IV. RIFLE TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION
(Based on Small-Arms Firing Manual)
=1344. Object of system of instruction.= The object of the system of rifle training and instruction employed in our Army is two-fold:
1. To make of INDIVIDUALS, shots who in battle will make hits instead of misses.
2. To make of ORGANIZATIONS, pliable, manageable MACHINES, capable of delivering in battle a volume of EFFECTIVE fire.
=1345. To make of INDIVIDUALS shots who in battle will make hits instead of misses.= This is accomplished by INDIVIDUAL training and instruction whereby the skill of the soldier as a rifleman is so developed as to be up to the capabilities of his rifle, which is probably the best and most accurate rifle in the world,--that is to say--
Effort is made to so develop the shooting skill of the soldier that he will be able to make his rifle do the things that it is capable of doing.
To accomplish this end the soldier is put through a course of individual instruction that divides itself into three main phases or stages, viz:--
1. Preliminary drills. By means of preliminary drills in the form of sighting drills; position and aiming drills; and deflection and correction elevation drills, he is taught the theoretical, fundamental principles of shooting.
2. Gallery practice. Having been taught the theoretical, fundamental principles of shooting by means of the preliminary drills mentioned in the proceeding paragraph, the soldier is then shown how to apply them in a simple, elementary way by being put through a course of gallery practice with the .22 Cal. Gallery Practice Rifle, using reduced charges. This practice may be called the transitory phase or period of individual instruction, during which The soldier passes from his acquisition of the theoretical, fundamental principles of shooting to their application to actual firing, on the target range, with the regulation Army rifle.
3. Range practice. Having gone through the course in gallery practice, the soldier then fires on the target range, applying and putting into practice, with the regulation Army rifle; the theoretical principles of shooting taught him during the preliminary drills, and in the application and practice of which he was also instructed during the gallery practice.
=1346. Other Instruction.= While the above phases embody the principal subjects in which a soldier is trained and instructed in developing his skill in shooting, he is also instructed in other matters that are necessary to round out and complete his skill in marksmanship,--for example, the care of the rifle, estimating distances, the effect of light, wind, and temperature, etc.
=1347. To make of ORGANIZATIONS pliable, manageable MACHINES, capable of delivering in battle a volume of EFFECTIVE fire.= This is accomplished by collective training and instruction, in which a number of soldiers (for example, a squad, platoon, or company), under command of a leader, fire, under assumed tactical situations, at targets which simulate the appearance of an enemy under conditions approaching those found in war. This kind of training and instruction is called, "Combat practice."
In combat practice the individual is trained in firing as part of a tactical unit,--that is to say, in cooeperation with others,--and the commanders of the tactical units are taught how to direct and control the fire of their units,[18] obtaining the maximum efficiency of fire by cooerdination of the skill and efforts of all the individuals of the unit.
PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTION
=1348.= The following outline of the program of instruction gives a sort of bird's-eye view of the system:
1. INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION
{ (a) Theory of sighting. (The trajectory; { The line of sight; Sighting or aiming.) 1. Sights and Sighting. { (b) Kinds of sights. (Open; Peep; Battle.) { (c) Kinds of sight. (That is, amount of { front sight taken.) (Normal; Fine; Full.)
{ (a) Sighting drills. (Importance and purpose; { Point of aim; Triangle of sighting.) { (Verifying the triangle; causes of errors.) { (b) Position and aiming drills. (Objects 2. Preliminary drills. { [3]; Position exercise; Aiming exercise; { Trigger-squeeze exercise; Rapid-fire exercise; { Kneeling, sitting down, and prone.) { (c) Deflection and elevation correction { drills.
3. Gallery practice. (Object and importance.)
4. Range practice. (Instruction practice; Range practice.)
5. Other Instruction. (Use of sling; Designation of winds; Zero of rifle; Estimating distances [with the eye, by trial shots, and by trial volleys]; Wind; Temperature; Light; Mirage; Care of rifle, etc.)
INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION
Sights and Sighting
Theory of Sighting
=1349. The trajectory.= As the bullet passes through the air it makes a curved line something like this:
This curved line is called the trajectory.
The resistance of the air and the force of gravity (the force that pulls all bodies toward the earth) are the two things that make the path of the bullet a curved line, just the same as they make the path of the baseball thrown by the player a curved line.
The resistance of the air holds the bullet back and the force of gravity pulls it down, so that the two acting together make the bullet's path curved.
The longer the range the more will the path of the bullet (the trajectory) be curved, as shown by the following drawing:
=1350. Sighting or aiming.= Now, on the rifle there are two "sights,"--the front sight and the rear sight,--which enable the rifleman to regulate the path of the bullet, as the ball player regulates the path of the ball.
If the ball player wants distance, he throws the ball high (raises the path, the trajectory), using his eye and guesswork, and likewise if the rifleman wants to shoot at a distant target, he, too, shoots the bullet high (that is, he raises the muzzle of his rifle), but he doesn't have to depend upon guesswork. It is all worked out for him by experts and all he need do is to set the rear sight for the proper range,--that is, for the distance the object is from him.
Aiming or sighting a rifle consists in bringing into line three objects: The target, A, the front sight, B, and the rear sight, C.
The rifle is so made and the sights placed on it in such a way that when the piece is held in such a position that the target, the front sight and the rear sight are in line, and the trigger is pulled (squeezed) the bullet will strike the target.
You raise the muzzle of the piece by raising the rear sight,--that is, raising the rear sight has the effect of raising the muzzle, for the higher you raise the rear sight the higher must you raise the muzzle in order to see the front sight and get it in line with the object aimed at and the rear sight.
This is shown in the following illustrations:
The rear sight, C, the front sight, B, and the bull's eye, A, are all on a line with the eye, D, the rear sight being set for 200 yards.
Suppose we wanted to shoot at 2000 instead of 200 yards. We would raise the slide up to 20 (2000 yards) on the sight leaf.
In order to see the bull's eye through the notch sight at 2000, we must raise the eye to the position, D. We now have the rear sight, the bull's eye and the eye in line, but we must bring the front sight in line with them, which is done by raising the muzzle of the piece, giving the result shown in Fig. 4a.
=1351. Line of sight.= With the open sight the line of sight is determined by a point on the middle line of the notch of the rear sight and the top of the front sight.
With the peep sight, the line of sight is determined by the center of the peep and the top of the front sight.
Kinds of sights
=1352.= (See Fig. 3, par. 1343, giving rear sight leaf in detail.)
The different kinds of sights are as follows:
(a) =Open sight.= By open sight is meant the use of any one of the sighting notches.
To use the open sight:
1. Look through the sighting notch at the target. (Fig. 5.)
2. Bring the top of the front sight on a line with the top and in the center of the sight notch, the top of the front sight being just under the bull's eye.
Because of its wide field of view and its readiness in getting a quick aim with it, the open sight is the one that is generally used in the later stages of battle, or when fire is to start immediately.
(b) =Peep Sight.= By peep sight is meant the use of the peep hole in the drift slide.
To use the peep sight:
1. Look through the peep hole at the target. (Fig. 7.)
2. Bring the top of the front sight to the center of the peep hole, the top of the front sight being just under the bull's eye. (Fig. 8)
Be sure to get the top of front sight, as in Fig. 8, and not the bull's eye, as in Fig. 9, in center of the peep hole.
=Advantage of the peep sight.= The advantage of the peep sight over the open sight is due to the fact that it is easier to center the top of the front sight in the peep hole and thus get the same amount of front sight each time.
For example you know at once, without measuring, that the dots in the circles, Fig. 10, are not centered, and that the one in the circle in Fig. 11, is.
After a little practice, in looking through the peep hole the eye almost automatically centers the top of the front sight.
=Disadvantage of the peep sight.= The disadvantage of the peep sight is that its limited field of view and lack of readiness in getting a quick aim with it limit its use to those stages of the combat when comparative deliberation will be possible.
(c) =Battle sight.= By battle sight we mean the position of the rear sight with the leaf down. There is a sighting notch on the top of the leaf, or rather on top of the leaf slide which works up and down the leaf.
The battle sight is the only sight used in rapid fire. In unexpected, close encounters the side that first opens a rapid and accurate fire has a great advantage over the other. Again, a soldier on patrol generally has no time to set his sight, if suddenly attacked at close range. The battle sight, may, therefore be called the emergency sight,--the handy, quick sight. The soldier should, therefore, become thoroughly familiar with the use of this sight.
The sighting notch in the slide with the rear sight leaf down, is the same height as is the sighting in the drift slide when the rear sight leaf is raised and set at 530 yards.
That is to say, battle sight is equivalent to a sight setting of 530 yards. Therefore, in shooting with battle sight at objects nearer than 530 yards you must aim lower.
Kinds of Sight
=1353.= (Amount of front sight taken)
(a) =Normal sight.= The amount of front sight taken in Figs. 6 and 8, is called the normal sight and is the one that the soldier should always use, either with the open notch or peep sight, as it is the only sight which assures the taking of the same amount of front sight every time. In other words it assumes a greater degree of uniformity in sighting, which is one of the most important factors in shooting. By uniformity in sighting is meant taking the same amount of sight each time.
If you take less than the amount of front sight used in the normal sight, it will, of course, have the effect of lowering the muzzle of the piece, and consequently you will hit a point lower than if you had used the normal sight.
On the other hand, if you take more than the amount of front sight used in the normal sight, it will, of course, have the effect of raising the muzzle and consequently you will hit a point higher than if you had used the normal sight.
(b) =Fine sight.= Although occasionally a man will be found who can get good results by using the fine sight, the average man cannot, and this form of sighting is, therefore, to be avoided.
(c) =Full sight.= The so-called full sight must be avoided under all circumstances. It is merely mentioned and shown here to point out a fault that must be carefully avoided.
The objections to its use are the same as in the case of the fine sight,--that is, lack of uniformity in the amount of sight taken.
=1354. What the rifleman looks at when he fires.= The eye can be focused accurately upon objects at only one distance at a time; all other objects we see will be more or less blurred and fuzzy looking, depending upon their distance from the object upon which our eye is focused.
The rifleman who attains proficiency focuses his eye on the target while aiming, but he glances at one sight and then the other to see that they are aligned properly, then back at the target, and at the instant of discharge his eye is on the target.
Preliminary Drills
=1355. Sighting, Position and Aiming Drills.= The importance of the following sighting, position and aiming drills cannot be overestimated. If they are carefully practiced, before firing a single shot at a target, you will have learned how to aim your piece correctly, hold your rifle steadily, squeeze the trigger properly, assume that position best adapted to the particular conformation of your body, and you will also have acquired the quickness and manual skill required for handling the piece in rapid fire.
The sighting, position and aiming drills teach the fundamental principles of shooting, which are the foundation upon which marksmanship is built.
Do not confine yourself to going through these drills only during drill hours, but go through them frequently at other times. The extent to which it will improve your shooting will more than repay you for your trouble.
Sighting Drills
=1356. Object.= The objects of the sighting drill are:
1. To show how to bring the rear sight, the front sight and the target into the same line,--that is, to show how to sight properly.
2. To discover and point out errors in sighting.--in other words, to discover the errors you make in sighting and show the reasons for same, so that you may be able to correct them properly.
3. To teach uniformity in sighting,--that is, to teach you how to take the same amount of sight each time,--to see every time the same amount of front sight when you look through the rear sight.
=Sighting rest for rifle.= A good sighting rest for a rifle may be made by removing the top from an empty pistol ammunition box, or a similar box, and then cutting notches in the ends of the box to fit the rifle closely. (Fig. 15.)
Place the rifle in these notches with the trigger guard close to and outside one end.
At a convenient distance above the ground fasten a blank sheet of paper on a wall or on a plank nailed to a stake driven into the ground.
Three legs are fastened to the rest (or it may be placed on the ground without any legs), which is placed 20 or 30 feet from the blank sheet of paper.
Make sure that the piece is canted neither to the right nor left, and without touching the rifle or rest, sight the rifle near the center of the blank sheet of paper (Fig. 17.)
Changes in the line of sight are made by changing the elevation and windage.
A soldier acting as marker is provided with a pencil and a small rod bearing at one end a small piece of white cardboard, with a black bull's eye pierced in the center with a hole just large enough to admit the point of a lead pencil.
The soldier sighting directs the marker to move the disk to the right, left, higher, or lower, until the line of aim is established when he commands, "Mark," or "Hold."
At the command "Mark," being careful not to move the disk, the marker records through the hole in the center the position of the disk and then withdraws it.
At the command "Hold," the marker holds the disk carefully in place without marking, until the position is verified by the instructor, and the disk is not withdrawn until so directed.
=1357. Point of Aim.= Always be sure to aim at a point just below the black bull's-eye,--that is, aim so that there will be a fine line of light between the bottom of the bull's-eye and the-top of the front sight (Fig. 19). This is important to insure uniformity in sighting,--that is, in order to make sure that you aim at the same place on the target each time. If the top of the front sight touches the bottom of the bull's-eye it is impossible to say just how much of the front sight is seen, and how far up into the bull's-eye you are.
First Sighting Exercise
=1358.= Using the sighting rest for the rifle (Fig. 17) require each man to direct the marker to move the disk until the rifle is directed on the bull's-eye with the normal sight and command, "Hold." If aiming correctly the rear sight, the front sight and the bull's-eye will look as shown in Fig. 19, above.
The instructor then verifies this line of sight. Errors, if any, will be pointed out to the soldier and another trial made. If he is still unable to sight correctly, he will be given as many more trials as may be necessary.
Sometimes a man does not know how to place the eye in the line of sight; he will look over or along one side of the notch of the rear sight and believe that he is aiming through the notch because he sees it at the same time that he does the front sight. Again some men in sighting will look at the front sight and not at the object.
Repeat the above exercise, using the peep sight. If aiming correctly, the rear sight, the front sight and the bull's-eye will look as shown in Fig. 20.
Second Sighting Exercise
=1359. The triangle of sighting.= Using the sighting rest for the rifle as before (Fig. 17), direct the marker to move the disk until the rifle is directed on the bull's-eye with the normal sight and command "Mark," whereupon the marker, being careful not to move the disk, records through the hole in its center, the position of the disk, and withdraws it. Then, being careful not to move the rifle or sights repeat the operation until three marks have been made.
Join the three points by straight lines. The shape and size of the triangle will indicate the nature of the variations made in sighting.
For example, if you have taken the same aim each time, you will get a very small triangle something like this: [Illustration: triangle] which resulted from taking each time this aim, for instance:
A triangle like Fig. 22 results from not taking the same amount of front sight each time, as shown in Fig. 23.
A triangle like Fig. 24 shows that the front sight was not in the middle of the notch each time, as shown in Fig. 25.
A triangle like Fig. 26 results from a combination of the two errors mentioned above,--that is, not taking the same amount of front sight each time and not having the front sight in the middle of the notch each time, as shown in Fig. 27.
If any one of the sides of the triangle is longer than one-half inch, the exercise is repeated, each sight being verified by the instructor, who will call the soldier's attention to his errors, if any.
The smaller the triangle, the better the sighting.
=1360. Verifying the triangle.= If the sides of the triangle are so small that they indicate regularity in sighting, mark the center of the triangle and then place the center of the bull's-eye on this mark. The instructor then examines the position of the bull's-eye with reference to the line of sight. If the bull's-eye is properly placed with reference to the line of sight, the soldier aims correctly and with uniformity.
If the bull's-eye is not properly placed with reference to the line of sight, the soldier aims in a regular manner but with a constant error.
=1361. Causes of errors.= If the bull's-eye is directly above its proper position, the soldier has aimed high,--that is, he has taken too little front sight.
If the bull's-eye is directly below its proper position, the soldier has aimed low,--that is, he has taken too much front sight.
If the bull's-eye is directly to the right or left of its proper position, the soldier has not sighted through the center of the rear notch and over the top of the front sight. If to the right, the soldier has either sighted along the left of the rear sight notch or the right side of the front sight, or has committed both of these errors.
If the bull's-eye is to the left of its proper place, the soldier has probably-sighted along the right of the rear sight notch, or to the left of the front sight, or has committed both of these errors.
If the bull's eye is diagonally above and to the right, the soldier has probably combined the errors which placed it too high and too far to the right.
Any other diagonal position would be produced by a similar combination of vertical and horizontal errors.
After the above instruction has been given to one man, the line of sight will be slightly changed by moving the sighting rest or by changing the elevation and windage, and the exercises similarly repeated with other men.
Repeat the exercise, using the peep sight.
Third Sighting Exercise
=1362.= This exercise shows the effect of canting the piece.
It is most important that in aiming the sights be kept vertical and the piece not be canted,--that is, that the barrel be not tilted over to the right or left.
If the piece is canted to the right, the sights are lowered to the right and consequently the bullet will strike to the right and below the point aimed at, even though the rifle be otherwise correctly aimed and the sights correctly set.
Similarly if the piece is canted to the left the sights are lowered to the left, and consequently the bullet will strike to the left and low.
This effect of canting the piece may be shown as follows: Use the sighting rest with the rifle firmly held in the notches, the bolt removed.
Paste a black paster near the center of the bottom line of the target. Sight the rifle on this mark, using about 2000 yards' elevation. Then, being careful not to move the rifle, look through the bore and direct the marker to move the disk until the bull's-eye is in the center of the field of view and command, "Mark."
Next, turn the rest (with the rifle) over 90 deg. to the right, on its side, and with the same elevation, sight on the same paster as above. Then, being careful not to move the rifle, look through the bore and again direct the marker to move the disk until the bull's-eye is in the center of the field of view and command, "Mark."
Not considering the fall of the bullet, the first mark represents the point struck with the sight vertical, the second mark represents the point struck, low and to the right, using the same elevation and the same point of aim, when the piece is canted 90 deg. to the right.
Different degrees of canting the piece can be represented by drawing an arc of a circle through the two marks with the paster as a center. The second mark will be at a point on this arc corresponding to the degree of canting the piece.
It is important to know that this effect of canting increases with the distance from the target.
Fourth Sighting Exercise
=1363.= This exercise is to show the advantage of blackened sights.
In strong sunlight, make a triangle of sighting, using a rifle having sights worn bright. Then, being careful not to move the rifle, blacken the sights and make another triangle.
Use dotted lines for the triangle with bright sights and full lines for the triangle made with blackened sights.
The position and size of the two triangles will plainly show the advantage of using blackened sights.
Fifth Sighting Exercise
=1364.= This exercise is to illustrate the importance of knowing the effects of varying degrees of light.
In strong sunlight make a triangle of sighting. Then, being careful not to move the piece, make another triangle, the target and the man sighting having first been shaded.
The relative positions of the triangles will show the importance of knowing the effects of varying degrees of light.
Position and Aiming Drills
=1365. Object.= The object of the position and aiming drills are:
1. To so educate the muscles of the arm and body that the piece, during the act of aiming, shall be held without restraint, and during the operation of firing shall not be deflected from the target by any convulsive or improper movement of the trigger finger or of the body, arms, or hands.
2. They also establish between the hand and eye such prompt and intimate connection as will insure that the finger shall act upon the trigger, giving the final pressure at the exact moment when the top of the front sight is seen to be directed upon the mark.
3. If at the moment the piece is discharged, it is properly supported and correctly aimed, the mark will surely be hit.
Since any fairly intelligent man can be taught to aim correctly and to hold the sights aligned upon the mark with a fair amount of steadiness, it follows that bad shooting must necessarily arise from causes other than bad aiming. The chief of these causes is known to be the deflection given to the rifle when it is discharged, due to the fact that the soldier, at the moment of firing, instead of SQUEEZING the trigger, jerks it. This convulsive action is largely due to lack of familiarity with the methods of firing and to a constrained position of the muscles of the body, arm, and hands, which constrained position it is the object of the position and aiming drills to correct.
=1366. General.= In order to correct any tendency to cant the piece, the rear sight is raised in all the exercises.
Place a black paster at which to aim on the wall opposite each man.
The squad being formed in single rank, with an interval of one yard between files, the instructor directs the men to take the position of "Ready," except that the position of the feet is such as to insure the greatest firmness and steadiness of the body.
The instructor then cautions, "Position and aiming drill."
The exercise which is being taught should be repeated frequently and made continuous. The instructor prefaces the preparatory command by, "Continue the motion," or "At will," and gives the command "Halt" at the conclusion of the exercise, when the soldier returns to the position of "Ready." Or the soldier may be made to repeat the first and second motions by the command "One," "Two," the exercise concluding with the command "Halt."
Care must be taken by the instructor not to make the position and aiming drills tedious. Thirty minutes daily should be spent in this practice during the period of preliminary instruction. After gallery practice is taken up, however, five or ten minutes daily should be sufficient for these exercises.
In order that the instructor may readily detect and correct errors the squads for these drills should not consist of more than eight men.
The instructor should avoid holding the squad in tiresome positions while making explanations or corrections.
Position Exercise
=1367.= The instructor commands: =1. Position, 2. EXERCISE.= At the command, "Exercise" without moving the body or eyes, raise the rifle smartly to the front of the right shoulder to the full extent of the left arm, elbow inclined downward, the barrel nearly horizontal, muzzle slightly depressed, heel of the butt on a line with the top of the shoulder. (Fig. 28.)
(Two.) Bring the piece smartly against the hollow of the shoulder, without permitting the shoulder to give way, and press the rifle against it, mainly with the right hand, only slightly with the left, the forefinger of the right hand resting lightly against the trigger, the rifle inclined neither to the right nor left.
(Three.) Resume the position of ready. (Fig. 30.)
=Remarks.= The instructor should especially notice the position of each soldier in this exercise, endeavoring to give to each man an easy and natural position. He should see that the men avoid drawing in the stomach, raising the breast, or bending the small of the back. The butt of the piece must be pressed firmly, but not too tightly, into the hollow of the shoulder and not against the muscles of the upper arm. If held too tightly, the pulsations of the body will be communicated to the piece; if too loosely, the recoil will bruise the shoulder. If only the heel or toe touches the hollow of the shoulder, the recoil may throw the muzzle down or up, affecting the position of the hit. While both arms are used to press the piece to the shoulder, the left arm should be used to direct the piece and the right forefinger must be left free to squeeze the trigger.
Aiming Exercise
=1368.= The instructor will first direct the sights to be adjusted for the lowest elevation and subsequently for the different longer ranges.
The instructor commands: =1. Aiming. 2. EXERCISE.= At the last command execute the first and second motion of the position exercise.
(Two.) Bend the head a little to the right, the cheek resting against the stock, the left eye closed, the right eye looking through the notch of the rear sight at a point slightly below the mark. (Fig. 31.)
(Three.) Draw a moderately long breath, let a portion of it escape, then, with the lungs in a state of rest, slowly raise the rifle with the left hand, being careful not to incline the sight to either side, until the line of sight is directly on the mark; hold the rifle steadily directed on the mark for a moment; then, without command and just before the power to hold the rifle steadily is lost, drop the rifle to the position of "Ready" and resume the breathing.
=1369. Remarks.= Some riflemen prefer to extend the left arm. Such a position gives greater control over the rifle when firing in a strong wind or at moving objects. It also possesses advantages when a rapid as well as accurate delivery of fire is desired. Whatever the position, whether standing, kneeling, sitting, or prone, the piece should rest on the palm of the left hand, never on the tips of the fingers, and should be firmly grasped by all the fingers and the thumb.
The eye may be brought to the line of sight either by lowering the head or by raising the shoulder; it is best to combine somewhat these methods; the shoulder to be well raised by raising the right elbow and holding it well to the front and at right angles to the body.
If the shoulder is not raised, it will be necessary for the soldier to lower the head to the front in order to bring the eye into the line of sight. Lowering the head too far to the front brings it near the right hand, which grasps the stock. When the piece is discharged, this hand is carried by the recoil to the rear and, when the head is in this position, may strike against the nose or mouth. This often happens in practice, and as a result of this blow often repeated many men become gun-shy, or flinch, or close their eyes at the moment of firing. Much bad shooting, ascribed to other causes, is really due to this fault. Raising the right elbow at right angles to the body elevates the right shoulder, and lifts the piece so that it is no longer necessary to incline the head materially to the front in order to look along the sights.
As the length of the soldier's neck determines greatly the exact method of taking the proper position, the instructor will be careful to see that the position is taken without restraint.
As changes in the elevation of the rear sight will necessitate a corresponding change in the position of the soldier's head when aiming, the exercise should not be held with the sight adjusted for the longer ranges until the men have been practiced with the sights as the latter would generally be employed for offhand firing.
The soldier must be cautioned that while raising the line of sight to the mark he must fix his eyes on the mark and not on the front sight; the latter can then be readily brought into the line joining the rear-sight notch and mark. If this plan be not followed, when firing is held on the range at long distances the mark will generally appear blurred and indistinct. The front sight will always be plainly seen, even though the eye is not directed particularly upon it.
The rifle must be raised slowly, without jerk, and its motion stopped gradually. In retaining it directed at the mark, care must be taken not to continue the aim after steadiness is lost; this period will probably be found to be short at first, but will quickly lengthen with practice. No effort should be made to prolong it beyond the time that breathing can be easily restrained. Each soldier will determine for himself the proper time for discontinuing the aim.
The men must be cautioned not to hold the breath too long, as a trembling of the body will result in many cases.
Some riflemen prefer, in aiming, to keep both eyes open but, unless the habit is fixed, the soldier should be instructed to close the left eye.
Trigger-Squeeze Exercise
=1370.= The instructor commands: =1. Trigger squeeze. 2. EXERCISE.= At the command =Exercise=, the soldier executes the first motion of the aiming exercise.
(Two.) The second motion of the aiming exercise.
(Three.) Draw a moderately long breath, let a portion of it escape, hold the breath and slowly raise the rifle with the left hand until the line of sight is on the mark, being careful not to incline the sights to either side. Contract the trigger finger gradually, slowly and steadily increasing the pressure on the trigger, while the aim is being perfected; continue the gradual increase of pressure so that when the aim has become exact the additional pressure required to release the point of the sear can be given almost insensibly and without causing any deflection of the rifle. Continue the aim a moment after the release of the firing pin, observe if any change has been made in the direction of the line of sight, and then resume the position of "Ready," cocking the piece by raising and lowering the bolt handle.
=Remarks.= Poor shooting is often the result of lack of proper cooerdination of holding the breath, the maximum steadiness of aim, and the squeeze of the trigger. By frequent practice in this exercise, each man may come to know the exact instant his firing pin will be released. He must be taught to hold the breath, bring the sights to bear upon the mark, and squeeze the trigger all at the same time.
=1371. The Trigger Squeeze.= The trigger should be squeezed, not pulled, the hand being closed upon itself as a sponge is squeezed, the forefinger sharing in this movement. The forefinger should be placed as far around the trigger as to press it with the second joint. By practice the soldier becomes familiar with the trigger squeeze of his rifle, and knowing this, he is able to judge at any time, within limits, what additional pressure is required for its discharge. By constant repetition of this exercise he should be able finally to squeeze the trigger to a certain point beyond which the slightest movement will release the sear. Having squeezed the trigger to this point, the aim is corrected and, when true, the additional pressure is applied and the discharge follows.
Rapid-Fire Exercise
=1372. Object.= The object of this exercise is to teach the soldier to aim quickly and at the same time accurately in all the positions he will be called upon to assume in range practice.
The instructor commands: =1. Rapid-fire exercise. 2. COMMENCE FIRING.= At the first command the first and second motions of the trigger-squeeze exercise are performed. At the second command, the soldier performs the third motion of the trigger-squeeze exercise, squeezing the trigger without disturbing the aim or the position of the piece, but at the same time without undue deliberation. He then without removing the rifle from the shoulder, holding the piece in position with the left hand, grasps the handle of the bolt with the right hand, rapidly draws back the bolt, closes the chamber, aims, and again squeezes the trigger. This movement is repeated until the trigger has been squeezed five times, when, without command, the piece is brought back to the position of "Ready."
When the soldier has acquired some facility in this exercise, he will be required to repeat the movement ten times, and finally, by using dummy cartridges, he may, by degrees, gain the necessary quickness and dexterity for the execution of the rapid fire required in range firing.
=1373 Methods.= The methods of taking position, of aiming, and of squeezing the trigger, taught in the preceding exercises, should be carried out in the rapid-fire exercises, with due attention to all details taught therein; the details being carried out as prescribed except that greater promptness is necessary. In order that any tendency on the part of the recruit to slight the movements of aiming and of trigger squeeze shall be avoided, the rapid-fire exercises will not be taught until the recruit is thoroughly drilled and familiar with the preceding exercises. The recruit will be instructed that with practice in this class of fire the trigger can be squeezed promptly without deranging the piece.
=1374. Repetition.= If the recruit seems to execute the exercise hurriedly or carelessly, the instructor will require him to repeat it at a slower rate.
=1375. Manipulation of the Breech Mechanism.= To hold the piece to the position of the left hand should not be changed, but the left forearm with the proper facility, are learned only after much practice. Some riflemen, especially men who shoot from the left shoulder, find it easier, in rapid firing, to drop the piece to the position of load after each shot. While at first trial this method may seem easier, it is believed that, with practice, the advantage of the former method will be apparent.
Position and Aiming Drill, Kneeling
=1376.= These exercises will be repeated in the kneeling position by causing the squad to kneel by the commands prescribed in the Drill Regulations. The exercises will be executed as prescribed for standing, except that the command "Two" in the position exercise, the soldier will rest the left elbow on the left knee, the point of the elbow in front of the kneecap. The pasters for the kneeling exercise should be at 2-1/2 feet from the floor or ground.
=Remarks.= Frequent rests will be given during practice in these exercises kneeling, as the position, if long continued, becomes constrained and fatigues the soldier unnecessarily.
In raising the rifle to the mark in the second and third exercises, the position of the left hand should not be changed, but the left forearm should be brought toward the body and at the same time the body bent slightly to the rear.
When aiming kneeling there is, from the nature of the position, a tendency to press the butt of the rifle against the upper arm instead of against the hollow of the shoulder; this will necessitate inclining the head considerably to the right to get the line of sight, and by bringing the rifle so far to the rear will, if the thumb is placed across the stock, cause it to give by the recoil a blow upon the nose or mouth.
These difficulties may be avoided by advancing the right elbow well to the front, at the same time raising it so that the arm is about parallel with the ground. The hollow of the shoulder will then be the natural place for the rifle butt, and the right thumb will be brought too far from the face to strike it in the recoil.
Some riflemen prefer, by bending the ankle, to rest the instep flat on the ground, the weight of the body coming more on the upper part of the heel; this obviates any tendency of the right knee to slip; or, by resting the right side of the foot on the ground, toe pointing to the front, to bring the weight of the body on the left side of the foot. These positions are authorized.
=1377. Choice of Position.= In firing kneeling, the steadiness obtained depends greatly upon the position adopted. The peculiarities of conformation of the individual soldier exert when firing kneeling a greater influence than when firing either standing, sitting, or prone; the instructor should, therefore, carefully endeavor, noticing the build of each soldier, to place him in the position for which he is best adapted and which will exert the least tension or strain upon the muscles and nerves. It should be remembered, however, that without the rest of the left elbow on the knee this position possesses no advantage of steadiness over the standing position.
=1378. Kneeling Position; When Taken.= The kneeling position can be taken more quickly than either the sitting or the prone position. It is, therefore, the position naturally assumed when a soldier, who is standing or advancing, has to make a quick shot at a moving or disappearing object and desires more steadiness than can be obtained standing.
Position and Aiming Drill, Sitting Down
=1379.= In many cases the men, while able to kneel and hold the piece moderately steady, can obtain in a sitting position much better results. All should, therefore, be instructed in aiming sitting down as well as kneeling.
To practice the soldier in the preceding exercises in a sitting position, the squad being formed in a single rank, with an interval of one pace between files, the rifle should first be brought to "Order arms"; the instructor then commands: Sit down.
At this command make a half face to the right and, assisted by the left hand on the ground, sit down, facing slightly to the right, the left leg directed toward the front, right leg inclined toward the right, both heels, but not necessarily the bottoms of the feet, on the ground, the right knee slightly higher than the left; body erect and carried naturally from the hips; at the same time drop the muzzle of the piece to the front, and to the position of the first motion of load, right hand upon the thigh, just in front of the body, the left hand slightly above, but not resting upon, the left leg.
The exercise will be executed as heretofore prescribed, except that at the command "Two" (position exercise) the soldier will rest the left elbow on the left knee, the point of the elbow in front of the kneecap, and the right elbow against the left or inside of the right knee, at the same time inclining the body from the hips slightly forward.
For the aiming and trigger-squeeze exercises the pasters, used as aiming points, will be 2-1/2 feet from the floor or the ground.
To afford the men rest or on the completion of the kneeling or sitting down exercises the instructor will command Rise, when the men rise, face to the front, and resume the "Order arms."
=Remarks.= If the preceding position is carefully practiced, steadiness is quickly attained. The right leg should not be carried so far to the right as not to afford a good support or brace for the right elbow.
This position may be modified, but, in general, not without impairing the steadiness of the man, by crossing the legs at the ankle, the outside of each foot resting upon the ground, body more erect, and the knees slightly more raised than in the previous position.
Position and Aiming Drill, Prone
=1380.= From the nature of the position it is not practicable to execute these exercises according to the method followed when standing or kneeling. Instruction will, however, always be given with reference to the position, to the manner of assuming it, and to aiming and squeezing the trigger.
For this purpose the squad being formed as specified above, in the position and aiming drill, sitting down (the black plasters therein mentioned being about 12 inches from the ground), the squad will be brought to "Order arms."
Then (the squad either standing or kneeling), the instructor commands: Lie down, which will be executed as prescribed in the Drill Regulations; the legs may be spread apart and the toes turned out if found to give a steadier position.
After the squad has taken the position as prescribed above, the legs should be inclined well to the left, and either crossed or separated as the soldier prefers or as his particular conformation appears to render most desirable, and the body at the same time inclined slightly to the right.
With care and practice the soldier may acquire an easy position which he is able to assume with great facility.
=1381.= Being at "Ready," the instructor then commands: =1. Trigger squeeze. 2. EXERCISE.=
At the latter command carry the left elbow to the front and slightly to the right, the left hand under the barrel at the balance, weight of the body mainly supported by the left elbow, the right resting lightly on the floor or ground.
(Two.) Slide the rifle with the right hand through the left hand to the front until the left hand is a little in front of the trigger guard; at the same time raise the rifle with both hands and press it against the hollow of the shoulder.
(Three.) Direct the rifle upon the mark and carry out the further details of aiming and squeezing the trigger as prescribed in the trigger-squeeze exercise.
Then resume the position, lying down.
As soon as the men have acquired with accuracy the details of the position, they will be practiced, without the numbers, in aiming and squeezing the trigger at will; after which the rapid-fire exercise in the prone position will be practiced, the necessary skill and dexterity being acquired by degrees.
To afford the men rest, or on completion of the exercise, the instructor will command: Rise, which is executed as prescribed in the Drill Regulations.
=1382. Remarks.= The preceding position for firing lying down possesses in a greater degree than any other position the merit of adaptability to the configuration of the ground; it enables the soldier to deliver fire over low parapets or improvised shelters, thus making the best use of cover. The importance of training the soldier in firing from the other positions should not, however, be lost sight of, since from the prone position it will frequently be impossible to see the objective.
Back positions are not authorized.
In the prone position, when aiming, the left elbow should be well under the barrel, the other elbow somewhat to the right, but not so far as to induce any tendency to slip on the floor or ground.
The greater changes in elevation required in first directing the rifle on the object should be given by altering the position of the left hand under the barrel, the slighter changes only by advancing or withdrawing the shoulder.
As the body does not yield to the recoil, as when firing standing or kneeling, the force of recoil, if the rifle is not properly held, may severely bruise the soldier. It is one of the objects of this exercise to so teach him that this will be prevented by assuming a correct position. Care must be exercised that the butt is not brought against the collar bone. By moving the shoulder slightly to the front or rear, and by moving the right elbow from the body or toward it, each soldier may determine the position in which the shoulder gives to the butt of the rifle the easiest rest. This will probably be the one in which the force of the recoil will be least felt.
The soldier should persist in this exercise until he obtains a position in which he feels no constraint, which will not subject him to bruises from recoil, and from which the mark appears plainly through the sights. Having secured such a position, he must not change it when firing, as a variation in the points of support of the rifle, the distance of the eye from the rear sight, or the tension of the hold has a decided effect, especially at the longer ranges, upon the location of the point struck.
=Important.= The soldier should be encouraged to go through these exercises frequently at other than drill hours, care being taken that, in the aiming and trigger-squeeze exercises, he always has some definite object for a mark.
Deflection and Elevation Correction Drills
(Sight-Setting Drills)
=1383. Sight Correction.= You may find when firing at a target that the first shot has missed the bull's-eye or figure. Now, one of two things may be done in order to cause the second shot to hit the bull's-eye or figure: (1) The point of aim may be changed, or (2) the sights may be moved and the same point as before aimed at.
In order to do accurate shooting it is necessary to have a well-defined mark at which to aim; consequently, except for very slight corrections, the method of moving the sights, involving changes in elevation and windage, is the one to be used.
=Exercises.= In order to give the soldier practice in making corrections in elevation and deflection (windage),--that is, in sight-setting,--proceed as follows:
Take an "A" target and rule it off with red vertical lines to represent range and black or blue horizontal lines to represent windage deviations, as in Fig. 33. Tell the men to set their sights (either peep or open) for 200 yards, no windage. Examine the sights (assisted by the lieutenants, noncommissioned officers and expert riflemen).
Then say, for example, "You have fired a shot at 200 yards with your sights set as you now have them. The shot was marked here (pointing to 'P,' Fig. 33). Change your sights so as to move the next shot into the bull's-eye,--considering that you take the same hold as you did the last time."
(Note. In this case the sight should be lowered 75 yards and 2 points of left windage should be taken.)
Repeat with different positions for "P" until the men all understand the method and the reasons. Do same for 300 yards, 500 yards, and 600 yards. See Figs. 34, 35, and 36.
Explain that in firing no change in sights should be made until the man is sure that his hold was good, and then change without hesitancy.
The correct use of sights and their proper adjustment can thus be taught without firing a shot. This exercise will save much time and work on the range.
=Elevation.= As previously explained, raising the rear sight increases the range of the bullet and lowering it decreases the range.
The amount of change which a given amount of elevation will cause in the point struck varies with the range and with the rifle and with the ammunition used.
For example, generally and approximately, in order, at a range of 500 yards, to change the point struck 1 foot, the rear sight must be changed 48 yards, while to change the point struck 1 foot at 1000 yards it must be changed 12 yards. That is to say, if you fired a shot at 300 yards, and then with the same aim, hold and other conditions as before, you raised your rear sight 48 yards, the next shot would strike the target 1 foot above the first one, and if you lowered the rear sight 48 yards, the bullet would then strike the target 1 foot below the first one. If firing at 1000 yards, raising the rear sight 12 yards would cause the bullet to strike the target 1 foot higher and lowering the rear sight 12 yards would cause it to strike 1 foot lower.
The following table gives the approximate changes in the rear sight to move the point struck 1 foot at ranges from 100 to 1000 yards:
+-----------------------------------+ | | Correction in elevation | | Range | necessary to change the | | | point struck 1 foot | +---------+-------------------------+ | 100 | 415 | | 200 | 185 | | 300 | 105 | | 400 | 70 | | 500 | 48 | | 600 | 35 | | 700 | 25 | | 800 | 20 | | 900 | 15 | | 1,000 | 12 | +---------+-------------------------+
The score-books issued by the Ordnance Department contain elevation charts and all you have to do is to consult the chart of your score-book in order to get the amount of elevation necessary at any particular range in order to raise or lower your shots any desired distance.
=1384. Deflection (windage).= Corrections in the deflection (side movement) of the bullet are made by means of the windage screw that moves the movable base, each division of the graduations on the rear end of the movable base being called a "point of windage."
One point of windage moves the point struck 4 inches for each 100 yards of range.
That is to say, at 100 yards, 1 point of windage moves the point struck 4 inches; at 200 yards, 8 inches (2 x 4); at 300 yards, 12 inches (3 x 4), etc.
Consequently, if at 100 yards the wind were carrying your bullets 8 inches to the side, you would take two points of windage to get the bull's-eye, and if the wind were carrying your bullets 20 inches to the side, you would take 5 points of windage, irrespective of the rate at which the wind was blowing.
Again, if at 200 yards the wind were carrying your bullets 8 inches to the side, you would take 1 point of windage, and if it were carrying your bullets 20 inches to the side, you would take 2-1/2 points, irrespective of the rate at which the wind was blowing.
In using the wind gauge remember windage is always taken in the direction from which the wind is coming (into the wind) and the bullet moves in the same direction that the rear sight moves,--that is, if the wind is coming from the right, you take right windage and the bullet will strike to the right. Likewise if you move the rear sight to the left (take left windage), the bullet will strike to the left.
GALLERY PRACTICE
=1385. Object and importance.= After the soldier has been thoroughly instructed in sighting, and in the position, aiming, deflection, and elevation correction drills, he is exercised in firing at short ranges (50 and 75 feet) with the gallery practice rifle (.22 caliber).
Notwithstanding the value of the position and aiming drills, it is impossible to keep up the soldier's interest if these exercises are unduly prolonged. By gallery practice, however, the interest is easily maintained and further progress, especially in teaching the trigger squeeze, is made. Many of the external influences, which on the range affect the firing, being absent, the soldier is not puzzled by results for which, at this stage of his education, he could not account were he advanced to firing with full charges. Furthermore, as there is no recoil to induce nervousness or flinching, the soldier soon finds that he can make good scores, and this success is the surest stimulus to interest.
Not only to the beginner is gallery practice of value; to the good shot it is a means of keeping, to a certain extent, in practice, and practice in shooting, as much as in anything else, is essential. Since it can be carried on throughout the year, gallery practice is of much value in fixing in the men the habit of aimed fire, than which nothing in his training is of more importance.
RANGE PRACTICE
=1386.= Having completed the gallery practice course, the soldier is then advanced to known-distance firing on the target range where he uses the service rifle, with service ammunition.
This known-distance practice is divided into certain regular courses and special courses.
The regular courses and Special Course A are for troops of the Regular Army.
There is also a special course for the Organized Militia and Volunteers and one for Volunteer recruits.
All the various courses are described in detail in the Small-Arms Firing Manual and anyone having occasion to use any of them should familiarize himself thoroughly therewith.
OTHER INSTRUCTION
=1387. Use of sling.= After the soldier has been drilled in the proper standing, kneeling, sitting, and prone positions in the foregoing exercises, the use of the sling will be taught. Adjustments and their advantages will be taught with the idea of noninterference with quickness and freedom of action. The trigger squeeze exercises will then be continued in the different positions, using the sling.
=1388.= Description and adjustment. The sling is made up of four parts: the long strap, A, forming the arm loop; the short strap, B; and the two keepers, C and D. At one end of each of the straps there is a metal claw, used for adjusting the straps. At the other end of the short straps there is a metal loop through which the longer strap is passed, thus connecting the two straps.
To adjust the sling for firing, the claw of the short strap is disengaged and reengaged in the proper holes of the short strap, such adjustment as may be necessary being also made in the long strap (the arm loop).
=1389.= What the sling does. It does two things: (1) It steadies the rifle, and (2) helps to take up the recoil,--that is, to reduce the "kick."
Its use. There are a number of different methods of using the sling. Experiment with different ones until you find and decide upon the method best suited to you.
The sling should be used in all firing,--combat practice as well as at target practice.
Always adjust the sling so that it will be tight.
Have the arm loop no longer than is necessary to reach the middle of the small of the stock. When on the arm, have the lower end of the arm loop well up near the arm pit, with the keeper well pressed down so as to hold the loop fast.
Note the proper adjustments of the sling for the different firing positions,--that is, standing, sitting, kneeling, and prone, and mark the adjustments on the inside of the arm loop, "St" (standing), "Si" (Sitting), "K" (kneeling), and "P" (prone).
It is sometimes advisable to sew a piece of rope to your shirt sleeve to keep the sling from slipping down.
=1390. To put on the sling.= 1. Put your left hand in the loop, twisting the sling to the left, A, Fig. 38, and holding the rifle with the right hand as shown in the figure. Twisting the sling to the left causes a flat surface instead of the cutting edge of the sling to rest against the wrist.
2. Extend the arm on through the loop, (Fig. 39), bringing the loop well up near the pit of the arm, grasping the piece with the left hand, and pressing down keeper, A.
3. Place left hand between the sling and piece, (Fig. 40), the hand being pressed well forward toward the upper sling swivel, A. Notice how the back of the hand is resting against the flat of the sling.
4. Come to the position of aim, Fig. 41. Pressure is applied to the sling by pressing forward the left hand, and holding the rifle to the shoulder with the right hand. Remember that whatever pressure you apply must be the same for each shot.
Notice (Figs. 41 and 42) how well forward the left hand is, and how the flat of the sling is resting against the wrist and back of hand. See how the short strap, C, (Fig. 41), of the sling is correctly loose.
The thumb should be held along the stock as shown (A) in Fig. 42.
=1391. Designation of winds.= Winds are designated as "12 o'clock," "1 o'clock," "2 o'clock," etc., winds, depending on the direction from which they come.
Imagine the firing point to be in the middle of the face of a clock and the target to be at 12 o'clock; 3 o'clock will be on your right, 9 o'clock on your left, 6 o'clock in your rear and 12 in your front.
A wind blowing from your right to your left is called a 3 o'clock wind; one blowing from your rear is called a 6 o'clock wind; one from your front, 12 o'clock wind, etc.
The score-books issued by the Ordnance Department have windage charts that have been carefully worked out and all you have to do is this: Estimate the force of the wind in miles per hour, and determine the direction from which it comes (whether a 9 o'clock wind, a 2 o'clock wind, etc.). Then look at the windage chart and see just how much windage you must take.
The simplest and best rule for the beginner is for him to make his estimate and then ask an experienced shot what windage to use, checking this up with what he found on the windage chart. In this way he soon learns to estimate for himself.
Practice estimating the wind. Ask a man who has been making 5's and 4's what windage he used and check up with your own estimate.
You can find out the direction of the wind by watching smoke, grass or the limbs of trees.
Throw up some small straws and watch which way they are blown, or wet your finger and hold it up. The wind cools the side it strikes.
A 12 o'clock wind slows up the bullet and a 6 o'clock wind helps it along,--so, in the first case you would need more elevation and in the second less elevation.
=1392. The zero of a rifle.= The twist of the bullet given by the rifling of the barrel causes the bullet to move to right, which movement, called "the drift," is compensated by having the slot in the rear sight for the drift slide, slope to the left. However, in some rifles the compensation is too great and in others it is not enough.
That reading of the wind gauge necessary to overcome the drift of a rifle at a particular range is called the "zero" of that rifle for that range, and all allowances for wind should be calculated from this reading.
The "zero" of a rifle is found by shooting it on a perfectly calm day.
=1393. Estimating distance.= Ability to estimate distances correctly is an important part of a soldier's education.
While it is true that fire on the battlefield will usually be by groups and the ranges will be given by officers, the battlefield is reached only after a long series of experiences in scouting, patrolling, and outpost duty, in which the soldier is frequently placed in positions where it is necessary that he shall determine for himself the range to be used in order that his fire may be effective.
There are different methods of estimating the range (for example, by sound, trial shots, range-finding instruments, etc.), but the only ones that the average soldier need know are those of estimating distance by the eye and by trial shots.
To estimate distance by the eye with accuracy, it is necessary to be familiar with the appearance, as to length, of a unit of measure which can be compared mentally with the distance which is to be estimated. The most convenient unit of length is 100 yards. To impress upon the soldier the extent of a stretch of 100 yards two posts 100 yards apart, with short stakes between to mark each 25 yards, should be placed near the barracks, or on the drill ground, and the soldier required to pace off the marked distance several times, counting his steps. He will thus learn how many of his steps make 100 yards and will become familiar with the appearance of the whole distance and of its fractional parts.
Next a distance of more than 100 yards will be shown him and he will be required to compare this distance with the 100-yard unit and to estimate it. Having made his estimate, he will be required to verify its accuracy by pacing the distance.
A few minutes each day should be spent in this practice, the soldier often being required to make his estimate by raising his rear-sight leaf and showing it to the instructor. After the first drills the soldier should be required to pace the distance only when the estimate is unusually inaccurate.
The soldier should be taught that, in judging the distance from the enemy, his estimate may be corrected by a careful observation of the clearness with which details of dress, the movements of limbs or of the files in a line may be seen. In order to derive the benefit of this method, the soldier will be required to observe closely all the details noted above in single men or squads of men posted at varying distances, which will be measured and announced.
Although the standing and kneeling silhouettes used in field practice afford good objects upon which to estimate distances, the instructor should make frequent use of living figures and natural objects, as this is the class of targets from which the soldier will be compelled to estimate his range in active service.
=1394. Methods of estimating long distances by the eye.= The following methods are found useful:
(a) The soldier may decide that the object cannot be more than a certain distance away nor less than a certain distance; his estimates must be kept within the closest possible limits and the mean of the two taken as the range.
(b) The soldier selects a point which he considers the middle point of the whole distance, estimates this half distance and doubles it, or he similarly divides the distance into a certain number of lengths which are familiar to him.
(c) The soldier estimates the distance along a parallel line, as a road on one side, having on it well-defined objects.
(d) The soldier takes the mean of several estimates made by different persons. This method is not applicable to instruction.
=1395. Determination of distance by trial shots or volleys.= If the ground is so dry or dusty that the fall of the bullets is visible to the naked eye or through a field glass, distance may be determined by using a number of trial shots or volleys.
In the case of individual trial shots, the soldier sets his sight at the estimated range, watching to see where the bullet strikes,--or some other man, with or without field glasses, may watch to see where it strikes. If the bullet strikes beyond the target, the estimated sight setting is decreased; if it falls short, the sight setting is increased.
In case of volleys, the sights are set at the estimated range and a volley is fired. If it appears to strike a little short of the mark, an increase in elevation of 100 yards is used for the next volley. When we have the target inclosed between two volleys, we take the mean of the estimated ranges for the correct range. For example, if the first estimated range were 1000 and the second 1100, the correct range would be 1050.
=1396. Appearance of objects: How modified by varying conditions of light; difference of level, etc.= During instruction the men should be taught the effect of varying conditions of light and terrain upon the apparent distance of an object.
Objects seem nearer--
(a) When the object is in a bright light.
(b) When the color of the object contrasts sharply with the color of the background.
(c) When looking over water, snow, or a uniform surface like a wheat field.
(d) When looking from a height downward.
(e) In the clear atmosphere of high altitudes.
Objects seem more distant--
(a) When looking over a depression in the ground.
(b) When there is a poor light or a fog.
(c) When only a small part of the object can be seen.
(d) When looking from low ground upward toward higher ground.
=1397. Effect of heat and cold.= Heat causes shots to strike high, and cold causes them to strike low.
Therefore, if you shot on a warm day and made 5's, and recorded temperature and other conditions in your score-book, you would know on looking at your score sheets that you should raise your elevation, if you were firing on a cold day.
=1398. Effect of moisture.= Dampness causes shots to strike high and dryness causes them to strike low. Therefore, on damp days take lower elevations than on dry days.
=1399. Effect of light.= Light affects the aiming without the beginner knowing it. It does not, however, affect the travel of the bullet.
A dark target causes a tendency to aim farther below the bull's-eye than if the target were bright. Therefore, use higher elevations with dark targets. As it gets darker, higher elevations should be used.
If you always aim carefully and correctly the light will have little effect on your aiming,--that is, if your eyesight is good.
If you are shooting in a dull light and a bright sun comes out, say on your right, there is a tendency to move the front sight to the opposite (left) side of the rear sight notch, since the near (right) edge is shaded and obscured somewhat. Therefore 1/4 to 1/2 windage into the sun (right in this case) should be taken to overcome this.
In using battle sight, hold higher for a bright light.
We also raise our sights if a strong sun comes out. Therefore, we have this rule: Move your rear sight into the sun, just as you do for a wind,--and raise your elevation.
=1400. Mirage= gives a wavering appearance to the target. It is heated air that is moving. It is sometimes called "heat waves."
With the wind between 2 and 14 miles an hour on clear, hot days the waves can be seen moving across the target.
When there is no wind or a light six o'clock wind, the waves go straight up, or "boil." Never fire when the mirage is boiling,--wait for it to move from one side to the other and then take windage to correct for it.
=1401. Summary of temperature, light and moisture effects:=
Raise elevation for--
Dull target Shooting in the sun Hot gun Dirty gun Cold day Bright or shining sight Cloudy day 12 o'clock wind
Lower elevation for--
Bright target Target in sun Cold gun Clean gun Hot day Moist day Full sights 6 o'clock wind
=1402. Firing with bayonet fixed.= In firing with bayonet fixed usually a lower point on the target will be struck, corresponding to a reduction of about 50 yards in the range.
=1403. Care of rifle.= Since the accuracy of a soldier's rifle has a most important bearing on his shooting, and since the proper care of a rifle affects its accuracy, the care of the rifle is an important subject in which every soldier should be thoroughly instructed. The subject is fully covered in the preceding chapter. (Chapter XV, Part I).
COLLECTIVE INSTRUCTION
(Combat practice)
=1404. General scheme.= While individual instruction is most important, it is not everything. The maximum effect of fire in battle is obtained when a command, as a whole, is a pliable, manageable, effective instrument in the hands of a commander who can use it intelligently and efficiently. Therefore, the two objects to be obtained are:
1. To make the command a pliable, manageable, effective instrument in the hands of its commander.
2. To train and instruct the commander so that he will know how to use this instrument in an intelligent and efficient manner.
=1405. To make the fire unit a pliable, manageable, efficient instrument.= In order that a unit may be a pliable, manageable, efficient instrument in the hands of its commander, he must be able to control the unit absolutely,--that is to say, not only must the individuals composing the unit be so trained that they will respond at once, even in the din and confusion of battle, to the will of the commander, as expressed by his orders, but they must also be so instructed and disciplined that they can, as individual parts of the unit, perform their functions efficiently. This is accomplished by fire discipline.
=1406. Fire discipline.= By fire discipline is meant a habit of obedience, a control of the rifle, and a display of intelligence, all the result of training, which will enable the soldier in action to make hits instead of misses. It embraces taking advantage of the ground; care in setting the sight and delivery of fire, including proper fire distribution; constant attention to the orders of the leaders and careful observation of the enemy; an increase of fire when the target is favorable, and a cessation of fire when the enemy disappears; economy of ammunition.
=1407. To train and instruct the commander to use the unit with intelligence and efficiency.= In order to handle the unit with intelligence and efficiency, utilizing to the greatest extent possible the power of all the rifles under his command, not only must the commander be able to control the unit, having it respond at once to his every command, but he must also know tactics, and be thoroughly familiar with the technical principles of infantry fire.
=1408. Combat exercises.= A combat exercise consists of the application of tactical principles to certain assumed battle situation, in the execution of which are employed the appropriate formations and movements of close and extended order drill, and in which, as a rule, ball cartridges are used in firing at the targets.
By means of combat exercises, the unit commanders are trained and instructed in applying tactical principles, in controlling and directing the fire of their units and the men are trained and instructed in fire discipline.
The tactical principles applicable to combat exercises are covered in the Infantry Drill Regulations, under the headings of "Fire" and "Combat."
=1409. Technical principles of firing.= The technical principles of firing are given in detail in the Small-Arms Firing Manual, a summary of which is given below under the headings of, The Effect of Fire, The Influence of the Ground, and The Adjustment of Fire.
The Effect of Fire
=1410. Ballistic qualities of the rifle.= The accuracy of a rifle, the flatness of its trajectory, and its disabling power,--that is, the power it has to disable the enemy,--are called its ballistic qualities.
The accuracy of the U. S. Springfield rifle, caliber .30, model of 1903, is very high,--probably superior to that of any other military rifle.
The flatness of trajectory is dependent upon the muzzle velocity, and, to some extent, upon the form of the bullet. Our bullet is pointed and the muzzle velocity is 2700 feet per second, which is a very high muzzle velocity.
Two rifles of different type may be equally accurate, but the accuracy of the one having the flatter trajectory will, naturally, be less affected by slight errors in sight setting.
Again, another advantage of the rifle with the flatter trajectory is that it holds more ground under its fire. For example, take our service rifle: At a range of 500 yards, the bullet, at the highest point in its trajectory or line of flight, is 2 feet above the line of sight. It is, therefore, apparent that if the bottom of an object 2 feet or greater, is aimed at, it would be struck if it were anywhere under 500 yards. Now, take a rifle with a very curved trajectory, say one whose bullet, at the highest point of the trajectory corresponding to a range of 500 yards, is 10 feet above the line of sight. There will be a large extent of ground between the target and the rifle that is not danger space for a target 2 feet above the line of sight. Hence, we see that the rifle with the flatter trajectory is better.
The continuous danger space afforded by the flat trajectory of our service rifle enables us to adopt a universal sight for all ranges up to 500 yards,--that is, the battle sight, which is the rear sight ready for use when the sight leaf is laid down.
=1411. Cone of fire or cone of dispersion.= If a body of soldiers fire at the same target the bullets will not, of course, follow the same path, but will be scattered. This is due to differences in sights, parts of the rifle, ammunition, and to a greater extent, to the individual errors of the soldiers in aiming and firing.
The trajectories or paths of the bullets considered together form a horn-shaped figure or cone, called the Cone of fire or cone of dispersion. (See Fig. 44.)
=1412. Shot group and center of impact.= If the cone of fire be intercepted by a target (for example, A O, Fig. 44) at right angles to the axis of the cone, the shot holes will make a pattern or group called the shot group, the holes being the thickest approximately in the center of the group, called the center of impact. From this point in all directions the density of the grouping decreases progressively,--at first gradually, then more rapidly, out to the limits of the group.
Naturally, the size of the cone of fire and of the shot group vary with the skill of those firing, good shots making a small cone and small group, and poor shots a large cone and large group.
=1413. Beaten zone.= The intersection of the cone of dispersion with the surface of the ground is called the beaten zone.
If the surface of the ground is horizontal, the form of the beaten zone is that of an ellipse with its longer axis in the direction of the line of fire, as shown in Fig. 45.
In view of the fact that at the long ranges the angle of fall of the bullets is much greater than at short ranges, it follows that at short ranges the elliptical figure (beaten zone) is much more elongated than at long ranges. In other words, the longer the range, the shorter is the depth of the beaten zone. This is shown in Fig. 45.
=1414. Uncertainty and ineffectiveness of long-range fire.= It follows from what has been said, that as the range increases the length of the beaten zone decreases,--that is, a less depth of ground is held under fire. That being the case, if an error is made in sight setting due, for example, to an incorrect estimate of the range, the proportionate loss of fire effect due to misplacement of the center of impact will be greater as the beaten zone is less,--that is, as the range is greater.
Furthermore, the difficulty of exact range determination increases with the distance, the two influences combining to make long-range fire uncertain and usually ineffective.
=1415. Zone of effective fire.= That portion of the ground which contains the best 75 per cent of the shots in the beaten zone, is called the zone of effective fire.
Effectiveness of Fire
=1416. Factors involved.= The effectiveness of fire depends upon these three factors:
(1) The percentage of hits made; (2) The number of targets hit; (3) The time of execution.
That is to say, the effectiveness of fire is determined by the number of enemies disabled or targets hit in a given time.
=1417. Percentage of hits.= By the percentage of hits is meant the proportion of all the bullets fired that hit the targets. For example, if 1000 bullets are fired and 750 hit the targets, then the percentage of hits is 75.
The percentage of hits depends upon the dispersion, and this is influenced by the precision of the arm, the range, the visibility of the target, the atmospheric conditions, the training and instruction of the troops, and upon their physical and moral state at the time. In addition, the percentage of hits also depends upon the character of the ground as favoring ricochet hits, upon the correct estimation of the range and the proper designation of the target.
=1418. Number of targets hit.= The number of targets hit,--that is, the distribution of fire,--may be affected by varying degrees of visibility, as men instinctively choose the more conspicuous marks as aiming points. Under any circumstances, a poor distribution of the hits made will be due to an absence of proper instructions from the leaders; or, in other words, to poor control, or else to a want of understanding or lack of obedience on the part of the men.
=1419. Time of execution.= The time of execution is important in that the gaining of fire superiority is dependent less upon obtaining high percentages of hits than upon making an absolutely large number of hits in a unit of time. There is necessarily a limit to the rapidity of fire which, if exceeded, will result in some loss of accuracy. With targets of a fair degree of visibility, the following may be taken as standard rates of fire for troops who have been given suitable training in target practice:
200 yards } 300 yards } 10 shots per minute. 400 yards }
500 yards } 600 yards } 7.5 shots per minute. 700 yards }
800 yards } 900 yards } 5 shots per minute. 1,000 yards }
Greater ranges, 3 shots per minute.
The rates given should not exclude higher rates of fire in the case of large and conspicuous targets. On the other hand, when objectives, or marks used as aiming points, are very indistinct, the requirement of correct aiming imposes rates of fire somewhat lower than the standard rates given even for well-instructed men.
With imperfectly trained men who have not fully acquired the habit of using aimed fire only, and who are lacking in the manual dexterity required for executing the standard rates of fire, the maximum rate can not well exceed six shots per minute without incurring the danger of lapsing into unaimed fire.
Fatigue and exhaustion, the results of marches or prolonged firing, have a detrimental influence and tend to lower the rates of effective fire.
Influence of Ground
=1420. Defilade.= If we will consider a bullet just grazing the top of an impenetrable obstacle (like "A," Fig. 46), the space from the top of such obstacle to where the bullet strikes the ground (space B E, Fig. 46) will be protected from fire. Such space is called, "defiladed space." Its extent will, of course, depend on the height of the obstacle, the curvature of the trajectory and the slope of the ground in rear of the obstacles.
Between B and D, a soldier standing would be completely protected; between D and E, he would be only partially protected. To obtain complete protection between D and E the soldier would have to assume the kneeling or prone position, depending on how far away from D he was.
By cover is meant effective defilade from the enemy's fire.
By concealment is meant screening from view but not necessarily protection from fire.
=1421. Rising and falling ground.= The influence of the ground upon the effect of fire is at once seen by studying Fig. 44.
If the ground rises, as shown by B O and A O, the depth of the beaten zone (and consequently the effect of fire) decreases. On the other hand, if the ground falls (up to a certain point), the depth of the beaten zone (and consequently the effect of fire) increases.
=1422. Depth of beaten zone affects only targets having depth.= It should be remembered that depth of beaten zone can affect only targets which have depth.
On a target in the form of a line,--a line of skirmishers, for example,--the depth of the beaten zone has no effect one way or the other. If such a target, however, is backed up by supports and reserves, the depth of the beaten zone may have a decided effect on them, depending upon their distance in rear of the line forming the target and the slope of the ground in rear of such target.
In this connection, attention is invited to Fig. 47, which shows how in the case of a fire delivered from a height at a target on a horizontal plane beneath, the beaten zone is shortened and consequently the fire effect decreased.
An example of increasing the depth of beaten zone is seen in Fig. 48, which shows a fire delivered from low ground at a target on the edge of a plateau or crest of a ridge from which the ground slopes to the rear.
=1423. Grazing fire.= Shots which pass over a crest with an angle of fall conforming, or nearly conforming, to the slope of the ground beyond the edge of the crest (as shown in Fig. 48), are called grazing shots and fire so delivered is called grazing fire.
=1424. Diminution or increase in fire effect due to rising and falling ground.= In connection with the diminution or increase in fire effect due to rising and falling ground, attention is invited to the following:
1. If the ground slopes upward to the rear from a firing line, the supports may be placed closer without increasing the danger from fire aimed at the firing line.
2. When the ground slopes down and to the rear from the firing line forming the target, the supports must be posted at a greater distance in rear, unless the slope is so much greater than the angle of fall of the hostile bullets that a defiladed space is created in which no bullets strike, in which case the supports may be brought up close to the crest.
3. On ground rising with respect to the line of sight, column targets (i. e., having depth) will suffer greater losses than lineal targets.
4. On ground falling with respect to the line of sight, the reverse slope of hills or the level grounds of plateaus, line targets will suffer the greater losses.
=1425. Ricochet shots.= When a bullet strikes any surface and is deflected it is called a ricochet shot.
Not only do bullets that ricochet usually tumble after striking, but they are also mutilated, so that wounds inflicted by ricochet hits are usually severe.
The most favorable ground for ricochets is a smooth, hard, horizontal surface, the aim being low, the chance of ricochets in sand is very slight.
=1426. Occupation of ground.= The question of the occupation of ground presents these two aspects:
1. What firing positions may be chosen which will tend to increase the losses of the enemy?
2. What positions may be chosen and formations adopted to minimize our own losses?
The selection of a defensive position presents this question: Shall it be near the crest or well down the slope?
A position well down the slope
Advantages:
1. The depth of the beaten zone for fire delivered from the position is increased and the upper portion of the cone of fire will include the supports and reserves advancing to reenforce the hostile firing line. That is to say, the fire will be a grazing fire.
2. It eliminates dead spaces that might otherwise exist at the bottom of the slope.
3. The hostile fire being directed against a point well down the slope, the high ground in rear will interpose as a defilade and intercept the upper portion of the cone of fire which might otherwise take effect on the supports and reserves behind the crest.
Disadvantages:
1. It makes withdrawal difficult in case it becomes necessary to fall back.
2. It is difficult to reenforce the firing line.
A position near the crest
Advantages:
1. It favors observation of the enemy.
2. It makes withdrawal easy in case it becomes necessary to fall back.
3. It is easy to reenforce the firing line by the supports advancing from behind the crest.
Disadvantages:
1. The depth of the beaten zone is decreased and consequently the cone of fire will probably not include the supports and reserves advancing to reenforce the hostile firing fire. In other words, the fire will be a plunging fire.
2. It is likely to result in dead spaces at the bottom of the slope.
3. It affords a good target for the hostile artillery.
Whether or not a position near the crest or a position down the slope should be chosen, depends, in each case, upon circumstances.
For instance in a rear guard action, where a determined stand is not contemplated, a position near the crest would be occupied. On the other hand, if a determined stand were contemplated, the terrain offered good opportunity for the delivery of an effective grazing fire, and we had reason to believe that we were going to be subjected to heavy artillery fire, a position at the foot of the slope would be selected.
However, it may be said that, in general, a defensive position should be near the bottom of the slope.
=1427. Gentle reverse slopes.= From the point of view of avoiding losses, all gentle reverse slopes are dangerous and are to be avoided when possible.
When necessary to traverse or to occupy such ground, precautions must be taken to protect the reserves or other bodies of troops by placing them on the flanks; by disposing them in formations with a narrow front; by causing them to lie down; by the construction of suitable shelter, and by avoiding useless movements.
Adjustment of Fire
=1428. Fire at stationary targets.= The correct adjustment of fire is attained by causing the center of impact to fall on the center of the target. This is the problem constantly presented in combat firing.
The two important elements entering into this problem are, (1) the commander and (2) the troops. When a body of troops has aimed correctly at the target indicated, with the elevation ordered and has fired with steadiness, it has done all that can be expected of it, but that is not sufficient; for, if the commander, by giving the wrong sight-setting, for example, has failed to cause the center of impact to fall on the center, of the target, the result may be nothing. Hence the vital importance of knowing and announcing the correct range.
It is known that good shots make a small group and poor shots a large group, average shots making a group of intermediate size.
It is frequently stated that troops composed of good shots are not so effective in collective firing as poorer shots. How is this possible? The explanation is simple. The shot group of the good shots is small and if misplaced by an error in range estimation few hits result while the shot group of poorer shots, being larger, is not so much affected by the same error in range estimation, will cover the ground, and probably hit more figures. This, of course, is only true when a considerable error has been made in estimating the range.
As battle targets are mostly line targets, a displacement to the right or left does not amount to much, but an error in depth (range), as stated before, is serious. Thus we, see that the correct determination of the range is very important.
=1429. Determination of range.= The range may be determined, with only a small error, by a range finder. There are several other methods, as, for instance, by trial shots,--the dust thrown up by the bullet showing whether the range is too short or too great,--by sound, by the appearance of objects, etc., but except in deliberately prepared defensive positions, estimating by eye will be the most practicable method of estimating the range. For all practical purposes a very satisfactory result will be obtained by taking the average estimates of several trained men.
In observing the effect of the fire the ground may be wet, or covered with turf, sod or brush in which no signs of striking shots can be seen. By careful use of good field glasses some indication of the place where the shots are going, may be obtained. The actions of the enemy may often indicate whether the fire is effective or not.
=1430. Combined sights.= All other means failing, combined sights may be resorted to. By this is meant firing part of the troops with sights set at one range and part with a range greater or less by 100 yards or more. This increases the beaten zone and will generally assure a certain amount of fire effect. This method is seldom used under 500 yards.
=1431. Auxiliary aiming points.= It frequently happens that the target is so well concealed that it is invisible. In this case some well defined object in front or behind it must be used as an aiming target, and the range given so that the beaten zone will include the actual target at its center.
=1432. Fire at moving targets.= In firing at a moving enemy, a beaten zone must be established immediately in front, his forward movement into this zone completing the adjustment of fire. Due to the chance of overestimating the range, a sight-setting must be taken well under the estimated range (usually about 200 yards against advancing infantry).
When the fire becomes effective, as may be judged by the actions and movements of the enemy, the rate of fire should be quickened in order to increase the effect of the fire.
Frequent changes of sight not only cause a loss of time, but they also multiply chances of error in sight-setting. Changes in sight-setting against advancing infantry should not be less than 200 yards at a time, that is to say, when the enemy has passed through the zone of effective fire, the sight should be lowered 200 yards and the operation repeated until the battle-sight zone is reached, when the rear-sight leaf is thrown down and no other sight manipulation is made.
Against skirmish lines advancing by rushes, the sight-setting should not be changed during a rush, but it should be done at the halts, so that the greater vulnerability of the targets presented during the rush may be taken advantage of.
Against retreating infantry, use the estimated range, and when the target appears to have passed beyond the zone of effective fire, add 200 yards to the sight-setting.
Against attacking cavalry, due to the rapidity of the advance, there will not usually be time for sight manipulation other than throwing down the rear-sight leaf, so that the battle should be resorted to at all ranges.
In firing at a target moving across the line of fire it is desirable, on account of the confusion caused thereby, to hit the head of the column. It is necessary, therefore, to hold to the front a distance sufficient to allow for the time of flight and the rate of march. This will be accomplished by the observance of the following rough rules:
1. Against infantry, hold against the head of the marching column;
2. Against cavalry at a trot, hold to the front 1 yard for every 100 yards of range; and at a gallop, 2 yards for every 100 yards of range.
=1433. Night firing.= In night firing it is almost impossible to adjust the fire by ordinary means.
In night attacks the purpose of the offensive is to gain rapidly and quietly a position where the issue may be decided in a hand to hand encounter, or a position from which the superiority of fire may be gained at daylight. For the offensive, therefore, fire action is a subordinate consideration.
On the defensive, when a night attack is apprehended, preparations should be made to sweep with fire the ground immediately in front over which the assailant must advance.
Special arrangements may sometimes be made for resting rifles on the parapet, so that the ground in front will be suitably covered. A solid support is necessary for maintaining the proper direction of the pieces during firing. For this purpose notched boards or timbers are convenient. The arrangements should be such that the operations of loading and firing may be performed without removing the rifles from the support.
Searchlight illumination may reveal the position and movements of the enemy sufficiently well to permit the use of the sights. In night operations of small parties fire may be well directed when a bright, well-defined light, such as a camp fire, is presented as an aiming point. In such a case a slight illumination of the front sight is required.
Fire Direction and Control
=1434. General.= As stated before in substance, the maximum effect of fire can be gotten only by instructed and disciplined troops under a commander capable of directing and controlling their fire properly.
The fire of a company may be likened to spraying water from a hose, and as the fireman can shift his stream of water from one point to the other with certainty, being able to direct and control it with promptness and accuracy, so should the company commander be able to switch the cone of fire of his company from one target to another, having it at all times under direction and control. In other words, as the pliable, manageable hose responds to the will of the fireman, so should the company be so trained and instructed that it will respond to the will of the company commander on the firing line, in the midst of the noise and confusion of battle. No one except a man who has been in battle can realize how great are the noise and confusion, and how necessary and important are cooeperation, team-work, discipline, and communication, in order for a company commander to control and direct the fire of the company--there must be absolute cooeperation, team-work, and communication between all parts of the company--between the captain and the platoon leaders, the platoon leaders and the squad leaders, and the squad leaders and the members of their squads. Each and every man must know and do his part and endeavor all he can to keep in touch with and help the others. Now, the foundation of team-work and cooeperation, is communication--communication between the company commander and the men on the firing line--the means by which, the medium through which he will make known his will to the men on the firing line. As stated before, because of the noise and confusion on the firing line this is no easy matter. The ideal way would be for the company commander to control the company by communicating direct with every man on the firing line, as graphically shown on the following page:
However, in the noise and confusion of battle it would be utterly impossible for all the men to hear the captain's voice. Experience shows that from 20 to 35 rifles are as many as one leader can control. The captain, must, therefore, control the company through the platoon commanders--that is to say, he actually directs the fire and the platoon commanders, assisted by the squad leaders, actually control it. In other words, the captain communicates with the men on the firing line, he makes his will known to them, through his platoon commanders, as graphically shown in this diagram:
However, in order for our system of communication to be successful, each and every man, as stated above, must know and do his part and endeavor all he can to help the others. If this is done, then the different parts and elements of the company will dove-tail and fit into one another, resulting in a complete, homogeneous whole, in the form of an efficient, pliable, manageable instrument in the hands of the company commander. And this is the object, the result, sought by practice and instruction in field firing, and which will be obtained if the captain, the platoon leaders, the squad leaders, the file closers, the musicians, and the privates, will perform the following duties and functions:
=1435. The Captain.= (Fire direction.)
The captain directs the fire of the company or of designated platoons. He designates the target, and, when practicable, allots a part of the target to each platoon. Before beginning the fire action he determines the range, announces the sight setting, and indicates the class of fire to be employed, and the time to open fire. Thereafter, he observes the fire effect, corrects material errors in sight setting, prevents exhaustion of the ammunition supply, and causes the distribution of such extra ammunition as may be received from the rear. (I. D. R. 249.)
Having indicated clearly what he desires the platoon leaders to do, the captain avoids interfering, except to correct serious errors or omissions. (I. D. R. 240.)
=1436. The Platoon Leaders.= (Fire direction.)
In combat the platoon is the fire unit. (I. D. R. 250.)
Each platoon leader puts into execution the commands or directions of the captain, having first taken such precautions to insure correct sight setting and clear description of the target or aiming point as the situation permits or requires; thereafter, he gives such additional commands or directions as are necessary to exact compliance with the captain's will. He corrects the sight setting when necessary. He designates an aiming point when the target cannot be seen with the naked eye.
In general, platoon leaders observe the target and the effect of their fire and are on the alert for the captain's commands or signals; they observe and regulate the rate of fire. (I. D. R. 252.)
=1437. The Guides= watch the firing line and check every breach of fire discipline.
=1438. The Squad Leaders= transmit commands and signals when necessary, observe the conduct of their squads and abate excitement, assist in enforcing fire discipline and participate in the firing.
Every squad leader should place himself just a little in advance of the rest of his squad and by occasionally glancing to the right and left, observe how the men of their squads are doing--whether they are firing at the proper objective, if the sights are apparently properly adjusted, if they are firing too rapidly, etc. After each shot the squad leader should look toward his platoon leader, and then glance to his right and left to observe his men, and then load and fire again.
=1439. The Musicians= assist the captain by observing the enemy, the target, and the fire effect, by transmitting commands or signals, and by watching for signals. (I. D. R. 235.)
=1440. The Privates= will take advantage of cover, exercise care in setting the sights and delivering fire; be on the constant lookout for orders from their leaders; always aim deliberately; observe the enemy carefully, increasing the fire when the target is favorable and ceasing firing when the enemy disappears; not neglect a target because it is indistinct; not waste ammunition, but be economical with it; if firing without a leader to retain their presence of mind and direct an efficient fire upon the proper target.
=1441. Distribution of Fire.= The distribution of fire over the entire target is of the greatest importance; for, a section of the target not covered by fire represents a number of the enemy permitted to fire coolly and effectively. So, remember that all parts of the target are equally important, and care must be taken that the men do not neglect its less visible parts.
The captain allots a part of the target to each platoon, or each platoon leader takes as his target that part which corresponds to his position in the company. Every man is so instructed that he will fire on that part of the target which is directly opposite him.
If the target cannot be seen with the naked eye, platoon leaders select an object in front of or behind it, designate this as the aiming point, and direct a sight-setting which will carry the fire into the target. The men aim at the good aiming point or line, but with such an increased or decreased sight-setting, as the case may be, that the bullets will fall on the target instead of on the aiming point.
Distribution of fire is assured by dividing the whole target assigned the company into definite parts or sectors, and allotting these parts or sectors to the various platoons. And, of course, the whole of the target must be kept under fire while the company is advancing. This may be accomplished by one of two methods:
=1442. Overlapping Method.= In this method each sector (target) is covered by more than one fire unit. For example, in a company of four platoons the entire company sector would be divided in two parts, the right part being covered by the first and second platoons and the left part by the third and fourth platoons. When the first platoon ceases fire to advance, the second platoon would replace the lost rifles by firing faster. With three platoons the company sector would be divided into two parts, one being assigned to each flank platoon and the whole company sector to the center platoon. When the first platoon advanced, the center platoon would cover its target, both the center and third platoons increasing their rate of fire. With two platoons, each would cover the whole company sector.
=1443. Switch Method.= The company is divided into a number of parts, one less than the number of platoons in the company. One platoon is designated as the "switch," and swings into fire automatically into that sector from which the fire of its assigned unit is withdrawn. For example, with four platoons, and platoon rushes to start from the right, the company sector is divided into three parts assigned to the first, second and third platoons, the fourth being the "switch." When number 1 ceases fire to advance, No. 4 fires at No. 1's target; when No. 2 ceases to fire, No. 4 fires at No. 2's target, then at No. 3's target, and finally No. 4 advances.
=1444. Individual instruction in fire distribution.= Every man should be thoroughly drilled, instructed and trained always to fire at that part of the hostile target which corresponds to the position he occupies in his platoon. That is to say, if on the right of his platoon, he fires at the right (as he faces it) of the hostile target; if in the right center of his platoon, he fires at the right center (as he faces it) of the target, and so on. This is represented by the following diagram, the points A', B', C', etc., representing the parts of the hostile target at which the men occupying the positions A, B, C, etc., in their platoon, would fire:
=1445. Designation of target.= It is very important that the commanders should be able to describe the objectives to be attacked and the sectors[19] to be defended, and that individual soldiers should be able to understand and transmit to other soldiers such descriptions. Within the squad, target designation implies ability on the part of the squad leader to understand and transmit to his squad the target designation received from his platoon leader, and also ability on his own part to designate a target intelligently; within the platoon, target designation implies ability on the part of the platoon leader to understand the company commander's designation of the target and to transmit that designation to his platoon in such manner as to insure an equal distribution of its fire within the sector assigned to it; within the company, target designation implies ability on the part of the company commander to designate the targets into which the company sector is divided in such manner that the platoon leaders will have no trouble in understanding him. It also implies ability on the part of the company commander to change the objectives or sectors of his platoons, and his ability to cover the whole target of the company during a forward movement of a part of the company, by the so-called "switch" or the "overlapping" method, or by any other method which is practicable and accomplishes the desired end. Targets should be designated in a concise, prompt, unmistakable manner, but, as we all know, it is not always an easy matter to describe the location of an object, especially if the object be not conspicuous or readily recognized. This is due to two reasons: First, the unit commander is likely to indulge in vague talk instead of accurate description, and, second, even if correct terms are used, it is more than likely that all members of the firing line will not be able to grasp the idea, because the commander will be using expressions which, although understood by himself (in some cases perhaps due to the fact that he is looking at the objective), they will not be clear to the men. The secret of prompt, accurate and concise designation of a target lies in the use of simple words and terms with which both the unit commander and the men on the firing line are thoroughly familiar.
Of course, if the target be distinct and clearly defined, it can easily be designated by name, as for example, "That battery on the hill just in front of us," "Cavalry to our right front," etc.
Generally the designation of a target, if not conspicuous nor readily recognized, will include:
1. A statement of what the target is, or its appearance (shape, color, size, etc.)
2. Where the target is with reference to some easily recognized reference point.
3. How wide the company sector is.
The following systems of target designation are used at the School of Musketry. Each has its limitations, defects and advantages, under various conditions of ground, etc. A wise selection of one or a combination of two or more, is a material factor in efficiency.
=1446. Horizontal Clock Face System.= (Used with visible, distinct targets.)
SYSTEM EXAMPLE
1. Announce direction. "At one o'clock."
2. Announce range. "Range 1000."
3. Announce objective. "A troop of cavalry dismounted."
PROCEDURE:
1. All look along the line pointing toward one o'clock of a horizontal clock face whose center is at the firing point, and whose 12 o'clock mark is directly perpendicular to the front of the firing line.
2. All look at a point about 1000 yards away on the one o'clock line, and
3. At 1000 yards on the one o'clock line find the objective.
=1447. Vertical Clock Face System.= (Used with small or indistinct targets.)
SYSTEM EXAMPLE
1. Announce the general direction "To our right front" (or "At two of the reference point. o'clock").
2. Designate as a reference point "A stone house with two chimneys." the most prominent object in the zone indicated.
3. Announce the position of the "At three o'clock." target with respect to the reference point.
4. Announce the range. "Range 1000."
5. Announce the objective. "A hostile patrol of four men."
PROCEDURE:
1. All men look to their right front (or along the two o'clock line).
2. The reference point (stone house) is found in the indicated direction.
3. A clock face (vertical) is imagined centered on the reference point, and the men look along the line leading from the clock center through three o'clock, and
4. 1000 yards from the firing point.
5. Find the hostile patrol.
=1447a. Finger System.= (Used with indistinct or invisible targets and to define sectors.)
(By one "Finger" we mean the amount of frontage that one finger, held vertically, will cover, the arm being extended horizontally to its full length. In the average case this amount of frontage covered is about 1/20 of the range. For instance, at a range of 1000 yards, one "Finger" will cover fifty yards of the sector The same result will be obtained by using the rear-sight leaf in the position of aiming.)
SYSTEM EXAMPLE
1. Announce direction to "To our right front, at 1000 yards." reference point as in the vertical clock face system.
2. Announce reference point. "A stone house with two chimneys."
3. Announce angular distance and "Four o'clock, three fingers." direction from the reference point to the target.
4. Announce range. "Range 1000."
5. Announce objective. "A skirmish line alongside of the fence, length about two fingers, right at the dark bush."
PROCEDURE:
The reference point is found as explained, and the vertical o'clock line upon which the target will be found. The soldiers who do not see the target will extend the aim to its full extent palm of the hand upward, finger held vertically with one side of the hand "against" the reference point. The target will be found on the four o'clock line, and touching the third finger, at 1000 yards distance, its right flank at the bush and its left flank about 100 yards farther to the right.
The following case will illustrate more concretely the use of the "Finger" system:
There is a red house about 3/4 mile to our front, and to the right of this house and a hundred yards or so to its rear, there is a line of trenches that can be seen with the aid of field glasses, but the trenches are difficult to locate with the unaided eye. There is no prominent landmark in the direction of this line of trenches, or on either flank, except the red house mentioned. The company commander locates the flanks of the line of trenches through his field glasses; he then extends his arm forward horizontally its full length, palm up, raises the fingers of his hand and, sighting on the line of trenches, finds that the trench line has a length of four "finger widths," and that the flank of the line nearest the red house is three "finger widths" from it. He decides to divide the line into two sections of two "fingers" each, and assign one section to each of his two platoons. He then calls his platoon leaders (and range finders, if necessary), and says, for instance: "Center of objective, five to the right of that red house, First Platoon, two fingers; Second Platoon, two fingers." The two platoon leaders then estimate the range and give the company commander their estimates independently. The company commander also estimates the range, and taking the average, then announces the range, say 1300 yards, after which the platoon leaders return to their platoons, and give, for instance, these instructions: "The target is a line of trenches four 'fingers' long, and about 1300 yards away; the center of the target is five 'fingers' to the right of that red house, at about 10 o'clock. We are to fire at the two fingers on the right of the center and the Second Platoon will look after the two fingers on the left of the center." (The leader of the Second Platoon gives similar instructions.)
Every man in the platoon figures out the platoon objective and endeavors to fix it with respect to some features of the ground so that he will be able to pick it up promptly after his platoon starts to advance. After fixing well in his mind the platoon objective, he figures out what part of it belongs to his squad, and then selects that portion of the squad objective corresponding to his position in the squad. If during the advance, his particular portion of the target should become hidden from view, he will fire on the nearest portion of the trench line, returning to his own part as soon as it becomes visible.
=1447b. Communication.= After the company has been committed to the fire fight, verbal commands cannot be heard, and it is well nigh impossible even to secure attention to signals. It is, therefore, most important that we should train and practice the company as much as possible during time of peace in the rapid and accurate transmission of orders and signals along the firing line.
Matter upon which a commander would need to communicate with his subordinates, in addition to tactical orders, would generally be confined to:
(a) Changes of elevation and deflection.
(b) Changes in the apportionment of the target among the subdivisions.
(c) Changes within the limits of the sector, or objective.
(d) Changes in the rate of fire.
(e) And rarely change of target from one within to one without the limits of the objective or sector.
=1448. Procedure.= The following is given merely as a concrete example of the procedure that might be followed in certain ring exercises--it will not, of course, apply to all cases; it is merely given as a concrete illustration of what might actually be done under certain conditions.
Company Commander. On receiving his instructions from the officer in charge of the exercise, the company commander returns to his company, keeping track of the changing aspect of his target as he does so. Arriving at the center of his company, he is met by his platoon leaders, and range finders, who have assembled in his absence. The company commander says:
"The target is a line of skirmishers, visible in part. It may be seen between us and that long line of green bushes which begins one finger to the right of that red water tower at 11 o'clock and it extends well beyond the bushes both to the right and to the left."
(At this point the range finders begin their estimation and the captain pauses until the senior range finder, or other designated person automatically announces the average estimate of the range, saying for example, "range 1100.")
The captain then resumes, saying:
"The sector assigned to this company is three fingers long and extends from that group one finger to the right of the water tower, to a point four fingers to the right of the tower. Each platoon will cover the entire company sector. Range ten-fifty and eleven-fifty. Fire at will at my signal. Posts."
Platoon Leaders. The platoon leaders then hasten to the center of their platoons and "put into execution the commands and directions of the captain, having first taken such precautions to insure a correct sight-setting and clear description of the aiming point as the situation permits or requires" (Par. 251 I. D. R.), by saying:
Target: The target is a line of skirmishers about 1100 yards to our front, only parts of which are visible.
Reference point: That long line of bushes about 1300 yards to our left front. The company sector is three fingers long and lies between us and that reference point, extending one-half finger beyond each end of the bushes.
Aiming point: The bottom of the line of bushes.
Range: 1050 and 1150.
As soon as the range is announced each front rank man sets his sight at 1050 and each rear rank man at 1150. Squad leaders assure themselves that sights are set and that the men of their squads understand the aiming point and sector and then raise their hand as a signal that all are ready. Similarly, the platoon leaders raise their hands to show that all of the squads are ready, and when the captain sees that all of his platoons are ready, he signals to begin firing. At the captain's signal, each platoon leader commands: "Fire at Will."
Firing then begins at a rate of about 3 shots per minute (Par. 14, I. D. R.).
=1449. Points To Be Borne in Mind.= Bear in mind the following points in the solution of field firing problems:
1. Combine sights should, as a rule, be used where the estimated range is 1000 yards or more, the two ranges being 50 yards on each side of the estimated range, the even numbers firing at one range, the odd numbers at the other.
2. When aiming points are chosen they should be clearly described. Bushes, bunches of lines of grass, fence posts, etc., should not be designated as aiming points when clear and more definite aiming points are available. The choice of the best of several possible aiming points is of great importance.
3. Have some system of simple signals whereby you may know when all your men are ready to begin firing. Otherwise, you may begin the firing before some of your men have their sights set and before they understand the sector and point of aim. For example, let each squad leader raise his right hand when his squad is ready, and each platoon leader his right hand when his platoon is ready.
4. Platoon leaders must always be sure to designate a definite aiming point. Remember that in the case of an indistinct target, the company commander describes the TARGET to the platoon leaders, and they in turn announce the AIMING POINT. Having seen and located the target, the platoon leader must examine the terrain at, in front of and behind the target, and choose the aiming point for his men. He must then determine the proper sight-setting for that particular aiming point. He then announces both aiming point and range.
5. Instead of describing a sector as, for example, extending so many yards (or so many "fingers") north from the reference point, it is better to describe it as extending from the reference point northward for a definite distance, as "To that tall red house."
The last method is the best, because it leaves no room for guessing on the part of subordinates. So, remember it is always best, when possible, to define the limits of sectors physically, as, extending, for example, from "That house to that windmill," etc.
6. When acting as part of the battalion, always be sure to designate someone (usually one of the musicians) to watch for signals from the battalion commander, and don't fail to repeat back all signals.
7. In advancing by rushes, always allow sufficient time between rushes to recover the loss in fire caused by the cessation of fire. In other words, the next rear unit should not start forward until the one that has just advanced has resumed an effective fire.
8. Remember that in all field firing problems the distribution of hits has big weight. Consequently, it should be definitely understood beforehand, that, in the absence of any target designation by the company commander, each platoon leader will look after the sector corresponding to his front, and that each man will fire at the part of the sector corresponding to his front. Should the targets in a given sector disappear, then the platoon leader covering that sector will at once switch his fire to the adjoining sector until the reappearance of the targets in his own sector. For example, let us suppose the company sector, A-B (the company being on the defense and not advancing) is divided into four parts A-B, B-C, C-D and D-E. Platoon No. 1 would look after everything that appeared in D-E; No. 2, after everything that appeared in C-D; No. 3, everything that appeared in B-C; and No. 4, after everything that appeared in A-B.
Should the target suddenly disappear from D-E, then No. 1 would switch his fire over to C-D, and keep it there until the target reappeared in D-E, and if the targets disappeared from C-D, before reappearing in D-E, then both No. 1, and No. 2, would switch their fire cones to A-C.
=1450. Exercises.= The following exercises for the elementary training of individuals and squads were used with success by the troops mobilized on the Texas border:
TARGETS
1. The target will be represented by individual soldiers.
2. With reference to their visibility, the battlefield will present three classes of targets:
(a) Those which are visible throughout.
(b) Those which are visible in part.
(c) Those which are invisible, but whose location might be described.
Targets will be arranged to simulate one of the classes enumerated. Instruction will begin with simple exercises in which the target presented is plainly visible, and represents only the objective of the unit undergoing instruction. It should progress to the more difficult exercises in which the target is invisible and the line of figures is prolonged to include the objective of units on the right or left.
3. The limits of indistinct targets may be shown to unit commanders by the use of company flags. These flags, however, will be withdrawn from sight before a description of the target or estimate of the range is attempted, and before anyone but the commander of the unit undergoing instruction sees their location.
4. At the conclusion of each exercise in which flags are used to mark the limits of the target or its subdivisions, they should be displayed, in order that any existing errors may be readily pointed out.
5. To determine proficiency in target designation, the instructor will provide a sufficient number of rifles, placed on sand bags or other suitable rests, and require those charged with fire direction and control to sight them at the limits of their objective. An inspection by the instructor will at once detect errors. Similarly, in those exercises in which all the members of the firing unit participate, the percentage of rifles aimed at the correct target may be determined.
6. In these exercises no method of communication will be permitted that could not be used under the conditions assumed in the problem.
EXERCISE NO. 1--RANGING
Object: To train the individual to set his sight quickly and accurately for the announced range and windage; and to accustom leaders to the giving of windage data.
Situation: The company is formed in single rank at the ready with rear sight set at zero and the slide screw normally tight.
Action: The range and windage are announced, sights are set accurately in accordance therewith and as rapidly as may be, each man coming to port arms immediately upon completing the operation.
Time: Time is taken from the last word of the command.
Standard: Sights should be correctly set within 15 seconds.
Note: Of the two elements, time and accuracy, accuracy is the more important.
Par. 411, I. D. R., implies complete use of the rear sight, that is, utilization of the wind gauge, and sight setting to the least reading of the rear sight leaf, i. e., 25 yards. Sight setting therefore in this exercise should include, more often than not, "fractional ranges" and windage data.
EXERCISE NO. 2--RANGING
Object: To familiarize officers and noncommissioned officers in the use of an auxiliary aiming point.
Situation: Two men with the company flags are stationed to mark the enemy's invisible position. This position should be suitably located with reference to a practicable aiming point.
Action: The markers are signaled to display their flags. An officer or noncommissioned officer is called up and the enemy's position is pointed out. The flags are then withdrawn and the officer or noncommissioned officer selects an auxiliary aiming point and gives his commands for firing at that point.
EXERCISE NO. 3--TARGET DESIGNATION
Object: To train the individual soldier to locate a target, from a description solely. To do so quickly and accurately and fire thereon with effect, and to train officers and noncommissioned officers in concise, accurate and clear description of targets.
Situation: The men are so placed as not to be able to see to the target. The instructor places himself so as to see the objective.
Action: The instructor, to one man at a time, describes the objective, and directs him to fire one simulated round. The man immediately moves so as to see the target, locates it, estimates the range and fires one simulated shot.
Standard: For ranges within battle sight, time 20 seconds; beyond battle sight, time 30 seconds. Not more than 15% error in the estimation of the range. Objective correctly located.
Note: Arrangements made so that the description of the target is heard by only the man about to fire. After firing the man will not mingle with those waiting to fire.
EXERCISE NO. 4--TARGET DESIGNATION
Object: To train the squad leader in promptly bringing the fire of his squad to bear effectively upon the target presented. To train the individuals of a squad to fire effectively from orders of the squad leader and automatically to obtain effective dispersion.
Situation: The squad is deployed, the squad leader being in the firing line. Position prone. A sighting rest is provided for each rifle.
Action: Upon the appearance of the target the squad leader gives the necessary orders for delivering an effective fire. The men under these orders sight their rifles and then rise. The instructor then examines the position and sighting of each rifle.
Time: Time is taken from the appearance of the target until the last man has risen.
Target: A squad of men to outline a partially concealed enemy emerges from cover, advances a short distance and lies down.
Standard: 90% of the rifles should be sighted in conformity with the orders of the squad leader and should evenly cover the whole front of the objective. The squad leader's estimate of the range should not be in error over 15%.
Note: The squad leader should not, in general, be allowed to divide the target into sectors but to obtain distribution by training the men to fire at that portion of the objective directly related to the position they occupy in their own line. The exercise should be repeated with the squad leader in rear of the squad and not firing. As to this, it is to be noted that Musketry School experiments prove that in small groups the directed fire of say seven (7) rifles is more effective than the partially undirected fire of eight rifles obtained when the group leader is himself firing.
EXERCISE NO. 5--COMMUNICATION
Object: To teach prompt and accurate transmission of firing data without cessation of fire, and also to teach automatic readjustment of fire distribution.
Situation: A squad deployed in the prone position and with sighting rests, is firing at a designated target.
Action: A squad with sights set at zero is deployed and brought up at the double time into the intervals of the firing line and halted. The firing data is transmitted to them without cessation of fire. At the command =Rise=, given 20 seconds after the command =Halt=, the first squad rises and retires a short distance to the rear. At the same time, the supports cease fire and adjust their rifles in the rests so as to be aimed at the target as they understand it. They then rise and their rifles are examined by the instructor for range and direction.
Standard: 80% of the rifles should be sighted according to the transmitted data and aimed according to the principles of fire distribution.
Target: One target equal to a squad front, which is increased to two squads prior to the arrival of the supports in the firing line.
Note: This exercise should be repeated with the supporting squad reenforcing on a flank. To determine whether the original squad is able to keep its assigned sector during an advance, this exercise should be repeated, the supports being thrown in after a series of short advances by the original squad. Care should be exercised to prevent the transmission of firing data in a manner under which service conditions would be impracticable. (See Exercise No. 6.)
EXERCISE NO. 6--COMMUNICATION
Object: To train the squad leader in receiving and transmitting instructions by visual signals alone.
Situation: A squad with its leader in the firing line is deployed in the prone position firing at will.
Action: The instructor, without sound or other cautionary means, signals (visually) to the squad leader at various intervals to,
First: Change elevation. Swing the fire to the right or left. Suspend the firing. Etc., etc.
The squad leader, upon receiving a signal, causes his squad to execute it without verbal command, or exposing himself.
Time: No specified time limit.
Standard: The squad leader should fire with his squad, but after each shot should look towards his platoon leader for any signal, then observe the fire and conduct of his men, then, after glancing again at his platoon leader, fire again. This the squad leader should do without exposing himself. By lying about a head's length ahead of his men he can see his squad front. In transmitting orders he can accomplish it by nudging the men on his right and left and signaling to them with his hand.
Note: This exercise is essential to prepare men for the deafening noise of a heavy action when speech or sound signals are largely futile.
EXERCISE NO. 7--FIRE DISCIPLINE
Object: To train men to carry out strictly the fire orders given them, and to refrain from starting, repeating or accepting any change therefrom without direct orders from a superior.
Situation: A squad deployed in the prone position.
Action: While the squad is firing at an indistinct but specified target, another and clearly visible target appears in the vicinity of the first target but not in the same sector. Upon the appearance of this second target, the instructor sees that the men continue firing at the assigned target. The corporal should check any breach of fire discipline.
Note: Variations of this exercise should be given to test the fire discipline of the men in other phases, such as rate of fire (Par. 147, I. D. R.), etc.
FOOTNOTES:
[18] The subjects of fire control and fire direction are coveted in pars. 285-290; 1434-1436.
[19] In attack the target is called "objective"; in the defense, "sector."
I. CARE OF THE HEALTH
=1451. Importance of good health.= Good health is just as necessary to an army as rifles and ammunition. Not only does every sick man take away one rifle from the firing line, but in addition he becomes a care and a burden on the hands of the army. Indeed, it is fully as important for a soldier to take care of his health as it is for him to take care of his rifle and ammunition. The importance of doing everything possible to look after one's health is shown by the fact that in every war so far, many more men have died from disease than were killed in battle or died from wounds. In our Civil War, for instance, for every man on the Union side who was killed in battle or died from wounds, two died from disease. In the Spanish American War the proportion was 1 to 5-1/2.
To do all that he can to keep in good health is a duty that the soldier owes his country.
=1452. Germs.= Diseases are caused by little, tiny live animals or plants called germs. They are so small that you require a magnifying glass to see them.
The following illustrations show the typhoid and malarial germs as seen through a magnifying glass:
The Different Ways of Catching Disease
=1453. Five ways of catching disease.= There are only five ways to catch disease:
1. By breathing in the live germs. 2. By swallowing the live germs. 3. By touching the live germs. 4. By having the live germs stuck into the skin by insects that bite. 5. By inheritance from parents.
Diseases Caught by Breathing in the Germs
=1454. The more common diseases.= The following are some of the more common diseases caught by breathing in the germs: Colds, diphtheria, tonsilitis, grippe, scarlet fever, pneumonia, and consumption.
The germs that cause these diseases grow well in the dark, warm, moist lining of the nose, throat, windpipe and lungs, and they are coughed or sneezed out or blown out and float in tiny bubbles in the air or fall to dry into dust which is blown about with the wind, and so are breathed in, or they may be transferred directly by kissing invalids and sick children.
=1455. How to avoid breathing in sickness.= Do not visit sick people or a house where the children are sick.
Do not let other people cough or sneeze over your food or in your face.
Do not allow others to spit on the floor of your squadron or tent.
Do not do these things yourself.
Blow your nose into a handkerchief that can be boiled or into a piece of paper that can be burned.
Put your hand before your face when you cough or sneeze.
Rinse out the nose with hot, weak salt water at night and especially if you have been inhaling dust.
Brush the teeth after each meal and before going to bed.
Do not pick the nose with the finger nails; it makes sore spots in which germs grow.
On dusty hikes tie a handkerchief across the nose and mouth.
Never sweep the floor with a dry broom. Use a damp mop and so pick the germs up and carry them out instead of driving them up in the air as dust.
Diseases Caught by Swallowing the Germs
=1456. The more common diseases.= The following are some of the more common diseases caught by swallowing the germs: Typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera, and ptomaine poisoning.
=1457. Water as a distributer of disease.= Impure water is one of the most common distributers of disease that there is. Therefore, water from sources unknown or soiled by sewage, should be avoided as deadly and should not be used, unless boiled, for drinking, brushing the teeth or rinsing mess kits.
You can not always tell polluted water by its appearance, smell or taste. Unless from a sewer or drain, it may look clear and sparkling, with no smell and have a pleasant taste, so, water that is not known to be pure should not be drunk.
=1458. Vegetables as a distributer of disease.= In some localities the inhabitants use the streams for all purposes; drinking, washing clothes, bathing, washing vegetables and table utensils and as a sewer. When kitchen gardens are irrigated with such water the germs are to be found on the cabbages, beets, etc.
=1459. Food, fruit, cigarettes, and drinking cups as distributers of disease.= Germs may be smeared on the hands and thus transferred to articles of food, fruit, cigarettes, or drinking cups, especially in public places, so that he who buys at the public stands may have disease handed to him with his purchase.
=1460. The fly as a disease carrier.= The ordinary fly is one of the worst and filthiest transmitters of disease in existence.
Flies carry germs from privies, latrines, spitoons, and sick rooms to the food on your table, by means of their smeared feet, in their spit or in their specks.
=1461. The dog as a distributer of disease.= Dogs are often distributers of disease. They use their tongues for toilet paper and afterwards lick their coat or the hands of their friends. Petting dogs or letting them lick your hand is dangerous.
=1462. How to avoid swallowing disease.= Do not drink water that is not known to be safe. If you have no one to ask and are traveling, it is safer to drink tea or coffee, because they have been made from boiled water, or to drink bottled mineral waters. In the field boil your drinking water. Boiled germs are dead and will not grow. They are, therefore, harmless.
Beware of water from wells, farm pumps ponds, cisterns, water coolers and barrels, especially in railroad cars, stations, and ferry boats.
Do not drink lemonade, soft drinks, or milk from peddlers.
Beware of the public drinking cup.
Always wash your hands before going to meals and before putting things into your mouth, especially after going to the toilet or handling animals.
Do not adopt strange dogs and do not pet dogs.
Before eating fruit or raw vegetables, wash and peel them unless picked from the tree by yourself.
Do not eat food that is spoiled, smells or tastes badly or is flyblown or maggoty or full of bugs.
Do not eat food which is not sufficiently cooked. All smoked, dried or salt meats or fish, such as ham, bacon, sausage, dried beef, bloaters, salt mackerel or codfish, must be well cooked, as they may contain "Measles" or other worm eggs. Cooking kills the egg.
Do not eat food exposed on public stands to dust, flies, dirty hands, dirty water, dirty cans, or dirty glasses and buckets.
Do not allow flies to breed in dirt or other filth around the house, nor allow them to walk on your food. This is possible by burning, burying or otherwise removing the dirt or filth, and by using fly traps, "swatters" and fly paper.
Do not wet lead pencils with your spit.
Do not wet your fingers with spit when you deal cards or turn over pages of books or magazines.
Keep the teeth brushed and the mouth clean. Have decayed teeth repaired at once. Decayed teeth drop out and they cause abscesses, which may destroy the jaw bone or cause brain fever. Old snags give the stomach the germs of rotting, which cause dyspepsia.
Diseases Caught by Touching the Germs
=1463. The more common diseases.= The following are some of the more common diseases caught by touching the germs: Ringworm, mange, barber's itch, sore eyes, boils, carbuncles, lockjaw, small pox, chancroid, syphilis, and gonorrhoea (clap).
=1464. Ringworm, mange, and barber's itch.= These diseases are carried from person to person by finger nails and hands and from dirty water to those who bathe in it or have their underwear washed in it.
=1465. Lockjaw.= The germs of lockjaw are found in manure and in soil fertilized with it; hence, a bullet which passes through such soil before wounding carries these germs into the wound. Any wound soiled with such dirt will be infected. Also, wounds made by toy pistols and fire-crackers often contain lockjaw germs.
=1466. Chancroid, syphilis, and gonorrhoea (clap).= These are diseases whose germs are usually caught from prostitutes and whores, or from husbands who have caught the germs from prostitutes and whores. They are called "Venereal diseases," after Venus, the Roman goddess of lustful love, but they are very often caught in other ways than in sexual intercourse, and by innocent persons.
=The chancroid plant= causes a very nasty sore, the chancroid, which often destroys much flesh and causes buboes. The germ can be carried on the fingers to any part of the body. When the chancroid is healed and the bubo becomes a scar the disease is cured.
The syphilis germ will grow first where it is rubbed in, causing a hard ulcer, called a chancre, and after that it travels through the entire body. No place is sacred to its destructive power and it lives as long as the patient does. It is the cause of much insanity, palsy, apoplexy, deafness, blindness and early death. In mothers it causes miscarriages and in children it causes stillbirths, freaks, deformities, feeble minds and idiots; also, deaf and dumb, palsied, stunted, sickly and criminal conditions.
A syphilitic person is always dangerous although apparently well. He often has a sore mouth and his spit is as dangerous as that of a mad dog. The bite of such a man will develop a chancre and any pipe, cup, or tooth pick which he uses, or his kiss, will give syphilis. A syphilitic tattooer who wets his needles and his India ink with spit will put a chancre into the skin with the picture.
The instruments of cheap advertising dentists and of quack doctors or ignorant nurses can carry these germs from one person to another. So can the razors and caustic stick of barbers who are careless.
=The clap plant= likes to grow in the linings of the openings of the body where it is dark and warm and moist where it causes a catarrhal discharge called clap, which is easily smeared on hands, towels, handkerchiefs or by actual contact.
It grows well in the eyelids, causing great damage and often blindness. Many babies get the clap plant into the eyes during birth, from the mother, and unless treated within a few minutes after birth, have sore eyes and go blind,--a terrible calamity to the child and the family. If you have clap the germs can be carried on your hands to your eyes.
The clap plant also grows well in the cavities of the joints, causing rheumatism and crippling; it grows in the heart, causing valvular heart disease, which is incurable, and also in the generative organs of men and women, causing self-made eunuchs and childless wives. It is the cause of most of the severe abdominal diseases of women requiring the use of the knife to cut out the diseased part.
The venereal diseases cause more misery than any others and most of the doctors would have to go into other professions to earn their living if these diseases did not exist.
When a young man is "sowing his wild oats" he is really planting in his own body the syphilis and clap plants, and the harvest will be greater than any other crop. He will reap it in days of bedridden misery, and possible sudden death. He will reap it in bitter hours by the bedside through the illness and death of his wife or in her long years of ill health. He will reap it in little white coffins, idiot babies; blind, deaf and dumb, sickly and stunted children. And it will cost him lost wages and hospital and doctor fees.
Yes, the wild oats crop is a bumper crop. King Solomon was wise when he warned his son against the harlot, "for her end is bitter."
The best way to avoid venereal diseases is to keep away from lewd women, and live a clean moral life. It is said by medical authorities that sexual intercourse is not necessary to preserve health and manly vigor, and that the natural sexual impulse can be kept under control by avoiding associations, conversations, and thoughts of a lewd character. However, persons who will not exercise self-control in this matter can greatly lessen the risks of indulgence by the prompt use, immediately upon return to camp or garrison, of the prophylaxis prescribed by War Department orders and which all soldiers are required to take after exposing themselves to the danger of venereal infection. Men who immediately after intercourse urinate and wash the private parts thoroughly with soap and water will lessen the chances of infection. Drunkenness greatly increases the risk of infection.
Should one be so unfortunate as to contract venereal disease, he should see a first-class, reputable physician AT ONCE, the sooner the better. It is a fatal mistake to try to conceal venereal disease by not seeing a doctor, he who does so is taking a most dangerous chance of ruining himself physically for life.
=1467. How to avoid diseases caught by touching the germs.= Keep your skin clean with soap and water.
Do not bathe or wash your clothes in dirty water, have them boiled when laundered.
Do not go barefoot, even in barracks.
Do not use towels or toilet articles of other people, especially in public wash-rooms unless they furnish a fresh towel for you. Do not sleep in houses left empty by the enemy unless ordered to do so.
Do not sleep in native shacks in the tropics.
Do not rub the eyes with dirty hands. When dirt gets in have a doctor get it out.
If you have clap, do not rub your eyes with your hands, and wash your hands well with soap and water after taking treatment or passing water.
Do not handle dogs or cats, especially strange or sickly ones.
Do not clean the ears with sticks or straws,--have a doctor do it for you.
Do not have cheap, advertising dentists fix your teeth. Have the army dentist fix them and see him at least once every six months,--or see a good civilian dentist.
Do not have pictures tattooed on your skin.
Do not smoke other men's pipes.
Do not handle or touch wounds with anything but a first aid package.
Beware of chipped drinking glasses in cafes, restaurants and other places. The slightest cut from such a glass whoso clipped part has been in contact with the mouth of a syphilitic person will give you syphilis.
Seek good companions like your mother and sister. Keep away from John Barleycorn. He always wants to turn you over to a harlot.
Whores and prostitutes are all diseased and will give you germs that will live to give diseases to you, your wife and your children, forty years from now. Keep away from them.
Diseases Caught from Biting Insects
=1468. The more common diseases.= The following are some of the more common diseases caught from the bites of certain insects: Malaria, yellow fever, and dengue fever.
The germs of malaria, yellow fever and dengue fever live in the blood, and are sucked up into the blood by mosquitoes when they bite.
Malaria germs, however, will develop only in the mosquito called, Anopheles.
Yellow fever germs will develop only in the mosquito called, Stegomyia.
Dengue fever germs will develop in the mosquito called Culex and in Anopheles.
After a period of development in these mosquitoes the germs will find their way to the spit glands, and are injected into the person whom the mosquito bites. (Note. Male mosquitoes cannot bite.)
Absolutely the only way that malaria, yellow and dengue fevers can possibly be caught is from mosquitoes.
=1469. How to avoid malaria, yellow and dengue fevers.= To avoid these diseases, which are carried by mosquitoes, we screen all houses with fine wire screens and use mosquito nets on the beds. Also, under certain conditions we take daily doses of quinine in malarious regions.
We kill the mosquitoes.
To do this we must know their habits.
Mosquitoes all lay eggs in water. These hatch out as wigglers or larvae, which have to come to the top frequently to breathe. In about twelve days or longer they turn into tumblers or pupas, which in a few days longer come to the top when their backs split open and the mosquito comes out and flies away.
The malaria mosquito is domestic like the chicken and lives around in houses hiding in the grass, bushes or dark corners and comes out to bite at night. When a settlement is abandoned the malaria mosquito moves away also. She rarely flies far from home and is not found much beyond 500 yards from a house. She lays her eggs in running clear water preferably, but she will accept water in hollow trees, between the leaves of lilies or air plants or in vases of flowers, or in cisterns and water butts.
The yellow fever mosquito is domestic like the house cat. She hangs around the house and rarely flies as far as the next house even, preferring to travel on a visitor's coat. She will bite in the day time and will lay her eggs in any little collection of water in the house, the eaves trough, the water barrel, old tin cans or bottles, pitchers, vases or the refrigerator drip.
The dengue mosquito is a marsh and town mosquito. She flies far and well and will breed in any sort of water, even brackish.
To kill mosquitoes--
Catch them in the house; empty all water from tin cans, old barrels, etc; cover with wire all cisterns and water barrels; fill in all puddles and drain off marshes; put oil on all pools and streams to choke the wrigglers; cut down grass and bushes around houses.
II. PERSONAL HYGIENE
=1470.= The knowledge of taking care of the body is called Personal Hygiene, the principal rules of which are as follows:
1. KEEP THE SKIN CLEAN. 2. KEEP THE BODY PROPERLY PROTECTED AGAINST THE WEATHER. 3. KEEP THE BODY PROPERLY FED. 4. KEEP THE BODY SUPPLIED WITH FRESH AIR. 5. KEEP THE BODY WELL EXERCISED WITHOUT EXHAUSTION. 6. KEEP THE BODY RESTED BY SUFFICIENT SLEEP. 7. KEEP THE BODY FREE OF WASTES.
Sanitation is the practice of the laws of Hygiene.
=1471. RULE 1. Keep the Skin clean.= A dirty body invites sickness. Small troubles such as chafing, sore feet, saddle boils, sore eyes, felons, whitlows, earache, toothache, carbuncles, fleas, lice and ringworms, are all caused by lack of cleanliness, and they put men on sick report.
Owing to excessive perspiration a daily bath with soap is desirable in summer and in the tropics, the year around. At least a weekly bath should always be taken when possible. When not possible to bathe, take a good rub daily with a dry towel.
Keep your feet clean with soap and water and put on dry socks before sleeping at night. Soiled socks should be washed and hung up to dry over night.
Keep your finger nails trimmed short with scissors or knife. Never bite them off. Keep them cleaned and keep your hands washed, especially at meal times.
Underwear must be washed in clean water, hot when possible and when soiled change as soon as possible.
Do not bathe or wash your clothes in dirty water. Bathing in water containing much alkali (hard water) or fine sand or mud will make the skin smart or chafe easily and cause sore eyes.
The hair of the head should be kept well-trimmed.
=1472. RULE 2. Keep the body properly protected from the weather.= Clothing of the soldier is worn as a protection. Too much causes sweating and exhaustion on the march and too little causes chills and frost bite.
Be careful to rebutton the clothing in winter time after attending to Nature's calls. Cold fingers may make you careless, but the cold is merciless and may cause a bad frost bite.
The first feeling of frost bite is numbness and the first sign is a marble whiteness. Frost attacks first the nose, ears, cheeks, fingers and toes.
Sun glare and snow blindness may be prevented by colored goggles or a handkerchief tied across the face with a small slit for the eyes or by greasing the face and eyelids and rubbing in charcoal around the eyes.
=1473. RULE 3. Keep the body properly fed.= Your company mess is sufficient for your needs and is wholesome, provided it is well chewed. Large lumps of food take a longer time to digest than small particles do, and so they tire the stomach and also cause constipation, gas and indigestion with headache.
Do not eat food left behind in strange houses or by the enemy, nor food that smells or looks badly.
If haversack rations are issued to you, do not eat them all at the first meal, but make a division for each meal. Stuffing will make you sick on a hike and later, hunger will drive you to eat things you would not touch at other times.
Before starting on the day's hike drink all the water you can and fill your canteen with water only.
Be sure your canteen does not leak.
After starting, do not drink anything until the end of the hike.
Do not eat ice or snow to quench thirst. It will make you more thirsty. Do not drink large quantities of cold spring water when heated,--it will give you a very bad bellyache.
Do not drink whiskey or beer, especially in the field. It will weaken you and favor heat exhaustion, sunstroke, frost bite and other serious troubles.
Alcohol muddles the mind and clouds thoughts, and so causes a feeling of carelessness and silliness that may ruin some military plan, or give the whole thing away to the enemy and with it the lives of yourself and your comrades.
The soldier who drinks alcohol will be among the first to fall out exhausted.
If you use tobacco, do not chew or smoke while marching. Tobacco is only a dope and increases the work of the heart.
A cup of hot coffee is a good stimulant.
=1474. RULE 4. Keep the body supplied with fresh air.= The brain, kidneys and other internal organs require oxygen (a part of the air) continually, and if deprived of it for five minutes, the body will die. Therefore, it is easy to see that we must continually get plenty of fresh air into the lungs to supply the blood which carries the oxygen throughout the body. Except in winter time when steam-heated barracks are filled with sleeping men, it is not, as a rule, difficult to get all the fresh air we need. The air in a dormitory should smell sweet and clean, even though warm. Fresh air should be continually admitted in a way that will not throw a draft on any of the sleepers.
It is much better to sleep in a cold room with fresh air than in a hot stuffy one.
Fresh air not only prevents consumption, but it will cure mild cases of consumption without other medicines.
=1475. RULE 5. Keep the body well exercised without exhaustion.= Exercise is absolutely necessary to good health. Lack of exercise of any set of muscles will cause them to grow flabby and weak. Outdoor sports are the best form of exercise, because they use all the body muscles, and are in the open clear air.
Exhaustion, on the other hand, not only weakens the muscles of the body, but it also lessens the vital forces and powers to resist germs.
=1476. RULE 6. Keep the body rested by sufficient sleep.= Give the body enough sleep. Eight hours of uninterrupted sleep are enough for the average man, and you should always have that much in every twenty-four hours. Remember your comrades need it also; so, if you come in after taps, do not make a racket with slamming doors, heavy tramping, talking or whistling. And in camp be careful not to fall over tent ropes or step on other sleepers. Do not drink coffee at night,--it will keep you awake and rob your body of needed rest.
When on the march take advantage of every halt to rest your body. As soon as the command is given to fall out, select, if possible, a dry place on the side of the road to sit or lie on. If carrying the pack, loosen it and rest back on it, in a sitting or lying position. If the march has been a long one, lie flat on your back and raise the feet in the air. This is a quick way to remove the heavy dragged feeling of the feet and legs and to rest the heart, because the blood runs out of the legs into the body.
=1477. RULE 7. Keep the body free of wastes. Get into the habit of emptying the bowels at a certain hour each day.= Immediately after breakfast is a good time. This is a habit that can be cultivated just like any other habit. Cultivate it. It will do much to keep you in good health.
Always empty the bowels and bladder, especially the bowels, whenever you have the least desire to do so. Do not allow a little personal inconvenience or laziness to prevent you from doing this. The wastes from the bowels and bladder, especially the bowels, are poisons that should always be expelled from the body just as soon as possible.
The free drinking of water flushes the bladder and helps to loosen the bowels. A glass of hot water soon after reveille will not only help to loosen the bowels, but it will also benefit the stomach and flush out the bladder. Some people drink a big glass of water, either hot or cold, every morning before breakfast.
Proper physical exercise and eating ripe or cooked fruits will also do much to keep the bowels open.
Pressing and rubbing downward with the left hand on the lower left side of the belly will do much to induce a movement of the bowels.
Most constipation comes from swallowing food in large chunks, drinking large quantities of cold liquids with the meals and eating heavy articles of diet, such as beans, fried pork, hot bread.
Do not get into the habit of using laxatives to keep the bowels open. Their continued use is injurious. Use the natural means suggested above.
The constant moderate use of alcohol injures the kidneys and when they become too weak to work and throw off the waste, a deadly disease, called "Bright's Disease," results.
III. FIRST AID TO THE SICK AND INJURED
=1478. Object of teaching first aid.= The object of teaching first aid, or early assistance of the injured or sick, is not only to enable one person to help another, but also in some measure to help himself, until a surgeon or other thoroughly trained person can be seen.
It is a mistake to think you must know many things to be helpful, it is only necessary to know a few simple things, but you must understand them clearly and be able to do them well.
=1479. Asphyxiation (suffocation) by Gas.= Asphyxiation by gas is treated the same as in the case of drowning, omitting, of course, the operation of getting the water out of the body.
=1480. Bite of dog.= } Either requires immediate and heroic treatment. =Bite of snake.= } Lose no time.
1. Prevent the poison from traveling toward the heart and brain by putting on at once a tourniquet between the wound and the heart.
2. Suck the wound and be sure to spit out the poison and rinse the mouth afterward. It is safe, if you have no cuts or sores on the lips or in the mouth.
3. Enlarge the wound with a knife (in the direction of the bone, not across) to make it bleed more freely, and again suck the wound.
4. Apply to the wound any strong acid or caustic, such as carbolic acid, lime, wood ashes or tincture of iodine, or burn it with a hot iron. Telegraph wire will do.
5. Wash out the wound with hot water and pack with equal parts of baking soda and salt, and apply a bandage.
6. Then, in the case of a snake bite, loosen the tourniquet little by little, taking about half an hour so as to permit any poison that may remain in the wound to be gradually absorbed by the blood. In the case of a dog bite, the tourniquet is loosened at once.
After the tourniquet has been removed, the patient must rest quietly for several hours. If he feel faint, he may have a stimulant,--alcohol, coffee or tea,--but do not give the stimulant before the poison has been removed from the wound, because stimulants increase the heart beats and thereby hurry the poison into the blood.
If the dog is not mad (rabid), the wound does not need treatment different from any other kind of a wound.
When bitten by a snake, kill it, if possible, and have it shown to a doctor for examination.
=1481. Bleeding.= The following comparison between the blood and the water in a city will enable you to understand easily the question of bleeding:
The {water } flows from a pump called {waterworks} through {blood} {heart } {rigid pipes } called {watermains}. When there is {a leak } {elastic tubes} {arteries} {bleeding} the {plumber } stops the flow of the {water } by {doctor} {blood} {turning a key valve } between the {waterworks} and the {pressing the blood tube shut} {heart }
{leak } and then proceeds to repair the leak {bleeding cut} {by soldering }. He then turns on the {water } by {by sewing or by bandaging} {blood} {opening the valve in the water main }. {removing pressure on the blood tube}
Fig. 2 shows where pressure with the thumb will squeeze the blood tube between the thumb and the bone.
In addition to the pressure raise the leg or arm or head above the heart. This will slow the flow of the blood and lessen leakage.
However, one cannot hold the thumb forever on the blood tube, so we make an artificial thumb, called a tourniquet, which is a pebble or other hard object wrapped in some soft material (to prevent injury to flesh), which is pressed down on the blood tube and held in place by a strip of any material which can be tied so as to keep up the pressure.
A tourniquet, therefore, is like the valve in a water main.
The above diagrams show how a tourniquet is applied.
When no one is around to assist you, sometimes it will be possible to plug the wound in your own body with the first aid packet or with your thumb or handkerchief.
When the bleeding is slight, or is from the scalp or palm of the hand, or sole of the foot, direct pressure upon the wound itself with the pad of the first aid package will often be sufficient to stop the leak.
Nature when left alone stops the leaks with her own solder, called blood-clot, which forms in the cut ends of blood tubes and corks them or seals them up until a scar forms a permanent seal.
=1482.= The dangers from a tourniquet are:
1. Gangrene,--that is, the death of a limb caused by the lack of blood, which has been cut off by the tourniquet. By watching the toes and finger tips and loosening the tourniquet if they are becoming blue black and remain white when pinched, gangrene may be prevented. However, the wound should be plugged before loosening the tourniquet.
2. Injury to nerves from pressure which may cause palsy (paralysis). However, that will generally pass off in a few days.
=1483. Broken Bones (Fractures).= A broken bone or fracture is known by pain in a particular place that hurts on movement or when touched. Also, by a deformity or a movable lump, caused by the broken end of the bone.
A broken bone should be handled with the greatest possible care. Careless handling may cause the broken ends to pierce the flesh and stick out through the skin. This is called a =compound= fracture, and is serious, because it adds fuel to the fire by making a doorway for germs to enter, which may cause death or the loss of the limb. Furthermore, careless handling may make the bones grow together in a bad position, causing a deformity.
The best way to treat a broken leg or arm bone is as follows: (Fig. 8.)
Pull until the ends come together. You can tell this by the relief the patient feels and by the limb assuming its proper length,--that is, the same length as the other side.
=1484.= To keep the ends of the bones in place, fasten to the limb two boards or any other substance that will not bend. Such boards or other substance are called splints. They act as artificial bones. All splints should be well padded with some soft material like raw cotton waste, grass (be sure the grass contains no biting insects), leaves, hay or excelsior, to prevent pressure of the soft flesh on the ends of the bones.
When the thigh bone is broken, put a splint from the arm to the ankle and use the other leg as a splint. Fasten them by bandages, belts, gun sling, etc., passed around the chest, waist, hips, knees and ankle.
When an arm is put in a splint, hang the hand and forearm in a sling. It will give much relief.
When the jaw is broken, the upper jaw makes a good splint.
When the collar bone is broken this makes a good treatment: Fig. 10.
A broken rib is treated by putting a wide strap or bandage around the chest and drawing it tight while all the air is breathed out.
This keeps the rib quiet and the man will breathe with his belly instead of his chest.
A broken skull usually makes a man unconscious and may cause death. It is recognized by a wound or swelling of the scalp and a dent in the skull. A doctor should be called at once. Always examine an unconscious man for injury to the head.
=1485. Burns.= If clothing sticks to the burn, do not try to remove it, but cut around it. Prick blisters at both ends with a perfectly clean needle, and remove the water by gentle pressure, being careful not to break the skin.
A good application for a burn is carbolic acid dissolved in water (a teaspoonful in a pint of water), or tincture of iodine dissolved in water (one teaspoonful in a pint of water, to which is added as much salt as will cover a dime), or olive oil, vaseline or butter.
Lacking the remedies named above, ordinary baking soda or flour may be dusted on the unbroken skin, or a cloth dampened with salt water that has been boiled, to which may be added the same amount of whiskey or brandy as there is water.
Another application for burns recommended by some, is the scraping of a raw potato, renewed when it feels hot.
Different burns should be treated as follows:
=Sunburn=,--treat with olive oil, vaseline or butter, or with a glycerine or witchhazel, applying with a dampened cloth.
=Quicklime or lye=,--treat with vinegar.
=Carbolic acid=,--treat with alcohol.
=Other acids=,--treat with baking powder or lime water.
=1486. Burning clothes=, particularly those of women and children, has been the unnecessary cause of many horrible deaths, either from ignorance of the proper means of extinguishing the flames, or from lack of presence of mind to apply them. A person whose clothing is blazing should (1) immediately be made to lie down--be thrown if necessary. The tendency of flames is upward, and when the patient is lying down, they have not only less to feed upon, but the danger of their reaching the face, with the possibility of choking and of ultimate deformity is greatly diminished. (2) The person should then be quickly wrapped up in a coat, shawl, rug, blanket or any similar article, preferably woolen, and never cotton, and the fire completely smothered by pressing and patting upon the burning points from the outside of the envelope.
The flames having been controlled in this way, when the wrap is removed, great care should be taken to have the slightest sign of a blaze immediately and completely stifled. This is best done by pinching it but water may be used. Any burns and any prostration by shock should be treated in the manner prescribed for them.
=1487. Bruises.= The best treatment for a bruise is heat.
A hot brick or a bottle of hot water wrapped in cloth, towels wrung out of hot water, or even an electric light bulb, will give much relief.
However, always remember this: Never put the hot object on the bare skin--always wrap the source of heat in a thick cloth to hold the heat in and at the same time protect the skin. If not practicable to do this wrap the source of heat, then spread a towel over the skin before applying the hot object.
If you use an electric bulb, watch it closely, as it will char and possibly set things on fire.
The above treatment is also excellent for lumbago, stiff neck, and stiff muscles.
A tub bath as hot as you can stand it is fine for refreshing tired, stiff muscles. It is also good for lumbago.
=1488. Chiggers.= Apply kerosene oil. Bacon is also excellent, and so is butter or lard with salt.
=1489. Choking. Foreign body in the throat.= The common practice of slapping the back often helps the act of coughing to dislodge foreign bodies in the windpipe.
If this does not succeed, have the patient lie over a chair with his head down low or hold him as in the first step to revive a drowning person and have him cough. When in either of these positions have some one slap him on the back so as to induce coughing.
The above failing, give him a large amount of warm water with a little salt, mustard or baking soda in it, and then have him put his finger in his throat so as to induce vomiting which will often bring up the obstruction.
In children, and even in adults, the expulsion of the body may be facilitated by lifting a patient up by the heels and slapping his back in this position.
If none of the methods above described are successful, summon a physician, taking care to send him information as to the character of the accident, so that he may bring with him the instruments needed for removing the obstruction.
=1490. Cuts.= Small cuts should be treated with tincture of iodine or washed with alcohol (bay rum or listerine will do) and bandage up. Large wounds may be similarly cleaned and then closed by adhesive plaster.
=1491. Diarrhoea.= Apply warm bandages to the belly. Some woodsmen recommend the following: Fire brown a little flour to which two teaspoonfuls of vinegar and one teaspoonful of salt are added; mix and drink. They claim this is a cure nine cases out of ten. A tablespoonful of warm vinegar and teaspoonful of salt will cure most severe cases. Also, hot ginger ale or hot water containing a teaspoonful of witch hazel is good. Repeat any of the above drinks about every hour.
Take a purgative, which will usually expel the offending cause, generally too much undigested food.
=1492. Dislocations.= The place where two bones come together is called a joint.
When two bones forming a joint are knocked apart, it is called a dislocation, and the bones are said to be out of joint.
The first sign of a dislocation is the accident.
The second sign is immediate interference with the motion of the joint and awkwardness in using the limb.
The third sign is deformity of the joint,--it looks queer when compared with the same joint on the other side.
If you are unsuccessful after trying several times to replace a dislocation, get a doctor.
If no doctor is available, make the man sick by having him drink some warm salt water and then put his finger in his throat.
When he vomits the muscles and ligaments (tissue connecting the joints) will relax and you may be able to get the bone back in place.
After replacing the bones put the joint at rest with a large compress and bandage.
When uncertain as to whether you have to deal with a broken bone or a dislocated joint, give treatment for a broken bone, because rest and quiet for the injured part are good in either case.
The following diagrams show the usual methods of replacing dislocations:
=1493. Drowning.= Rescuing. Approach the drowning man from behind, seizing him by the coat collar, or a woman by the back hair, and tow at arms length to boat or shore. Do not let him cling around your neck or arms to endanger you. Duck him until unconscious if necessary to break a dangerous hold upon you; but do not strike to stun him.
A drowning person does not come to the top three times before giving up.
Reviving. When a person is apparently drowned he is unconscious and not breathing because his lungs are full of water and his skin is blue and cold because no air is getting into his blood to redden it and warm it; remember the heart does not stop until some time after the breathing stops. If we can get air into the blood and start breathing again before the heart stops we can save the patient's life. If we cannot get the breath started in time the heart stops and the patient is then dead.
Our problem then is this:
1. To get the water out of the lungs.
2. To get the air into the lungs and start the man breathing before the heart stops.
Emptying the lungs is precisely similar to emptying a bottle.
The lungs are the bottle, the windpipe is the neck of the bottle and the cork of the bottle may be the tongue turned back in the throat or mud and leaves from bottom of the pool and bloody froth in the nostrils. We therefore--
1. { Pull out the cork. { =Remove mud, mucus, etc., and pull the tongue forward.=
2. { Turn the bottle neck down to pour out the contents. { =Place the patient's head lower than his chest so the water { will run out.=
Then lay the patient on a blanket, if possible, and on his stomach, arms extended from his body beyond his head, face turned to one side so that the mouth and nose do not touch the ground. This position causes the tongue to fall forward of its own weight and so prevents it from falling back into the air passages. Turning the head to one side prevents the face coming into contact with mud or water during the operation.
Kneel and straddle the patient's hips, facing his head.
Roll up or rip off the clothing so as to get at the bare back.
Locate the lowest rib, and with your thumbs extending in about the same direction as your fingers, place your spread hands so that your little finger curls over the lowest rib. Be sure to get the hands well away from the back bone,--the nearer the ends of the ribs the hands are placed without sliding off, the better it is.
Then with your arms held straight, press down SLOWLY AND STEADILY on the ribs, bringing the weight of your body straight from your shoulders. Do not bend your elbows and shove in from the side.
Release the pressure suddenly, removing the hands from the body entirely, and thus allowing the chest to fill with air.
Wait a couple of seconds, so as to give the air time to get into the blood. This is most important.
Repeat the pressure and continue doing so, slowly and steadily, pressing down at the rate of ordinary breathing. That is to say, pressure and release of pressure (one complete respiration) should occupy about five seconds. Guide yourself by your own deep, regular breathing, or by counting.
Keep up for at least one hour the effort to revive the patient; and much longer if there is any sign of revival by way of speaking, breathing, coughing, sneezing or gurgling sounds.
Do not stop working at the first signs of life, but keep it up until the patient is breathing well and is conscious. If you stop too soon he may stop breathing and die.
Persons have been revived after two hours of steady work, but most cases revive within about thirty minutes.
If you are a heavy man, be careful not to bring too much force on the ribs, as you might break one of them.
In the case of women or thin persons place a roll of clothing under them at the waist line before beginning the pressure.
If you happen to be of light build and the patient is a large, heavy person, you will be able to apply the pressure better by raising your knees from the ground, and supporting yourself entirely on your toes and the heels of your hands, properly placed on the floating ribs of the patient.
Do not attempt to give liquids of any kind to the patient while he is unconscious, for he cannot swallow them. They will merely run into his windpipe and choke him, and furthermore, it will take up valuable time.
However, after the patient has regained consciousness you may give him hot coffee or hot whiskey, punch or aromatic spirits of ammonia (a teaspoonful in water).
Then wrap up the patient warmly in hot blankets with hot water bottles, and take him to the nearest hospital or put him to bed and send for a doctor. Why? Because the dirty water in the lungs has damaged the lining and the patient is in danger of lung fever and needs care and nursing.
Aromatic spirits of ammonia may be poured on a handkerchief and held continuously within about three inches of the face and nose. If other ammonia preparations are used, they should be diluted or held farther away. Try it on your own nose first.
The above method of artificial respiration is also applicable in cases of electric shock, suffocation by gas and smoke.
=1494. Earache.= Put a teaspoonful of salt into a quart of water and add 6 teaspoonfuls of tea. Boil it. As soon as it is cool enough to stand the finger, drip some into the nostrils until it falls into the throat. Clear out the nose and throat by sniffing,--do not blow the nose.--and then gargle with the rest of the remedy as hot as can be taken, holding each mouthful well back in the throat. This will often open up the tubes running from the ears to the throat, and relieve the pressure against the ear drum. In addition, a little hot oil may be dropped into the ear. Repeat the treatment in one-half an hour if not successful first time.
=1495. Ear, foreign body in.= Lay the head over, with the affected ear up, and pour in some warm oil or soap suds. This will float the thing up, unless it be a vegetable such as a grain of corn or a bean. Turning the affected ear down and then jumping, jerking the head, or pounding it gently, may dislodge it.
A little peroxide of hydrogen poured into the ear will often dislodge the substance, especially if it be wax.
In case of an insect, a bright light held near the ear will often cause it to leave the ear to go to the light.
=1496. Electric Shock.= Failure of respiration following an electric shock by lightning or live wire is treated the same as in the case of drowning, omitting, of course, the operation of removing the water out of the lungs.
Do not try to pull a man away from a live wire until you have put on rubber overshoes or gotten a wooden stick with which to get the wire away from him. Otherwise you will yourself get a shock.
=1497. Eye, foreign body in.= Close the eye for a few moments and allow the tears to fill the eye; upon opening it, the body may be washed out by them.
Never rub the eye.
The foreign body can often be removed by keeping the eye open with one hand and splashing water into it with the other, or by dipping the eye into clean water while holding the eyelid open with the hand.
If the body lies under the lower lid, make the patient look up, and at the same time press down upon the lid; the inner surface of the lid will be exposed, and the foreign body may be brushed off with the corner of a handkerchief.
If the body lies under lid, (1) grasp the lashes of the upper lid and pull it down over the lower, which should at the same time, with the other hand, be pushed up under the upper. Upon repeating this two or three times, the foreign body will often be brushed out on the lower lid.
(2) If this fails, the upper lid should be turned up; make the patient shut his eye and look down; then with a pencil or some similar article press gently upon the lid at about the middle, and grasping the lashes with the other hand, turn the lid up over the pencil, when its inner surface will be seen, and the foreign body may readily be brushed off.
If the body is firmly stuck in the surface of the eye, a careful attempt may be made to lift it out with the point of a needle. If not at once successful, do not try again, as you may injure the sight.
Lime, plaster or whitewash in the eye should be washed out with a very weak mixture of vinegar and water. Acids in the eye may be washed with baking soda in water. Olive oil will also afford relief.
After the removal of a foreign body from the eye, a sensation as if of its presence often remains. People not infrequently complain of a foreign body when it has already been removed by natural means. Sometimes the body has excited a little irritation, which feels like a foreign body. If this sensation remains over night, the eye needs attention, and a surgeon should be consulted; for, it should have passed away, if no irritating body is present.
After the removal of an irritating foreign body from the eye, salt water should be poured into it, then butter, lard or olive oil may be used for a salve.
=1498. Fainting.= Fainting is caused by the blood leaving the head. Therefore, we must get the blood back into the head, which is done by placing the patient on his back, with the head lower than the rest of the body. If necessary, make, by digging, a slight depression in the ground for the head, neck and upper part of shoulders. Also, the head may be placed lower than the rest of the body by putting a couple of folded blankets, or a few folded coats or any other suitable article under the body: also, by raising the feet by hand or otherwise. The clothing should be loosened by unbuttoning and the patient fanned. Give him as much fresh air as possible,--so, do not let people crowd around him. Mop the face and forehead with a handkerchief soaked in cold water.
=1499. Fish hook.= If a fish hook gets caught in the flesh, push it on through and when the end sticks out, break off the hook and pull it out the other way. Put tincture of iodine on the wound and bandage.
=1500. Fits.= The man falls over suddenly unconscious in a convulsion, which continues until he is blue in the face, when he gradually quiets down and regains consciousness. He is liable to injure himself by the fall and by biting his tongue. Put a stick or cork between his teeth and let him lie quietly undisturbed. Don't try to hold him down or make him sit up. He will come to no harm on the floor and you cannot stop the fit. Ammonia on a handkerchief held under the nose to smell will assist reviving consciousness. Put him in the hospital at once.
=1501. Fracture.= See, "Broken Bones."
=1502. Freezing.= If a man is overcome by the cold, do not take him into a warm room, or heated tent. Put him into a cool room without draughts and get a doctor at once. Meanwhile loosen his clothing and rub arms and legs towards the heart with cold water and a towel or sponge, using pressure.
When he revives give him hot drinks and wrap him up well in hot blankets and put him in the hospital.
When freezing to death a man feels overcome with sleepiness and stupor. Take a switch or stick and beat him unmercifully. Remember that falling to sleep means death.
=1503. Frost-bite.= The best way to get frost-bitten is to have on damp clothing, such as wet shoes and socks or mittens. The first feeling of frost bite is numbness, and the first sign is marble whiteness.
Treatment. Rub the frozen part briskly with snow or ice cold water, if the frost-bite has just occurred. If it has been frozen more than fifteen minutes, rub very gently with snow, cold water or coal oil (kerosene). If you rub hard, it will break the frozen flesh.
Returning pinkness is a sign of thawing; if the parts turn a dark color, see a surgeon at once, for it means gangrene (death of the flesh).
When thawed out apply plenty of oil, tallow or vaseline.
If gangrene has set in and no doctor is available, then treat as a burn.
By all means keep away from heat. To toast frost-bitten fingers or toes before a fire is liable to result in chilblains.
=1504. Headache.= Among troops headache is usually due to intestinal indigestion, combined with a congestion of the stomach. Take a tablespoonful of Worcestershire sauce or 5 drops of tobasco sauce in a tumbler of hot water as a drink and put a small piece of soap up into the bowel to cause a movement.
=1505. Heat exhaustion.= The man falls out in a faint while marching, or on fatigue or parade. He looks pale, his body is clammy and cold, his breathing is sighing and heart fluttering. What is the matter? His heart is weak from poisons in the blood, usually alcohol, but often too much carbonic gas and too little oxygen. This occurs when men are soft-muscled: so, young soldiers, recruits and fat soldiers and especially those who drink alcohol, use drugs or smoke or chew tobacco while hiking, are the first to have it.
Treatment. Loosen the man's clothing, remove his pack, lay him on his back in the shade, with head and shoulders lower than his hips and raise his feet in the air. This will make the blood flow to the heart and brain. If he has fainted, slap the bare chest with the hand or a wet towel and briskly rub the arms towards the heart. If he does not revive, apply hot bottles, or bricks to the chest and abdomen, and ammonia to the nose, as a smelling salt. Do not give stimulants until he is conscious. He should ride in the ambulance, or go to the hospital.
=1506. Lightning.= A man struck by lightning is treated the same as in the case of drowning, omitting, of course, the operation of getting the water out of the lungs.
=1507. Nose, foreign body in.= If it cannot be sneezed out, lean the head back and pour a little oil into the nostril. Then snift and blow the nose alternately. If this is not successful, take a lead pencil and try to push the object straight back into the throat. This must be done very gently.
=1508. Poison.= When poison has been swallowed, cause the patient to take a large quantity of luke-warm water and make him vomit by putting his finger in his throat. Repeat this and then have him swallow the white of two eggs or some milk into which raw flour or corn-starch has been stirred.
If you know he took bichloride of mercury, you may increase the amount of eggs and give one-half glass of weak lime water.
If you know he took carbolic acid, give him alcohol (pure alcohol or in the form of gin or whiskey) and plenty of it in order to neutralize the acid.
Get a doctor as soon as possible, and save the vomit and poison not taken, for him to see.
=1509. Scalds.= Apply at once common baking soda or olive oil and cover with a bandage. To sprinkle with flour is also good.
=1510. Scratches of cats and other animals.= Apply tincture of iodine or wash with soap and water.
=1511. Shock.= In case of collapse following an accident, treat the accident; then treat as for fainting. Apply hot plates, stones or bottles of hot water, or an electric light wrapped in towels over the stomach. Wrap up warmly. Keep the patient quiet, in the dark, and send for a doctor.
=1512. Snow or sun blindness.= Smear the nose and face about the eyes with charcoal, and wear a cloth over the face with small holes for the eyes.
=1513. Sore throat.= Gargling with hot strong tea or hot water and salt is often effective.
Listerine diluted in water and used as a gargle is also good.
Peroxide of hydrogen is a good gargle.
=1514. Spider bite.= Apply a cloth dampened with alcohol or weak ammonia and water.
=1515. Suffocation by gas.= See "Asphyxiation by gas."
=1516. Sprains.= The regular medical treatment is to plunge a sprained ankle, wrist or finger, into water as hot as can be borne at the start, and to raise the heat gradually thereafter to the limit of endurance. Continue for half an hour, then put the joint in a hot wet bandage, reheat from time to time, and support the limb in an elevated position,--the leg on a chair or stool; the arm carried in a sling. In a day or two begin gently moving and kneading the joint, and rub with liniment, oil or vaseline.
As a soothing application for sprains, bruises, etc., the virtues of witch hazel are well known.
=1517. Stings.= Stings of bees, jelly fish and other stinging animals are treated with a very weak solution of ammonia in water applied as a lotion. Or apply a very weak solution of carbolic acid in water, a strong solution of baking powder, a slice of crushed raw onion, a moist quid of tobacco, witch hazel, listerine, or a paste of clay.
Before applying any of these remedies, extract the sting, if left in the wound. Also, work out as much of the poison as possible by massaging and sucking the wound.
=1518. Sunburn.= Treat with witch hazel or listerine or vinegar well diluted with water.
=1519. Sunstroke.= In sunstroke the man has a blazing red face, dry, burning hot skin; agitated heart; snoring breathing; a high fever, and is unconscious and delirious. What is the matter? The part of the brain which regulates the heat of the body is overcome by the heat and loses control,--the man is entirely too hot all the way through.
Treatment. First of all remove the pack and shoes and loosen the clothing. Then souse the man, clothing and all, with water. Lay him in the shade and fan him, keeping him covered and wet. This will cool him off without chilling too much. If possible, rub the chest and legs, but not the belly, with ice.
=1520. Wounds.= Wounds may be made in every degree of size, from the jab of a splinter to the loss of a part of the body from shrapnel.
No matter what form of the wound or the cause, we know the following fact to be of the utmost importance: A wound without germs in it will heal rapidly without pain, redness, heat, or pus and the patient will have no fever. He will eat his regular meals and act as though well.
Such wounds we see made by surgeons when operating. On the other hand, wounds infected with germs are painful, hot, angry, red, and swollen and form large quantities of pus or matter.
Pus is a mixture of germs, blood and the flesh that they have destroyed. This pus prevents wounds from healing and often burrows under the skin, forming abcesses which cause fever and chills, and the pus enters the blood causing delirium and death.
Our one aim in treating wounds is to keep out germs, and we accomplish this by means of the first aid packet.
=1521. The first aid packet= consists of two gauze compresses sewed to two cotton bandages. They are sealed in wax paper. There are also two safety pins wrapped in wax paper. These articles are placed in an airtight metal case which protects them from contamination.
Now, the one important fact about this first aid packet is that the bandage compresses and safety pins have been sterilized,--that is, they contain no living germs of any kind. It is, therefore, perfectly safe to put on a wound, provided the pad touches the wound before it touches anything else and provided that the wound has not been handled. Therefore, do not wash a fresh clean wound.
CAUTION. Have the wound ready before you open the packet. Do not touch the gauze pad with ANYTHING. Do not breathe on it, and be especially careful not to cough or sneeze over it. These things put germs on it which will grow in the wound.
By observing these instructions you may save a man's life. By not observing them, you may cause his death, or cause him much pain and suffering.
The life of a wounded man is often in the hands of the first one who attends him.
It is said that since the adoption of the first aid packet by armies, it has done more than everything else to save the lives of those wounded in battle by preventing the infection of wounds.
In an emergency a pad from any kind of cloth may be boiled for ten minutes to kill the germs, the water drained off to allow it to cool, and then placed on the wound. Or, the pad may be held over a clear fire until it is fairly scorched; then let it cool. A little charring of the surface will do no harm. Any kind of bandage may then be used to hold it in place.
When a bullet strikes a man first, the wound is clean cut and germ free and it will heal rapidly. If, however, it strikes something first, and bounces off (ricochets) and then strikes a man, it will be knocked into an irregular shape and, therefore, cause a ragged wound with much bruising. What is more important, such a bullet will carry germs into the wound from the object struck, and almost surely some shreds of clothing.
When a wound is infected it is extremely difficult to kill the germs (disinfect). Such a wound, before applying the first aid dressing should be painted with a tincture of iodine, or alcohol or be well washed with boiled salt water.
=1522.= The illustrations below show improvised litters.
Chapter I
MILITARY DEPORTMENT AND APPEARANCE--PERSONAL CLEANLINESS--FORMS OF SPEECH--DELIVERY OF MESSAGES, ETC.
=1523. Military Deportment and Appearance.= The enlisted man is no longer a civilian but a soldier. He is, however, still a citizen of the United States and by becoming a soldier also he is in no way relieved of the responsibilities of a citizen; he has merely assumed in addition thereto the responsibilities of a soldier. For instance, if he should visit an adjoining town and become drunk and disorderly while in uniform, not only could he be arrested and tried by the civil authorities, but he could also be tried by the summary court at his post for conduct to the prejudice of good order and military discipline. Indeed, his uniform is in no way whatsoever a license for him to do anything contrary to law and be protected by the government.
Being a soldier, he must conduct himself as such at all times, that he may be looked upon not only by his superior officers as a soldier, but also by the public as a man in every way worthy of the uniform of the American soldier.
Whether on or off duty, he should always look neat and clean, ever remembering that in bearing and in conversation he should be every inch a soldier--shoes must be clean and polished at all times; no chewing, spitting, gazing about, or raising of hands in ranks--he should know his drill, his orders and his duties--he should always be ready and willing to learn all he can about his profession--he should never debase himself with drink.
A soldier's uniform is more than a mere suit of clothes that is worn to hide nakedness and protect the body. The uniform of an army symbolizes its respectability, its honor, its traditions, and its achievements, just as the flag of a nation symbolizes its honor, dignity and history. Always remember this, and remember, too, that the soldier who brings reproach upon his uniform is in the same class as the priest who brings dishonor upon his robes.
It is not given to every man to wear the uniform of his Country's army,--it is an honor and a privilege to do so, and no individual has a right to abuse this honor and privilege by bringing the uniform into disrepute through misbehavior.
It should be remembered that the soldiers of a command can make the uniform carry distinction and respect, or they can make it a thing to be derided.
The soldier should take pride in his uniform.
A soldier should be soldierly in dress, soldierly in carriage, soldierly in courtesies.
A civilian owes it to himself to be neat in dress. A soldier owes it to more than himself--he owes it to his comrades, to his company--he owes it to his country, for just so far as a soldier is slack so far does his company suffer; his shabbiness reflects first upon himself, then upon his company and finally upon the entire Army.
It is a fact known to students of human nature that just in proportion as a man is neatly and trimly dressed is he apt to conduct himself with like decency. The worst vagabonds in our communities are the tramps, with their dirty bodies and dirty clothes; the most brutal deeds in all history were those of the ragged, motley mobs of Paris in the days of the French Revolution; the first act of the mutineer has ever been to debase and deride his uniform.
The man who misbehaves himself in uniform in public creates a bad impression of the whole command, as a result of which his comrades must suffer. Remember that a man in the uniform of a soldier is conspicuous,--much more so than a civilian,--and consequently any misconduct on his part is more noticeable than if done in civilian clothes. The man who deliberately besmirches the uniform of his Country's army by appearing in public drunk or by other misconduct, not only fouls his own nest, but he also dishonors the uniform worn by his self-respecting comrades.
It is a well known fact that laxity in dress and negligence in military courtesy run hand in hand with laxity and negligence in almost everything else, and that is why we can always look for certain infallible symptoms in the individual dress, carriage and courtesies of soldiers.
Should a soldier give care and attention to his dress?
Yes; not only should a soldier be always neatly dressed, but he should also be properly dressed--that is, he should be dressed as required by regulations. A soldier should always be neat and trim, precise in dress and carriage and punctilious in salute. Under no circumstances should the blouse or overcoat be worn unbuttoned, or the cap back or on the side of the head. His hair should be kept properly trimmed, his face clean shaven or beard trimmed and his shoes polished, his trousers pressed, the garrison belt accurately fitted to the waist so that it does not sag, his leggins cleaned, his brass letters, numbers and crossed rifles polished, and his white gloves immaculate.
Should a man ever be allowed to leave the post on pass if not properly dressed?
No; never. The Army Regulations require that chiefs of squads shall see that such members of their squads as have passes leave the post in proper dress.
Should a soldier ever stand or walk with his hands in his pockets?
No; never. There is nothing more unmilitary than to see a soldier standing or walking with his hands in his pockets.
The real soldier always stands erect. He never slouches.
Is it permissible, while in uniform, to wear picture buttons, chains, watch charms, etc., exposed to view?
No; it is not.
May the campaign hat or any other parts of the uniform be worn with civilian dress?
No; this is prohibited by the Uniform Regulations, which especially states that when the civilian dress is worn it will not be accompanied by any mark or part of the uniform.
May a mixed uniform be worn--for example, a cotton olive drab at and woolen olive drab breeches?
No; under no circumstances.
When the company commander or any other officer sends for a soldier to report to him in the company office or any other place, the soldier must report in proper uniform.
=1524. Obedience.= What is Obedience? It is compliance with everything that is required by authority--it is the mainspring, the very soul and essence of all military duty. It is said a famous general once remarked every soldier should know three things--"First, obedience; second, obedience; third, obedience."
Cheerful, earnest and loyal obedience must be paid by all subordinates to the orders of their superiors.
A soldier should obey first and if aggrieved complain afterward.
All duty should be performed cheerfully and willingly. Soldiers are sometimes required to perform duties that are not pleasant--for instance, doing guard duty on a cold, rainy night, when tired and sleepy; digging ditches or cleaning up dirt and filth that have accumulated around the barracks, kitchens, quarters, etc., scrubbing floors, polishing stoves, cleaning knives, forks, pots, etc. However, by doing everything required of him in a cheerful manner, a soldier will soon earn the respect of his comrades and the commendation of his officers.
=1525. Respect and Obedience to Noncommissioned Officers.= In the orders and directions that they give, company noncommissioned officers represent the company commander, and they must be obeyed and respected at all times and under all circumstances.
Orders and regulations require that men respect and obey their noncommissioned officers, and discipline makes it imperative that they do so.
It is not for a private to question in any way the fairness, justice, propriety or wisdom of an order received from a noncommissioned officer. When ordered by a noncommissioned officer to do a thing, whatever it may be, do it promptly and thoroughly, and then if you feel that you have been injured in any way, report the matter to your company commander, who will see that you receive justice. If the noncommissioned officer made a mistake, exceeded his authority, or treated you unfairly, he will be punished by the company commander. The company commander, and not the privates of the company, is to judge the conduct of his noncommissioned officers, who are directly responsible to him for every act of theirs.
If every subordinate were to question the fairness, justice, propriety or wisdom of orders received from noncommissioned officers or other superiors, there would be no discipline, and the Army would soon degenerate into a mob.
Remember, a soldier is supposed to obey first, and, if aggrieved, complain afterward.
And remember, too, that the authority of noncommissioned officers is not confined to the drill ground, the barracks and the post or camp. Whether you are on pass, in a theatre, in a streetcar, on a train on the street or anywhere else, if you receive an order from a noncommissioned officer you are to obey it just the same as if it were given you at drill or in barracks.
=1526. Forms of Speech.= In speaking to an officer it is not proper for a soldier to say, "You, etc.," but the third person should always be used, as, for example, "Does the captain want his horse this morning?"--do not say, "Do you want your horse this morning?" "The lieutenant is wanted on the 'phone,"--not "You are wanted on the 'phone."
In beginning a conversation with an officer, a soldier should use the third person in referring to himself instead of the pronouns "I" and "me." However, after the conversation has commenced, it is perfectly proper, and usual, for the soldier to use the pronouns "I" and "me," but an officer is always addressed in the third person and never as "you."
In speaking to an officer, an enlisted man should refer to another enlisted man by proper title, as, "Sergeant Richards," "Corporal Smith," "Private Wilson."
Privates and others should always address noncommissioned officers by their titles. For example, "Sergeant Smith," "Corporal Jones," etc., and not "Smith," "Jones," etc.
When asked his name, a soldier should answer, for instance, "Private Jones, Sir."
When given an order or instructions of any kind by an officer, or noncommissioned officer, a soldier should always say, "Yes, sir," thus letting the officer or noncommissioned officer know that the soldier understands the order or instructions. Don't say, "Very well, sir," or "All right, sir"; say, "Yes, sir," it's the direct, military way of answering.
Short direct answers should be made in the form of, "No, sir," "Yes, sir," "I don't know, sir," "I will try, sir," etc.
Do not use slang in speaking to an officer.
Never interrupt an officer while he is speaking. Always wait until he is through talking before you begin to speak.
After a soldier has finished a thing that he was ordered to do, he should always report to the officer who gave him the order. For example, "The captain's message to Lieutenant Smith has been delivered."
If ordered to report to an officer for any purpose, do not go away without first ascertaining if the officer is through with you, as it often happens he has something else he would like to have you do. After having finished the work given in the beginning, report, for instance, "Sir, is the captain through with me?"
When an officer calls a soldier who is some distance away, the soldier should immediately salute, and say, "Yes, sir," and, if necessary, approach the officer with a quickened step. If the officer is waiting on the soldier, the latter should take up the double time.
Always salute an officer when he leaves you after a conversation or at any other time. And always salute just as soon as the officer makes the first move to leave. Don't wait until he has moved away several feet before saluting.
Miscellaneous
=1527. How to Enter an Office.= In entering an office a soldier should give two or three knocks at the door (whether it be open or closed); when told to come in, enter, taking off the hat (if unarmed), close the door (if it was closed before you entered) and remain just inside the door until asked what is wanted; then go within a short distance of the officer, stand at attention, salute, and make known your request in as few words as possible. On completion, salute, face toward the door, and go out, being careful to close the door if it was closed when you entered. If it was not closed, leave it open.
=1528. Complaints to the Captain.= Complaints must never be made directly to the captain unless the soldier has the captain's permission to do so, or the first sergeant refuses to have the matter reported. If dissatisfied with his food, clothing, duties, or treatment, the facts should be reported to the first sergeant, with the request, if necessary, to see the captain.
It is also customary for soldiers who wish to speak to the captain about anything to see the first sergeant first, and when speaking to the captain to inform him that they have the first sergeant's permission to do so. Thus: "Private Smith has the first sergeant's permission to speak to the captain," etc.
=1529. How the Soldier is Paid.= When your name is called, answer "Here," step forward and halt directly in front of the paymaster, who will be directly behind the table; salute him. When he spreads out your pay on the table in front of you, count it quickly, take it up with your ungloved hand, execute a left or right face and leave the room and building, unless you wish to deposit, in which case, you will remain in the hall outside the payroom, until the company has been paid, when you enter the payroom. Men wishing to deposit money with the paymaster, will always notify the first sergeant before the company is marched to the pay table.
=1530. Delivery of Messages.= When an enlisted man receives a message, verbal or written, from an officer for delivery, he will, in case he does not understand his instructions, ask the officer to repeat them, saying, for instance, "Sir, Private Smith does not understand; will the captain please repeat?" When he has received his instructions, and understands them, he will salute, and say: "Yes, sir," execute an about face, and proceed immediately to the officer for whom the message is intended. He will halt three or four paces directly in front of the officer and if the officer be junior to the officer sending the message, he will say, "Sir, Captain Smith presents his compliments," etc., and then deliver the message, or "The commanding officer presents his compliments to Lieutenant Smith and would like to see him at headquarters." He will salute immediately before he begins to address the officer and will hold his hand at the position of salute while he says, "Sir, Captain Smith presents his compliments," or "The commanding officer presents his compliments to Lieutenant Smith." If the officer sending the message be junior to the one receiving it, the soldier will not present his compliments, but will say, for instance, "Sir, Lieutenant Smith directed me to hand this letter to the captain," or "Sir, Lieutenant Smith directed me to say to the captain," etc. As soon as the message has been delivered, the soldier will salute, execute an about face, and proceed at once to the officer who sent the message, and will similarly report to him, "Sir, the lieutenant's message to Captain Smith has been delivered," and leave.
Before leaving an officer to whom you deliver a message always ascertain whether there is an answer.
The compliments of a junior are never presented to a senior. For instance, never say to a captain that a lieutenant presents his compliments to him.
=1531. Appearance as Witness.= The uniform is that prescribed. Proceed to the courtroom and remain outside. When you are notified that you are wanted enter the room. Then take off your cap and right hand glove, and raise your right hand above your head, palm to the front, to be sworn. After the judge-advocate reads the oath, say, "I do" or "So help me God." Then sit down in the chair indicated by the judge-advocate. Do not cross your legs, but sit upright. When asked, "Do you know the accused? If, so, state who he is," answer, "I do; Corporal John Jones, Co. 'B' 1st Infantry." Be sure you thoroughly understand every question before you start to reply, answering them all promptly, in a loud, distinct, deliberate voice, and confining your answers strictly to the questions asked and telling all you know.
When the judge-advocate says, "That is all," arise, salute him, execute an about face, and leave the room.