The Period of the Reformation 1517 to 1648 ... Translated [from the German] by Mrs. G. Sturge

Preface

'"PHIS history of the period from 15 17-1648 forms part of a course of lectures on the history of the three centuries, 1517-1789, which Hausser used to deliver at Heidelberg in the winter, and which, during the winter half-year 1859-60, I took down in shorthand. They were preceded by an Introduction, which treated in broad outline . the history of the period preceding the Reformation; but, unfortunately, I did not take it down. This was followed by a brief review of the history of the European States from 1648-1789. Nothing has been decided as to the publication of this ; but among Hausser's remains there are ample materials for working it up. The text which I now give to the public has originated in essentially the same manner as that of the history of the French Revolution which appeared last year, and which has been received by the German press with unanimous ap proval.

But in this case my MS. has had to form still more exclusively the groundwork of the narrative ; for not a single MS. has come to hand in answer to a public appeal; and in consequence of the scanty material left, I have been compelled to have independent recourse to the literature referred to, to a far greater extent than was necessary in the former case. There was full material for three sec tions only, and these could not be adopted unaltered : for VI

PREFACE.

. Philip of Hesse, Maurice of Saxony, and the Thirty Years' War, 1632-48, which had only been cursorily treated in the lectures. With these exceptions, for all the other sections that were wanting in completeness I was obliged to refer to the most important sources and materials. Such supple mentary matter is introduced in many places in order to complete characteristic descriptions and narratives by adding specially distinctive features, serving to authenticate the statements in the text ; but it is only in the most important cases that they are indicated by notes. Besides frequent interpolations, which I could not specially indicate, most of the passages in quotation marks have been inserted by me. I need not say that my additions are not derived from the views or judgments of foreign historians, but always from original contemporary testimony.

As a whole and in detail, all that has been aimed at is what Hausser would himself have done could he have prepared a text for publication. I lay claim to the predicate of a verbatim reproduction of these lectures, as in the case of the history of the French Revolution. I have proceeded precisely in the same way in preparing them for publication, and have received express and ample testimony from many former hearers of Hausser that I have succeeded in finding the right method. Nevertheless, I must remind those who have never undertaken a similar task, of the great difference between words heard and read. For this difference, with which a speaker is perfectly familiar, and which is especially striking when there is a gift for improvisation, the shorthand writer must have a practised eye. In most cases it is indispensable to give a certain finish in the choice of words and construction of sentences in preparing for the press. If the speaker does not give it himself, the shorthand writer must take it in hand, and must beguided by tact. No rules

PREFACE.

. VII can be laid down, but it is not unnecessary to call attention to it. The consciousness of the great responsibility which rested on my shoulders occasioned me to plead, in the preface to the history of the French Revolution,- for a lenient judg ment. I repeat the request now, but with more confidence, for I judge with pleasure from the appreciative notices of the most eminent organs of our press, that that which I proffered before was not made in vain. And so I send forth this second posthumous production of Hausser's mind, hoping that, like the other, it will find its way to the hearts of the German people, to whom he belonged with every fibre of his being. W. Oncken. Heidelberg, July yd, 1868. TRANSLATOR'S

PREFACE.

. TT is unnecessary for me to say more than a very few words in introducing this work, by the late eminent German historian, Professor Hausser, to English readers. It contains not only a spirited sketch of the history of the Reformation in Germany, Switzerland, France, Denmark, Sweden and England, but also gives a comprehensive survey of its influence on the course of thought and action during the period of which it treats, and offers, in a compact form, information which has otherwise to be sought for over a wide field of literature. It is hoped, therefore, that it will be no less interesting to English than to German readers ; that it will be found not merely to traverse well trodden ground, but that, from its comprehensiveness, and the learning, impartiality, and insight of the author, it will prove a valuable addition to the history of the Reformation period. It is translated with the sanction of the Editor. Sydenham, June, 1873. TO 16 36 CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

Chapter I. Page

Martin Luther. November, 1483, to February, 1546. — Youth. — Eisleben. — Mansfeld. — Magdeburg. — Eisenach. — Life in the Monastery at Erfurt. — Theological Development.— Justification by Faith 1

Chapter II

1508 — 1520. Call to Wittenberg, 1508. — Journey to Rome, 1510.— The Indulgence of 1517. — Attempts of Leo. X. (elected Pope 1513) at Mediation. — Cajetanatthe Diet of Augsburg, October, 15 18. — Miltitz's Discussion with Luther at Altenburg, 1519. — Disputation at Leipzig, 27th June — 13th July, 1519. — The Turning-point with Luther

Chapter III

The Last Days of Maximilian I., January, 1519. — Election of a new Emperor. — Francis I. of France and Charles V. of Spain. — Political Position of the Emperor Charles V. — The Election in June. — The Election Bond, 3rd July, 1519. X CONTENTS.

Chapter IV. Page

she Diet of Worms, Spring of 1521.— Agreement between the Emperor and the Pope. — Negotiations about Luther. — The Mandate of 8th— 26th May, 1521.— Growth of the Regal Power in France under Francis I., 1515-47.— His Domestic and Foreign Policy.— The First War, 1521-26 . . .52

Chapter V

The Situation of Germany during the absence of Charles V. — Luther in the Wartburg. — The Translation of the Bible and its Significance. — Luther and the Radicals at Wittenberg. — The Eight Sermons against Carlstadt, March, 1522. — Luther's cause before the Imperial Chamber and the Diet of Nuremberg, 1522-23. — The Resolution of January 13th, 1523. — The One Hundred Gravamina. — The Decree about the Preaching of the Gospel. ......... 75

Chapter VI

Reform and Revolution. — The Nobles of the Empire. — Ulrich von Hutten, 1488-1523. — Franz von Sickingen, the Feud of 1522, and the Catastrophe of 1523. — Reaction upon the Reformation. — Activity of the Curia. — Adrian VI., January, 1522, to September, 1523. — Clement VII., September, 1534. The Convention of Ratisbon, July, 1524 . . . -90

Chapter VII

The Great Peasants' War, 1524-5. — The increasing Oppression of the Peasantry. — The Prelude to the Peasants' War in 1514. — Influence of the Reformation. — The Twelve Articles. — The Heilbronn Scheme. — Thomas Miinzer. — Luther's Attitude. — The Catastrophe, May and June, 1525 . . . . .116

Chapter VIII

Reaction of the Revolution upon the Reformation. — Charles V. and the Peace of Madrid. — The Diet of Spire, August, ,1526. — Spread of the Reformation. — Its share in the National Disruption. — The New War in Italy. — The League of Cognac, May, 1526. — The Storming of Rome by the Imperial Troops, 1527. — Advance of the French to Naples, and Dissolution of their Army there, 1528. — Peace of Barcelona and Cambray, 1529. — The League between the Pope, the Emperor, and the King against the Heretics . . . . . . . 1 CONTENTS. XI PAGE 158 iSl

Chapter IX

Reaction of Italian Affairs upon Germany. — Aggravation of the State of Affairs by Otto von Pack. — Altered Relation of Parties. — The Diet of Spire and the Protest of the Lutheran Party, April, 1529. — The Turks before Vienna, 1529. — Diet of Augsburg and the Confession of Augsburg, June 25th, 1530. — Threats against the Protestants; their first Meeting and League at Schmalkald, December, 1530 — March, 1531. — Danger from the Turks, and the Religious Peace of Nuremberg, July 23rd, 1532 143

Chapter X. The Reformation In Switzerland

Early Life and Mental Development of Ulrich Zwingli, 1484- 1519. — Study of the Classics. — Curate at Glarus, 1506-16. — Study of the New Testament. — Sermon against the Desertion of their Country by the Swiss. — Labours at Einsiedeln, 1516-18. — Call to Zurich. — The Reformation at Zurich, 1519- 25. — Zwingli's Sermons in the Great Cathedral. — Decree of the Council of 1520. — The Sixty-seven Articles of 1523. — Progress of Reform. — Reformed Zurich and Switzerland in 1526-31

CHAPTER XL DENMARK.

The Period between the Union of Calmar, 1397, and the Reformation. — Position of the Danish Monarchy. — Policy and Character of Christian II., 1513-23.— Complications with Sweden. — The Massacre of Stockholm, November, 1520. — Course of Reform in Denmark.— Revolt of the Nobles.— Election of Frederic I., April, 1523-33. — His Domestic and Foreign Policy. — The Diet at Odensee, 1527, and Toleration of the New Doctrines. — Complete Victory of the Reformation under Christian III., 1534-59 CONTENTS.

Chapter XII. Sweden

PAGE The Revolt under Gustavus Vasa, 1523-60— His Character and Policy.— 1521 Regent, 1523 King of Sweden.— Internal and external Embarrassment of his Position. — Struggle with the Clergy.— Decree of the Diet of Westeras, 1527.— The Reformation.— Extension of the Royal Power. — Independence and internal Prosperity of the Country ...... '94

Chapter XIII England

England before the Tudors — Henry VIII., 1509-1547. — His Character and Attitude at first towards the Church. — His Opposition to the Reformation which was demanded by the Mental Development of the Nation. — The Complications with Rome. — The Marriage Question, 1526-29. — Wolsey's Fall. — Breach with Rome. — The Royal Supremacy, 1534. — The Religious War against Catholics and Protestants. — The Secularisation of Monasteries. — The Six Articles of 1 5fe3 20/

Chapter XIV

Favourable Circumstances for the Reformation from 1532-42. — The Restoration in Wiirtemberg, 1534. — Spread of the new Doctrines in spite of the Excesses at Miinster and the Revolution at Lubeck, 1533-35. — The Emperor's Attempts at Conciliation, 1537-41. — His View of the Question. — Instructions and Proceedings of Vice-Chancellor Held. — The League of Nuremberg, June, 1538. — The Discussion of Religion, the Interim of Ratisbon, and the Decree of the Diet, July 29th, 1541. — Decided Progress of Protestantism, 1538-42. — Adoption of it by Brandenburg and the Duchy of Saxony, 1539. Interference of the League of Schmalkald and the Controversy at Cologne CONTENTS. XIII

Chapter XV. Page

The Schmalkald War, 1546-7. — The Emperor's Preparations for War after 1544. — Security, Dissensions, and Negligence of the Schmalkald Party, 1545-6. — Duke Maurice of Saxony, his Character and Policy. — League with the Emperor, June, 1546. — The War, from the summer of 1546 to the spring of 1547. — Pitiful Warfare of the Allies on the Danube. — Invasion of Electoral Saxony by Maurice. — Battle of Miihlberg, 24th April, 1547 250

Chapter XVI

Interim and Restoration, 1548. — The Council of Trent from 13th of December, 1545, and the Diet of Augsburg from September, 1547 275

Chapter XVII

Maurice and the Conspiracy of the German Princes. — Isolation of the Elector among both Catholics and Protestants. — The Negotiations with France. — The Coalition against the Emperor. — Treaty with France, and Surprise of the Emperor, 155 1-2. — Treaty of Chambord, January, 1552. — March of the Allies, March, 1552. — Security and Defiance of the Emperor. — Taking of the Ehrenberger Krause, May, 1552. — Charles's Flight. — The Treaty of Passau and the Peace of Augsburg, August, 1552 — September, 1555. — Charles's Retreat and Last Days. — General Results of the Reformation in Germany . 289

Chapter XVIII

Calvin's Youth.— Characteristics of the Man and his System.— The " Institutio Religionis Christianæ," 1536.— Calvin's Ecclesiastical State in Geneva.— The Attempt, 1536-8.— Success, 1541-64.— The Organization of January, 1542. — Ecclesiastical and Moral Discipline of Calvinism, and its Historical Importance 3°^ CONTENTS. PAGE

Chapter XIX

Reformation and Restoration in Italy. — Division of Opinion among the People. — Vacillation of the Curia. — Opinion of the Cardinals on Reform in 1537. — Conciliatory Attitude till 1541. — The Council of Trent and the Catholic Restoration. — First Meeting of the Council, December, 1545-7. — Rudeness of the Curia to the Emperor and Protestants. — Second Meeting, May, 1551. — Pope Paul IV. (Caraffa), 1555-9. Third Meeting, January, 1562, to the end of 1563. — Pope Pius IV., 1559-65. — Progress and Results of the Negotiation. — Increased Consolidation of the Ecclesiastical Power. — Precautions against Sectarianism. — Reconstruction of the shattered Religious System. — Improvement in the Intellectual and Moral Training of the Clergy. • . . . . -327

Chapter XX. The Jesuits And The Inquisition

Ignatius Loyola and the Society of Jesus. — Spanish Catholicism. — Loyola's Spiritual Knighthood, from 1521. — Organization of the Order, from the time of its Authorisation, 1540. — Its Constitution, Principles, Discipline, and Tactics. — The Inquisition. — The Instructions of Cardinal Caraffa. — Censorship of the Press 339

Chapter XXI. Spain Under Charles

V. AND PHILIP II. The Ecclesiastical-political Plans of Philip, 1565-98. — The Absolute Monarchy in Spain under Charles V. — Philip's Inheritance. — His Character. — Amalgamation ot Spiritual and Temporal Despotism in Spain ...... CONTENTS. XV PAGE 3&4

Chapter XXII. The Revolt In The Netherlands

History, Government, Country, and People of the Seventeen Provinces before Philip II. — Philip's Policy in the Netherlands after November, 1555. — The Regency and the Aristocracy : Orange, Egmont, Margaret of Parma, Bishop Perrenot (Granvella). — The Spanish Troops. — The Increase of Bishoprics. — The Inquisition in the Netherlands. — Tactics of Charles V. — The Renewal of the Edict of 1550. — Granvella's Removal, 1564. — Egmont's Journey and the Compromise, January, 1565. — Spring of 1566. — The Beggars' League. — The Field-preaching and Attack upon Images, April to August, 1566. — Defeat of the Volunteer Army of the Beggars at Anstruveel, March, 1567. — The Departure of William of Orange from the Netherlands, April, 1567 ....

Chapter XXIII

The Duke of Alba in the Netherlands. — His Entry into the Country. — Alba's Characteristics. — Disappointment of the Regent. — Guilelessness of Egmont and Horn. — Their Imprisonment, gth of September. — The Council of Disturbances. — Executions, and the First War of Independence, 1567-8. — Members, System, and Proceedings of the Council of Blood. Louis of Nassau in Friesland, April — July, 1568. — Success at Heiliger Lee in May. — Death of Egmont and Horn, 5th of June. — Alba's Victory, July. — Advance of Orange and Dissolution of his Army, October. — Highest Point and Decline of Alba's System, 1569-73.— The " 10th Penny" March, 1569. . — The "Amnesty," 14th July, 1570. — The Sea-Beggars at Brill, 1st April, 1572. — Louis of Nassau at Mons, May. — The Rising in Holland and Zealand. — Second Campaign of William of Orange frustrated by the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. — Alba's Retreat, December, 1573 400

Chapter XXIV. Alba's Successors In The Netherlands

Character of the War which now began. — Requesens y Zuniga, 1573-76. — Defeat and Death of Louis of Nassau on the MookerHaide, 14th of April, 1574.— Siege and Succour of Leyden, 26th of May to 3rd of October, 1574.— Separation between the Northern and Southern Provinces. — The Interregnum. — The Great Mutiny of the Soldiers. — The Pacification of Ghent, 8th of November, 1576-78.— Alexander Famese, Prince of Parma, 1587-89.— The Union of Utrecht, January, 1579, and Declaration of Independence of the Seven Northern Provinces, July, 1581.— Murder of William, July 10, 1584.

Chapter I

Martin Luther. November, 1483, to February, 1546. — Youth. — Eisleben. — Mansfeld. — Magdeburg. — Eisenach. — Life in the Monastery at Erfurt. — Theological Development. — Justification by Faith. TN the state of things which existed about the year 1517, a trifling incident might have been the spark which was to set the whole nation in a flame — an insignificant man might have given the impetus to that which was inevitable. But events did not take this course ; the exciting cause was indeed scarcely proportionate to the results, but the indi- * Literature : — For the reign of Maximilian, see Miiller, Reichstag theatrum. Jena, 1719; and Reichstagstaat. Jena, 1709. Datt, De Pace Imperii publica. Ulm, 1698. Chmel, Urkunden zur Geschichte Maximilian's. Stuttg., 1845. Monum. Habsburgica. Ed. Lanz, 1853.

I. Fontes rer. austr. Ed. Karajan, 1855. I. Monum. Habsburg. Ed. Chmel, 1854, ff. i. ii. Kliipfel, Urkunden zur Geschichte des Schwab. Bundes. Stuttg., 1846, i. L. Ranke, Geschichte der Roman ischenund Germanischen Volker von 1494-1535. Berlin, 1824. Hege wisch, Geschichte Maximilian's. Hamburg, 1782. On the Reforma tion and Karl V., besides the writings of the Reformers. Luther's Werke. Ed. Walch, and his Letters edited by De Wette. Luther's Werke. Erlangen, 1826-57, 67 Bde. Melancthon's Schriften im Corpus Re formatorum. Ed. Bretschneider ; then Lorscher, complete Reforma tions acta. Leipzig, 1720. Hortleder, Handlungen und Ausschreibtn VOL. I. B vidual whose theses were to remodel the world was a man of the first class — so great, so eminent, that he was not engulfed in the stream of events, but struggled with them, guided and ruled them until his death.

Martin Luther was completely the child of those deeply agitated times, and a true son of the people whose leader he was destined to be. He had all the traits of the true German character, the downright sincerity, the steady endurance, the deep and earnest inwardness, united with a tendency to mysticism, to gloomy and ascetic views of life, which were then peculiar to the more earnest minds von den Ursachen des Kriegs K. Karl V. wider die Schmalkald. Bundesverwandten. Frankfort, 161 7. Lehman, De Pace Religionis Acta Publica. Frankfort, 1707. Forstemann, Urkundenbuch. Hamburg, 1841. Sleidanus, De Statu Religionis et Reipublicæ, Carole V. Cæsare Argent, 1555. Ed. Am Ende, Frankfort, 1785. Spalatinus, Annales Reformat. Leipzig, 1 7 18. The same, Chronicon bei Menken, T. ii. Seckendorf, Commentarius de Lutheranismo.

Frankfort, 1688. Joh. Cochlæi, Comment, de Actis et Scriptis M. Lutheri. Mogunt, 1549. Charles V. in particular, — Sepulveda, De Rebus Gestis, Caroli, 1657. Sandoval, Historia de la Vida del Emp. Carlos, 1604 ff. 2 Bde. K. Lanz, Correspondenz Karl's V. In the Royal Archives, &c. Leipzig, 1844, 3 Bde. The same, State Papers of the History of Charles V. Stuttg., 1845. Briefe Karl's V. an seinen Beichtvater. Edited by Heine. Berlin, 1848. Die Urkunden sammlung von Gachard und Le Glay. Monumenta Habsburgica, vol. ii. 1853. Relating to Luther : K. Jiirgens, Leben Luther's, 1846, i. ii. iii. This part in general — L. Ranke, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation. Berlin, 1853, 2 Aufl. 6 Bande. K. A. Menzel, Neuere Geschichte der Deutschen seit der Reformation. Breslau, 1826, ff. 6 Aufl.

Berlin, 1854, 6 Bande. K. Hagen, Deutschlands literar, und relig. Verbaltnisse im Reforma tionszeitalter. Erl. 1841, 3 Thle. Neudecker, Geschichte der Deutschen Reformation. Leipzig, 1842. His Urkunden aus der Reformations zeit, 1836, und Merkwiirdige Aktenstucke, 1838, 2 Thle. Forstemann, Urkundenbuch zur Reform. Geschichte, 1842. Spalatins Nachlass, Herausg. von Neudecke, 1 85 1 . Strauss, D. F. Leben Ulrichs von Hutten, 1857, 2Thle. Bischof, Seb. Frankfort, 1857. Rossmann, Betrachtungen uber das Zeitalter der Reformation, 1858. Gust. Pfizer, Luther's Leben. Stuttgard, 1836. Burkhardt, Luther's Brieft (emendation of De Wette's edition). 7866. MARTIN LUTHER. 3 among our people. The agonizing spiritual conflicts, the fierce struggles, the sharply defined contrasts of that great transition period can scarcely be so distinctly traced in the career of any other historical personage.

We see his cheerful Thuringian nature in perpetual conflict with the dark results of mediæval monasticism ; we see a childlike and modest disposition united with a defiant and passionate spirit ; together with the deep contrition, the tears and groans of a soul struggling for redemption, he displayed the lion hearted courage of a hero of the faith, and the lenient and reasonable judgments he passed upon human affairs are often in strange contrast with the unyielding, relentless rigour of the monk and the priest. A creative master of our language, both in writing and speaking, a bold yet moderate reformer, an embodiment of our noblest characteristics, he became a blessing to the whole nation. He was born in very narrow circumstances, on the ioth of November, 1483. The home of his family was at Mohra, near Altenstein, in Thuringia, and the name of Luther still occurs there.

His father, a slate-cutter by trade, had emi grated to the rich mining district of Eisleben to find work, and there Luther came into the world. The characteristics of the Thuringian race are strongly marked, and are clearly distin guishable in him. It may be known everywhere by its sturdy simplicity, and an unconstrained, fresh, and joyous temperament. It forms, to a certain extent, the connecting link between what has been called North and South German individuality ; many of the characteristics of both are united with it : together with the North German repose, reserve, and sobriety, we find the keen enjoyment of life and cheer fulness of the South German character, and the combination may be traced in Luther. He was thoroughly the child of the Thuringian peasantry. Although he lived almost exclusively in towns, and now and then said bitter things of the peasant class, still he remained a peasant's son in the best sense of the word, and was proud of it.

" I am a peasant's son," he says in his " Table-Talk ; " " my father, grandfather, and ancestors were all peasants." The training in the parental home was strait, strict, and harsh, not well adapted to cherish the love of harmony, the profound and kindly serenity which never left him in his later years. Both parents worked very hard to support their children ; the mother, so her son tells us, herself carried the wood on her back ; the father spent his life as a poor miner. Hans Luther always comes before us as a sturdy, energetic man, with an air of great strictness, if not severity; he was devoted with his whole soul to the ancient faith, but was none the less a bitter foe of corrupt monasticism. Luther's youth was not a happy one. We shall make the acquaintance of another reformer, also a peasant's son ; but his parents were well to do, he was treated like the child of rich people, grew up in a free state, and was early accus tomed to think about and take part in public affairs.

Luther's lot was very different. He knew what it was to raise himself out of the dust, and in after life he often spoke of what such as he have to bear. Having nothing whereof " to boast and brag," he learns to trust in God betimes, " to suffer and hold his peace." But notwithstanding his limited means, Luther's father had an ambition to make something better of him than a miner ; but, at all events, he treated him with the greatest severity, and in this his wife was entirely of one mind with him. He was harshly punished for trifles ; corporal chastisement was a very common thing ; he never forgot LUTHER'S YOUTH. 5 how he was cruelly flogged for childish faults; how even his mother whipped him about a nut till she drew blood. He said that it had an effect on his whole after life. " My parents' severity made me timid ; their sternness and the strict life they led me made me afterwards go into a monastery and become a monk.

They heartily meant it well, but they did not understand the art of adjusting their punishments." He did not fare much better at the school at Mansfeld, where his parents lived from 1484 to 1497; the teachers behaved to the pupils " like gaolers to thieves." He was soundly thrashed fifteen times in one afternoon, and all his life spoke with horror of the " purgatory of schools, where we are martyred over the casualibus and temporalibus, and yet learn nothing from all this flogging but terror, fear, and misery." But it was a lasting satisfaction to him that many who got on better than he did at school, and did not get so many stripes, did not afterwards " cackle and lay eggs." His religious training was strictly orthodox. If any one had a living faith in the mediæval Church it was he ; he often remarked, both in jest and in earnest, what a powerful effect the Romish Church had had on him.

This was spe cially the case when he went from Mansfeld to Magdeburg in 1497. Magdeburg, with its forty thousand inhabitants, was at that time the largest and most flourishing city in the north of Germany, and, as the seat of a bishopric, was the brilliant centre of the Catholic Church in the north. The boy, then fourteen, went to a Franciscan school. The teachers had a reputation for skill, but were disposed to live on the generosity of pious people. In this school he acquired what we should call the elements of gymnasial instruction, and in the city he received the first ineffaceable impressions of the majesty of the Catholic Church. Here, too, he witnessed a spectacle which affected him deeply ; he saw the son of a German prince, Wilhelm von Anhalt, whom his father, in an attack of melancholy, had forced to become a monk.

Luther saw him " go about the streets in the cowl of a barefooted friar, with a beggar's wallet, begging for bread, and he had been scourged and made to fast and watch until he was the picture of death — nothing but skin and bone." But this sight had not then the repel ling effect upon him which it would afterwards have had ; on the contrary, it stimulated him; he vowed to himself that he would follow in the steps of this Prince of Anhalt. " I was naturally disposed to fast, to watch, to pray, to do good works, that I might thereby expiate my sins." He had already vowed to himself to make a pilgrimage to Rome, and to be religious.* His subsequent opposition to the mediæval Church, there fore, did not arise, as with the Humanists, from a tendency to scepticism ; he had been devoted to it with his whole soul, and only forsook it when he had discovered the falseness of the Church system.

He next went to Eisenach. Here he was dependent for support on alms from strangers. It is still the custom in Thuringia for the poorer scholars to go about the streets at certain hours and receive alms for singing hymns. Luther himself relates how he had been such a partekenhengst ; t had said " panem propter Deum " at the doors of strangers, * Jiirgens, i. 221. t I can find no equivalent for this word, probably coined on the spur of the moment. Parteien, crumbs, broken bread; henerst, a stallion, is used among the common people as an expression for an ardent lover, or for one who pursues an object passionately. Luther meant therefore that he was so poor as to be eager for broken food. — Tr. EISENACH. 7 and sung songs for bread ; how he and his comrades often met with a rough repulse, and at many wealthy houses did not even get the crumbs from the table.

But at the house of Conrad Cotta, a prosperous citizen, it was very different ; there the mistress accorded him her sympathy. She made him generous presents, had him into the house, allowed him to come to her table and to have lessons with her children. Luther afterwards recurred with pleasure to this kindness, and it was a proud moment for him when the son of the widow Cotta afterwards came to him at Wittenberg, and he was able to requite it. He never knew how to keep money or property together, and his house was always open to poor scholars if they were talented and eager to learn ; when any one remonstrated, he would remind him of his own life at Eisenach. It was here that he first made acquaintance with family life, the mind of woman and parental love, for he had never known them in their gentle and genial aspect at home.

He was treated like a favourite adopted child ; the classical languages were studied in the spirit of the Humanists, and music, that choice gift of God, which brightened so many hours for the poor timid student, was also lovingly cultivated. He was not to be a miner or a slate-cutter like his father. It was his wish to make his son a lawyer or a statesman. With all his deep and heartfelt faith, he despised theology and the Church system; monastic life seemed to him the very path to destruction. But it was on this very point that his son was, for the first time, disobedient. In 1 501 he went to the university. Among the univer sities of that day Erfurt took the first rank as the seat of Humanistic studies. Lawyers, doctors of medicine, and theologians, all belonged to the new school. The excellent philological teaching, the schools for Greek and Latin, and the new grammatical method, were of great service to Luther ; but there is no evidence that he had any inclination to make these studies his profession.

He regarded them as means to an end. Besides, his vocation was marked out for him ; he was to be a lawyer. For a time he studied juris prudence, but without any pleasure in it, and therefore without success ; the impulses of his soul strongly attracted him in another direction. Moreover, his mind was at that time out of tune ; a profound melancholy had taken possession of him, which left him neither time nor taste for this branch of study. He felt dissatisfied with all his pursuits. It is a phase which earnest minds often have to pass through, especially about the time of transition between youth and manhood ; a certain melancholy overpowers even healthy minds, an unknown something is wanting to them, an enigmatical longing impels them to restlessness, they seek satisfaction everywhere and find it nowhere.