Clouds in the East: travels and adventures on the Perso-Turkoman Frontier ... With maps and illustrations

Preface

. Recent events have brought the whole Eastern question so prominently forward, that I have not considered myself justified in withholding special in formation that may be interesting and important. I have preferred to separate the Political and Strategical Report, which concludes this volume, from the mere record of travel ; and although that Report was written more than a year ago, and that lapse of time has made some slight alteration in its details, the conclusions arrived at have only been strengthened, and it has been left in its original form. It has been my endeavour to prove that the distant clouds which threaten our possessions in the East arise, not from any abstract or proximate danger of a Russian conquest of India, but from the probability of our territory becoming conterminous with that of the greatest military Power. Such a contingency must entail a rivalry that a VI

PREFACE.

. would be disastrous to the interests of our Indian Empire. As England owes her great prosperity to natural insulation, so should she preserve if possible that sea of desert that has hitherto inven to India the same advantages. When the boundaries of vast empires are contiguous, they have to be guarded by large armies. The present state of Europe proves conclusively the serious strain that this imposes upon a nation's resources, and the happy immunity which we still enjoy. In urging that we should strive to preserve that immunity, I do not stand alone : the same opinion has been even more strongly advanced by the greatest living authority on Central Asia — Sir Henry Rawlinson ; and it is held, I believe, by all who have a special and personal knowledge of that region. It is only the mere theorists who advocate a policy of passive inaction.

If the views I have enunciated sometimes seem to press hardly upon Russia, they certainly proceed from no ill feeling towards that country. No one has a higher admiration than myself for the energy, determination, and perseverance of the Great Northern Power, and few can have so many acts of genial kindness and hospitality to be grateful

PREFACE.

. vii for. But I cannot allow the influence of personal friendship to blind me to dangers that menace my own country ; and every true friend to Russia must desire that the difficulties which loom in the future may be met whilst there is yet time, and not postponed until, from the force of circumstances, they imperil her rela tions with England, and bring incalculable disasters upon the world. THE AUTHOR. London, March, 1876. CONTENTS. Chap. PAGE Introduction ....... 1 I. Vienna — Kustchuk — Constantinople — Sinope — Trebizond — Batoum — Tiflis — Vladikavkas . . 6 II Elizabetpol — Schemakha — Baku — Enzelli — Perivale — Astrabad — Ashourada . . . .37 III The Attrek — Tchikishlar— Ashourada — Ashreff — Sari — Skirgau — Ziraub — Firoskoh — Serbendan — Boomahoo — Teheran ..... 62 Gulhek — Prospects of Sport — The Vermin of Persia — Eastern Bazaars — Carpets — Antiques IV. — Vigilant Sentries ..... 80 V. Elburz — Reduction of our party — The Dooab — Wellaterood — Loula — Shemsha — The Gargerood —The Lar— Trout-fishing .... 87 Ab-i-Aske — Ab-i-Gurm — Khaloe — Shahzadeh — Amol— Barfrush — Skirgau . . . .109 VI.

Casaleone — Hazargereeb — Aliabad — Attenne — Surkada — Chesmeh Ali — Soffiabad — Deh Mollah VII. — Damghan ....... 12.5 Shahrood — Bostam — Budusht — Meyomeed — Myane Dasht — Abbasabad — Muzenoon . . .143 VIII Mehr — Subzawar — Sultanabad — Maidane — Nishapoor — Derrood — Jugherk — Gulistan . . .164 IX. X. Meshed -Turokh— Sangbust . . . .177 XI. Kardeh— Hale— Wardeh— Kelat— Kala Nadir . CONTENTS. X Chap. page XII. The Turkomans and the Persians . . .211 XIII. Igdalik — Laim — Chepishli — Dereguez . . . 223 XIV. Mahomedabad — Tho Rood Bar — Skirgau . . 232 XV. Merv — Nowhandan — Duringa — Kalkatchinar — Koochan. . • . . . . . 260 XVI Kara Kazan — Boorjnoord — Monah Valley — Pishcalla — Semulghan ...... 280 XVII Shohan — Sanghos — Jah Jerm — Riabad — Magas — Bostam — Shahrood ...... 297 XVIII.

Teheran — Kasvin — Reshdt — Enzelli — Lenkoran — Baku — Derbend — Stavropol — Rostov — Moscow —St. Petersburg 312 A Political and Strategical Report on Central Asia ;j29 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Kelat and Abiverd from the Mountains of Dereguez Frontispiece Sketch Map of Central Asia, showing the Advances of Russia, and gradual Absorption of the Khanates of Turkestan. Map of the Chief Strategical Lines of Route between India and Persia, and the Independent Khanates of Turkestan. Map of the North-Eastern Frontiers of Persia, embracing also Khiva and the intervening Deserts. On a Lee Shore off the Mouth of the Attrek to face p. 66 Eastern Posting ........ 79 A Good Road in Persia ..... „ „ 100 Camp on the River Lar, with a View of Demavend „ „ 104 A Skirmish with Robbers in Mazanderan . . „ „ 118 A Serious Rencontre in the Mountains . . „ „ 132 j?

A Cossack of the Line ....... 142 The Source of the Attrek — Kara Kazan . . „ „ 280 jj Caravanserai on the Road from Teheran . „ „ Quite si Windui l'i< r,„iillv W A MA1» OF THE CHIEF STRATEGICAL LINES OF ROUTE BETWEEN INDIA & PERSIA & THE INDEPENDENT KHANATES OF TURKESTAN. CIkiIIo H Wiiiclu.s. IVci.lilly.W.

Introduction

. Ik the early part of the year 1873, England laboured tinder a severe fit of political excitement. It had become known for some time past that Russia was planning an Expedition against Khiva, which was to be despatched on its difficult journey in the coming spring. It was not the first Expedition which had been directed against that isolated and barbarous oasis in the Central Asian wilds ; and Russia, for years past, had been moving southwards with giant strides without producing more than a passing comment. But now the British Press and the British people appeared suddenly to have discovered that a great danger menaced our Indian Em pire, and the leading newspapers teemed with spirited articles on the all-absorbing question of the day. Wyld and Stanford, as usual, were promptly equal to the occasion, and their shop-windows soon displayed all the available geographical knowledge of the little-known regions.

Men talked wisely and learnedly in the Clubs of the Amoo Darya, the Sir Darya, and the Attrek. Khiva and Bokhara, Usbegs, and Turkomans became as B household words throughout the country. But what was most surprising in this sudden fit of national excitement was the bold and warlike tone adopted by representative newspapers of nearly all shades of political opinion. It was declared that this Expedition was a direct menace to our Indian supremacy ; that Russia had reached the utmost limit of her advances ; and that her onward course must now be checked — at all costs and at all hazards. It was sad indeed to see in England such a lapse from all the virtuous lessons that had been inculcated by her rulers in latter years. Had she not been tutored to have no concern in the politics of the other great European powers, and taught that even her Colonial Empire was rather an encumbrance than an advantage ?

And had not England accepted these lessons in a spirit of humility and contrition for past lapses and longings after national greatness ? Corfu had been yielded up to prove the sin cerity of her conversion ; the Black Sea Treaty had been torn up before her eyes, and she had made no sign. She had been put through a course of arbitration, which had been borne with exemplary meekness, and had seemed to be at length convinced that a diet of political water-gruel in foreign affairs was more suited to her con stitution than the high-blooded food of national energy to which British nature in the past had been too often prone ! Yet, here was the old Adam bursting forth on the slightest provocation, and in relation to a little-known district, encompassed by the great deserts of the East, and apparently of no importance either commercially or strategically.

There could be no doubt about it ; the British Lion was getting morosely bellicose — and Russia awoke to the fact. And then, when the excitement was at its height, and

INTRODUCTION.

. 3 even war seemed almost imminent, a peaceful and a hopeful rumour quickly spread. A Russian statesman, with a European reputation for urbanity and tact, had suddenly arrived, and was in close and earnest conclave with the Foreign Minister. The papers wrote in a sub dued and temperate spirit, as if any violence of language might disturb the two diplomatists in the seclusion of their secret deliberations ; and Parliament, which was then sitting, accepted, as it always does, the grave request of the Premier not to complicate the pending negociations by any premature controversy. But it waited anxiously for the result, and showed some little ebullitions of inquietude. At last the important night arrived ; and, when the Minister came down to the House, it was known at once that oil had been thrown upon the troubled waters.

Nothing could be more satisfactory than the explanation ! Both the strength and the motives of the Ex pedition had been immensely exaggerated. Only a few companies and some sotnias of Cossacks were to be employed. It was undertaken in a purely humanitarian spirit, and without the slightest idea of an extension of territory. Russia, in fact, would pledge herself to retire altogether, directly the laudable object had been accomplished, and her suffering countrymen released from bondage. The next morning the leading journals burst forth in benevolent and peaceful articles. Exeter Hall patted the Czar upon the back for his anti-slavery proclivities ; and an unusually large fire soon absorbed all the national attention. The Oxus and the Attrek were now rarely mentioned ; the maps slowly disappeared from the shop-windows; and England slumbered once again. b But, in the minds of those who were responsible for a strategical knowledge of the countries in question, the subject, once awakened, did not die away so easily.

It had been discovered that we were in a lamentable state of ignorance relative to the geography of the region which lies south of the Amoo Darya. For what was the actual knowledge derived from personal surveys which was available as to that North Afghan and North Persian frontier ? Burnes and Ferrier had passed up from Herat by Khoondooz and Balkh. Abbot and Taylor Thompson had marched by Sarakhs and Merv on their journeys to Khiva. Vambery, landing at Gemushtepe on the Caspian, and exploring that neighbourhood, had pushed on to Khiva and Bokhara, and returned by the Moorghab to Herat. But all these famous travellers had only crossed the frontier-line, journeying from south to north or from north to south, and had not traversed it laterally. The North Persian frontier, from Sarakhs to the neighbourhood of the Caspian, was absolutely untravelled, and unknown except from the vague and untrustworthy reports which had been gathered from Persian sources.

It was supposed that Markosoff's recent Expedition must have done something to clear up the mystery, but the results were still a secret. Baillie Fraser, Burnes and others had passed westward from Meshed through the broad and fertile valley leading by Koochan, Boog noord and the Gourgan to Astrabad. They had seen mountains lying to the right of their route, but what lay beyond those mountains was veiled in utter obscurity. And yet it was through this unknown region that Russian advances from the Caspian to Herat were asserted to be feasible. By some the river Attrek was said to rise near

INTRODUCTION.

. 5 Merv, and Russian maps encouraged the delusion and marked it as their boundary line. It was held by others to be navigable for the greater part of its course, and a Russian line of forts was declared to have been constructed along its banks, whilst a large work at Tchikishlar was reported to have been recently erected to guard the entrance of the river. And this, it was urged, was why Russia attached so much importance to her naval station near Astrabad. Such were the geographical " on dits," and although the information was based on vague reports, and not on any personal observations, all the existing or supposed knowledge of these regions was embodied in a map which was secretly issued to our diplomatists in the East, and which but for our good fortune might have formed the basis for important political engagements with Russia.* * This map, though faithfully representing all the knowledge available, we afterwards found to be utterly incorrect.

Chapter I

Vienna— Eustchuk —Constantinople — Sinope — Trebizond — Batoum— Tiflis — Vladikavkas. After a thirteen years' command of the 10th Hussars, the period had arrived when a tie so long maintained, and which I can only compare to the love of a father for his children, must be snapped and broken ; and I knew that some little time must remain at my disposal before fresh military employment would claim my services. I determined to devote this interval to useful purpose, to endeavour to penetrate the mystery which hung over those Eastern deserts, and to bring back, if possible, political, geographical, and strategical information that might be valuable. Having once decided upon this journey, but little time was lost in preliminary preparations. I desired to be accompanied by an Engineer officer, whose special education would make all observations and surveys of additional value, and Lieutenant Gill, R.E., having heard of my intended project, eagerly volunteered his very useful services.

Captain Clayton of the 9th Lancers, also, on the shortest notice joined our little expedition, and his genial energy and military abilities marked him out as a welcome addition to my party. Inquiries made from the best Persian sources as to THE START. the probable success of the expedition were not very hopeful. The highest authority on Central Asian affairs, while kindly giving the most important advice, added: " Under present circumstances, however, the service would be one of great difficulty and danger. The Tur komans would take you for a Russian, while you could expect no sympathy or support from the Russians themselves." Officers who had travelled in Persia, or had been attached to the telegraph service there, represented the obstacles to be ovei-come as almost insurmountable, and considered that the Russian authorities would strenuously oppose any attempt to visit Tchikishlar and the mouth of the Attrek.

But H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, having heard of the proposed journey, graciously lent it all the aid in his power, and gave letters to the Grand Duke Michael at Tiflis, which proved invaluable in forwarding its success. Prepared to face all difficulties and to surmount them by patient determination and perseverance, our little party made rapid preparations for departure. But the amount of baggage required for so prolonged a journey, and which should be equally ready for the needs of sport or the observations of science, became an item of serious magnitude. Breech-loaders entailed an immense supply of cartridges, and surveying instruments filled a large and ponderous box ; so that, when on the evening of the 20th of April, 1873, our small party met at Charing Cross Station to start by the mail train to Vienna, the porters stared aghast as they had to register considerably more than a ton of luggage for only three passengers.

We reached Vienna on the 22nd, and put up at the ' Erzt Herzog Carl.' The Exhibition was to be opened within a few days, and all was bustle and confusion in that pleasant capital. I had determined to travel to Constantinople by the Danube route, and as we were anxious to lose no time in reaching Tiflis, we did not loiter by the way, but started again on the morning of the 23rd by one of the river steamers to Pesth. I know no pleasanter travelling than descending the Danube in the excellent vessels which ply in summer by this route. The rate of progression is almost equal to that of a slow railway train, and the scenery at times charming. By mid-day we were steaming rapidly past the old castle and picturesque fortifications of Haim burg, and to me the place brought back stirring re collections ; for when last I passed the quaint old town, Benedek's army in full retreat from Kbniggratz was bivouacking on this spot, and over a hundred guns were parked on the hill-side that now looked so quiet and peaceful.

Then we stopped for a few minutes at Pres burg, and I seemed to see the beaten and tired troops crossing that bridge of boats in never-ending column. Soon the broad plains of Hungary stretched away to our left, the fields teeming with horses and cattle. Then the strong fortress of Comorn flitted by ; and, as night fell, the bright lights on either side the river told that we were approaching the sister capitals of Pesth and Buda. Here we changed to a larger vessel, and the arrangements on board left nothing to be desired. During our next day's journey the scenery was flat and uninteresting; but on the 25th we reached Basiasch, and in the afternoon were approaching Orsova on the frontier of Turkey. The view just before reaching Orsova is very beautiful, for the river narrows and rolls through a gorge in the mountain ; far more impressive to my mind than the famous Iron Gates that lie below, and are passed in a small steamer of light draught, THE DANUBE'S DEFENSIBILITY. 9 which dashes through narrow and intricate channels amidst a turmoil of water rushing and foaming over the dangerous and hidden rocks.

We glided past Widin and Kalafat in the night. When morning broke, we were steaming down the broad waters of the noble river, and reached Rustchuk in the afternoon. Although a river does not usually form a very defensible frontier, the Danube has many advantages. The Turkish bank is generally much higher than the Roumanian, and completely commands the approaches on the northern side. If there were telegraphic com munication along the right bank, and a proper sjrstem of river iron-clad gun-boats were established, the passage of the Danube in the face of a hostile army would be a very serious undertaking. It would be easy to build these river gun-boats with their sides sloping at such an angle that they could only be pierced by heavier guns than it would be possible to put into battery against them.

With such boats, a judicious use of torpedoes, and a good system of com munication, this river-line of frontier would be very strong. But all these points are little likely to be attended to by the Turkish Government. We landed at Rustchuk, intending to take the rail way to Varna, and then to go on to Constantinople by steamer. Rustchuk is a miserable place, and from its dirt should, and often does, form a hot-bed of fever, cholera, or any other epidemic that may be prevalent. The fortifications are in the most dilapidated condition, and it is easy in most places to walk over the works ; but there is a large garrison, and I was much struck by the good material of the Turkish regiments. After being scrambled for by rival hotel touts upon our arrival, we selected the hotel 'Islah Hane,' which we were sorry for afterwards, as it was in the town and a long way from the railway station.

Instead of being able to go on at once, we were to be detained here a night. The hotel was by no means of a prepossessing appearance ; but the beds were clean, and we were off early in the morning. The country round Rustchuk consists of great plains, but on approaching Shumla it becomes more hilly, and is generally much covered with brushwood. At the station at Shumla we found an intelligent English child, looking very delicate. The poor little thing had suffered from fever at Varna, and had been sent to Shumla for her health. She was delighted to meet English people, but in spite of the fever did not seem to dislike Turkey. Her father was employed on the railway. Before reaching Varna the country became very marshy, and the name of Devna brought back melancholy thoughts. What could have induced our army to encamp in such a notoriously unhealthy place it is diffi cult to conceive.

Varna is a bustling town, but the bay is open, and the landing sometimes very difficult ; and, if an easterly gale had set in whilst the great Crimean expedition was embarking here, what a disastrous busi ness it would have been ! Yet Bourgas Bay, perfectly land-locked, and with good camping-grounds, lay within two marches. We found our steamer, the ' America,' waiting for us with steam up, and were told that we should be in the Bosphorus at daybreak ; but, although we had a smooth passage, it was about 8 o'clock before we found ourselves steaming up the beautiful channel. How it recalled old Crimean days ! But the place seemed to be changed, and not improved in appearance. So many European- ORIENTAL MANUSCRIPTS. 11 looking houses, stone or brick, have been built, that they have rather altered the general character, and they do not suit the landscape in their colouring so well as the old tumble-down wooden constructions.

About two miles from the Golden Horn was a Turkish fleet of nine vessels anchored ; amongst them four very fine iron-clads looking remarkably smart and showing the handiwork of Hobart Pasha. On arriving at the well-known Pera landing-place, it became evident that we should have great trouble with our baggage. There were Russian, Austrian Lloyd's, French, and Turkish steamers, however, which went to Trebizond. So, quickly deciding upon the Austrian Lloyd's, we took the greater part of our baggage on board at once, although we had determined to stay a few days at Constantinople. The place was crowded, and we could not get rooms at any of the hotels. We had stumbled across a very good dragoman named Angelo, who hired us some apartments in the Rue Venedek ; but the smells were serious. We called at the Embassy and on Hobart Pasha.

At the former place Mr. Hughes, the Oriental Secretary, very kindly showed us his splendid Oriental manuscripts, perhaps the finest private collection extant. When the great fire took place at Pera, Mr. Hughes was in England ; and, whilst travelling in a railway carriage, a fellow-passenger told him of the fire, and, not knowing him, lamented that the celebrated collection of manuscripts had been entirely destroyed. Great was his delio-ht when, on returning to Constantinople, he found that the room in which they were stored had escaped although the Embassy was burnt down. We spent some very pleasant days in Constantinople, thanks to the kindness of Sir H. Elliott, who also sent to the Russian Embassy and procured for us papers and letters addressed to the authorities in the Caucasus, which he thought might be useful.

We were made members of the Club ; of course we did the bazaar at Stamboul, St. Sophia, &c, as C had not been in Constantinople before. To me it was all old familiar ground, except that Pera was much changed by its new half-European quarter. Finally, we paid a visit to Messrs. Hanson to conclude our monetary arrangements. As there was no chance of finding bankers further in advance, we obtained letters of credit upon their agents at Tiflis, Messrs. Pretyman and Co. Certainly Constantinople is much busier than it used to be in former years. Scutari has been con siderably enlarged since Crimean days, and I could scarcely find the old house, looking over the Bos phorus, in which I had lived for some months after the war. We endeavoured to induce Angelo to accompany us as interpreter, but he was so exorbitant in his demands that we could not agree.

We left Constantinople on the 2nd of May late in the afternoon, and found ourselves the only occupants of the first-class cabin on board the ' Galatea,' a very fine vessel with excellent accommodation. There were number less deck-passengers of the most nondescript character — Armenians, Georgians, and many hamals returning to their homes, for most of the Constantinople hamals (porters) come from the southern shores of the Black Sea. It was rather distressing to learn that, although the ' Galatea' was a very fast vessel, her speed was limited by order of the company to eight knots. We had fine weather on the 3rd, and it was very pleasant coasting along the thickly wooded shores of Asia Minor ; and on the 4th we reached Sinope, the scene of the loss of the Turkish fleet. Sinope might be made a little Gibraltar ; A SPORTING COBBLER. }■■', the harbour could easily be improved, and the place might be of the greatest importance ; but who can think of improvement in Turkey ?

I was much amused at the collection of the fares from the deck-passengers. It appears there is no fixed tariff' to be paid beforehand ; but anyone can go on board, and the ship's steward afterwards collects as much as he can get, threatening not to allow them to land if they do not produce something. The captain told us they sometimes had as many as 800 deck-passengers. Sinope is a very striking place, with a high neck of land projecting right out to sea, somewhat like Portland, and the land side might be made very defensible. We did not stay long. On the morning of the 5th we were at Sarnsoon. The bay is pretty, and there is more trade here than at Sinope. A train of camels winding down the hills was the first reminder that we were approaching the East. After leaving Samsoon, snowy mountains are visible in the distance, and the scenery of the coast is charming.

We expected to reach Trebizond at daylight on the 6th, but, when morning broke, we were in a dense fog and could see nothing, although the captain thought we were just off the bay. About breakfast-time, how ever, the fog lifted, and we soon steamed in. Trebizond is very pretty from the sea, but, like most Turkish towns, it disappoints you on closer acquaintance. Angelo at Constantinople had described the bazaars in glowing colours, but they proved to be of a very inferior class. We went to the ' Hotel des Voyageurs,' kept by a young Frenchman named Paul, a most civil fellow, who acted as our cicerone. I had heard that Trebizond was a good head-quarters for sport, and that bears and red-deer could be found in large numbers. Paul could give me no information except that there was good quail shooting ; but he directed me to a sporting cobbler named Narim ; and from him I beared the old story — that two days' journey inland good sport was to be had.

Narim evidently knew the country, and his eyes glistened as he related sporting incidents. We got a carriage, and drove eight or nine miles along the Erzeroom road. A good carriage-road of about 200 miles has actually been made of late years between Trebizond and Erzeroom, the Turks having at last recognised the strategical importance of that place, and the necessity of having communication with the coast. As long as the Black Sea Treaty was in force, Trebizond was not a bad line of communication ; but, now that the Treaty has been torn to shreds, Russia will probably in a few years be superior to Turkey in that sea, and Trebi zond itself is quite indefensible. The road was excellent, better indeed than our carriage, for, as we were rattling down a hill, a wheel suddenly flew off, and we came to grief and had to make our way back leisurely.

Paul gave a very poor account of the general state of the country. Murders were common, and the murderers, if in a position to give sufficient " backsheesh," could always escape. Anxious to uphold the credit of his hotel, our host gave us an excellent dinner of Black Sea turbot and some quails ; and we arranged to go out quail shooting the next morning. We slept on board the ' Galatea,' as we were loth to give up our good quarters sooner than was necessary. We had to await the Russian steamer from Constantinople, which went as far as Batoum, while the ' Galatea ' proceeded no further than Trebizond. The next morning we found Paul ready with two dogs, one an old toothless and tailless pointer. We saw a fair quantity of birds, but the RUSSIAN CAVIARE. 15 dogs were very useless. Paul proved himself to be a good shot, but on our return we were rather disgusted to meet a native sportsman with a bigger bag than our own.

The Russian steamer was due, but there were no signs of her on our return. On the morning of the 8th, however, she appeared. We had a false alarm that she would leave immediately, and, going on board, found the ' Buch ' crowded, and the accommodation very inferior to that of the ' Galatea.' If the latter had been remarkable for her deck-passengers, they were tame compared with those on board the ' Buch.' There were a number of Lazes in their picturesque dress, and men of half the nations of the East. We did not start until 5 o'clock, and the evening was beautiful. The Lazes were most cheery fellows, dancing and singing nearly all night ; but they are really a most villanous race of knaves and cut-throats, inhabiting the country between Batoum and Erzeroom. The fare on board the ' Buch ' was much better than we expected, and the caviare superior to any I ever tasted before or since.