The Grecian history, from the earliest state, to the death of Alexander the Great ... A new edition

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THE HISTORY OF GREECE, FROM THE EAR'LIEST STATE, TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. By OLIVER GOLDSMITH, M.B. TO WHICH IS ADDED, A SUMMARY ACCOUNT OF THE AFFAIRS OF GREECE, FROM THAT PERIOD, TO THE SACKING OF CONSTANTINOPLE BY THE OTIIOMANS. THE ELEVENTH EDITION. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. LONDON: fRINTED FOR V. C. AND J. RIVINGTON ; G. WILKIE AND 3. kobinson; j. walker; scatcherd aud letterman ; it. _ea ; J. nunn; longman, hurst, rees, orme, and brown ; CADELL AND DAV1ES ; LACKINGTON, ALLEN, AND CO.; J. cuthell; claw; j. richakdson; j.murray; j. booker; R. BALDWIN; J.JOHNSON AND CO.; C. BROWNE J AND , G. ROBINSON. 1812. Pi into J by C. WOOD, Poppin's Court, Fleet Street.

ADVERTISEMENT.

. J-1 ROM the times of Alexander to the sacking of Constantinople by the Turks, a period of fifteen centuries, the Grecian states, being under the influence of foreign councils and the controul of foreign arms, had lost their existence as a nation. But neither did they submit to slavery without a struggle, nor did the power which sub verted their government deface, at once, their national character, or destroy, but by degrees, the various effects which flowed from their original genius and political institutions. In what is subjoined, in this edition, to the narrative of Dr. Goldsmith, it is the aim of the author to trace, amidst the revolutions of nations, the remains of Greece; to take a summary view of her efforts for the recovery of expiring liberty ; to trace those features that remained the longest unsullied by the infection of bar barism, and those efforts of genius, which, surviving the dissolution of the state, con tinued, and still continue, to enlighten and refine the world.

Chapter I. Of The Earliest State Of Greece

I HE first notices we have of every country are fabulous and uncertain. Among an un enlightened people every imposture is likely to take place, for ignorance is the parent of credulity. Nothing, therefore, which the Greeks have transmitted to us concerning their earliest state can be relied on. Poets were the first who began to record the actions of their country men, and it is a part of their art to strike the? imagination even at the expence of probability. For this reason, in the earliest accounts of Greece we are presented with the machinations of gods and demigods, the adventures of heroes And giants, the ravages of monsters and dragons, and all the potency of charms and enchant- VOL, I. B ments. Man seems scarcely to have any share in the picture, and while the reader wanders through the most delightful scenes the imagi nation can offer, he is scarce once presented with the actions of such a being as himself.

It would be vain, therefore, and beside the present purpose, to give an historical air to accounts which were never meant to be transmitted as true. Some writers indeed have la boriously undertaken to separate the truth from the fable, and to give us an unbroken narrative from the first dawning of tradition to the dis play of undoubted history ; they have levelled down all mythology to their own apprehensions; every fable is made to look with an air of pro bability; instead of a golden fleece, Jason goes in pursuit of a great treasure; instead of de stroying a chimera, Bellerophon reclaims a mountain; instead of an hydra, Hercules over comes a robber. Thus the fanciful pictures of a strong imagi nation are taught to assume a serious severity, and tend to deceive the reader still more, by offering in the garb of truth what had been only meant to delight and allure him.

The fabulous age, therefore, of Greece, must have no place in history; it is now too late to separate those parts which may have a real foundation in nature, from those which owe their existence wholly to the imagination. There are no traces left to guide us in that intricate pursuit; the dews of the morning are past, and it is vain to attempt continuing the chase in meridian splendor. It will be sufficient, therefore, for us to observe, that Greece, like most other countries of whose origin we have any notice, wasat first divided into a number of petty states, each commanded by its own so vereign. Ancient Greece, which is now the south part of Turkey in Europe, was bounded on the east by the Ægean sea, now called the Archipelago; on the south by the Cretan or Candian sea; on the west by the Ionian sea; and on the north by Illyria and Thrace.

Of such very narrow extent, and so very contempti ble, with regard to territory, was that country, which gave birth to all the arts of war and peace, which produced the greatest generals, philosophers, poets, painters, architects, and statuaries, that ever the world boasted ; which overcame the most powerful monarchs, and dispersed the most numerous armies that ever were brought into the field, and at last became the instructor of all mankind. It is said in Scripture that Javan, the son of Japheth, was the father of all those nations that went under the general denomination of Greeks. Of his four sons, Elisha, or Ellas, is said to have given name to the E?o.?;:/s_, a general name by which the Greeks were known. Tharsis, the second son, is thought to have settled in Achaia; Chittim settled in Macedonia; and Dodanim, B 'i the fourth son, in Thessaly and Epirus.

How they portioned out the country, what revolutions they experienced, or what wars they maintained, are utterly unknown : and, indeed, the history of petty, barbarous states, if known, would hardly recompence the trouble of enquiry. In those early times, kingdoms were but incon siderable : a single city, with a few leagues of land, was often honoured with that magnificent appellation ; it would, therefore, embarrass his tory to enter into the domeslic privacy of every little state, as it would be rather a subject for the economist than the politician. It will suf fice to observe, that Sicyon is said to be the most ancient kingdom of Greece. The beginning of this petty sovereignty is placed by his torians in the year of the world one thousand nine hundred and fifteen, before Jesus Christ two thousand eighty-nine, and before the first Olympiad one thousand three hundred and thir teen.

The first kins; was Æsrialeus. Its duration is said to have been a thousand years. The kingdom of Argos, in Pelo- A.M.2148. ° .P -. . ponnesus, began a thousand and eighty years before the first Olympiad, in the time of Abraham. The first king was Inachus. The kingdom of Mycænæ succeeded. The seat of government was translated thilher from Argos by Perseus, the grandson of Acrisius, the last king of that country, whom Perseus un fortunately slew. The kings who reigned at Mycænæ after Perseus, were Electryon, Sthe nelus, and Eurystheus; the latter of whom was driven out by the Heraclidæ, or the descendants of Hercules, who made themselves masters of Peloponnesus. The kingdom of Athens was first e a • ? i . A.M. 2448. formed into a regular government byCecrops, an Egyptian. This prince, having departed from Egypt, and travelled several years in other places,came from Phœnicia into Greece, and lived in Attica, where he was kindly received by Actæus, the king of that country ; married his daughter; and, on his death, succeeded to his throne.

He taught the people, who were savages, the use of fixed habitations, restrained all licentious lust, obliged each man to marry one wife, and laid down rules for the conduct of life, and the exercise of all religious and civil offices. He divided the whole country into twelve districts, and also established a court for judging causes, entitled the Areopagus. Am phictyon, the third king of Athens, procured a confederacy among the twelve states of Greece, which assembled twice a year at Thermopylæ, there to offer up common sacrifices, and to con sult for the common interest of the association. Theseus, one of the succeeding kings of this state, united the twelve boroughs of Cecrops into one city. Codrus was the last of this line, who devoted himself to death for his people. The Heraclidæ having made an irruption as far as the gates of Athens, the oracle declared, that they should be conquerors whose king should fall in this contest.

To take the earliest advan tage, therefore, of this answer, Codrus disguised himself in the habit of a peasant, and provoking one of the enemy's soldiers, was killed by him. Whereupon the Athenians sent an herald to de mand the body of their king, which message struck such a damp into the enemy, that they departed without striking another blow. After Codrus, the title of king was extinguished among the Athenians. Medon, his son, was set at the head of the commonwealth, with the title of Archon, which signifies chief governor. The first of this denomination had their places for life ; but the Athenians growing weary of a go vernment which represt their love of freedom, they abridged the term of the archon's power to ten years, and at last made the office elective every year. The kingdom of Thebes was first ' founded by Cadmus.

This hero having had an Egyptian father, was brought up in the religion, and was well acquainted with the history of that country, whence several writers of his life have accounted him an Egyp tian : and, at the same time, being born and educated in Phœnicia, he became master of the language and letters of that country. He sailed from the coast of Phœnicia, and arriving in Bœotia, he founded, or rebuilt the city, calling it Thebes, from the city of that name in Egypt, and the citadel from his own name, Cadmea. Here he fixed the seat of his power and dominion. To this prince are ascribed sixteen let ters of the Greek alphabet. But, as the order, names, and characters of these letters bear a near resemblance to the old Phœnician, or He brew letters, we are not to suppose that he in vented, but only that he formed them from his own language, as it is probable the Phœnicians had before formed theirs from the Egyptian.

The adventuresof his unhappy posterity, Laius, Jocasta, Œdipus, Eteocles, and Poly nices, make a shining figure among the poetical fictions of that period. The kingdom of Sparta or Lacedæmon, is supposed to have been first instituted by Le lexa. Helena, the tenth in succession from this monarch, is equally famous for her beauty and infidelity. She had not lived above three years with her husband, Menelaus, before she was carried off by Paris, the son of Priam, king of Troy. This seems to be the first occasion in which the Greeks united in one common cause. The Greeks took Troy, after a ten years' siege, much about the time that Jephthah was the Judge in Israel. Corinth began later than the other cities above-mentioned to be form ed into a state, or to be governed by its kings. It was at first subject to Argos and Mycænæ, but Sisyphus, the son of Æolus, A.M. 2628. made himself master of it; and when his descendants were dispossessed, Bac chis assumed the reigns of power.

The government after this became aristocratical, a chief magistrate being annually chosen by the name of Prytanis. At last Cypselus, having gained the people, usurped the supreme authority, which he transmitted to his son Periander, who was ranked among the seven wise men of Greece, from the love he bore to learning, and his en couragement of its professors. The kingdom of Macedonia was first governed by Caranus, descended from Hercules, and sub sisted from his time till the defeat of Perseus by the Romans, a space of six hundred and twenty six years. Such is the picture Greece offers in its ear liest infancy, A combination of little states, each governed by its respective sovereign, yet all uniting for their mutual safety and general advantage. Still, however, their intestine con tentions were carried on with great animosity ; and, as it happens in all petty states, under the dominion of a single commander, the jealousies of the princes were a continual cause of discord.

From this distressful situation those states, by degrees, began to emerge: a different spirit began to seize the people; and, sick of the con tentions of their princes, they desired to be free. A spirit of liberty prevailed all over Greece, and a general change of government was effected in every part of the country, ex cept in Macedonia. Thus monarchy gave way to a republican government, which, however, was diversified into as many various forms as there were different cities, according to the dif ferent genius and peculiar character of each people. All these cities, though seemingly different from each other in their laws and interests, were united with each other by one common language, one religion, and a national pride, that taught them to consider all other nations as bar barous and feeble.

Even Egypt itself, from whence they had derived many of their arts and institutions, was considered in a very subordi nate light, and rather as an half barbarous predecessor, than an enlightened rival. To make this union among the states of Greece still stronger, there were games insti tuted in different parts of the country, with re wards for excellence in every pursuit. These sports were instituted for very serious and use ful purposes ; they afforded an opportunity for the several states meeting together; they gave them a greater zeal for their common religion ; they exercised the youth for the purposes of war, and increased that vigour and activity, which was then of the utmost importance in deciding the fate of a battle. But their chief bond of union arose from the council of the Amphictyons, which was instituted by Amphictyon, king of Athens, as has been already mentioned, and was appointed to be held twice a year at Thermopylæ, to delibe rate for the general good of those states of whose deputies it was composed.

The states who sent deputies to this council were twelve, namely, the Thessalians, the Thebans, the Do rians, the Ionians, the Perhaabeans, the Mag nates, the Locrians, the Oetans, the Pthiotes, the Maleans, the Phocians, and theDolopians. Each of these cities, which had a right to assist at the Amphictyonic council, was obliged to send two deputies to every meeting. The one was entitled to the Hieromnemon, who took care of the interests of religion ; the other was called the Pylagoras, and had in charge the civil interests of his community. Each of these de puties, however, differing in their functions, enjoyed an equal power of determining all af fairs relative to the general interests of Greece. But, although the number of deputies seems to have been settled originally so as to answer the number of votes which each city was allowed, yet in process of time, on some extraordinary occasions, the principal cities assumed a power of sending more than one Pylagoras to assist in a critical emergency, or to serve the purposes of a faction.

When the deputies thus appointed, appear to execute their commission, after offer ing up sacrifices to Apollo, Diana, Latona, and Minerva, they took an oath, implying, that they would never subvert any city of the Am phictyons, never stop the course of waters, either in war or peace, and that they would op pose any attempts to lessen the reverence and authority of the gods, to whom they had paid their adoration. Thus all offences against reli gion, all instances of impiety and profanation, all contests between the Grecian states and cities came under the particular cognizance ofthe Am phictyons, who had a right todetermine, to im pose sines, and even to levy forces, and to make war against those who offered to rebel against their sovereign authority. These different motives to confederacy united the Greeks for a time into a body of great power, and greater emulation.

By this associ ation, a country not half so large as England, was able to dispute the empire of the earth with the most powerful monarchs ofthe world. By this association, they not only made head against the numerous armies of Persia, but dis persed, routed, and destroyed them, reducing their pride so low, as to make them submit to conditions of peace as shameful to the con quered as glorious to the conquerors. But among all the cities of Greece, there were two, that by their merit, their valour, and their wisdom, par ticularly distinguished themselves from the rest: these were Athens and Lacedæmon. As these cities served as an example of bravery or learning to the rest, and as the chief burthen of every foreign war devolved upon them, it will be proper to enter upon their particular history with greater minuteness, and to give the reader some idea of the genius, character, manners, and government of their respective inhabitants.

Chapter II. Of The Government Of Sparta, And The Laws Of Lycurgus

ALTHOUGH the kingdom of Lacedæmon was not so considerable as that of Athens, yet as it was of much earlier institution, it demands out first attention. Lacedæmon, as observed above, was in the beginning governed by kings, of which thirteen held the reigns of power in succession, of the race of the Pelopidæ. As during this dark interval there were no fixed laws to limit the prerogative, nor any ideas of true government among the people, it does not appear that there were any considerable en croachments made either on the side of the king or that of the people. Under the race of the Heraclidæ, who succeeded, instead of one king, the people admitted two, who governed with equal authority. The cause of this change seems to have sprung from a very particular accident; for Aristodemus dying, left two sons, Eurysthenes and Procles, twins, so much alike, that it was hardly possible to distinguish them asunder.

From hence the hint was taken by the mother of fixing the crown upon both; so that when the Spartans came for a king, she was either Unwilling or unable to decide which of them was first born, or which had the justest pretensions. This form continued for several succeeding centuries, and though the one was almost ever at variance with his associate on the throne, yet the government remained entire. It was during this succession that slavery was first instituted in Sparta. Eurysthenes and Pro cles having granted the countrymen of Sparta the same privileges with the citizens, Agis re versed what his predecessors had done in favour of the peasants, and imposed a tribute upon them. The Helotes were the only people that would not acquiesce in this impost, but rose in rebellion to vindicate their rights : the citi zens, however, prevailed, the Helotes were sub dued, and made prisoners of war.

As a still greater punishment, they and their posterity were condemned to perpetual slavery ; and, to increase their misery still more, all other slaves were called by the general name of Helotes. It would appear from hence, that this little state was governed with turbulence and op pression, and required the curb of severe laws and rigorous discipline. These severities and rigorous discipline were at last imposed upon it by Lycurgus, one of the first and most extraordinary legislators that ever appeared among mankind. There is, perhaps, nothing more remarkable in profane history, yet nothing so well attested, as what relates to the laws and govern ment of Lycurgus. What, indeed, can be more amazing, than to behold a mutinous and savage race of mankind yielding submission to laws that controuled every sensual pleasure and every private affection; to behold them give up, for the good of the state, all the comforts and conveniences of private life, and making a state of domestic privacy more severe and terrible than the most painful campaigns, and the most warlike duties.

Yet all this .was ef fected by the perseverance and authority of a single legislator, who gave the first lessons of hard resignation in his own generous example. Lycurgus was the son of Eunomus, one ofthe two kings who reigned together in Sparta. His elder brother Polydectes dying without issue, the right of succession rested in Lycurgus, who accordingly took the administration upon him. But an unexpected event came to interrupt his promotion : for the queen his sister-in-law, prov ing with child, his right became doubtful. A man of less probity would have used every precaution to secure himself upon the throne, and a proposal which was made by the queen seemed to secure his pretensions. She offered to destroy the birth, upon condition that he would marry her, and take her into a share of power.

Lycurgus wisely smothered his resentment at so unnatural a proposal, and, fearful that she might use means to put her project in execution, assured her, that as soon as the child was born, he would take upon himself to remove it out of the way. Accordingly she was delivered of a boy, which Lycurgus commanded to be brought to him, as he was at supper with the magistrates; to them he presented the child as their king, and, to testify his own and the peo ple's joy, gave him the name of Charilaus, Thus Lycurgus sacrificed his ambition to his duty; and still more, continued his regency, not as king, but governor. However, dreading the resentment of the queen, and finding the state in great disorder, he resolved, by travelling, to avoid the dangers of the one, and to procure a remedy for the defects of the other.

Thus resolving to make himself acquainted with all the improvements of other nations, and to consult the most experienced persons he could meet with in the art of government, he began with the island of Crete, whose hard and severe laws were very much admired. In this island the handicraft trades were brought to some degree of perfection. There they wrought in copper and iron, and made armour, in which they danced with a confused noise of bells at the sacrifices of their gods. It was from that the art of navigation was first known in Greece, and from them many legislators derived the principles of their respective institutions. From Crete Lycurgus passed over into Asia, where he still found new information, and is said to have first made the discovery of the works of Homer. From thence he went into Egypt, and is said by some to have had con ferences with the gymnosophists of India.

But whilst thus employed abroad, his presence began to be greatly wanted at home. All parties conspired to wish his coming, and many mes sages were sent to hasten his return. The kings themselves importuned him to that effect, and let him know, that the people were arrived at such a pitch of disorder, that nothing but his authority could controul their licentiousness. In fact, every thing tended to the unavoidable destruction of the state, and nothing but his presence was wished to check its increasing dissolution. Lycurgus, at length persuaded to return, found the people wearied out with their own importunities, and ready to receive any new impressions he might attempt. Wherefore the corruption being general, he found it necessary to change the whole form of the government ; sensible that a few particular laws would pro duce no great effect.

But, considering the efficacy of religion in promoting every new institution, he went first to consult the oracle of Apollo at Delphos, where he met a reception that might flatter his highest ambition, for he was saluted by the priestess as a friend of the gods, and rather as a god than man. As to his VOL. I. C new institution also, he was told that the gods heard his prayers, and that the commonwealth he was going to establish would be the most excellent and durable upon earth. Thus encouraged, on his return to Sparta, Lycurgus first communicated his designs to his particular friends, and then by degrees gained over the leading men to his party, until, things being ripe for a change, he ordered thirty of the principal men to appear armed in the market-place. Charilaus, who was at that time king, seemed at first willing to oppose this revolution, but being intimidated by a superior force, he took shelter in the temple of Minerva ; where, being prevailed upon by his subjects, and being also of a flexible temper, he came forth and joined the confederacy.

The people soon acquiesced under a set of institutions which were evidently calculated for their improvement, and gladly acknowledged submission to laws which leaned with equal weight upon every rank of society. To continue the kings still with a shadow of power, he confirmed them in their right of suc cession as before, but diminished their authority by instituting a senate, which was to serve as a counterpoise between the prerogative and the people. They still, however, had all their former marks of outward dignity and respect. They had the chief seats in every public assembly; in voting they were allowed to give their opinion first ; they received ambassadors and strangers, and overlooked public buildings and highways. In the field they were possessed of greater power; they conducted the armies ofthe state, and were attended by judges, field-deputies, and a general of the horse.

However, they were not en tirely at liberty even in war, as they received their orders from the senate; and though these were for the most part discretionary, yet they were sometimes forced to march against the enemy, or to return home when they least de sired to retreat. The government hitherto had been unsteady, tending at one time towards despotism, at ano ther to democracy; but the senate instituted by Lycurgus served as a check upon both, and kept the state balanced in tranquillity. This body, which was composed of twenty-eight members, founded their chief policy in siding with the kings when the people were grasping at too much power ; and, on the other hand, in es pousing the interests of the people whenever the kings attempted to carry their authority too far. The senators were composed of those who as sisted Lycurgus in his designs, as well as of se veral of the citizens remarkable for their private virtues, but none were, eligible till sixty years of age.

They were continued for life, except upon any notorious crime; and this, as it prevented the inconveniences of too frequent a change, so it was a lasting reward to the old, and C2 a noble incentive to the young. These formed the supreme court of judicature; and though there lay an appeal from them to the people, yet as they were only convened at the pleasure of the senate, and as the senators were not re sponsible for any wrong judgment, their decrees generally passed without a repeal. Indeed, for several ages, such was the caution, and such the integrity of this tribunal, that none seemed de sirous of seeking farther justice, and both parties acquiesced in the justice of their decree. How ever, the great power which the senate was thus possessed of, was about a century after tempered by the erection of a superior court, called the court of the ephori, which consisted of but five in number, and the members were chosen annually into their office.

They were elected from the people, and had the power of arresting and imprisoning even the persons 'of their kings, if they acted unbecoming their station. The people also had a nominal share in the government. They had their assemblies consist ing of citizens only, and also their great con vention of all persons who were free ofthe state. Bat this power of convening was but a mere matter of form, as the senate alone was per mitted to call them together, and as it was in the option of that body to dismiss them at pleasure. The subject of deliberation was also to be of their proposal, while the people, denied the privilege of debating or discussing, could mily reject or ratify with laconic decision. To keep them still more helpless, they were left out of all offices of the state, and were considered merely as machines, which their wiser fellow-citizens were to conduct and employ.

So small a degree of power granted to the people, might be apt to destroy these institutions in their infancv: but, to reconcile them to the change, Lycurgus boldly resolved to give them a share in those lands from whence, by the in creasing riches of some, and the dissipation of others, they had been deprived. To keep the people in plenty and dependence, seems to have been one of the most refined strokes in this philosopher's legislation. The generality of the peo ple were at that time so poor, that they were destitute of every kind of possession, whilst a small number of individuals were possessed of all the lands and the wealth ofthe country.- In order, therefore, to banish the insolence, the fraud, and the luxury ofthe one, as well as the misery, the repining, and the factious despair of the others, he persuaded the majority, and forced the rest to give up all their lands to the commonwealth, and to make a new division of them, that they might all live together in per fect equality.

Thus all the sensual goods of life were distributed among the governors and the governed, and superior merit alone con ferred superior distinction. Lycurgus accordingly divided all the lands of Laconia into thirty thousand parts, and those of Sparta into nine thousand, and these he portioned out to the respective inhabitants of each district. Each portion was sufficient to maintain a family in that frugal manner he pro posed; and, though the kings had a larger share assigned them to support their dignity, yet their tables had rather an air of decency and competency, than of superfluity or profu sion. It is said that some years after, as Lycur gus was returning from a long journey, observing how equally the corn was divided in all parts of the country, he was heard to observe, smiling on those next him, Does not Laconia look like an estate which several brothers have been dividing amongst (hem ?