments and peoples — A united Armenia might achieve something, but Russia and Persia stand in the way — Opportunity for development and religious liberty in Asia Minor under British protection —Present neglect of vast natural riches under insupportable taxation and the other evils of Moslem rule 247-259

Chapter XVI

Characteristics of the Turk. In Europe an isolated barbarian ; in Asia a despotic tyrant — His place amongst nationalities and countries absolutely unique — By nature, training, and religion, a complete barbarian, he yet holds a place amongst the civilized powers of the wcrld — Much that was energetic and noble in his original character obliterated by the effects of indolence, immorality, and fatalism — The poorer classes somewhat superior to the others in morals and life — As a rule, however, the Turk is enervated by corruption, despotism, and vice — A section still make good soldiers, and can be roused into desperate and dangerous fanaticism — Home life of the people — Customs, amusements, and religious observance — The unspeakable Turk and the immutable Koran — Moslemism to be propagated and preserved by the sword 260-275

Chapter XVII

Relations of Great Britain and Turkey. Natural antagonism of England and the Ottoman power — Modified by ignorance, then by commercial considerations, and finally by the necessities of European peace — The Levant Company and development of English trade with Turkey — Early interventions in Turkish affairs — The independence of Greece — Lord Stratford de Redcliffe's prolonged exertions — Russian aggression and growing power compel still further British support — Intervention against France and Egypt in Syria — Another complication in the existence of 50,000,000 Mahometans in India — Many look to the Sultan as the sacred head of their race — The Suez Canal — Constantinople and the road to India — British policy in Turkey and Armenia not to be judged by surface indications and hastily cabled conclusions Immense variety of interests to be watched and intrigues to be checkmated 276-293 CONTENTS. 11

Chapter XVIII

The Shadow of the Sword in Armenia. The apotheosis of oppression — Long-continued and barbarous misrule — Massacres and maltreatment of Armenians twenty years ago — An Erzeroum incident of the early Seventies — Russian invasion of 1877 — Some of the agitators for reform unfortunately give rise to the suspicion of being instigated by Russia — Government of Russian Armenia— Mahometan outrages and Kurdish cruelties apparently encouraged, and certainly permitted, by the Ottoman Government — The way prepared for the atrocities which amazed the civilized world in 1S95 294-309

Chapter XIX

The Sword of Islam Falls. Rumours of horrible massacres, at first disbelieved, then minimized, and finally corroborated in all their sickening details — Worse than the Bulgarian horrors in 1876 — The Kurds use their power to slaughter, torture, and outrage great numbers of peaceful Christians in the Sassoun district — Details too horrible for description — As in the case of Bulgaria, every conceivable, and many inconceivable, atrocities committed — Towns and villages desolated — Population of parts of the country absolutely decimated — Turkish denials, and a continuous stream of affirmatory statements from missionaries and others — Sorrow and sympathy in the English-speaking world 310-325

Chapter XX

The Eastern Crisis. British public opinion demands action — Immediate communications pass between the Powers — England now feels that the practical protectorate of 1878 should have been maintained and enforced — Lord Salisbury follows Lord Rosebery in trying to promote the united action of the Great Powers — The Sultan receives the consequent protests, promises much, and does practically nothing — The Commission of Inquiry — -The mutual rivalries of the Powers prevent efficient intervention— Great Britain does its best, but the Sultan remains master of the situation — Meantime massacres and the wildest disorder continue — While the Powers talk and protest, the Armenians suffer and die 326-342 CHAPTFR XXI. Mr. Gladstone and Armenia. The aged statesman expected to intervene — Many even hope that he will undertake an active campaign against " the unspeakable Turk " — His CONTENTS. 12 views on the many-sided question — For a while he remains in retirement, only writing an occasional brief letter— Finally, he receives a deputation of Armenians, and speaks out in terms of strong and vigorous denuncia tion—An abstract of his speech — The death of 10,000 inoffensive and defenceless Christians— The Turkish Government declared to be respon sible— England has a special right to interfere— Turkish pledges abso lutely worthless — Advocates sending an independent Commissioner into Armenia — An admirable but not very useful utterance — The Duke of Westminster and the Duke of Argyll stand by their old leader. . .345-360

Chapter XXII

Renewal of the Outrages. A year passes amid continued rumours of crime and cruelties — Then comes the report of renewed and wholesale slaughters — The massacres at Trebizond — Murders near Baiburt — Massacres at Bitlis, in Erzinjan, at Marash — Terrible details — Buildings of the American mission at Kharput destroyed — Thousands of people homeless and hopeless wanderers — Four thousand Armenians said to have been massacred in the Vilayet of Sivaz — Crowds of refugees passing into Russian Armenia — Massacre at Constantinople — Massacres in Erzeroum — The Kurds literally sweep the land with a storm of savage slaughter 363-378

Chapter XXIII

The Christian Powers and the Moslem. The Eastern Question in one of its most acute stages — Apparent collapse of the Moslem— The Powers appear as much afraid of the Turk in his decay as they were in his days of greatness — United only in protest ; disunited in policy and interests — Afraid of a great European war as the result of any active military intervention — The Sultan denies knowledge of the new outrages, and announces "perfect tranquillity" while the massacres continue — Diplomatic, but futile exertions of the Powers ; extra, but useless guardships ; vigorous, but valueless protests — Hypocritical attitude of Russia — England's sincere but difficult position — Rendered more difficult by the attitude of the United States in Venezuela — Fall of the Grand Vizier — Promised Armenian reforms 3S1 -396

Chapter XXIV

Interests and Duty of the United States. The Monroe doctrine should be waived at this crisis — Intervention, with England, in Turkey an American duty and privilege — American sympathies with Russia based upon error — The Poles and the lews — The in- CONTENTS. 13 terests of the Republic inTurkeyvery considerable— Sympathy of its people with the Armenians — Resolution of the United States Congress — Ameri can mi.-sions in the Turkish Empire — Great Britain should be helped in its policy of persuasion, and urged to join with the United States in practical intervention — Probable willingness to do so — Dangers of collision with Russia and France — Let English-speaking fraternity prevail, and the flags of the Empire and the Republic mount guard over Christianity and liberty in the East 399-412

Chapter XXV

The Attitude of Canada. The Dominion stands by England — EfFect of the Venezuelan troubles — Contrast between the practical sympathy thus offered by Canada and the hostility of the American Republic — Principal Grant's views — General desire for united action between England and the States in connection with Armenia — Intimate relations, but no annexation, the sentiment of Canada — Meetings throughout the country — Contributions from Toronto, Montreal, Halifax, and St. John — Canadian interests in the East — Mr. Charlton's motion in the House of Commons — Sentiment of intense indignation and general desire for some definite action — Mr. Chamberlain's view of the situation 413-424

Chapter XXVI

What of the Future ? The Eastern Question nearing its final settlement — All the roads of diplomacy now lead to Constantinople — The collapse of Turkish power has brought the final, but it may be prolonged, convulsion — The disorders incidental to a dying State — Not easy, however, to anticipate the end — To drive the Turk out of Europe, or conquer him in Asia, a decidedly unpleasant task — All the dormant fanaticism and ferocity in his nature might be aroused — Possible danger to England from the Mahometans of India — The ideal settlement of the question as against present international jealousies and complications — British statesmenon the crisis — The United States might prove an all-potent factor, and turn the scale in savour of British intervention, European peace, and the preservation of the Christians in Turkey 425-447 List of Illustrations l£ Index 440-449

PREFACE.

It would be difficult to point to any public occurrence that has so thoroughly roused the indignation and evoked the sympathies of all Christendom as the atrocities inflicted upon " suffering Armenia," under the connivance of the Ottoman Power, during the last eighteen months. The details finding their way, from time to time, into the public press have so revolted the sense of civilization as to unite the Christian nations in determination to make the power of righteous sentiment felt, in compelling resistance to the irresponsible rule of injustice and wrong ; the piteous appeal of the homeless, destitute, and starving victims of Moslem persecution has entered into the heart of Christian people ; and from all parts of the two great English-speaking countries, on either side of the Atlantic, gifts are flowing in, in a generous stream, for their relief.

The present interest in Armenia is unmistakable and widely spread ; but it may be questioned whether the knowledge of its people and their history is at all as definite and general. It is the design of this work to supply such knowledge ; and most opportune is its appear ance. With much research, the author has compiled an exhaustive narrative of all that concerns the Armenian question ; the history of that ancient country ; the rise and fall of Turkish power ; the religious conflicts between Mahometanism and Christianity ; the political relations of the European Powers with Turkey ; and the present aspect of the Eastern Question. Apart from the strong feeling of sympathy towards the Armenians kindled by the recital of their cruel suffer-

PREFACE.

. 15 ings, other considerations render them peculiarly inter esting as a people, and stimulate curiosity as to their origin and history. The very spot on the globe which they inhabit is that which, perhaps above all others, is invested in our imagination with the romance of early antiquity, as associated with the story of the genesis of our race. No subject of speculation has invited more conjecture than the locality of the first home osman — the Garden of Eden. And although all such conjecture has been baffled by insuperable discrepancies in every supposed identification that has been investigated in the three continents of the old world, that which has received the greatest support from learned men of all nations, ages, and beliefs is the claim of the high table-lands of Armenia. This region, 7,000 feet above the sea level, lying at the foot of Mount Ararat, and watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, with other streams, is Armenia proper — the home from the earliest ages of this ancient and remarkable race, though its people have become widely scattered, and though the theatre of the recent horrors covers a much larger area.

The Armenians claim for their ancestors a great grandson of Japhet, called Haik, who settled in the country defined, which, in the native language, bears the same name. From that time onward they have preserved their distinct nationality in the same marked and wonderful way as have the Hebrews ; and in spite of the vicissitudes of conquest, partition of their territory, and successive raids with wholesale slaughter and depredation by their Kurdish neighbours and foes, have spread and multiplied in almost all the countries of the old world. In their own beautiful and fertile land, leading an industrious pastoral life, amassing wealth in flocks and herds, only to be plundered and driven from their devastated homes by the ruthless Kurds from the mountains, they have carried into other lands the same commercial instincts as the Jew, the same keenness in trade, the same faculty of growing rich ; and wherever they are met with they are still Armenians, the ancestral type unchanged ; but, at

PREFACE.

. the same time, always peaceable and submissive subjects. This same feature of persistence of type marks, in a still more interesting way, the history of their religion. No doubt, the strongest plea in the appeal which the sufferings of these poor people make upon our sympathies is that of a common Christianity, that they are one of the very oldest Christian nations in the world, one that has kept its faith and form of worship almost intact from the first century to the present, through the unparalleled per secutions of one thousand years. They claim to have received the Christian faith from the apostle Thaddeus, who, they say, accompanied by Bartholomew and Judas, preached the Gospel and founded a Christian Church in Armenia as early as the year 34. Traces of Christian worship in the country at a very early date go to bear out this story, though it can only be regarded as legendary.

But there can be no doubt of the historical fact that St. Gregory " the Illuminator," who converted the King of Armenia and many of his subjects to the faith, through his influence, was consecrated by the Archbishop of Cæsarea to be Bishop of Armenia in 302. And his suc cessors, in unbroken line, under the title, first of Patriarch, and subsequently of " Catholicos," of whom there are now five, have continued to rule that Church to this day. The ecclesiastical status of the Church of Armenia is that of one of the separated churches of the East, cut off from communion with the orthodox Greek Church. The separation took place in A.D. 491, and was due to the non-acceptance by the Armenian Church of the de crees of the Council of Chalcedon, in that year, which condemned the doctrines of Eutychius.

But there appears to have been some misunderstanding as to the effect of the decrees which led to this schism ; for although the Church of Armenia is to this day classed as an Eutychian Church, it never adopted or favoured that heresy. In fact, it is almost purely orthodox ; and, while in formal heresy, is so far recognized that Greek priests are allowed, under certain circumstances, to communicate individual Armenians.

PREFACE.

. 17 With the exception of the secessions which took place in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, under the agitation of Jesuit missionaries, and which led to the formation of the Armenian Uniat Church, the ancient Church of Armenia has maintained its doctrine and dis cipline unimpaired with unexampled fidelity ; and the constancy of Armenian Christians, even unto martyrdom, has been abundantly illustrated in the present persecu tions, when thousands of tortured victims have accepted a cruel death as the alternative ofabjuring Christ and pro fessing the Moslem creed. These are the people on whose behalf the aid and sympathies of Christians everywhere are invoked in their terrible sufferings. Mr. Castell Hopkins' work, setting forth so fully and graphically their eventful story, with its long record of bitter injuries from the most despotic, fanatical, and wily power that ever wielded the sword in the sacred name of the one God, will fulfil a mission of mercy if it succeeds, as it deserves, in intensifying this popular sympathy and quickening the flow of practical relief for " suffering Armenia."

The volume amply sustains the author's well-earned literary reputation, and is presented by its enterprising publishers in a most attractive form. Arthur Toronto. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ♦♦♦♦♦♦♦ ARMENIANS AT BAY Frontispiece MAHOMET THE PROPHET 19 A GROUP OF ARMENIANS WHO ESCAPED FROM THE SASSOUN MASSACRE 311 A BEREAVED ARMENIAN FAMILY 130 A NEWSPAPER CORRESPONDENT INTERVIEWING ARMENIANS IN ERZEROUM 396 CITY OF CONSTANTINOPLE 20 CITY OF ERZEROUM >9S CITY OF ST. PETERSBURG 88 CITY OF TREBIZOND 361 SULTANS OF TURKEY— Mahmoud II 39 Abdul-Medjid 40 Abdul-Aziz 71 Abdul-Hamid II 72 RULERS OF RUSSIA— Peter the Great 87 Catharine II 103 Alexander I 104 Nicholas I ,^9 Alexander II ,67 Alexander III !83 Nicholas II VIEW OF SUJ BULAK >JO INTERIOR OF ARMENIAN COFFEE HOUSE IN ERZEROUM . . ,6a ■ THE FORTRESS OF EATOUM 3a8 BURIAL OF ARMENIAN VICTIMS .312 THE ARMENIAN CITY OF SINNA • ■ 327 AN ARMENIAN MOUNTAINEER . 22.

BRITISH AMBASSADORS TO TURKEY-Lord Stratford de Redcliffe 277 Rt. Hon. G. J. Goschen . . 278 Lord Dufff.rin 380 Sir Philip Currie .... 379 TURKISH AND ARMENIAN NOTABLES-The Armenian Patriarch . 397 Gervont Shishmanian . . <u8 Kiamil Pasha u8 Nazim Pasha n7 ARMENIAN MONASTERY NEAR VAN 5 AN ENCAMPMENT OF KURDS ARMENIAN PEASANT WOMEN WOUNDED ARMENIAN WOMEN AT STAMBOUL INTERIOR OF A KURDISH TENT i's ARMENIAN HOUSE IN ERZEROUM WHERE THE MASSACRE *' SOME INFANT ARMENIAN VICTIMS . . . "V SIR WILLIAM FENWICK WILLIAMS, OF KARS '.".'.'" BRITISH LEADERS CONNECTED WITH TURKISH AFFAIRS— ' "^ Lord Palmerston The Late Earl of Derby ....... •■•••■ 133 Lord Beaconsfield ' 5° Rt. Hon. W. E. Gladstone ....'.'. ss Marquess of Salisbury " 3*3 ARMENIAN REFUGEES FROM SASSOUN '.'.'' *!* PRINCE GORTSCHAKOFF „ ' • . The Golden Horn, Constantinople. Mahomet the Prophet.

Chapter I

The Rise and Fall of Turkish Power. Upon a memorable day, some six hundred years ago, when Poland was an important European state, Venice the mistress of a wide maritime supremacy, Constantinople the head of a tottering Greek Empire, and the centre of Eastern Christianity, a small band of four hundred Tartar or Turkish warriors might have been seen with their families wending their way down the banks of the Euphrates. They had come from the distant regions of Central Asia in soarch of safety from the Mongol invasion, and of some place to settle where they might have a reasonable chance of obtaining power and wealth. For a time, under the leadership of Erto ghrul — " The Right-Hearted Man " — they had rested on the plains of Armenia, but were now again journeying westward. All at once the little band came in sight of a field of battle on which two large bodies of armed men were struggling for the mastery.

One of them, however, was so obviously the weaker, and so clearly getting the worst of it, that Ertoghrul chivalrously decided to help it, and charged upon the larger army so promptly and with such success as to turn the tide and win a signal victory. The leader whom he had thus saved turned out to be Alaeddin, the Mahometan Sultan of Iconium, and his opponents proved to be a wandering host of the hated Mongol, A grant of territory to Ertoghrul was the immediate result — the sweep of the Turk over Asia Minor and up to the walls of Vienna was the ultimate consequence. From such trifling events do great empires rise. This Tartar or Turkish band was, of course, only one of many such from the vast steppes of Central Asia, where the population is more than a third Turk at the present day. Turks are even now to be found in large numbers in Russia, China, and Independent Turkes tan ; they may be seen and heard in distant Siberia, along the banks of the Lena, and in the Arctic Circle itself.