V. THE SERVICE OF SECURITY
(Based on the Field Service Regulations.)
General Principles
=1020. The Service of Security= embraces all those measures taken by a military force to protect itself against surprise, annoyance or observation by the enemy. On the march, that portion of a command thrown out to provide this security is called an advance, flank or rear guard, depending on whether it is in front, to the flank or in rear of the main command; in camp or bivouac, it is called the outpost.
The principal duties of these bodies being much the same, their general formations are also very similar. There is (1) the cavalry covering the front; next (2) a group (4 men to a platoon) or line of groups in observation; then (3) the support, or line of supports, whose duty is to furnish the men for the observation groups and check an enemy's attempt to advance until reinforcements can arrive; still farther in rear is (4) the reserve.
In small commands of an infantry regiment or less there usually will not be any cavalry to cover the front, and the reserve is generally omitted. Even the support may be omitted and the observation group or line of groups be charged with checking the enemy, in addition to its regular duties of observation. But whatever the technical designation of these subdivisions, the rearmost one is always in fact a reserve. For example, if the command is so small that the subdivision formally designated as the reserve is omitted, the rear element (squad or platoon or company, etc.) is used as a reserve. As this text deals principally with small commands and only those larger than a regiment usually have the subdivision termed the reserve, this distinction between the element in the Field Service Regulations called the reserve and the actual reserve, must be thoroughly understood.
The arrangements or formations of all detachments thrown out from the main force to provide security against the enemy, are very flexible, varying with every military situation and every different kind of country. The commander of such a detachment must, therefore, avoid blindly arranging his men according to some fixed plan and at certain fixed distances. Acquire a general understanding of the principles of the service of security and then with these principles as a foundation use common sense in disposing troops for this duty.
ADVANCE GUARD
=1021. Definition and Duties.= An advance guard is a detachment of a marching column thrown out in advance to protect the main column from being surprised and to prevent its march from being delayed or interrupted. (The latter duty is generally forgotten and many irritating, short halts result, which wear out or greatly fatigue the main body, the strength of which the advance guard is supposed to conserve.)
In detail the duties of the advance guard are:
1. To guard against surprise and furnish information by reconnoitering to the front and flanks.
2. To push back small parties of the enemy and prevent their observing, firing upon or delaying the main body.
3. To check the enemy's advance in force long enough to permit the main body to prepare for action.
4. When the enemy is met on the defenses, seize a good position and locate his lines, care being taken not to bring on a general engagement unless the advance guard commander is authorized to do so.
5. To remove obstacles, repair the road, and favor in every way possible the steady march of the column.
=1022. Strength:= The strength of the advance guard varies from one-ninth to one-third of the total command. The larger the force the larger in proportion is the advance guard, for a larger command takes relatively longer to prepare for action than a small one. For example, a company of 100 men would ordinarily have an advance guard of from one to two squads, as the company could deploy as skirmishers in a few seconds. On the other hand, a division of 20,000 men would ordinarily have an advance guard of about 4,500 men, all told, as it would require several hours for a division to deploy and the advance guard must be strong enough to make a stubborn fight.
=1023. Composition.= The advance guard is principally composed of infantry, preceded if possible, by cavalry well to the front. When there is only infantry, much more patrolling is required of the front troops than when cavalry (called "Advance cavalry") is out in advance. This book does not deal with large advance guards containing artillery and engineers. Machine guns, however, will be frequently used in small advance guards to hold bridges, defiles, etc.
=1024. Distance From Main Body.= The distance at which the advance guard precedes the main body or the main body follows the advance guard depends on the military situation and the ground. It should always be great enough to allow the main body time to deploy before it can be seriously engaged. For instance the advance guard of a company, say 1 squad, should be 350 to 500 yards in advance of the company. The distance from the leading man back to the principal group of the squad should generally be at least 150 yards. This, added to the distance back to the main body or company, makes a distance of from 500 to 650 yards from the leading man to the head of the main body.
Examples:
Command. Advance Guard. Distance (yds.).
Patrol of 1 squad 2 men 100 to 300 Section of 3 squads 4 men 200 to 400 Inf. platoon of 50 men 1 squad 300 to 450 Cav. platoon of 20 men 4 men 300 to 450 Inf. company of 108 men 1 to 2 squads 350 to 500 Cav. troop of 86 men 1/2 platoon 450 to 600 Inf. battalion 1/2 to 1 company 500 to 700 Cav. squadron 1/2 to 1 troop 600 to 800
These are not furnished as fixed numbers and distances, but are merely to give the student an approximate, concrete idea.
=1025. Connecting Files.= It should be remembered that between the advance guard and the main body, and between the several groups into which the advance guard is subdivided, connecting files are placed so as to furnish a means of communicating, generally by signals, between the elements (groups) of the column. There should be a connecting file for at least ever, 300 yards. For example, suppose the advance guard of a platoon is 300 yards in front of the main body. In ordinary rolling country, not heavily wooded, a connecting file would be placed half way between the two elements--150 yards from each one.
It is generally wiser to use two men together instead of one, because this leaves one man free to watch for signals from the front while the other watches the main body. However, in very small commands like a company, this is not practicable, as the extra man could not be spared.
FORMATION OF ADVANCE GUARDS.
=1026. Subdivisions.= The advance guard of a large force like a brigade or division is subdivided into a number of groups or elements, gradually increasing in size from front to rear. The reason for this is that, as has already been explained, a larger group or force requires longer to deploy or prepare to fight than a smaller one, therefore the small subdivisions are placed in front where they can quickly deploy and hold the enemy temporarily in check while the larger elements in rear are deploying. The number of these subdivisions decreases as the strength of the advance guard decreases, until we find the advance guard of a company consists of one or two squads, which naturally cannot be subdivided into more than two groups; and the advance guard of a squad composed of two men, which admits of no subdivision.
=Distance to next element in rear.=
=Advance Cavalry= 1 to 5 miles {=Advance party= {=Point= 150 to 300 yds. =Support= {(=furnishes patrols=) {=Advance party proper= 300 to 600 yds. {=Support proper= 400 to 800 yds. =Reserve= (usually omitted in small commands) 500 yds. to 1 mile
The distances vary principally with the size of the command--slightly with the character of the country.
The advance cavalry is that part of the advance guard going in front of all the foot troops. It is generally one to five miles in advance of the infantry of the advance guard, reconnoitering at least far enough to the front and flanks to guard the column against surprise by artillery fire--4,500 yards.
=1027. Support.= (=a=) The support constitutes the principal element or group of all advance guards. It follows the advance cavalry, when there is any, and leads the advance guard when there is no cavalry. The support of a large command is subdivided within itself in much the same manner as the advance guard as a whole is subdivided. It varies in strength from one-fourth to one-half of the advance guard.
=1028. (b) Advance Party.= As the support moves out it sends forward an advance party several hundred yards, the distance varying with the nature of the country and size of the command. For example, the advance party of a support of one company of 108 men, would ordinarily be composed of one section of three squads, and would march about 300 yards in advance of the company in open country, and about 200 yards in wooded country.
The advance party sends out the patrols to the front and flanks to guard the main body of the support from surprise by effective rifle fire. Patrols are only sent out to the flanks to examine points that cannot be observed from the road. As a rule they will have to rejoin some portion of the column in rear of the advance party. As the advance party becomes depleted in strength in this manner, fresh men are sent forward from the main body of the support to replace those who have fallen behind while patrolling. When there is advance cavalry, much less patrolling is required of the infantry.
(=c=) The point is a patrol sent forward by the advance party 150 to 300 yards. When the advance party is large enough the point should ordinarily consist of a complete squad, commanded by an officer or experienced noncommissioned officer. It is merely a patrol in front of the column and takes the formation described for patrols.
(=d=) The commander of the support ordinarily marches with the advance party. He should have a map and control of the guide, if any is present. He sees that the proper road is followed; that guides are left in towns and at crossroads; that bridges, roads, etc., are repaired promptly so as not to delay the march of the column and that information of the enemy is promptly sent back to the advance guard commander; he verifies the correctness of this information, if possible.
=1029.= (=a=) A thorough understanding of the arrangement of the support and the duties of the leaders of its subdivisions--point, flank patrols, advance party and main body (of the support)--is of the greatest importance to a noncommissioned officer. For example, the ignorance of one noncommissioned officer leading the advance party of a column of troops six miles long can cause the entire column to be delayed. If he halts because a few shots are fired at his men, and conducts a careful reconnaissance before attacking (instead of pushing right in on the enemy, forcing him to fall back quickly, if a weak detachment; or, to disclose his strength, if strong), the entire column, six miles long, is halted, the march interrupted, valuable time lost, and what is more important, the men irritated and tired out.
(=b=) The leader of the point must understand that as the principal duty of an advance guard is to secure the safe and uninterrupted march of the main body, he is the first man to discharge this duty. If, for example, his squad receives a volley of shots from some point to the front, he cannot take the time and precautions the commander of a large body would take to reconnoiter the enemy's position, determine something about his strength, etc., before risking an attack. If he did he would not be securing the uninterrupted march of the main body. He has to deploy instantly and press the enemy hard until the hostile opposition disappears or the advance party comes up and its commander takes charge. The point will lose men in this way, but it is necessary, for otherwise one small combat patrol could delay the march time after time.
(=c=) The same problem must be met in much the same manner by the leader of the advance party. In this case there is more time to think, as the point, being in advance, will have begun the fight before the advance party arrives; but the leader of the advance party must use his men freely and quickly to force the enemy to "show his hand," thus preventing small harassing or combat detachments from delaying the march.
(=d=) As the subdivisions of the advance guard become larger their leaders act with increasing caution, for as soon as it develops that the enemy in front is really present in some strength, then a halt becomes obligatory and a careful reconnaissance necessary.
(=e=) The leader of every subdivision must always start a reconnaissance the instant the enemy develops. He may, as in the case of the point, only send one man around to discover the enemy's strength; or, if the leader of the main body of the support, he may send an entire squad. In almost every case the instant he has given his orders for deploying and firing at or rushing the enemy, he sends out his man or men to work around to a position permitting a view of the hostile force. Every noncommissioned officer should impress this on his memory so that he will not forget it in the excitement of a sudden engagement.
(=f=) No attempt should be made to subdivide the advance guard of a small force into all the elements previously described. For example, the advance guard of a squad is simply a point of one or two men; the advance guard of a company is usually no more than a squad acting as a point, the squad actually having several men from 100 to 150 yards in advance, who really constitute a point for the squad; the advance guard of a battalion would usually consist of a company or less distributed as an advance party proper and a point. The advance guard of a regiment would have no reserve--if, for example, a battalion were used as the advance guard of a regiment, there would be only a support, which would be distributed about as follows: A support proper of about three companies and an advance party (point included) of about one company.
=1030. Reserve.= An advance guard large enough to have a reserve would be distributed as follows:
The distance Z would be greater than Y and Y would be greater than X. For example, a regiment acting as the advance guard of a brigade would, under ordinary conditions, be distributed about as follows:
As only large commands have a reserve, which would always be commanded by an officer, noncommissioned officers need not give this much consideration, but it must be understood that while this fourth subdivision of the advance guard is the only one officially termed reserve, the last subdivision of any advance guard actually is a reserve, no matter what its official designation.
The advance guard of a cavalry command adopts formations similar to those described above, except that the distances are increased because of the rapidity with which the command can close up or deploy. An advance party with a few patrols is usually enough for a squadron, and precedes it from 600 to 1,000 yards.
=1031. Reconnaissance.= In reconnaissance the patrols are, as a rule, small (from two to six men).
The flanking patrols, whether of the advance cavalry or of the advance party, are sent out to examine the country wherever the enemy might be concealed. If the nature of the ground permits, these patrols march across country or along roads and trails parallel to the march of the column. For cavalry patrols this is often possible; but with infantry patrols and even with those that are mounted, reconnaissance is best done by sending the patrols to high places along the line of march to overlook the country and examine the danger points. These patrols signal the results of their observations and, unless they have other instructions, join the columns by the nearest routes, other patrols being sent out as the march proceeds and as the nature of the country requires.
Deserters, suspicious characters and bearers of flags of truce (the latter blindfolded), are taken to the advance guard commander.
=1032. Advance Guard Order.= On receipt of the order for a march designating the troops for the advance guard, the commander of the latter makes his estimate of the situation; that is, he looks at the map or makes inquiries to determine what sort of a country he must march through and the nature of the roads; he considers what the chances are of encountering the enemy, etc., and then how he should best arrange his advance guard to meet these conditions, and what time the different elements of his advance guard must start in order to take their proper place in the column. He then issues his order at the proper time--the evening before if possible and he deems it best, or the morning of the march.
The order for a large advance guard would ordinarily be written; for a small command it would almost invariably be verbal, except that the commander or leader of each element should always make written notes of the principal points, such as the road to be followed, time to start, distances, etc.
ADVANCE GUARD PROBLEMS
Problem No. 1. (Infantry)
=1033. Captain (to one platoon of his company):= We will assume that our battalion camped last night at Oxford (Elementary Map) in the enemy's country. It is now sunrise, 5:30 A. M.; camp has been broken and we are ready to march. The officers have returned from reporting to the major for orders and I fall in the company and give the following orders:
"A regiment of the enemy's cavalry is thought to be marching towards Salem from the south. Our battalion will march at once towards Salem to guard the railroad trestle over Sandy Creek, following this road (pointing southeast along the road out of Oxford) and the Chester Pike Which is one and three-quarters miles from here.
"This company will form the advance guard.
"Sergeant Adams, you will take Corporal Baker's squad and form the point, followed by the remainder of the company at about 400 yards. Patrols and connecting files will be furnished by the company.
"The company wagon will join the wagons of the battalion.
"I will be with the company.
"Move out at once."
The weather is fine and the roads are good and free from dust. It is August and nearly all the crops are harvested. Bushes and weeds form a considerable growth along the fences bordering the road.
Sergeant, give your orders.
=Sergeant Adams:= 1st squad, =1. Right, 2. FACE, 1. Forward, 2. MARCH.= Corporal Baker, take Carter (Baker's rear rank man) and go ahead of the squad about 200 yards. Move out rapidly until you get your distance and then keep us in sight.
I would then have the two leading men of the rest of the squad follow on opposite sides of the road, as close to the fence as possible for good walking. This would put the squad in two columns of files of three men each, leaving the main roadway clear and making the squad as inconspicuous as possible, without interfering with ease of marching or separating the men. [Par. 1028 (c).] What sort of crops are in the fields on either side of the road?
=Captain:= The field on the right (south) is meadow land; that on the left, as far as the railroad, is cut hay; beyond the railroad there is more meadow land.
=Sergeant Adams:= I would have told Corporal Baker to wait at the cross roads by the Baker house for orders and--
=Captain:= If you were actually on the ground you probably could not see the cross roads from Oxford. In solving map problems like these do not take advantage of seeing on the map all the country that you are supposed to go over, and then give orders about doing things at places concerning which you would not probably have any knowledge if actually on the ground without the map.
Besides, in this particular case, it was a mistake to have your point wait at the cross roads. If there was any danger of their taking the wrong road it would be a different matter, but here your mission requires you to push ahead. (Par. 1029.) The major is trying to get south of the trestle towards Salem before the cavalry can arrive and destroy it.
=Sergeant Adams:= I would march steadily along the road, ordering the last man to keep a lookout to the rear for signals from the connecting file (Par. 511a), and I would direct one of the leading men to watch for signals from Corporal Baker.
=Captain:= You should have given the direction about watching for signals earlier, as this is very important. You also should have ordered two men to follow along the timber by the creek to your south until you signaled for them to come in. The trees along the creek would obstruct your view over the country beyond the creek.
=Sergeant Adams:= But I thought, Captain, that the patrolling was to be done by the company.
=Captain:= Yes, the patrolling is to be done by the company, but the creek is only a quarter of a mile, about 400 yards, from the road you are following and the men sent there are merely flankers, not a patrol. You have eight men under your command and you are responsible for the ground within several hundred yards on either side of your route of march. Long Ridge is almost too far for you to send your men, because they would fall far behind in climbing and descending its slopes, but it would not be a great mistake if you sent two men there. As Long Ridge affords an extended view of the valley through which the Chester Pike runs, a patrol should go up on it and remain there until the battalion passes, and this would be more than the leading squad could be expected to attend to. The creek is almost too far from the road in places, but as it is open meadow land you can keep the men within easy touch of you and recall them by signal at any moment you desire. In this work you can see how much depends on good judgment and a proper understanding of one's mission.
Corporal Baker, explain how you would move out with Carter.
=Corporal Baker:= We would alternate the walk and double time until we had gotten about 200 yards ahead of the squad. I would then say, "Carter, walk along this side of the road (indicates side), keeping on the lookout for signals from the squad. I will go about fifty yards ahead of you." I would keep to the opposite side of the road from Carter, trying to march steadily at the regular marching gait, and keeping a keen watch on everything in front and to the flanks.
=Captain:= Very good. When you arrive at the cross roads you see a man standing in the yard of the Baker house.
=Corporal Baker:= I would not stop, but would continue on by the cross roads, as I have no time to question the man and the Sergeant will want to do that. I would call to him and ask him if he had seen any of the enemy about and how far it was to the Chester Pike. If anything looked suspicious around the house or barnyard, I would investigate.
=Captain:= Sergeant, you arrive at the cross roads, and see the Corporal and Carter going on ahead of you.
=Sergeant Adams:= I would have already signaled to the two men following the creek to come in and would send a man to meet them with the following order: "Tell Davis to move along the railroad fill with Evans, keeping abreast of us. Then you return to me." I would then say, "Fiske, look in that house and around the barn and orchard and then rejoin me down this road (pointing east)." I would have the civilian join me and walk down the road with me while I questioned him.
=Captain:= Do you think you have made careful arrangements for searching the house, etc., by leaving only one man to do the work?
=Sergeant Adams:= I have not sufficient men nor time enough to do much more. I simply want to make sure things are reasonably safe and I thought that a couple of men from the main body of the advance guard would do any careful searching, questioning, etc., that might be deemed necessary. I must not delay the march.
=Captain:= That is right. You learn nothing from the civilian and he does not arouse any suspicion on your part. You continue along the road. The fields to the north of the road are in wheat stubble; the ground to the south, between your road and the railroad, is rough, rocky grass land with frequent clumps of bushes. Davis and Evans, your right flankers on the railroad fill, are just approaching the cut; Fiske has rejoined; Corporal Baker and his men are about 200 yards from the road forks at Brown's, and you and your four men are 200 yards in their rear, at the turn of the road. At this moment a half dozen shots are fired down the road in your direction from behind the wall along the edge of the orchard on the Brown farm. This firing continues and your two leading men are lying down at the roadside returning the fire. Tell me quickly just what you are going to do?
=Sergeant Adams:= I order my four men to deploy as skirmishers in that field (pointing to the rough ground south of the road); I go under the fence with the men and lead them forward at a fast run, unless the fire is very heavy.
=Captain= (interrupting the Sergeant): Davis, you had just reached the cut on the railroad when this happened. What do you do?
=Private Davis:= I take Evans forward with me at a run through the cut. What do I see along the Chester Pike or Sandy Creek?
=Captain:= You see no sign of the enemy any place, except the firing over the wall.
=Private Davis:= I run down the south side of the fill and along towards the road with Evans to open fire on the enemy from their flank, and also to see what is in the orchard. I will probably cross the road so that I can see behind the stone wall.
=Captain:= That's fine and shows how you should go ahead at such a time without any orders. There is usually no time or opportunity at such a moment for sending instructions and you must use common sense and do something. Generally it would have been better to have tried to signal or send word back that there was nothing in sight along the road or in the valley, but in this particular case you could probably do more good by going quickly around in rear as you did, to discover what was there and assist in quickly dislodging whatever it was. If there had been no nose of the ridge to hide you as you came up and a convenient railroad fill to hurry along behind as you made for the road, your solution might have been quite different.
Sergeant, continue with your movements.
=Sergeant Adams:= I would attempt to rush the wall. If the fire were too heavy, I would open fire (at will) with all my men, and, if I seemed to get a little heavier fire than the enemy's, I would start half of my men forward on a rush while the others fired. I would try to rush in on the enemy with as little delay as possible, until it developed that he had more than a small detachment there. I assumed it was a delaying patrol in front of me, and as my mission requires me to secure the uninterrupted march of the main body, I must not permit any small detachment to delay me. If, however, it proves to be a larger force, for instance, the head of an advance guard, I will lose some men by plunging in, but as I understand it, that is the duty of the point. Then again, if it be the head of a hostile advance guard, I will want to rush them out of their favorable position under cover of the stone wall, buildings and orchard, before any more of their force can come up. This would give the favorable position to our force; by acting too cautiously we would lose the valuable moments in which the enemy's reenforcements (next elements of the advance guard) were coming up, with this desirable position being weakly held by a small part of the enemy.
=Captain:= That is all correct. What messages would you have sent?
=Sergeant Adams:= Up to the present time I would not have sent any. I could not have sent any. I could not afford to take the time to send a man back, nor could I spare the man. Besides, all I could say was that we were fired on, and you should be able to see and hear that from where the company is.
=Captain:= About the time you reached the position of Corporal Baker the firing ceases, and when you reach the wall you see five mounted men galloping northeast up Farm Lane. The Brown farm appears to be deserted.
=Sergeant Adams:= I would turn to one of the men and say, "Run back to the Captain and tell him we were fired on from this orchard by a mounted patrol of five men who are galloping off up a lane to the northeast. I am going south." When he had repeated the message I would start south down the Chester Pike, directing Corporal Baker to follow this road south and to tell Davis to follow the high ridge west of the road, going through the clump of woods just ahead. I would send one man as a left flanker to follow the west bank of Sandy Creek. This would leave me with two men, one watching for signals from the front and along Sandy Creek, the other from Davis and from the rear. I would expect to see a patrol from the company moving across towards Boling Woods. Had I not been mixed up in a fight as I approached the Brown farm I would have sent two men as left flankers across country to the cut on the Chester Pike on the western edge of the Boling Woods.
=Captain:= Very good. That is sufficient for this problem. All of you should have caught the idea of the principal duties of the point and flankers of an advance guard. You must watch the country to prevent being surprised and you must at the same time manage to push ahead with the least possible delay. The point cannot be very cautious so far as concerns its own safety, for this would mean frequent halts which would delay the troops in rear, but it must be cautious about reconnoitering all parts of the ground near the road which might conceal large bodies of the enemy.
The leader of the point must be careful in using his men or he will get them so scattered that they will become entirely separated and he will lose all control of them. As soon as the necessity for flankers on one side of the line of march no longer exists, signal for them to rejoin and do not send them out again so long as you can see from the road all the country you should cover.
Problem No. 2. (Infantry)
=1034. Captain (to one platoon of his company):= Let us assume that this platoon is the advance party of an advance guard, marching through Salem along the Chester Pike [Par. 1028 (b)]. One squad is 350 yards in front, acting as the point. The enemy is thought to be very near, but only two mounted patrols have been seen during the day. The command is marching for Chester. The day is hot, the roads are good but dusty, and the crops are about to be harvested.
Sergeant Adams, explain how you would conduct the march of the advance party, beginning with your arrival at the cross roads in Salem.
=Sergeant Adams:= The platoon would be marching in column of squads and I would be at the head. Two pairs of connecting files would keep me in touch with the point. (Par. 1025.) I would now give this order: "Corporal Smith, take two men from your squad and patrol north along this road (pointing up the Tracy-Maxey road) for a mile and then rejoin the column on this road (Chester Pike), to the west of you." I would then say to Private Barker, "Take Carter and cut across to that railroad fill and go along the top of that (Sandy) ridge, rejoining the column beyond the ridge. Corporal Smith with a patrol is going up this road. Keep a lookout for him." When we reached the point where the road crosses the south nose of Sandy Ridge and I saw the valley in front of me with the long high ridge west of Sandy Creek, running parallel to the Chester Pike and about 800 yards west of it, I would give this order: "Corporal Davis, take the three remaining men in Corporal Smith's squad, cross the creek there (pointing in the direction of the Barton farm) go by that orchard, and move north along that high ridge, keeping the column in sight. Make an effort to keep abreast of the advance guard, which will continue along this road."
I gave Corporal Davis the remaining men out of Corporal Smith's squad because I did not want to break up another squad and as this is, in my opinion, a very important patrol, I wanted a noncommissioned officer in charge of it. Unless something else occurs this will be all the patrols I intend sending out until we pass the steel railroad trestle over Sandy Creek.
=Captain:= Your point about not breaking up a squad when you could avoid it by using the men remaining in an already broken squad, is a very important one. Take this particular case. You first sent out two pairs of connecting files between the advance party and your point--four men. This leaves a corporal and three men in that squad. If we assume that no patrols were out when we passed through Salem, this corporal and two of his men could have been sent up the Tracy-Maxey road, leaving one man to be temporarily attached to some squad. From the last mentioned squad you would pick your two men for the Sandy Ridge patrol and also the corporal and three men for the Barton farm, etc., patrol. This would leave three men in this squad and you would have under your immediate command two complete squads and three men. As the patrols return, organize new squads immediately and constantly endeavor to have every man attached to a squad. This is one of your most important duties, as it prevents disorder when some serious situation suddenly arises. Also it is one of the duties of the detachment commander that is generally overlooked until too late.
The direction you sent your three patrols was good and their orders clear, covering the essential points, but as you have in a very short space of time, detached nine men, almost a third of your advance party, don't you think you should have economized more on men?
=Sergeant Adams:= The Sandy Ridge patrol is as small as you can make it--two men. I thought the other two patrols were going to be detached so far from the column that they should be large enough to send a message or two and still remain out. I suppose it would be better to send but two men with Corporal Davis, but I think Corporal Smith should have two with him.
=Captain:= Yes, I agree with you, for you are entering a valley which is, in effect, a defile, and the Tracy-Maxey road is a very dangerous avenue of approach to your main body. But you must always bear in mind that it is a mistake to use one more man than is needed to accomplish the object in view. The more you send away from your advance party, the more scattered and weaker your command becomes, and this is dispersion, which constitutes one of the gravest, and at the same time, most frequent tactical errors.
To continue the problem, we will suppose you have reached the stone bridge over Sandy Creek; the point is at the cross roads by the Smith house; you can see the two men moving along Sandy Ridge; and Corporal Davis' patrol is just entering the orchard by the Barton farm. Firing suddenly commences well to the front and you hear your point reply to it.
=Sergeant Adams:= I halt to await information from the point.
=Captain:= That is absolutely wrong. You command the advance party of an advance guard; your mission requires you to secure the uninterrupted march of the main body; and at the first contact you halt, thus interrupting the march (Par. 1021). The sooner you reach the point, the better are your chances for driving off the enemy if he is not too strong, or the quicker you find out his strength and give your commander in the rear the much desired information.
=Sergeant Adams:= Then I push ahead with the advance party, sending back the following message--
=Captain= (interrupting): It is not time to send a message. You know too little and in a few minutes you will be up with the point where you can hear what has happened and see the situation for yourself. Then you can send back a valuable message. When but a few moments delay will probably permit you to secure much more detailed information, it is generally best to wait for that short time and thus avoid using two messengers. When you reach the cross roads you find six men of the point deployed behind the fence, under cover of the trees along the County Road, just west of the Chester Pike, firing at the stone wall along the Mills' farm lane. The enemy appears to be deployed behind this stone wall, from the Chester Pike west for a distance of fifty yards, and his fire is much heavier than that of your point. You think he has at least twenty rifles there. You cannot see down the Chester Pike beyond the enemy's position. Your patrol on Sandy Ridge is midway between the 68 and 66 knolls, moving north. The ground in your front, west of the road, is a potato field; that east of the road as far as the swamp, is rough grass land.
=Sergeant Adams:= I give order, "Corporal Gibbs, deploy your squad to the right of the Pike and push forward between the Pike and the swamp. Corporal Hall (commands the point), continue a heavy fire. Here are six more men for your squad." I give him the four connecting files and two of the three men in the advance party whose squad is on patrol duty. "Corporal Jackson, get your squad under cover here. Lacey, run back to the major and tell him the point has been stopped by what appears to be twenty of the enemy deployed behind a stone wall across the valley 500 yards in our front. I am attacking with advance party."
=Captain:= Corporal Davis (commands patrol near Barton farm), you can hear the firing and see that the advance is stopped. What do you do?
=Corporal Davis:= I would head straight across for the clump of woods on the ridge just above the Mills' farm, moving as rapidly as possible.
=Captain:= That is all right. Sergeant, Corporal Hall's squad keeps up a heavy fire; Corporal Gibb's squad deploys to the right of the pike, rushes forward about 75 yards, but is forced to lie down by the enemy's fire, and opens fire. Corporal Gibbs, what would your command for firing be?
=Corporal Gibbs:= =AT THE BOTTOM OF THAT WALL. BATTLE SIGHT. CLIP FIRE.=
=Captain:= Why at the bottom of the wall?
=Corporal Gibbs:= The men are winded and excited and will probably fire high, so I gave them the bottom of the wall as an objective.
=Captain:= The enemy's fire seems as heavy as yours. Sergeant, what do you do?
=Sergeant Adams:= I give this order. "Corporal Jackson, deploy your squad as skirmishers on the left of Corporal Hall's squad and open fire." What effect does this additional fire have on the enemy?
=Captain:= His bullets seem to go higher and wider. You appear to be getting fire superiority over him.
=Sergeant Adams:= If I do not see any signs of the enemy being reenforced, dust in the road behind his position, etc., I take immediate command of the squads of Corporals Hall and Jackson, and lead them forward on a rush across the potato field.
=Captain:= Corporal Gibbs, what do you do when you see the other two squads rush?
=Corporal Gibbs:= I order, =FIRE AT WILL=, and urge the men to shoot rapidly in order to cover the advance.
=Captain:= Sergeant Adams' squads are forced to halt after advancing about 150 yards.
=Corporal Gibbs:= I keep up a hot fire until they can resume their firing, when I lead my squad forward in a rush.
=Captain:= What do you do, Sergeant?
=Sergeant Adams:= I would have the Corporals keep up a heavy fire. By this time I should think the support would be up to the cross roads.
=Captain:= It is, but have you given up your attack?
=Sergeant Adams:= If it looks as if I could drive the enemy out on my next rush, I do so, but otherwise I remain where I am, as I have no reserve under my control and the action has gotten too serious for me to risk anything more when my chief is practically on the ground to make the next decision. He should have heard something about what is on the Pike behind the enemy, from the patrol on Sandy Ridge.
=Captain:= Your solution seems correct to me. Why did you send Corporal Gibbs' squad up between the pike and the swamp?
=Sergeant Adams:= It looked as if he would strike the enemy from a better quarter; there appeared to be better cover that way, afforded by the turn in the road, which must have some weeds, etc., along it, and the swamp would prevent him from getting too far separated from the remainder of the advance party.
=Captain:= The Sergeant's orders for the attack were very good. He gave his squad leaders some authority and attached his extra men to a squad. He did not attempt to assume direct control of individual men, but managed the three squads and made the squad leaders manage the individual men. This is the secret of successful troop leading. His orders were short, plain and given in proper sequence.
Problem No. 3 (Infantry)
(See Fort Leavenworth map in pocket at back of book.)
=1035.= Situation.
A Blue battalion, in hostile country, is in camp for the night, August 5-6, at Sprong (ja'). At 9:00 P. M., August 5th, Lieutenant A, Adjutant gives a copy of the following order to Sergeant B:
1st Battalion, 1st Infantry, Sprong, Kansas, 5 Aug., '09.
Field Orders No. 5.
1. The enemy's infantry is six miles east of FORT LEAVENWORTH. His cavalry patrols were seen at F (qg') today.
Our regiment will reach FRENCHMAN'S (oc') at noon tomorrow.
2. The battalion will march tomorrow to seize the ROCK ISLAND BRIDGE (q) at FORT LEAVENWORTH.
3. (a) The advance guard, consisting of 1st platoon Co. A and mounted orderlies B, C, and D, under Sergeant B, will precede the main body at 400 yards.
(b) The head of the main body will march at 6:30 A. M., from 19 via the 17 (jc')--15 (jg') 1--5 (lm')--FORT LEAVENWORTH (om') road.
4. The baggage will follow close behind the main body under escort of Corporal D and one squad, Co. B.
5. Send reports to head of main body.
C, Major, Comdg.
Copies to the company commanders, to Sergeant B and Corporal D.
=A. Required, 1.= Give Sergeant B's estimate of the situation. (The estimate of the military situation includes the following points:
1. His orders or mission and how much discretion he is allowed. 2. The ground as it influences his duty. 3. The position, strength and probable intentions of the enemy. 4. Sergeant B's decision.)
=Answer.= 1. The size of the advance guard, its route and the distance it is to move in front of the main body are prescribed by Major C. Sergeant B is free to divide up the advance as he sees fit, to use the various parts so as to best keep open the way of the main body, maintain the distance of 400 yards in front of it, and protect it from surprise by the enemy.
2. The ground may be such as to make easy or to hinder reconnaissance, such as hills or woods; to impede or hasten the march, such as roads, streams, defiles; to offer good or poor defensive positions; to offer good or poor opportunities for an attack. Sergeant B sees from his map that the ground is rolling and open as far as Kern (ji') with good positions for reconnaissance and for defense or attack. There is a bridge over Salt Creek (ig') which has steep banks and will be a considerable obstacle if the bridge has been destroyed. From this creek to Kern the advance would be under effective fire from Hancock Hill (ki'), so that these heights must be seized before the main body reaches 15 (jg').
Beyond Kern the heavy woods make reconnaissance difficult and must be treated somewhat like a defile by the point. (Par. 991.)
3. There is little to fear from the main body of the enemy which is 1-1/2 miles farther from the Rock Island bridge than we are, but we know the enemy has cavalry. The size of the cavalry force is not known, and may be sufficient to cause us considerable delay, especially in the woods. The enemy's evident intention is to keep us from seizing the bridge.
4. Having considered all these points, Sergeant B comes to the following decision: ... (Before reading the decision as contained in the following paragraph, make one of your own.)
=Answer:= To have only an advance party with which to throw forward a point of 5 men 200 yards to the front and send out flankers, as needed (Par. 983); to send the three mounted orderlies well to the front of the point to gain early information of the enemy, especially on Hancock Hill (ji') and the ridge to the north of 11 (jj').
=Required, 2.= Sergeant B's order. (Par. 963.)
=Answer.= Given verbally to the platoon and mounted orderlies, at 9:30 P. M.
"The enemy's cavalry patrols were seen at F (qh') today; no hostile infantry is on this side of the Missouri river. The battalion will move tomorrow to Fort Leavenworth, leaving 19 (ja') at 6:30 A. M.
"This platoon and orderlies B, C, and D will form the advance guard, and will start from the hedge 400 yards east of 19 at 6:30 A. M. via the 17 (jc')--15 (jg')--5 (lm') road.
"The point, Corporal Smith and 4 men of his squad, will precede the remainder of the advance guard at 200 yards.
"I will be with the advance party. Privates X and Y will act as connecting files with the main body."
The flankers will be sent out from time to time by Sergeant B as necessary.
=Required, 3.= The flankers sent out by Sergeant B between 19 (ja') and 15 (jg').
=Answer.= A patrol of 3 men is sent to Hill 900 southeast of 19 (ja'), thence by Moss (kc') and Taylor (lc') houses to Hill 840 east of Taylor, thence to join at 15 (jg').
Two men are sent from the advance party as it passes Hill 875.5 (ie') to the top of this hill to reconnoiter to the front and northeast. These men return to the road and join after the advance party has reached Salt Creek. Two men are sent ahead of the advance party at a double time take position on "Hill 875 northeast of J. E. Daniels" place (jf') and reconnoiter to the northeast and east.
=Reasons.= The patrol sent out on the south moves out far enough to get a good view from the hills which an enemy could observe or fire into the column. There is no necessity of sending out flankers north of the road at first, because from the road itself a good view is obtained. Hills 875.5 and 875 give splendid points for observing all the ground to the north and east. (Don't send flankers out unless they are necessary.)
=Required, 4.= When the advance party reaches J. E. Daniels' house (je') a civilian leaves the house and starts toward 15. What action does Sergeant B take?
=Required, 5.= When the advance party reaches Salt Creek bridge (jg') the point signals "enemy in sight," and Private H reports that he saw about 6 or 8 mounted men ride up to the edge of the woods at Kern, halt a moment, and disappear. What action does Sergeant B take?
=Answer.= He at once sends a message back by Private H stating the facts. He then orders the advance party to move forward, hastens up to the point and directs it to continue the march, seeking cover of fences and ravines and hill top.
=Required, 6.= When the point reaches Schroeder (jh') it receives fire from the orchard at Kern. What action is taken?
=Answer.= The men in the point are moved rapidly down the hill and gain shelter in the ravines leading toward Kern. Two squads are rapidly placed in line along the ridge west of Schroeder and under cover of their fire the remainder of the advance party run down the hill at 10 yards distance to join the point. A squad of this force is then hurried forward to the Kern house. Here the squad is stopped by fire and Sergeant B deploys two more squads which advance by rushes and drive out the enemy, found to be 10 cavalrymen. The squads left at Schroeder now join at double time and the advance party moves forward, without having delayed the march of the main body.
Problem No. 4 (Infantry)
=1036. Situation:=
A Blue force of one regiment of infantry has outposts facing south on the line Pope Hill (sm')--National cemetery (pk')--E (qh'). A Red force is reported to have reached Soldiers' Home (3 miles south of Leavenworth) from the south at 7:00 o'clock this morning. Corporal A is directed by Sergeant B, in command of the left support at Rabbit Point (tn'), to take out a patrol toward the waterworks and south along the Esplanade (xo') to the Terminal bridge.
=Required, 1.= Give Sergeant B's orders to Corporal A.
=Answer.= "The enemy, strength unknown, was at Soldiers' Home at 7:00 o'clock this morning. Another patrol will advance along Grant avenue (tm').
"Our outposts will remain here for the day.
"Select from the first section a patrol and reconnoiter this road (Farragut avenue) as far as the waterworks (vn'), thence by Esplanade to the Terminal bridge, and report on the ground in our front. When you reach the Terminal bridge return if no enemy is seen.
"Send reports here."
=Required, 2.= How many men does Corporal A select, and why? (Par. 456.)
=Answer.= Five men are taken because the patrol is to reconnoiter, not to fight, and on account of the distance to go and lack of information of the enemy, 2 or 3 messages may have to be sent.
=Required, 3.= What equipment should Corporal A have? (Par. 457.)
=Required, 4.= State the points to be noted by Corporal A in selecting his patrol and what inspection does he make? (Par. 964.)
=Answer.= He selects Privates C, D, E, F and G, on account of their bravery, attention to duty and discretion. He directs them to carry one meal in their haversacks, full canteen and fifty rounds of ammunition. He then inspects them as to their physical condition, sees that they have proper equipment and that nothing to rattle or glisten is carried.
=Required, 5.= What does Corporal A next do? (Par. 965.)
=Answer.= He gives them their instructions as follows: "The enemy, strength unknown, was at Soldiers' Home (about three miles south of Leavenworth) at 7 o'clock this morning. There will be a friendly patrol along that road (pointing to Grant avenue). We are to reconnoiter along this road and down toward that bridge (pointing). Be very careful not to be seen, take advantage of all cover, and keep in touch with C and myself on this road at the point of the patrol. In case we get separated meet at the waterworks (vn')."
He then explains the signals to be used, and moves the patrol in, close order out along the road until it passes the sentinel at the bridge XV (un'), to whom he gives the direction to be taken by the patrol.
=Required, 6.= Upon leaving XV, what formation would the patrol take, and reasons for same. (Par. 968.)
=Answer.= Corporal A and Private C form the point on the road leading southwest of the waterworks; Private D moves on the left overlooking the railroad; Private E moves promptly up Corral creek (um') to the top of Grant Hill (um') to observe the country toward the southwest; Private F moves about 50 yards in rear of the point, followed at 50 yards by Private G.
Corporal A forms his patrol as stated because of the necessity of getting a view from the hill on each side. Only one man is sent out on each side because they can be plainly seen by the patrol on the road, and no connecting file is necessary. The distances taken along the road assure at least one man's escape, and Corporal A is in front to get a good view and to signal the flankers.
Problem No. 5 (Infantry)
=1037. Situation:=
The head of the patrol is now at the bridge, XVI (un') northwest of the waterworks.
Private E has reached the top of Grant Hill and signals the enemy in sight; the patrol halts and Corporal A moves out to meet Private E who is coming down toward the patrol. He says he saw three mounted men ride up to Grant and Metropolitan avenues (wm') from the south and after looking north a moment move west.
=Required, 1.= Corporal A's action. (Pars. 979 and 981.)
=Answer.= Corporal A at once writes the following message and sends it back by Private E:
"No. 1 Patrol, Company B, Farragut Avenue, Northwest of Waterworks, 10 May, '09, 8:30 A. M.
To Commander Blue Left Support, Rabbit Point.
Three mounted Reds, seen by Private E, just now reconnoitered at Grant and Metropolitan avenues; they are moving west on Metropolitan avenue; the patrol will continue toward the Terminal bridge.
A, Corporal."
=Reasons.= The message is sent because this is the first time the enemy has been seen, and they have not been reported north of Soldiers' Home before. The message should state who saw the enemy, and the man seeing them should always carry the message telling of the facts. The patrol would not allow this small hostile patrol to stop its advance, but would proceed on its route cautiously to avoid being seen, and to see if the Red cavalrymen are followed by others of the enemy.
=Required, 2.= Give the method of reconnoitering the buildings at the waterworks and coal mine. (Par. 996.)
=Answer.= Private D carefully examines the east side of the enclosures and buildings, while Private C examines the west side. The remainder of the patrol halts concealed in the cut west of the north enclosure, until C and D signal no enemy in sight, whereupon the patrol moves forward along the road (XV--3rd St.), C and D advancing rapidly between the buildings to the town where they join the patrol.
=Required, 3.= Give the route followed by E from Grant Hill to edge of Leavenworth.
=Answer.= He moves down the east slope of Grant Hill to the ravine just east of the old R. R. bed (um'), being careful to keep concealed from the direction of Leavenworth. He moves up the ravine, keeping a sharp lookout to the front, and moving rapidly until abreast, if he has fallen behind. He takes the branch ravine lying just west of Circus Hill (vm'), and moves up to its end. Here he halts and makes careful inspection of Metropolitan avenue and the street south into the city. Being sure the coast is clear, he darts across the narrow ridge south of Circus Hill to the ravine to the east and then joins the patrol. He reports to Corporal A any indication of the enemy he may have seen.
Problem No. 6 (Infantry)
=1038. Situation:=
A Blue force holds Fort Leavenworth (om') in hostile country. Outposts occupy the line Salt Creek Hill (gh')--13 (ij')--Sheridan's Drive, (mi') against the Reds advancing from the northwest.
At 4:30 P. M., June 25th, Sergeant A is given the following orders by Captain B, commanding the support:
"The enemy will probably reach Kickapoo late today. Our outposts extend as far north as Salt Creek Hill. There were six of our men prisoners at 45 (de') this afternoon at 1 o'clock, being held by 15 home guards at Kickapoo. Take ---- men from the company and move to Kickapoo, recapture the prisoners and gain all the information you can of the enemy north of there."
=Required, 1.= How many men does Captain B name, and why? (Par. 960.)
=Answer.= Thirty men are assigned.
=Reason.= This is twice as many as the enemy holding the prisoners, and to secure secrecy no larger force than is absolutely necessary should be taken. This force will allow men to surround the enemy while the remainder rush them.
=Required, 2.= Give the order of Sergeant A to his patrol. (See 6th requirement. Problem 4.)
=Required, 3.= What route will the patrol take?
=Answer, 11= (jj')--13 (ij')--Salt Creek Hill (gh')--and along the edge of the woods east of the M. P. R. R. (fg') as far as the bridge opposite Kickapoo Hill--thence up Kickapoo Hill toward 45 (de').
=Reasons.= Since the patrol's orders do not require any reconnaissance before reaching Kickapoo the shortest and most practical route is chosen. The route as far as Salt Creek Hill lies behind our outpost line and is thus protected. The main roads are avoided because they will be carefully watched by the enemy. The edge of the woods east of the M. P. Ry. (beginning about ff') gives good cover and by moving to the bridge the patrol can probably sneak close in on the enemy and capture them by surprise.
Problem No. 7 (Infantry)
=1039. Situation:=
The patrol reaches the top of Kickapoo Hill (cd'). Sergeant A and Private C move cautiously to the top and see the six prisoners in the cemetery (cd') just west of Kickapoo Hill, and a Red sentinel at each corner. Just west of the cemetery are about 10 more Reds. No others are visible.
=Required, 1.= What decision does Sergeant A make and what does he do?
=Answer.= He decides to capture the enemy by surprise. He leaves Private C to watch and, moving cautiously back to his patrol, makes the following dispositions: Corporal D with 10 men to move up to Private C and cover the enemy, remaining concealed. He takes the remainder of the patrol with fixed bayonets around the northeast slope of Kickapoo Hill in the woods and moves up the ravine toward 29. When his detachment arrives within about 100 yards of the enemy, they charge bayonet and rush them. Corporal D's party at the same time rush in from the opposite side. (Note: The enemy are demoralized by the surprise and are captured without a shot being fired.)
=Required, 2.= What action does Sergeant A now take?
=Answer.= He causes the enemy to be kept apart while he and his noncommissioned officers question them separately. He then questions the Blue prisoners, and furnishing them the guns taken from the Reds, sends them and the captured Reds back to our line under Corporal D, with a written message giving the information secured from his questions. (Par. 984.)
=Required, 3.= What does he then do?
=Answer.= Places his main body in concealment at the Cemetery (cd') and sends a patrol under Corporal H via 35-41-43 and one under Corporal F via 29-27-23 west to learn further of the enemy in execution of the second part of his orders.
The patrol under Corporal H sends back the following message:
"No.1 Patrol, Company A, 1st Infantry, 21 June, '09; 5:30 P. M.
Commander Expeditionary Patrol at 45:
A column of infantry is moving east about 1 mile west of Schweizer (aa'); about 800 yards in front of this body is another small body with 8 to 10 men 300 yards still farther east. It took the main body 2 min., 45 sec. to pass a point on the road. I remain in observation.
H, Corporal."
=Required, 3.= The size of the command reported by Corporal H and its formation. (Par. 983.)
=Answer.= One battalion infantry (512 men), preceded by 1 section at advance guard. The advance guard having only advance party and point, 2-3/4 minutes x 175 = 481 men in the main body, leaving about 32 men for the advance men for the advance guard.
Problem No. 8 (Infantry)
=1040. General Situation:=
A Blue force of one regiment of infantry has outposts facing south on the line Pope Hill (sm'), National Cemetery (qk')--E (qi'). A Red force moving north reached Soldiers' Home at 7 o'clock this morning.
=Special Situation:=
Corporal B is chosen by Sergeant A, commander of the right support at the National Cemetery, to take a patrol south as far as 20th street (yf') and Metropolitan avenue (wh'), to report on the ground along the route, and to reconnoiter the enemy. A friendly patrol moves along Sheridan's Drive (i)--Atchison Hill (rg')--Southwest Hill (ue'), and one on Prison Lane (rk').
=Required, 1.= Sergeant A's orders, verbatim (that is, word for word).
=2.= Give the various details attended to by Corporal B before he moves out with his patrol.
=3.= What is the formation of the patrol when its point is at E (qh')?
=4.= When the patrol reaches 14 (ug'), how are the intersecting roads reconnoitered?
=5.= Four mounted men are seen riding west at a walk at 64 (wb'). What action does Corporal A take?
=6.= Describe the ground passed over by the patrol.
Problem No. 9 (Infantry)
=1041. Situation:=
The enemy is moving east toward Frenchman (oc') and is expected to reach there early tomorrow. A company at 72 (uj') forms the left support of an outpost in hostile country, on the line 70 (vj')--National Cemetery (qj'). At 4 P. M. Sergeant A is ordered to take a patrol of 12 men and go to Frenchman and destroy the bridge there, and remain in observation in that vicinity all night.
=Required, 1.= His orders to the patrol.
=2.= The route the patrol will follow, and its formation crossing the Atchison Hill--Government Hill ridge.
=3.= Give the conduct of the patrol from Atchison Hill (rg')--Government Hill (tf') to its position at the bridge at Frenchman.
=General Situation:=
A Blue squadron is camped for the night at Waterworks (vn'), Fort Leavenworth, and has outposts on the line XIV (un')--Grant Hill (um')--Prison Hill (wk'). A Red force is reported to be advancing from the north on Kickapoo (cb').
Problem No. 10 (Cavalry)
=1042. Special Situation:=
Lieutenant A, commanding the left support on Prison Hill, at 5 P. M., directs Sergeant Jones to take a patrol of 5 men from his platoon and move via Atchison Cross (ug') to the vicinity of Kickapoo and secure information of any enemy that may be in that locality. Another patrol is to go via Fort Leavenworth (ol').
=Required, 1.= The order given by Lieutenant A, verbatim. (Pars. 963 and 965.)
=Answer.= "Sergeant Jones, the enemy is north of Kickapoo, moving on that place. This squadron will remain here tonight; Sergeant B will take a patrol through Fort Leavenworth.
"Select a patrol of 5 men from your platoon and move out via Frenchman's (oc') toward Kickapoo.
"Secure any information you can of the enemy in that locality.
"Report on the condition of the bridges between here and 47 (fd').
"You may have to stay out over night.
"Send messages here."
Sergeant Jones selects five good men, directs them to take one cooked ration each and canteen full of water. He inspects the men and horses carefully; sees that no horse of conspicuous color or that neighs is taken. Explains the orders to his men, etc., as was done in the infantry patrol.
=Required, 2.= What route does the patrol take, and why?
=Answer.= Metropolitan avenue (w)--70 (vj')--72 (vj')--14 (ug')--Frenchman (oc')--17 (jc')--47 (ec').
=Reasons.= The enemy is distant and Kickapoo, the objective of the patrol, is seen from the map, which Sergeant Jones has, to be over an hour's ride at a walk and trot. It is not at all probable that the enemy will be met until the patrol reaches the vicinity of Kickapoo and Sergeant Jones decides to take the shortest and best road though it is a main highway, instead of Sheridan's Drive (j) of the F (qg')--15 (jg') lane.
It is always well for a patrol to avoid main highways when the enemy is near, especially in hostile country, but here the time saved more than justifies the use of the direct route.
Problem No. 11 (Cavalry)
=1043.= Same situation as Problem 1.
=Required, 1.= The formation and conduct of the patrol as far as Frenchman's.
=Answer.= Sergeant Jones determines to move at a walk and trot (5 miles per hour) in order to reach the vicinity of Kickapoo and take up a position of observation before night. Sergeant Jones and Private B are in the lead, 2 men about 100 yards to the rear, the remaining 2 men about 75 yards in the rear of these. They move out at a trot along the road until Atchison Cross is reached. The two cross roads are reconnoitered without halting the patrol, inasmuch as from the cross roads a good view is had north and south.
From Atchison Cross to 16 (sf') the patrol moves at a walk, being up a slope from 4 to 6 degrees. Usually such a place would be rushed through, but the distance of the enemy makes this unnecessary. No scouting is done off the road through the woods, because of the distance of the enemy. On reaching the top of the hill the patrol is halted while Sergeant Jones moves up to the high ground south of the road at the crest, and in concealment searches with his glasses the road as far as Frenchman's, especially the village beyond G (qf'). Seeing no signs of the enemy he moves the patrol down the hill at a walk until the cut is passed and there takes a fast trot, so as to avoid being long in a position where they could be seen from the direction of Kickapoo. The same formation and gait are maintained as far as Gauss' (pd'), where a walk is taken to rest the horses and to gain opportunity to see if any enemy are holding the bridge at Frenchman's.
=Situation:=
Just as the patrol comes to a walk Sergeant Jones sees what appears to be a dismounted patrol moving south over the ridge about 650 yards north of Frenchman's. He can see three men.
=Required, 2.= Action taken by Sergeant Jones.
=Answer.= The patrol is moved into the orchard just off the road, while Sergeant Jones moves quickly to the top of the hill and, concealed by the trees, examines the road north to see if the 3 men are followed by others forming a part of a larger patrol or column. He finds the three men are not followed.
=Required, 3.= What does he do next?
=Answer.= He determines to capture the patrol by surprise. He has the horses led over south of the orchard hill so as not to be visible to the enemy. He then distributes his men along the north edge of the orchard, himself nearest the bridge, 2 men 75 yards back along the road toward G (qf'), then 2 men 75 yards farther along toward G. As the third man comes opposite him, Sergeant Jones cries "Halt," which is the signal for the other parties to similarly hold up their men.
=Reasons.= Sergeant Jones might either capture the hostile patrol or let it pass, and then proceed on his road. Since they are the first enemy seen and there is such a good chance to capture them, and as they may furnish definite information of the enemy's main force, he decides as stated. There is an objection in capturing them that he will have to send one or two men to take them to camp. The patrol is placed as described above so as to have the two men opposite each of the enemy, except for Sergeant Jones, who is alone. By thus covering each man of the hostile patrol by two of our men, they will at once see the folly of an effort to escape and no shot need be fired. One man is holding the horses.
Problem No. 12 (Cavalry)
=1044.= Same situation as Problem 10.
=Required:=
1. What action does Sergeant Jones take before leaving the vicinity of Frenchman's?
2. Give the formation and conduct of the patrol after leaving here.
3. Give the report submitted by Sergeant Jones under his instructions in regard to bridges. (Par. 1000.)
At 6:30 P. M. (it is dark at 7:30) the patrol reaches 17 (jc').
4. Give the route followed from here and the disposition of the patrol made for the night.
Problem No. 13 (Cavalry)
=1045. Situation:=
The Missouri river is the boundary between hostile countries.
A Blue separate brigade (3 regiments infantry, 1 squadron cavalry, 1 battery field artillery) is moving from Winchester (19 miles west of Leavenworth) to seize the Rock Island bridge (q) across the Missouri river at Fort Leavenworth. The cavalry squadron is camped at Lowemont, 8 miles west of Leavenworth, for night June 4-5. At 3 P. M. Sergeant Jones is directed to take a patrol of six men and move via the Rock Island bridge into Missouri and gain information of the enemy reported to be now just east of the river.
=Required, 1.= Give the formation of the patrol when it first comes on the map.
=Required, 2.= Give the conduct of the patrol from Mottin's (oa') to G (qf').
At Frenchman's, Sergeant Jones met a farmer coming from Fort Leavenworth, who said about 200 hostile cavalry were seen just east of the Missouri about 2 P. M., moving towards the Terminal Bridge (z).
=Required, 3.= Action of Sergeant Jones. (Does he hold the man? Does he send a message? Does he change his plans or direction of march?)
The patrol reaches the top of the hill, Sheridan's Drive--Government Hill (tf').
=Required, 4.= What action does Sergeant Jones take before proceeding east?
FLANK GUARDS
=1046.= The flanks of a column are ordinarily protected by the advance guard, which sends out patrols to carefully examine the country on both sides of the line of march. In some cases, however, the direction of march of the column is such that there is a great danger of the enemy's striking it in flank and some special provision is necessary to furnish additional security on the threatened flank. This is done by having a detachment, called a flank guard, march off the exposed flank. The flank guard usually follows a road, parallel to the one on which the column is marching and at least 1,000 yards (effective rifle range) beyond it. If hostile artillery is feared this distance is much greater.
The flank guard regulates its march so as to continue abreast of the advance guard of the main column. It takes a formation similar to an advance guard, does most of its patrolling to the front and on the exposed flank, and keeps in constant touch with the main column by means of mounted or dismounted messengers.
In case the enemy is encountered the flank guard drives him off if practicable or takes up a defensive position, protecting the march of the main column, and preventing the enemy from disturbing the latter's march.
REAR GUARD
=1047. Definition and Duties.= A rear guard is a detachment of a marching column following in rear to protect the main column from being surprised and to prevent the march from being delayed or interrupted.
When the main column is marching toward the enemy the rear guard is very small and its duties relatively unimportant. It is principally occupied in gathering up stragglers.
When the main column is marching away from the enemy (retreating) the rear guard is all important. It covers the retreat of the main body, preventing the enemy from harassing or delaying its march.
=1048. Strength.= The strength of a rear guard is slightly greater than that of an advance guard, as it cannot expect, like the latter, to be reinforced in case it is attacked, as the main column is marching away from it and avoiding a fight.
=1049. Form of Order.= The rear guard commander, on the receipt of the retreat order, issues a rear guard order, according to the form given in the Field Service Regulations.
The distance of a rear guard from the main body and its formation are similar to those of an advance guard. The elements corresponding to the advance cavalry, the point, and the advance party of an advance guard are termed the rear cavalry, rear point and rear party, respectively. The support and reserve retain the same designations.
A rear guard formed during an engagement to cover the withdrawal or retreat of the main body, may first be compelled to take up a defensive position behind which the main body forms up and moves off. It may be forced to withdraw from this position by successive skirmish lines, gradually forming up in column on the road as it clears itself from fighting contact with the enemy.
The rate of march of the rear guard depends upon that of the main body. The main body may be much disorganized and fatigued, necessitating long halts and a slow marching rate.
=1050. Action of the Rear Guard.= The withdrawal of defeated troops is delayed, if possible, until night. If it becomes necessary to begin a retreat while an engagement is in progress, the rear guard is organized and takes up a defensive position generally behind the fighting line; the latter then falls back and assembles under cover of the rear guard.
The rear cavalry gives away before the enemy's pursuit only when absolutely necessary, maintains communication with and sends information to the rear guard commander, and pays special attention to the weak points in the retreat, namely, the flanks. It makes use of every kind of action of which it is capable, according to the situation, and unless greatly outnumbered by hostile cavalry, it causes considerable delay to the enemy.
When the enemy is conducting an energetic pursuit the rear guard effects its withdrawal by taking up a succession of defensive positions (that is, where the nature of the ground enables the rear guard to defend itself well) and compelling the enemy to attack or turn them. (It should be understood that these successive defensive positions must, in the case of a large force, be from two to four miles apart and in the case of a small force at least one-half mile apart--not a few hundred yards as is frequently attempted in peace maneuvers.)
When the enemy's dispositions for attack are nearly completed, the rear guard begins to fall back, the cavalry on the flanks being usually the last to leave. The commander designates a part of the rear guard to cover the withdrawal of the remainder; the latter then falls back to a new position in rear, and in turn covers the withdrawal of the troops in front. These operations compel the enemy continually to deploy or make turning movements, and constantly retard his advance.
The pursuit may be further delayed by obstacles placed in the enemy's path; bridges are burned or blown up; boats removed or destroyed; fords and roads obstructed; tracks torn up; telegraph lines cut, and houses, villages, woods and fields fired. Demolitions and obstructions are prepared by engineers, assisted, if necessary, by other troops detailed from the reserve, and are completed by the mounted engineers of the rear party at the last moment.
The instructions of the supreme commander govern in the demolition of important structures.
OUTPOSTS
(See "Outpost," Par. 887)
=1051. Definition and Duties.= Outposts are detachments thrown out to the front and flanks of a force that is in camp or bivouac, to protect the main body from being surprised and to insure its undisturbed rest. In fact, an outpost is merely a stationary advance guard. Its duties, in general, are to observe and resist--to observe the enemy, and to resist him in case of attack. Specifically its duties are:
(=a=) To observe toward the front and flanks by means of stationary sentinels and patrols, in order to locate the enemy's whereabouts and learn promptly of his movements, thus making it impossible for him to surprise us.
(=b=) To prevent the main body from being observed or disturbed.
(=c=) In case of attack, to check the enemy long enough to enable the main body to prepare for action and make the necessary dispositions.
=1052. Size.= The size of the outpost will depend upon many circumstances, such as the size of the whole command, the nearness of the enemy, the nature of the ground, etc. A suitable strength for an outpost may vary from a very small fraction to one-third of the whole force. However, in practice it seldom exceeds one-sixth of the whole force--as a rule, if it be greater, the efficiency of the troops will be impaired. For a single company in bivouac a few sentinels and patrols will suffice; for a large command, a more elaborate outpost system must be provided. The most economical form of outpost is furnished by keeping close contact with the enemy by means of outpost patrols, in conjunction with resisting detachments on the avenues of approach.
Troops at a halt are supposed to be resting, night or day, and the fewer on outpost the more troops will there be resting, and thus husbanding their strength for approaching marches and encounters with the enemy. Outpost duty is about the most exhausting and fatiguing work a soldier performs. It is, therefore, evident that not a man or horse more than is absolutely necessary should be employed, and that the commander should use careful judgment in determining the strength of the outpost, and the chiefs of the various outpost subdivisions should be equally careful in disposing their men so as to permit the greatest possible number to rest and sleep undisturbed, but at the same time always considering the safety of the main body as the chief duty.
=1053. Composition.= The composition of the outpost will, as a rule, depend upon the size and composition of the command, but a mixed outpost is composed principally of infantry, which is charged with the duty of local observation, especially at night, and with resisting the enemy, in case of attack, long enough for the main body to prepare for action.
The cavalry is charged with the duty of reconnaissance, and is very useful in open country during the day.
Artillery is useful to outposts when its fire can sweep defiles or large open spaces and when it commands positions that might be occupied by hostile artillery.
Machine guns are useful to command approaches and check sudden advances of the enemy.
Engineers are attached to an outpost to assist in constructing entrenchments, clearing the field of fire, opening communication laterally and to the rear. The outpost should be composed of complete organizations. For example, if the outpost is to consist of one company, do not have some of the platoons from one company and the others from another, and if it is to consist of one battalion, do not have some of the companies from one battalion and others from another, etc.
FORMATION OF OUTPOSTS
=1054. Subdivisions.= As in the case of an advance guard, the outpost of a large force is divided into elements or parts, that gradually increase in size from front to rear. These, in order from the main body, are the reserve, the line of supports, the line of outguards, and the advance cavalry, and their formation, as shown by the drawing on the preceding page, may be likened to an open hand, with the fingers apart and extended, the wrist representing the main body, the knuckles the line of supports, the first joints the line of outguards, the second joints the line of sentinels and the finger tips the advance cavalry.
In case of attack each part is charged with holding the enemy in check until the larger element, next in rear, has time to deploy and prepare for action.
=1055. Distances Between the Subdivisions.= The distances separating the main body, the line of supports, the line of outguards, the line of sentries and the advance cavalry, will depend upon circumstances. There can be no uniformity in the distance between supports and reserves, nor between outguards and supports, even in the same outpost. The avenues of approach and the important features of the ground will largely control the exact positions of the different parts of the outposts. The basic principle upon which the distances are based, is: The distance between any two parts of the outpost must be great enough to give the one in rear time to deploy and prepare for action in case of attack, and the distance of the whole outpost from the main body must, in the case of small commands, be sufficiently great to hold the enemy beyond effective rifle range until the main body can deploy, and, in case of large commands, it must be sufficiently great to hold the enemy beyond effective artillery range until the main body can deploy.
It is, therefore, evident that the distances will be materially affected not only by the size of the main body, but also by the nature of the cover afforded by the ground.
The following is given merely as a very general guide, subject to many changes:
Distance to next element in rear.
Advance cavalry 2 to 6 miles Supports {Sentinels (furnished by outguard) 20 to 40 yds. (Generally {Outguards (furnished by support) 200 to 500 yds. two or {Support proper furnishes majority 400 to 800 yds. more) of patrols. Reserve (usually omitted in small commands) 1/2 to 2 miles
=1056. Advance Cavalry.= The advance cavalry is that part of the outpost sent out in front of all foot troops. It generally operates two to six miles beyond the outpost infantry, reconnoitering far to the front and flanks in order to guard the camp against surprise by artillery fire and to give early information of the enemy's movements.
After dusk the bulk of the cavalry usually withdraws to a camp in rear of the outpost reserve, where it can rest securely after the day's hard work and the horses can be fresh for the next day. Several mounted patrols are usually left for the night at junctions or forks on the principal roads to the front, from one to four miles beyond the infantry line of observation.
=1057. Supports.= The supports constitute a line of supporting and resisting detachments, varying in size from a half a company to a battalion. In outposts consisting of a battalion or more the supports usually comprise about one-half of the infantry. Supports are numbered numerically consecutively from right to left and are placed at the more important points on the outpost line, on or near the line on which resistance is to be made in case of attack.
As a rule, roads exercise the greatest influence on the location of supports, and a support will generally be placed on or near a road.
Each support has assigned to it a definite, clearly-defined section of front that it is to cover, and the support should be located as centrally as possible thereto.
=1058. Outguards.= The outguards constitute the line of small detachments farthest to the front and nearest to the enemy, and their duty is to maintain uninterrupted observation of the ground in front and on the flanks; to report promptly hostile movements and other information relating to the enemy; to prevent unauthorized persons from crossing the line of observation; to drive off small parties of the enemy, and to make temporary resistance to larger bodies. For convenience outguards are classified as pickets, sentry squads, and cossack posts. They are numbered consecutively from right to left in each support.
=1059.= A picket is a group consisting of two or more squads, ordinarily not exceeding half a company, posted in the line of outguards to cover a given sector. It furnishes patrols and one or more sentinels, double sentinels, sentry, squads, or cossack posts for observation.
Pickets are placed at the more important points in the line of outguards, such as road forks. The strength of each depends upon the number of small groups required to observe properly its sector.
=1060.= A sentry squad is a squad posted in observation at an indicated point. It posts a double sentinel in observation, the remaining men resting near by and furnishing the reliefs of sentinels. In some cases it may be required to furnish a patrol.
=1061.= A cossack post consists of four men. It is an observation group similar to a sentry squad; but employs a single sentinel.
At night, it will sometimes be advisable to place some of the outguards or their sentinels in a position different from that which they occupy in the daytime. In such case the ground should be carefully studied before dark and the change made at dusk. However, a change in the position of the outguard will be exceptional.
=1062.= Sentinels are generally used singly in daytime, but at night double sentinels will be required in most cases. Sentinels furnished by cossack posts or sentry squads are kept near their group. Those furnished by pickets may be as far as 100 yards away.
Every sentinel should be able to communicate readily with the body to which he belongs.
Sentinel posts are numbered consecutively from right to left in each outguard. Sentry squads and cossack posts furnished by pickets are counted as sentinel posts.
If practicable, troops on outpost duty are concealed and all movements made so as to avoid observation by the enemy; sentinels are posted so as to have a clear view to the front and, if practicable (though it is rarely possible), so as to be able, by day, to see the sentinels of the adjoining outguards. Double sentinels are posted near enough to each other to be able to communicate easily in ordinary voice.
Sentinels are generally on duty two hours out of six. For every sentinel and for every patrol there should be at least three reliefs; therefore, one-third the strength of the outguards gives the greatest number of men that should be on duty as sentinels and patrols at one time.
Skillful selection of the posts of sentinels increases their field of observation. High points, under cover, are advantageous by night as well as by day; they increase the range of vision and afford greater facilities for seeing lights and hearing noises. Observers with good field glasses may be placed on high buildings, on church steeples or in high trees.
Glittering objects on uniform or equipment should be concealed. It is seldom necessary to fix bayonets, except at night, in dense fog, or in very close country.
Reliefs, visiting patrols, and inspecting officers, approach sentinels from the rear, remaining under cover if possible.
=1063. Reserve.= The reserve forms a general support for the line of resistance. It is, therefore, centrally located near the junction of roads coming from the direction of the enemy, and in concealment if practicable.
Of the troops detailed for outpost duty, about one-half of the infantry, generally all of the artillery, and the cavalry not otherwise employed, are assigned to the reserve. If the outpost consists of less than two companies the reserve may be omitted altogether.
The arms are stacked and the equipments (except cartridge belts) may be removed. Roads communicating with the supports are opened.
When necessary, the outpost order states what is to be done in case of attack, designates places of assembly and provides for interior guards. Interior guards are posted in the camp of the reserve or main body to maintain order, and furnish additional security. Additional instructions may be given for messing, feeding, watering, etc. In the vicinity of the enemy or at night a portion of the infantry may be required to remain under arms, the cavalry to hold their horses (cinches loosened), and the artillery to remain in harness, or take up a combat position.
In case of alarm, the reserve prepares for action without delay, and word is sent to the main body. In combat, the reserve reinforces the line of resistance, and if unable to check the enemy until the arrival of the main body, delays him as much as possible.
The distance of the reserve from the line of resistance varies, but is generally about half a mile; in outposts of four companies or less this distance may be as small as 400 yards.
=1064. Patrols.= Instead of using outguards along the entire front of observation, part of this front may be covered by patrols only. These should be used to cover such sections of the front as can be crossed by the enemy only with difficulty and over which he is not likely to attempt a crossing after dark.
In daylight much of the local patrolling may be dispensed with if the country can be seen from the posts of the sentinels. However, patrols should frequently be pushed well to the front unless the ground in that direction is exceptionally open.
Patrols must be used to keep up connection between the parts of the outpost except when, during daylight, certain fractions or groups are mutually visible. After dark this connection must be maintained throughout the outpost except where the larger subdivisions are provided with wire communication.
The following patrols are usually sent out from the main bodies of the supports:
(=a=) Patrols of from three men to a squad are sent along the roads and trails in the direction of the enemy, for a distance of from one to five miles, depending on how close the enemy is supposed to be, whether or not there is any advance cavalry out, and how long the outpost has been in position. The extreme right and left supports send patrols well out on the roads to the flanks. These patrols generally operate continuously as soon as one returns from the front, or possibly even before it returns, another goes out in the same general direction to cover the same country. Frequently a patrol is sent out along a road to the front for two or three miles with orders to remain out until some stated time--for example, 4 P. M., dusk or dawn. It sends in important information, and remains out near the extremity of its route, keeping a close watch on the surrounding country.
An effort should always be made to secure and maintain contact with the enemy, if within a reasonable distance, in order that his movements or lack of movement may be constantly watched and reported on. The usual tendency is towards a failure to send these patrols far enough to the front and for the patrol leader to overestimate the distance he has traveled. A mile through strange country with the ever-present possibility of encountering the enemy seems three miles to the novice.
At night the patrols generally confine their movements to the roads, usually remaining quietly on the alert near the most advanced point of their route to the front.
The majority of such patrols are sent out to secure information of the enemy--reconnoitering patrols--and they avoid fighting and hostile patrols, endeavoring to get in touch with the enemy's main force. Other patrols are sometimes sent out to prevent hostile detachments from approaching the outposts; they endeavor to locate the hostile patrols, drive them back, preventing them from gaining any vantage point from which they can observe the outpost line. These are called combat patrols and have an entirely different mission from reconnoitering patrols.
(=b=) Patrols of from two men to a squad, usually two men, are sent from the support around the line of its outguards, connecting with the outguards of the adjacent supports, if practicable. These are "visiting patrols," and they serve to keep the outguards of a support in touch with it and with each other; to keep the commander of a support in touch with his outguards and the adjacent supports; and to reconnoiter the ground between the outguards. Since a hostile force of any size is practically forced to keep to the roads, there are rarely ever any supports and very few outguards posted off the roads, the intervals being covered by patrols, as just described.
When going out a patrol will always inform the nearest sentinel of the direction it will take and its probable route and hour of return.
=1065. Detail for Patrols.= Since for every patrol of four men, twelve are required (3 reliefs of 4 men each), the importance of sending out just enough men and not one more than is actually needed, can readily be understood. As fast as one visiting patrol completes its round, another should usually be sent out, possibly going the rounds by a slightly different route or in the reverse direction. The same generally applies to the reconnoitering and combat patrols, though frequently they are sent out for the entire day, afternoon or night, and no 2d and 3d relief is required. Three reliefs are required for the sentinel or sentinels at the post of the supports, so care should be taken to establish but one post, if it can do all that is required. It should not be considered that every man in the support should be on duty or on a relief for an outguard, a patrol or sentinel post. There should be as many men as possible in the main body of a support (this term is used to distinguish this body from the support proper, which includes the outguards and their sentinels) who only have no duty other than being instantly available in case of attack.
=1066. Flags of Truce.= Upon the approach of a flag of truce, the sentry will at once notify the commander of the outguard, who will in turn send word to the commander of the outpost and ask for instructions. One or more men will advance to the front and halt the party at such distance as to prevent any of them from overlooking the outposts. As soon as halted, the party will be ordered to face in the opposite direction. If permission is given to pass the party through the outpost line, they will be blindfolded and led under escort to the commander of the outpost. No conversation, except by permission of the outpost commander, is to be allowed on any subject, under any pretext, with the persons bearing the flag of truce.
=1067. Entrenchments and Obstacles.= The positions held by the subdivisions of an outpost should generally be strengthened by the construction of entrenchments and obstacles, but conditions may render this unnecessary.
=1068. Concealment.= Troops on outpost must keep concealed as much as is consistent with the proper performance of their duties; especially should they avoid the sky line.
=1069. Detached Posts.= In addition to ordinary outguards, the outpost commander may detail from the reserve one or more detached posts to cover roads or areas not in general line assigned to the supports.
In like manner the commander of the whole force may order detached posts to be sent from the main body to cover important roads or localities not included in the outpost line.
Detached posts may be sent out to hold points which are of importance to the outpost cavalry, such as a ford or a junction of roads; or to occupy positions especially favorable for observation, but too far to the front to be included in the line of observation; or to protect flanks of the outpost position. Such posts are generally established by the outpost commander, but a support commander might find it necessary to establish a post practically detached from the rest of his command. They usually vary in strength from a squad to a platoon. The number and strength of detached posts are reduced to the absolute needs of the situation.
=1070. Examining Posts.= An examining post is a small detachment, under the command of an officer or a noncommissioned officer, stationed at some convenient point to examine strangers and to receive bearers Of flags of truce brought in by the outguards or patrols.
Though the employment of examining posts is not general in field operations, there are many occasions when their use is important; for example: When the outguards do not speak the language of the country or of the enemy; when preparations are being made for a movement and strict scrutiny at the outguards is ordered: at sieges, whether in attack or defense. When such posts, are used, strangers approaching the line of observation are passed along the line to an examining post.
No one except the commander is allowed to speak to persons brought to an examining post. Prisoners and deserters are at once sent under guard to the rear.
=1071. Cavalry Outpost.= Independent cavalry covering a command or on special missions, and occasionally the advance cavalry of a mixed command, bivouac when night overtakes them, and in such cases furnish their own outposts. The outposts are established, in the main, in accordance with the foregoing principles, care being taken to confine outpost work to the lowest limits consistent with safety. No precaution, however, should be omitted, as the cavalry is generally in close proximity to the enemy, and often in territory where the inhabitants are hostile.
The line of resistance is occupied by the supports, the latter sending out the necessary outguards and patrols. Each outguard furnishes its own vedettes (mounted sentinels), or sentinels. Due to the mobility of cavalry, the distances are generally greater than in an outpost for a mixed command. An outguard of four troopers is convenient for the day time, but should be doubled at night, and at important points made even stronger. The sentinels are generally dismounted, their horses being left with those of the outguards.
Mounted cavalry at night can offer little resistance; the supports and outguards are therefore generally dismounted, the horses being under cover in rear, and the positions are strengthened by intrenchments and obstacles. By holding villages, bridges, defiles, etc., with dismounted rifle fire, cavalry can greatly delay a superior force.
There should always be easy communication along the line of resistance to enable the cavalry to concentrate at a threatened point.
A support of one squadron covers with its outposts a section rarely longer than two miles.
As such a line is of necessity weak, the principal reliance is placed on distant patrolling. If threatened by infantry, timely information enables the threatened point to be reinforced, or the cavalry to withdraw to a place of safety. If there is danger from hostile cavalry, the roads in front are blocked at suitable points, such as bridges, fords, defiles, etc., by a succession of obstacles and are defended by a few dismounted men. When compelled to fall back these men mount and ride rapidly to the next obstacle in rear and there take up a new position. As the march of cavalry at night is, as a rule, confined to roads, such tactics seriously delay its advance.
In accordance with the situation and the orders they have received, the support commanders arrange for feeding, watering, cooking, resting and patrolling. During the night the horses of the outguards remain saddled and bridled. During the day time cinches may be loosened, one-third of the horses at a time. Feeding and watering are done by reliefs. Horses being fed are removed a short distance from the others.
Independent cavalry generally remains in outpost position for the night only, its advance being resumed on the following day; if stopped by the enemy, it is drawn off to the flanks upon the approach of its own infantry.
ESTABLISHING THE OUTPOST
=1072.= The outpost is posted as quickly as possible, so that the troops can the sooner obtain rest. Until the leading outpost troops are able to assume their duties, temporary protection, known as the march outpost, is furnished by the nearest available troops.
Upon receipt of the halt order from the commander of the main column, the outpost commander issues the outpost order with the least practicable delay.
The halt order, besides giving the necessary information and assigning camp sites to the parts of the command, details the troops to constitute the outpost, assigns a commander therefor, designates the general line to be occupied, and, when practicable, points out the position to be held in case of attack.
The outpost order gives such available information of the situation as is necessary to the complete and proper guidance of subordinates; designates the troops to constitute the supports; assigns their location and the sector each is to cover; provides for the necessary detached posts; indicates any special reconnaissance that is to be made; orders the location and disposition of the reserve; disposes of the train if the same is ordered to join the outpost; and informs subordinates where information will be sent. In large commands it may often be necessary to give the order from the map, but usually the outpost commander will have to make some preliminary reconnaissance, unless he has an accurate and detailed map.
Generally it is preferable for the outpost commander to give verbal orders to his support commanders from some locality which overlooks the terrain. The time and locality should be so selected that the support commanders may join their commands and conduct them to their positions without causing unnecessary delay to their troops. The reserve commander should, if possible, receive his orders at the same time as the support commanders. Subordinates to whom he gives orders separately should be informed of the location of other parts of the outpost.
=1073.= After issuing the initial orders, the outpost commander inspects the outpost, orders the necessary changes or additions, and sends his superior a report of his dispositions.
The reserve is marched to its post by its commander, who then sends out such detachments as have been ordered and places the rest in camp or bivouac, over which at least one sentinel should be posted. Connection must be maintained with the main body, the supports, and nearby detached posts.
The supports march to their posts, using the necessary covering detachments when in advance of the march outpost. A support commander's order should fully explain the situation to subordinates, or to the entire command, if it be small. It should detail the troops for the different outguards and, when necessary, define the sector each is to cover. It should provide the necessary sentinels at the post of the support, the patrols to be sent therefrom, and should arrange for the necessary intrenching.
In posting his command the support commander must seek to cover his sector (the front that he is to look after) in such manner that the enemy can not reach, in dangerous numbers and unobserved, the position of the support or pass by it within the sector intrusted to the support. On the other hand, he must economize men on observation and patrol duty, for these duties are unusually fatiguing. He must practice the greatest economy of men consistent with the requirements of practical security.
As soon as the posting of the support is completed, its commander carefully inspects the dispositions and corrects defects, if any, and reports the disposition of his support, including the patrolling ordered, to the outpost commander. This report is preferably made by means of a sketch.
By day the outpost will stack arms and the articles of equipment, except the cartridge belt and canteen, will be placed by the arms. At night the men will invariably sleep with their arms and equipment near them.
In addition to the sentinel posted over the support, a part of the support, say one-third or one-fourth, should always be awake at night.
Each outguard is marched by its commander to its assigned station, and especially in the case of a picket, is covered by the necessary patrolling to prevent surprise.
Having reached the position, the commander explains the situation to his men and establishes reliefs for each sentinel, and, if possible, for each patrol to be furnished. Besides these sentinels and patrols, a picket must have a sentinel at its post.
The commander then posts the sentinels and points out to them the principal features, such as towns, roads, and streams, and gives their names. He gives the direction and location of the enemy, if known, and of adjoining parts of the outpost.
He gives to patrols the same information and the necessary orders as to their routes and the frequency with which the same shall be covered. Each patrol should go over its route once before dark.
Each picket should maintain connection by patrols with the outguards on its right and left.
=1074. Intercommunication.= It is most important that communication should be maintained at all times between all parts of the outpost, and between the outpost and the main body. This may be done by patrols, messengers, wire or signal.
The commander of the outpost is responsible that proper communication be maintained with the main body, and the support commanders keep up communication with the outguards, with the adjoining supports and with the reserve. The commander of a detached post will maintain communication with the nearest outguard.
=1075. Changes for the Night.= In civilized warfare, it is seldom necessary to draw the outpost closer to the main body at night in order to diminish the front; nor is it necessary to strengthen the line of observation, as the enemy's advance in force must be confined to the roads. The latter are therefore strongly occupied, the intervening ground being diligently patrolled.
In very open country or in war with savage or semi-civilized people familiar with the terrain, special precautions are necessary.
=1076. Relieving the Outpost.= Ordinarily outposts are not kept on duty longer than twenty-four hours. In temporary camps or bivouac they are generally relieved every morning. After a day's advance the outpost for the night is usually relieved, the following morning when the support of the new advance guard passes the line of resistance. In retreat the outpost for the night usually forms the rear guard for the following day, and is relieved when it passes the line of observation of the new outpost.
Outguards that have become familiar with the country during the day time should remain on duty that night. Sentinels are relieved once in two hours, or oftener, depending on the weather. The work of patrols is regulated by the support commander.
Commanders of the various fractions of an outpost turn over their instructions and special orders, written and verbal, to their successors, together with the latest information of the enemy, and a description of the important features of the country. When practicable the first patrols sent out by the new outposts are accompanied by members of the old outpost who are familiar with the terrain. When relieved the old outguards return to their supports, the supports to the reserve and the latter to the main body; or, if more convenient, the supports and reserves return to the main body independently, each by the shortest route.
When relieved by an advance guard, the outpost troops ordinarily join their units as the column passes.
Evening and shortly before dawn are hours of special danger. The enemy may attack late in the day in order to establish himself on captured ground by intrenching during the night; or he may send forward troops under cover of darkness in order to make a strong attack at early dawn. Special precaution is therefore taken at those hours by holding the outpost in readiness, and by sending patrols in advance of the line of observation. If a new outpost is to be established in the morning it should arrive at the outpost position at daybreak, thus doubling the outpost strength at that hour.
OUTPOST PROBLEMS
Problem No. 1 (Infantry)
=1077. Lieutenant (to two squads of his company):= Two battalions of our regiment have camped by Baker's Pond (Elementary Map) for the night. It is now 3 P. M. on a rainy day in August. The enemy is thought to be about five miles to the south of us. Our platoon is the left support of the outpost and is stationed at the road fork on the Chester Pike, by the Mason house. The Twin Hills-Lone Hill ridge is taken care of by other troops. Corporal Baker, where do you think I should place outguards?
=Corporal Baker:= One at the junction of the Mills farm lane and the Chester Pike, and one at the steel railroad trestle over Sandy Creek.
=Lieutenant:= Those positions are both too far from the support, almost a half mile, but they cover the two main avenues of approach and there is no good place for a position nearer the support. A position farther north of the Mill's farm lane would have its view obstructed by the wall and trees along the lane and the wall would be a bad thing to leave unoccupied such a short distance to your front. So in this case, in spite of the excessive distances from the support, I think the two positions are well chosen. Each should be an outguard of a squad, for in the day time, in addition to furnishing a sentinel to observe to the front, they should have some power of resistance, particularly at the trestle. At night they should each have one double sentinel post. This requires three reliefs of two men each, which, with the corporal, only leaves one extra man, who can be used as a messenger.
Corporal Baker, I order you to take your squad and post it as Outguard No. 1, at the junction of this (Chester) pike and that farm lane (Mills farm) in front. Corporal Davis' squad will be Outguard No. 2, at the railroad trestle over there (pointing). Friendly troops will be on the ridge to the east of your position. Your meals will be cooked here and sent to you.
Explain how you post your squad.
=Corporal Baker:= I order Smith to double time 150 yards to the front and act as point for the squad. I then march the squad down to its position, keeping Smith about 200 yards in front until I have arranged everything. I then post Brown under cover of the trees along the lane where he can look down the road as far as possible and I tell him, "Brown, you are to take post here, keeping a sharp lookout to the front and flanks. The enemy is thought to be about five miles south (pointing) of us. This is the Chester Pike. That creek over there is Sandy Creek. Salem is about a mile and three-quarters down this pike in that (S. E.) direction. York is a mile and a half in that (S. W.) direction. Our troops are on that ridge (Twin Hills) and a squad is at the trestle over there. It is Outguard No. 2. You are in Outguard No. 1. You know where we left our platoon. It is our support. Signal Smith to come in." I then have the squad pitch their shelter tents along the northern side of the wall, where they will be hidden to view from the front by the trees along the lane and the wall. I want the men to get shelter from the rain as soon as possible. I then instruct the men of the squad, in the same manner that I did Brown; I notice the time, and detail Davis as second relief and Carter as third relief for Brown's post.
I then direct two men to take all the canteens and go over to that farm (Mills) and fill them, first questioning the people about the enemy and about the country around here. I also direct these two men to get some straw or hay for bedding in the shelter tents, and instruct them to return with as little delay as possible.
I wait until they return and order two other men to go down to the cross roads, question the people there, look the ground over and return here. I caution them not to give any information about our force or the outguard. I would see that the sentinel's position was the best available and that the men had as comfortable quarters as possible, without being unduly exposed to view and without interfering with their movements in case of attack. They would keep their rifles at their sides at all times and not remove their equipments. After dark I put two men on post at the same time. To do this I arrange three reliefs of two men each. They are posted in pairs for two hours at a time.
If no patrol from the support appeared within a half hour after I first took position I would send a messenger back to you to see if everything was all right and tell you what I had done.
=Lieutenant:= I think the two men sent to the crossroads should have been started out before sending anyone to the Mills house as this was a more important point. The Field Service Regulations state that outguards do not patrol to the front, but what you did was entirely correct. You were securing yourself in your position and should be familiar with your immediate surroundings. You should have told the crossroads patrol to determine how much of an obstacle Sandy Creek was. I suppose you assumed the swamp was impassable.
The sentinel in this case is, I suppose, across the lane from the outguard about ten or fifteen yards in advance. After dark the double sentinel post should be posted on the pike about thirty yards in advance of the outguard.
Very frequently it would not be wise to put up your shelter tents on outguard. But here, considering the rain and the protection the trees and wall furnish, it was wise to do so.
The noncommissioned officer in charge of an outguard should be very precise in giving his orders and in making his arrangements, details, etc. The discipline must be strict; that is, the men must be kept under absolute control, so that in case of sudden attack there will be no chance of confusion and the outguard commander will have his men absolutely in hand and not permit any independent action on their part. This is often not the case, owing to the familiar relations that usually exist in our army between a corporal and the members of his squad.
We will not have time to go into the arrangements for Outguard No. 2 other than to say that the conditions there are somewhat different from those Corporal Baker has had to deal with. The outguard should be posted on the west bank of Sandy Creek and the sentinel at the southeastern end of the trestle. A skirmish trench should be dug down the western slope of the fill west of the creek, and extended across the track by throwing up a parapet about two and one-half feet high, slightly bent back towards the northeast so as to furnish cover from fire from the east bank of the creek, north of the trestle. The shelter tents could be pitched as "lean tos" against the western slope of the fill, and hidden by bushes and branches of trees.
(Note: The details of commanding this outguard, its action in case of attack, what should be done with a passing countryman, etc., can be profitably worked out in great detail.)
Problem No. 2
=1078. Lieutenant (to six squads):= We will take the same situation as we had in Problem 1, with squad outguards as before.
Sergeant Adams, you have command of the platoon and have sent out the two outguards. Explain your arrangements for the support.
=Sergeant Adams:= I have the men fall out by squads and rest on the side of the road while I look the ground over. I then tell Sergeant Barnes, "You will have immediate charge of the guard, cooking, visiting patrols, etc., here at the support. Detail three men from Corporal Evan's squad as first, second and third relief for the sentinel over the support Post your sentinel at the road fork and give him the necessary instructions as to the outguards, the adjacent support which is on this road (pointing west) on top of that ridge, etc. I will give you further instructions later." I then fall in the remainder of the support (one sergeant, one cook, four corporals and twenty-seven privates, three squads being intact and one man on duty as sentinel) and have shelter tents pitched under cover of the orchard and Mason house. While this is being completed I select a line for a trench, about thirty-five yards long, behind the fence on the east and west road and extending east of the Chester Pike about fifteen yards, slightly bent back towards the northeast. No trench in the road. I then say to Sergeant Foss, "Take Graves' squad and construct a shelter trench along this line (indicating) having the parapet concealed. Cut the fences so as to furnish easy access."
I then say to Corporal Evans, "Take three men from your squad and, as a reconnoitering patrol, cross the trestle there (pointing), and follow that road (pointing to the Boling-Salem road) into Salem, reconnoitering that village. Then take up a position on that ridge (pointing to Sandy Ridge) and remain out until dusk. Send me a message from Sandy Ridge with a sketch and description of the country."
I assume that Corporal Evans is familiar with the information about the enemy, the location of our outguards, etc.
Selecting five men from Corporal Geary's squad and the remaining man of Corporal Evans' squad (three having been detailed for sentinel duty, and three sent out on patrol duty with Corporal Evans), I turn them over to Sergeant Barnes, saying, "Here are six men to furnish three reliefs for a visiting patrol of two men. Have this patrol visit Outguard No. 2 and cross the trestle, going south down the east bank of the creek; thence recross the creek at the road bridge, visiting Outguard No. 1; thence across to the adjacent outguard of the support on our left, which is somewhere on that ridge (pointing to the Twin Hills-Lone Hill Ridge); and thence to the starting point. Have them locate that support on their first trip. You can reverse the route and make such minor changes from time to time as you think best. Report to me after they have completed the first round. Make arrangements for sending supper to the outguards. Take two men from Corporal Jackson's squad to carry it out. Be careful that the cook fire is not visible. I am going out to visit Outguard No. 1 and then No. 2. You will have charge until I return."
The men have stacked arms in front of the tents and have removed all equipment but their belts.
I would now visit the outguards, taking a man with me, and see if they are properly located. I would instruct the outguard commanders as to what to do in case of attack, in case strangers approach, point out their line of retreat in case of necessity, etc. I would make a sketch of the position and send it, with a description of my dispositions, to the commander of the outpost.
=Lieutenant:= Your arrangements and dispositions appear satisfactory. You should have been more prompt in sending Corporal Evans out with his patrol. Why didn't you send a patrol towards York, or south along the Chester Pike?
=Sergeant Adams:= I considered that the support on my right would cover that ridge (Twin Hills-Lone Hill), and that the route I laid out for Corporal Evans would cover the Chester Pike and the country east of Sandy Creek at the same time, thus avoiding the necessity for two patrols.
=Lieutenant:= That seems reasonable, but you should have given some specific orders about reporting on the width, depth, etc., of Sandy Creek, which might prove a very valuable or dangerous obstacle. You can readily see how quickly a command becomes broken up and depleted in strength, and how important it is to make only such detachments as are necessary. It looks as if your outguards might have been made smaller considering the size of your platoon (6 squads), but I think the squad outpost is so much better than one not composed of a complete unit, that it is correct in this case. With Corporal Evans' patrol of three men, the visiting patrol requiring six men, the sentinel post requiring three men, Sergeant Barnes, and the two outguards, you have thirty men actually on duty or detailed for duty, out of fifty-one. Of course, the men constituting the outguards, the man detailed for the visiting patrol and support sentinel, have approximately two hours on duty and four hours off duty, so they get some rest. Furthermore, you should have a three-man patrol watching the crossroads at Salem during the night, Corporal Evans' patrol having returned. This patrol should be relieved once during the night, at a previously stated hour, which means six more men who do not get a complete night's rest.
=Sergeant Adams:= Isn't Salem rather far to the front to send a patrol at night?
=Lieutenant:= Yes, it is, but unless you touch the crossroads there you would have to have two patrols out, one near Maxey's farm and one on the Chester Pike. As it is you are leaving the road from York to the crossroads in front of Outguard No. 1 uncovered, but you should find that this is covered by a patrol from the adjacent support. The cross roads in front of Outguard No. 1 is the natural place for a stationary, night patrol, but it is so close to the outguard that the benefit derived from a patrol there would be too small to justify the effort.
(Note: Further details of the duties of this support can be gone into. The messages should be written, and patrols carried through their tour of duty with the resulting situations to be dealt with; the sentinels tested as to their knowledge of their duties, etc. Also note carefully the manner in which the support commander uses his noncommissioned officers for carrying out his intentions, and thus avoids the most objectionable and inefficient practice of dealing directly with the privates.)
Problem No. 3 (Infantry)
=1079.= (See Fort Leavenworth map in pocket at back of book.)
=Situation:=
A Blue force, Companies A and B, 1st Infantry, under Captain A, in hostile country, is covering the Rock Island Bridge and camped for the night, April 20-21, on the south slope of Devin ridge (rm'). The enemy is moving northward from Kansas City (30 miles south of Leavenworth). At 3:30 P. M. Captain A receives a message from Colonel X at Beverly (2 miles east of Rock Island Bridge, (qo')), stating that two or three companies of hostile infantry are reported five miles south of Leavenworth at 2:30 P. M. No enemy is west of Leavenworth. Captain A decides to place one platoon on outpost.
=Required, 1.= Captain A's order.
=Answer.= Verbally: "Two or three Red companies were five miles south of Leavenworth at 2:30 P. M. today. No enemy is west of Leavenworth. We will camp here. 1st Platoon, 'A' company, under Sergeant A, will form the outpost, relieving the advance guard (2d Platoon Co. A). The line, Pope Hill (sm')--Rabbit Point (tn') will be held. Detached posts will be placed on Hill 880, west of Merritt Hill (rl'), and on Engineer Hill (ql'). In case of attack the outpost line will be held.
"The baggage will be at the main camp.
"Messages will reach me on Devin Ridge (rm')."
Issued verbally to officers and Sergeant A.
=Required, 2.= Give verbatim (word for word) the order issued by Sergeant A.
=Answer.= "Two companies of the enemy were five miles south of Leavenworth at 2:30 P. M. today. Our camp is to be here. This platoon will be the outpost on the line, Rabbit Point (im')--Pope Hill (sm').
"The right support, 1st section, less 1 squad, under Sergeant B, will take position north of Pope Hill and cover the following front: the ravine (XIX--Merritt Hill) west of Grant avenue to the ravine about midway between Grant Avenue and Rabbit Point (tn').
"The left support, 2d section, less 1 squad under Sergeant H, will take position on north slope of Rabbit Point and will cover the following front: The ravine midway between Grant Avenue and Rabbit Point to Missouri River.
"Corporal D, you will take the eight men of your squad and form a detached post on Engineer Hill (qk').
"Corporal E, take your squad and form a detached post on Hill 880 west of Merritt Hill (rl').
"If attacked hold your front. Each support and detached post will entrench.
"Send messages to me at right support."
The outpost moves out, each support and detached post separately, without throwing out covering patrols, because the advance guard is now holding the front. There is no reserve.
=Required, 3.= What does Sergeant A do now?
=Required, 4.= What does Sergeant B do as soon as he reaches Pope Hill?
(Note: During the remainder of the afternoon one man up in a tree on Grant Avenue will be the only observing post necessary for this support. At night an outguard would be placed on Grant Avenue with continuous patrols along the front, because the open ground furnishes easy approach to the enemy. A post of four men might also be placed on the bridge over Corral Creek (um').)
=Required, 5.= The location of supports and the main body of detached post on Engineer Hill.
=Required, 6.= What patrolling would be done from the left support?
VI. THE COMPANY ON OUTPOST
(Establishing the Outpost)
=1080.= We will now apply some of the general principles of outposts (see Par. 1051) to a company taking up its position on the line of outposts.
Let us suppose that our battalion has been detailed for outpost duty.
In order to understand more fully the duties and functions of the company commander, we will first consider what the major does. To begin with, he and the battalion will have been detailed for outpost duty before the march was completed, and he will have been told, amongst other things, what is known of the enemy and also what is known of other bodies of our own troops, where the main body will halt, the general position to be occupied by the outpost, and what the commander intends doing in case of attack.
The major verbally designates, say, two companies, as the reserve, and the other two companies, including our own, as the support. He places the senior officer of the reserve companies in command of the reserve and tells him where he is to go, and he indicates the general line the outpost is to occupy and assigns the amount of front each of the other companies is to cover. The limits of the sector so assigned should be marked by some distinctive features, such as trees, buildings, woods, streams, etc., as it is important that each company should know the exact limits of its frontage. He tells the company commanders what he knows of the enemy and of our own troops so far as they affect the outposts, he indicates the line of resistance and how much resistance is to be afforded in case of attack, states whether intrenchments and obstacles are to be constructed, gives instructions about lighting fires and cooking, and states where he can be found.
Upon receiving his orders from the major, the company commander, with a proper covering detachment, moves to the locality allotted him and as he arrives upon the ground he is to occupy, he sends out, as temporary security, patrols or skirmishers, or both, a short distance in front of the general position the outguards will occupy, holding the rest of the company back under cover. If practicable, the company commander should precede the company and make a rapid examination of the ground. He then sends out observation groups, varying in size from four men to a platoon, generally a squad, to watch the country in the direction of the enemy. These groups constitute the outguards, and are just sufficient in number to cover the front of the supports, and to connect where necessary with the outguards of adjoining supports.
The company commander next selects a defensive position on the general line of resistance, from which not only can he command the approaches, but where he can also give assistance to the adjoining supports; he then gives instructions in regard to the intrenchments and obstacles, after which he makes a more careful reconnaissance of the section assigned him; corrects the position, of the outguards, if necessary; gives them instructions as to their duties in case of attack or when strangers approach their posts; tells them the number (if any) of their post, the number of the outguard and support and the numbers of the adjoining outguards and supports; points out lines of retreat in case they are compelled to fall back to the support, cautioning the men not to mask the fire of the support; he tells them the names of all villages, rivers, etc., in view, and the places to which the wagon roads and the railroads lead; selects, if necessary, places for additional posts to be occupied at night and during fog; sees that suitable connections are made between him and the adjoining outguards, and between his support and the adjoining supports; and questions subordinate commanders to test their grasp of the situation and knowledge of their duties, and on returning to the support he sends a report with a sketch to the outpost commander, showing the dispositions made.
After the line of observation has been established, the support stacks arms and the men are permitted to remove their equipments, except cartridge belts. One or more sentinels are posted over these supports, and they guard the property and watch for signals from the outguards. Fires are concealed as much as possible and the messing is done by reliefs. Mounted messengers ordinarily do not unsaddle; they rest, water and feed as directed.
After the major has received reports from both company commanders, he will himself visit the outguards and supports and make such changes as he may deem necessary, immediately after which he will submit to the commander of the troops a written report, accompanied by a combined sketch showing the positions of the different parts of the outpost. The major might begin his inspection of the line of outguards before receiving the reports of the company commanders.
In training and instructing the company in outpost work, it is always best to send out a few patrols and scouts an hour or two in advance, with definite instructions as to what they are to do, and have them operate against the company as hostile scouts and patrols. If the rest of the company know that patrols and scouts are operating in their front, and will try to work their way through the outpost line, they will naturally take a keener interest in their work. Exercises of this kind create a feeling of rivalry between the scouts and patrols, who, on the one hand, are trying to work their way through the line of outposts, and the outguards and patrols, who, on the other hand, are trying to prevent them from so doing. It makes the work much more human.
VII. THE COMPANY IN SCOUTING[13] AND PATROLLING
=1081.= The general principles of patrolling are explained in Par. 959; so we need not repeat them here.
Many of the principles of scouting are, in reality, nothing but the fundamentals of patrolling, and the main function of scouting, reconnoitering, is also the function of a certain class of patrols. So, we see that scouting and patrolling are inseparably connected, and the importance of training the members of the company in the principles of scouting is, therefore, evident.
=1082. Requisites of a good Scout.= A man, to make a good scout, should possess the following qualifications:--
Have good eyesight and hearing; Be active, intelligent and resourceful; Be confident and plucky; Be healthy and strong; Be able to swim, signal, read a map, make a rough sketch, and, of course, read and write.
=1083. Eyesight and Hearing.= To be able to use the eye and the ear quickly and accurately is one of the first principles of successful scouting. Quickness and accuracy of sight and hearing are to a great extent a matter of training and practice. The savage, for instance, almost invariably has quick eyesight and good hearing, simply from continual practice.
Get into the habit of seeing, observing, things--your eyesight must never be resting, but must be continually glancing around, in every direction, and seeing different objects. As you walk along through the country get into the habit of noticing hoof-prints, wheel-ruts, etc., and observing the trees, houses, streams, animals, men, etc., that you pass.
Practice looking at distant objects and discovering objects in the distance. On seeing distant signs, do not jump at a conclusion as to what they are, but watch and study them carefully first.
Get into the habit of listening for sounds and of distinguishing by what different sounds are made.
=1084. Finding your Way in a strange Country.= The principal means of finding one's way in a strange country are by map reading, asking the way, the points of the compass and landmarks.
Map Reading. This, of course, presupposes the possession of a map. The subject of map reading is explained in Pars. 1859 to 1877.
Asking the Way. In civilized countries one has no trouble in finding his way by asking, provided, of course, he speaks the language. If in a foreign country, learn as soon as you can the equivalent of such expressions as "What is the way to ----?" "Where is ----?" "What is the name of this place?," and a few other phrases of a similar nature. Remember, however, that the natives may sometimes deceive you in their answers.
Points of the Compass. A compass is, of course, the best, quickest and simplest way of determining the directions, except in localities where there is much iron, in which case it becomes very unreliable.
For determining the points of the compass by means of the North Star and the face of a watch, see Par. 1096.
The points of the compass can also be ascertained by facing the sun in the morning and spreading out your arms straight from the body. Before you is east; behind you, west; to your right, south; to your left, north.
The points of the compass can be determined by noting the limbs and bark of trees. The bark on the north side of trees is thicker and rougher than that on the south side, and moss is most generally found near the roots on the north side. The limbs and branches are generally longer on the south side of the trees, while the branches on the north are usually knotty, twisted and drooped. The tops of pine trees dip or trend to the north.
=1085. Lost.= In connection with finding your way through strange country, it may be said, should you find you have lost your way, do not lose your head. Keep cool--try not to let your brains get into your feet. By this we mean don't run around and make things worse, and play yourself out. First of all, sit down and think; cool off. Then climb a tree, or hill, and endeavor to locate some familiar object you passed, so as to retrace your steps. If it gets dark and you are not in hostile territory, build a good big fire. The chances are you have been missed by your comrades and if they see the fire, they will conclude you are there and will send out for you. Also, if not in hostile territory, distress signals may be given by firing your rifle, but don't waste all your ammunition.
If you find a stream, follow it; it will generally lead somewhere--where civilization exists.
The tendency of people who are lost is to travel in a circle uselessly.
Remember this important rule: Always notice the direction of the compass when you start out, and what changes of direction you make afterwards.
=1086. Landmarks.= Landmarks or prominent features of any kind are a great assistance in finding one's way in a strange country. In starting out, always notice the hills, conspicuous trees, high buildings, towers, rivers, etc. For example, if starting out on a reconnaissance you see directly to the north of you a mountain, it will act as a guide without your having to refer to your compass or the sun. If you should start from near a church, the steeple will serve as a guide or landmark when you start to make your way back.
When you pass a conspicuous object, like a broken gate, a strangely shaped rock, etc., try to remember it, so that should you desire to return that way, you can do so by following the chain of landmarks. On passing such landmarks always see what they look like from the other side; for, that will be the side from which you will first see them upon the return, trip.
The secret of never getting lost is to note carefully the original direction in which you start, and after that to note carefully all landmarks. Get in the habit of doing this in time of peace--it will then become second nature for you to do it in time of war.
It may sometimes be necessary, especially in difficult country, such as when traveling through a forest, and over broken mountains and ravines, for you to make your own landmarks for finding your way back by "blazing" (cutting pieces of bark from the trees), breaking small branches off bushes, piling up stones, making a line across a crossroad or path you did not follow, etc.
=1087. Concealment and Dodging.= Both in scouting and patrolling it must be remembered not only that it is important you should get information, but it is also fully as important that the enemy should not know you have the information--hence, the necessity of hiding yourself. And remember, too, if you keep yourself hidden, not only will you probably be able to see twice as much of what the enemy is doing, but it may also save you from being captured, wounded or killed.
Should you find the enemy has seen you, it is often advisable to pretend that you have not seen him, or that you have other men with you by signaling to imaginary comrades.
As far as possible, keep under cover by traveling along hedges, banks, low ground, etc. If moving over open country, make your way as quickly as possible from one clump of trees or bushes to another; or, from rocks, hollows or such other cover as may exist, to other cover. As soon as you reach new cover, look around and examine your surroundings carefully.
Do not have about you anything that glistens, and at night be careful not to wear anything that jingles or rattles. And remember that at night a lighted match can be seen as far as 900 yards and a lighted cigarette nearly 300 yards. In looking through a bush or over the top of a hill, break off a leafy branch and hold it in front of your face.
In selecting a tree, tower or top of a house or other lookout place from which to observe the enemy from concealment, always plan beforehand how you would make your escape, if discovered and pursued. A place with more than one avenue of escape should be selected, so that if cut off in one direction you can escape from the other. For example, should the enemy reach the foot of a tower in which you are, you would be completely cut off, while if he reached a house on whose roof you happened to be, you would have several avenues of escape.
Although trees make excellent lookout places, they must, for the same reasons as towers, be used with caution. In this connection it may be remarked unless one sees foot marks leading to a tree, men are apt not to look up in trees for the enemy--hence, be careful not to leave foot marks. When in a tree, either stand close against the trunk, or lie along a large branch, so that your body will look like a part of the trunk or branch.
In using a hill as a lookout place, do not make the common mistake of showing yourself on the skyline. Reach the top of the hill slowly and gradually by crouching down and crawling, and raise your head above the crest by inches. In leaving, lower your head gradually and crawl away by degrees, as any quick or sudden movement on the skyline is likely to attract attention. And, remember, just because you don't happen to see the enemy that is no sign that he is not about. At maneuvers and in exercises soldiers continually make the mistake of exposing themselves on the skyline.
At night confine yourself as much as possible to low ground, ditches, etc. This will keep you down in the dark and will enable you, in turn, to see outlined against the higher ground any enemy that may approach you.
At night especially, but also during the day, the enemy will expect you along roads and paths, as it is easier to travel along roads and paths than across country and they also serve as good guides in finding your way. As a rule, it is best to use the road until it brings you near the enemy and then leave it and travel across country. You will thus be able better to avoid the outposts and patrols that will surely be watching the roads.
Practice in time of peace the art of concealing yourself and observing passers-by. Conceal yourself near some frequented road and imagine the people traveling over it are enemies whose numbers you wish to count and whose conversation you wish to overhear. Select a spot where they are not likely to look for you, and which has one or more avenues of escape; choose a position with a background that matches your clothes in color; keep quiet, skin your eyes; stretch your ears.
A mounted scout should always have wire cutters when operating in a country where there are wire fences.
=1088. Tracking.= By "tracking" we mean following up footmarks. The same as the huntsman tracks his game so should we learn how to track the enemy. One of the first things to learn in tracking is the pace at which the man or horse was traveling when the track was made.
A horse walking makes pairs of footmarks, each hind foot being close to the impression of the forefoot. At a trot the tracks are similar, but the pairs of footmarks are farther apart and deeper, the toe especially being more deeply indented than at the walk. At a canter there are two single footmarks and then a pair. At a gallop the footmarks are single and deeply indented. As a rule, the hind feet are longer and narrower than the forefeet.
In case of a man walking, the whole flat of the foot comes equally on the ground, the footmarks usually about 30 inches apart. If running, the toes are more deeply indented in the ground, and the footmarks are considerably farther apart than when walking. Note the difference between footmarks made by soldier's shoes and civilian's shoes, and those made by men and those made by women and children.
Study the difference between the tracks by a gun, a carriage, an escort wagon, an automobile, a bicycle, etc., and the direction in which they were going.
In addition to being able to determine the pace of tracks, it is most important that you should be able to tell how old they are. However, ability to do this with any degree of accuracy, requires a vast amount of practice. A great deal depends on the kind and the state of the ground and the weather. For example, if on a dry, windy day you follow a certain track over varying ground, you will find that on light sandy soil, for instance, it will look old in a very short time, because any damp earth that may have been kicked up from under the surface will dry very quickly to the same color as the rest of the surface, and the edge of the footmark will soon be rounded off by the breeze blowing over the dry dust. The same track in damp ground will look much fresher, and in damp clay, in the shade of trees, a track which may be a day old will look quite fresh.
The following are clues to the age of tracks: Spots of rain having fallen on them since they were made, if, of course, you know when the rain fell; the crossing of other tracks over the original ones; the freshness or coldness of the droppings of horses and other animals (due allowance being made for the effect of the sun, rain, etc.), and, in the case of grass that has been trodden down, the extent to which it has since dried or withered.
Having learned to distinguish the pace and age of tracks, the next think to do is to learn how to follow them over all kinds of ground. This is a most difficult accomplishment and one that requires a vast amount of practice to attain even fair proficiency.
In tracking where it is difficult to see the track, such as on hard ground, or in the grass, note the direction of the last foot-print that you can see, then look on ahead of you a few yards, say, 20 or 30, in the same direction, and, in grass, you will probably see the blades bent or trodden, and, on ground, you will probably see stones displaced or scratched--or some other small sign which otherwise would not be noticed. These indistinct signs, seen one behind the other, give a track that can be followed with comparative ease.
If you should lose the track, try to find it again by placing your handkerchief, hat, or other object on the last footmark you noticed, and then work around it in a wide circle, with a radius of, say, 30, 50, or 100 yards, choosing the most favorable ground, soft ground, if possible. If with a patrol, only one or two men should try to find the onward track; for, if everyone starts in to find it, the chances are the track will be obliterated with their footmarks. In trying to find the continuation of a track this way, always place yourself in the enemy's position, look around the country, imagine what you would have done, and then move out in that direction and look for his tracks in soft ground.
PRACTICE
In order to learn the appearance of tracks, get a suitable piece of soft ground, and across this have a man walk and then run, and have a horse walk, trot, canter and gallop. The next day make similar tracks alongside the first ones and then notice the difference between the two. Also, make tracks on ordinary ground, grass, sand, etc., and practice following them up. Finally, practice tracking men sent out for the purpose. The work will probably be very difficult, even disheartening at first, but you will gradually improve, if you persevere.
Above all things, get into the habit of seeing any tracks that may be on the ground. When out walking, when going through exercises at maneuvers, and at other times, always notice what tracks are on the ground before you, and study them.
The following exercises in scouting and patrolling afford excellent practice and training:
=1089. The Mouse and Cat Contest.= 1. A section of country three or four miles square, with well-defined limits, is selected. The boundaries are made known to all contestants and anyone going outside of them will be disqualified.
2. Two patrols of eight men each are sent out as "mice." They occupy any positions they may wish within the boundaries named, and conceal themselves to watch for hostile patrols.
3. Half an hour later two other squads, wearing white bands around their hats, or having other distinguishing marks, are sent out as "cats" to locate, if possible, and report upon the position of the "mice."
4. An hour is fixed when the exercise shall end, and if within the given time the "cats" have not discovered the "mice," the "mice" win.
5. The "cats" will write reports of any "mice" patrols they may see.
Rules
1. An umpire (officer or noncommissioned officer) goes with each patrol and his decisions as to capture and other matters are the orders of the company commander. The umpires must take every possible precaution to conceal themselves so as not to reveal the position of the patrols with which they are.
Each umpire will carry a watch, all watches being set with that of the company commander before the exercise commences.
2. Any "cat" patrol coming within 50 yards of a "mouse" patrol, without seeing the "mice," is considered captured.
3. When the time is up, the umpires will bring in the patrols and report to the company commander.
=1090. Flag-Stealing Contest.= 1. A section of country of suitable size, with well-defined limits, is selected, the boundaries being made known to the contestants.
2. The contestants are divided into two forces of about 20 men each, and each side will establish three Cossack posts along a general line designated by the company commander, the two positions being selected facing each other and being a suitable distance apart. The men not forming part of the Cossack posts will be used as reconnoitering patrols.
3. About three quarters of a mile in rear of the center of each line of outposts four flags will be planted, in line, about 30 yards apart.
4. The scouts and patrols of each force will try to locate the outposts of the other force, and then to work their way around or between them, steal the flags and bring them back to their own side. They will endeavor to prevent the enemy from doing the same.
5. One scout or patrol will not carry away more than one flag at a time, and will have to return to their side safely with the flag before they can come back and capture another.
6. Scouts may work singly or in pairs. Any scout or patrol coming within 80 yards of a stronger hostile party, or Cossack post, will be considered as captured, if seen by the enemy, and if carrying a captured flag at the time, the flag will not count as having been captured. Of course, if a scout or patrol can pass within 80 yards of the enemy without being discovered, it may do so.
7. An umpire (officer or noncommissioned officer) will be with each Cossack post, each patrol, and at the position of the flags.
8. The hour when the exercise ends will be designated in advance and at that hour the umpires will bring in the Cossack posts and patrols. The same requirements regarding watches obtains as in the Mouse and Cat Contest.
9. At the conclusion of the contest the commander of each side will hand in to the company commander all sketches and reports made by his men.
10. Points will be awarded as follows:
Each flag captured, 5.
For each sketch and hostile report of the position of a Cossack post, 3.
For each report of movements of a hostile patrol, 2.
The side getting the greatest number of points will win.
11. Umpires may penalize the contestants for a violation of the rules.
The same contest may be carried out at night, substituting lighted Japanese lanterns for the flags.
FOOTNOTES:
[13] The best book on scouting that the author has ever seen, is Baden-Powell's "Aids to Scouting," which was consulted in the preparation of this chapter.
VIII. NIGHT OPERATIONS
=1091. Importance.= Because of the long range and great accuracy of modern fire arms, there has been in recent years a marked increase in the practice of night operations, such operations being of common occurrence not only for massing troops under cover of darkness in favorable positions for further action, but also for actually assaulting positions.
Read carefully pars. 464, 496, 498, 523, 524, 580-590.
TRAINING OF THE COMPANY
=1092.= Night movements are amongst the most difficult operations of war, and, therefore require the most careful, painstaking and thorough training and instruction of troops in all matters pertaining thereto. The history of night fighting shows that in most cases defeat is due to disorganization through panic. It is said that in daylight the moral is to the physical as three is to one. That being the case, it is hard to say what the ratio is at night, when a general atmosphere of mystery, uncertainty and fear of surprise envelops the operations, and, of necessity affects the nerves of the men. The vital importance, therefore, of accustoming troops as much as we can in peace to the conditions that will obtain in night fighting, cannot be overestimated. The following outline shows the subjects in which individual and collective instruction and training should be given:
INDIVIDUAL TRAINING
=1093. General.= The first thing to be done is to accustom the soldier to darkness and to teach him to overcome the nervousness which is natural to the average man in darkness.
The best way to do this is to begin by training him in the use of his powers of vision and hearing under conditions of darkness, which are strange to him. The company should be divided into squads for this instruction.
=1094. Vision.= Take several men to ground with which they are familiar. Have them notice the different appearance which objects present at night; when viewed in different degrees of light and shade; the comparative visibility of men under different conditions of dress, background, etc.; the ease with which bright objects are seen; the difference between the visibility of men standing on a skyline and those standing on a slope. Post the men in pairs at intervals along a line which the instructors will endeavor to cross without being seen. The instructors should cross from both sides, so as to compel observation in both directions. Have a man (later, several) walk away from the rest of the men and when he is about to disappear from view, halt him, and estimate the distance. Send a man (later, several) outside the field of vision, to advance on the rest of the men. Halt him when he enters the field of vision and estimate the distance. Send a number of men outside the limit of vision and then let them advance on the rest of the men, using cover and seeing how near they can approach unobserved.
=1095. Hearing.= Place a number of men a few yards apart and make them guess what a noise is caused by, and its approximate position. The rattle of a meat can, the movement of a patrol, the working of the bolt of a rifle, the throwing down of accouterments, low talking, etc., may be utilized. Take special pains to impress upon the men the penetrating power of the human voice, and the necessity of preserving absolute silence in night operations. Have blank cartridges fired and teach the men to judge their direction and approximate distance away.
=1096. Finding Bearings.= Show the men how to determine the points of the compass from the North Star. The Big Dipper constellation looks like this:
The North Star is on the prolongation of a line joining the two "pointing" stars, and at above five times the distance between the two stars. At another time have those same men individually locate the North Star. Using this star as a guide, practice the men moving in different directions, by such commands as, "Smith, move southeast." "Jones, move northwest," etc.
To test a man's ability to keep a given direction when moving in the darkness, choose a spot from which no prominent landmarks are visible, advance toward it accompanied by a man, from a distance not less than 200 paces. While advancing the soldier must take his bearings. On arriving at the spot chosen the instructor will turn the soldier around rapidly two or three times and then have him continue to advance in the same direction as before. No prominent landmarks should be visible from the starting point.
=1097. Moving in the Dark.= Form four or five men in line with about one pace interval, the instructor being on one of the flanks. Place some clearly visible mark, such as a lantern, for the instructor to march on. Impress upon the men the importance of lifting their feet up high and bringing them to the ground quietly and firmly, and of keeping in touch with the guide and conforming to his movements without sound or signal. The pace should be slow and frequent halts should be made to test the promptness of the men in halting and advancing together. As the line advances, each man will in turn take his place on the flank and act as guide. The light on which the men are marching should be hidden from view at intervals, in order to test the ability of the men to maintain the original direction. Later on, the number of men in a line may be increased considerably. The rougher the ground, the darker the night and the longer the line, the slower must the pace be and the more frequent the halts. After passing an obstacle men instinctively line up parallel to it, and consequently if the obstacle does not lie at right angles to the line of advance, the direction will be lost; so, be sure to guard against this.
=1098. Night Fencing.= Practice the men in charging in the dark against a white cloth or the dummy figure of a man. In the beginning have the figure in a fixed place, but later have the soldier charge seeking the figure, and not knowing just exactly where it is beforehand.
=1099. Night Entrenching.= It is frequently necessary in time of war to dig trenches at night in front of the enemy, and while this work is easy in the moonlight, it is very difficult in the dark. Bear in mind the following points:
1. The tendency is to make the trench too narrow; hence, guard against this.
2. Be careful not to throw the earth too far or too near.
3. Do not strike your neighbor's tools in working.
4. Do not use the pick unless necessary, because it makes considerable noise.
5. Do not scrape the tools together in order to get off the dirt; use a chip of wood or the toe of the shoe.
6. Make as little noise as possible in digging and handling your tools.
7. If discovered by the enemy's searchlights, do not become excited or confused; simply lie down.
8. If attacked by the enemy, do not get rattled and throw your tools away--put them in some fixed place where they can be found again.
=1100. Equipment.= At first the men should be taken out without arms, but later on they should be trained to work in full equipment. Teach every man what parts of his equipment are likely to make a noise under special circumstances, such as lying down, rising, crossing obstacles, etc., and instruct him how to guard against it. Bayonets should always be fixed, but in order to avoid accidents the scabbard should be left on them.
From the beginning of the training continually impress upon the men that it is absolutely criminal to fire without orders during a night operation and that the bayonet is the only weapon he can use with advantage to himself and safety to his comrades.
=1101. Night Firing.= As a rule men fire too high in the dark. They must, therefore, be cautioned not to raise the rifle above the horizontal, or incline the upper part of the body to the rear. When the firing is stopped be sure to turn on the safety-lock. Experience during the Russo-Japanese War taught the Japanese the kneeling position is the most suitable for horizontal firing. The following method, to be conducted in daytime, may be employed in training the soldier to hold his rifle parallel to the ground while firing in the dark:--Have each soldier, kneeling, close his eyes and bring his rifle to the position of aim, barrel parallel to the ground. With the rifle in this position, let him open his eyes and examine it. Then have this done by squad, by command. When they become proficient in this movement, have them close their eyes and while the eyes are closed, put up a target and have them practice horizontal firing, opening their eyes each time after pulling the trigger and then examining the position of the piece.
COLLECTIVE TRAINING
At first practice squads, then the platoons and later the company in simple movements, such as squads right and left, right and left oblique, etc., gradually leading up to more complicated ones in close and extended order, such as right and left front into line, advancing in platoon and squad columns, charging the enemy, etc. As far as possible the movements should be executed by simple prearranged signals from the unit commanders. The signals, which must not be visible to the enemy, may be made with a white handkerchief or a white flag, if the night be not too dark; with an electric flashlight, a dark lantern or luminous disk. The light of the flashlight or lantern must be screened, so it cannot be seen by the enemy. The following signals are suggested:
To advance: Raise vertically the lantern or other object with which the signal is made.
To halt: Lower and raise the object several times.
To lie down: Bring the object down near the ground.
To form squad columns: Move the object several times to the right and left.
To form platoon columns: Describe several circles.
As skirmishers: Move the object front to rear several times.
=1102. Night Marches.= In acting as an advance guard to a column, the company would send out a point a few yards ahead, which would be followed by the rest of the company. Three or four scouts should be sent out a hundred yards or so ahead of the point. They should advance at a quick pace, keeping in the shadow on the side of the road, being constantly on the alert, using their ears even more than their eyes. They will halt to listen at crossroads and suspicious places, and move on again when they hear the company approaching. Should the enemy be discovered, one of the scouts will return to warn the advance guard--the others will conceal themselves and watch. Under no circumstances must the scouts ever fire, unless it be for the purpose of warning the company and there is no other way of doing so. The diagram on the opposite page is suggested as a good formation for a company acting as advance guard at night. A company marching alone would move in the same formation as when acting as advance guard, except that it would protect its rear with a few scouts. Of course, the nature of the country and proximity and activity of the enemy, will determine the best formation to be used, but whatever the formation may be, always remember to cover well your front, rear and flanks, with scouts, whose distance away will vary with the light and nature of the country. Don't forget that protection in rear is very important.
The men must be warned against firing, smoking, talking, striking matches, making noise, etc. They should also be informed of the object in view, direction of the enemy, etc.
In night marches the rests should not exceed five minutes; otherwise, many men will fall asleep.
OUTPOSTS
Careful training in outpost duty at night is very harassing, but, in view of its importance, should not be neglected. This instruction should be given with the greatest thoroughness, strictness and attention to detail.
=1103. Sentries Challenging.= In challenging sentries must be careful to avoid any noise that would disclose their position. In fact, challenging by voice should be reduced to a minimum by arranging a system of signals by which the officers of the day, patrols, etc., can be recognized. The following signals, any one of which may be decided upon, which would be made first by the sentry and then answered by the approaching party, are suggested: Clap the hands together twice; strike the ground twice with the butt of the rifle; strike the butt of the rifle twice with the hand; whistle softly twice. The replying signal would be the same as the sentry's signal, except that in case of the use of the butt of the rifle, an officer would reply by striking twice on his revolver holster. After repeating the signal once, if it is not answered, the sentry will challenge with the voice, but no louder than is necessary. In case of a patrol only one man will advance to be recognized after the signal has been answered. The sentry must always allow persons to approach fairly near before challenging.
=1104. Sentries Firing.= Anyone who has been through a campaign knows how nervous green sentries are, and how quick they are about firing. During the beginning of the Philippine Campaign the author heard of several cases where sentries fired on fire-flies several hundred yards away. Never fire unless it be absolutely necessary to give an alarm, or unless you can clearly distinguish the enemy and are fairly certain of hitting him. In the French Army in Algeria, there is a rule that any sentry who fires at night must produce a corpse, or be able to show by blood marks that he hit the person fired at. If he can do neither, he is punished for giving a false alarm.
=1105. Marking of Route from Outguards to Supports.= The route from the support to the outguards, and from pickets to their sentries, should, if necessary, be clearly marked with scraps of paper, green sticks with the bark peeled off, or in any other suitable way.
=1106. Readiness for Action.= The supports should always be ready for action. The men must sleep with their rifles beside them and in such places that they will be able to fall in promptly in case of attack. Some men have a way of sleeping with their blankets over their heads. This should not be allowed--the ears must always be uncovered. The commander, or the second in command, with several men, should remain awake. When the commander lies down he should do so near the sentry, which is always posted over the support.
GENERAL
=1107. Connections.= It is of the greatest importance that proper connection be maintained between the different parts of a command engaged in night operations. It is astonishing with what facility units go astray and how difficult it is for them to find their way back where they belong.
=1108. Preparation.= It matters not what the nature of the night operation may be, the most careful preparation is necessary. Success often depends upon the care and thoroughness with which the plans are made.
All possible eventualities should be thought of and provided for as far as praticable. The first thing to do is to get as much information as possible about the ground to be covered and the position of the enemy, and care must be taken to see that the information is accurate. Reconnaissance must be made by night as well as by day; for, ground looks very different at night from what it does during the day.
IX. FIELD ENGINEERING
=1109.= The following, from the =Engineer Field Manual=, together with the elements of field engineering covered in Chapter XI, on =Obstacles=, will give the company officer a good, working knowledge of those parts of field engineering for which he is most likely to have need.
Bridges
=1111. Dimensions and guard rail.= A roadway 9 ft. wide in the clear should be provided to pass infantry in fours, cavalry two abreast, and military wagons in one direction; a width of 6 ft. will suffice for infantry in column of twos, cavalry in single file, and field guns passed over by hand.
The clear width of roadway of an ordinary highway bridge should not be less than 12 ft. for single track, or 20 ft. for double track.
The clear head room in ordinary military bridges should not be less than 9 ft. for wagons and cavalry; for highway bridges not less than 14 ft.
Ramps at the ends of a bridge, if intended for artillery, should not be steeper than 1 on 7. For animals, slopes steeper than 1 on 10 are inconvenient.
If the bridges are high, hand rails should be provided. A single rope may suffice, or it may have brush placed upon it to form a screen.
A guard rail should be provided along each side of the roadway, near the ends of the flooring planks. In hasty bridges it may be secured by a lashing or lashings through the planking to the stringer underneath. Otherwise it may be fastened with spikes or bolts.
=1112. Spar bridges.=--This name is applied to bridges built of round timbers lashed together. Intermediate points of support are provided by inclined frames acting as struts to transmit weight from the middle of the bridge to the banks. The single-lock and double-lock bridges with two and three spans of 15 ft., respectively, are the ones of most utility.
The first step in constructing a spar bridge is to measure the gap to be bridged and select the position of the footings on either bank. Determine the distance from each footing to the middle point of the roadway if a single-lock, or the two corresponding points of a double-lock bridge. Next determine and mark on each spar except the diagonals the places where other spars cross it. The marking may be done with chalk, or with an ax. If possible a convenient notation should be adopted. As, for example, in marking with chalk, a ring around the spar where the edge of the crossing spar will come, and a diagonal cross on the part which will be hidden by the crossing spar.
A simple way to determine the length of spars is the following: Take two small lines somewhat longer than the width of the gap, double each and lash the bights together. Stretch them tightly across the gap so that the lashing comes at the middle as at A, Fig. 8. Release one end of each and stretch it to the footing on the same side as indicated by the dotted lines. Mark each line at the footing C or C', and at the position chosen for the abutment sill, B or B'. Cut the lashing and take each piece of rope to its own side. The distances AB and AB' are the lengths between the transoms, and with 2 ft. added give the length of road bearers required. The distances AC and AC' are the lengths of struts from butt to top of transom, and with 3 ft added, give the total length of spars required.
For a double lock bridge, a piece of rope of a length equal to the length of the middle bay replaces the lashing. If the banks are not parallel, a measurement should be taken on each side of the bridge.
If desired, a section of the gap may be laid down on the ground in full size and the lengths of spars determined by laying them in place. This method, though given as standard by all authorities, requires more time and more handling of material than the other and gives no better results.
The construction of a frame is shown in Fig. 1, and the system of marking in Fig. 2. The arrangement of frames to form a single lock bridge is shown in Figs. 3 and 4, and a double lock bridge in Fig 6.
=1113. Construction of single-lock bridges=, Figs. 3, 4, and 5.--Suitable for spans of 30 ft. or less. The two frames lock together at the center of the span; their slope must not be more than 4 on 7. The bridge can be erected by two or three noncommissioned officers and 20 men, one-half on each side of the gap. Heavy spars require more men.
The footings at A and B must be firm, horizontal if possible, and at right angles to the axis of the bridge. In a masonry pier they may be cut out. In firm soil a simple trench will suffice. In yielding soil a plank or sill must be laid in the trench. The frames are made of such length as to give a slight camber to the bridge, which may be increased to allow for probable settlement of the footings. The inside dimension of one frame is made slightly greater than the outside dimension of the other, so that one frame may fall inside of the other when hauled into position. For a 9 ft. roadway the standards of the narrow (inside) frame should be 9 ft. 6 ins. apart at the transom and 10 ft. 6 ins. at the ledger, in the clear, and the other (outside) frame 1 ft. 6 ins. wider throughout.
A frame is constructed on each bank. The standards are laid on the ground in prolongation of the bridge, butts toward the bank. The ledgers are lashed on above and the transoms beneath the standards at the positions marked. The diagonal braces are lashed to the standards, two butts and one tip above the latter, and to each other. Before the braces are lashed the frame must be square by checking the measurements of the diagonals.
If necessary, pickets for the foot and guy ropes are driven, the former about 2 paces from the bank and 4 paces on each side of the axis of the bridge; the latter about 20 paces from the bank and 10 paces on each side of the axis. The foot ropes, CC, Fig. 5, are secured by timber hitches to the butts of the standards and the back and fore guys, DD and EE, to the tips the fore guys are passed across to the opposite bank. The guys of the narrow frame should be inside the guys and standards of the wide frame.
The frames are put into position one after the other, or simultaneously if there are enough men. A man is told off to each foot rope and one to each back guy to slack off as required, two turns being taken with each of these ropes around their respective pickets. The other men raise the frame and launch it forward, assisted by the men at the fore guys, until the frame is balanced on the edge of the bank. The frame is then tilted until the butts rest on the footing, by slacking off the foot ropes and hauling on the fore guys, Fig. 5. After the head of the frame has been hauled over beyond the perpendicular, it is lowered nearly into its final position by slacking off the back guys. When the two frames are in this position opposite each other, the narrow frame is further lowered until its standards rest upon the transom of the other. The wider (outer) frame is then lowered until the two lock into each other, the standards of each resting upon the transom of the other.
The center or fork transom, Figs. 3 and 4, is then passed from shore and placed in the fork between the two frames. This forms the central support to receive a floor system of two bays, built as already described.
The estimated time for construction of such a bridge is about one hour if the material is available and in position on both sides of the stream. The construction of the roadway requires about twenty minutes; forming footings in masonry about one hour.
=1114. Construction of double-lock bridge=, Fig. 6.--Suitable for spans not exceeding 45 ft., and consisting of two inclined frames which lock into a connecting horizontal frame of two or more distance pieces, with cross transoms, dividing the gap to be bridged into three equal bays of about 15 ft. The force required is two or three noncommissioned officers and 25 to 50 men; the time for construction, except roadway, about two and one-half hours; extra time to be allowed for difficult footings.
The width of gap is measured, the position of footings determined, and the length of standards from butt to transom determined and marked as before.
The inclined frames in this case are built of equal widths, launched as before, and held by guys just above their final position. Two stringers are launched out from each bank to the main transom. The distance pieces, Fig. 6, are put into position inside the standards, using tackle if necessary, and the road transoms are placed and lashed to the distance pieces at the places marked. Both frames are now lowered until they jam.
=1115. Roadway of spar bridge.=--For infantry in fours crowded the transoms should have a diam. of not less than 9 ins. for a span of 15 ft. Five stringers 2 ft. 3 ins. c. to c., and 6 ins. diam. at the tip will suffice. If the sticks vary in size, the larger ones should be notched down on the transom so as to bring the tops in the same plane. The stringers should be long enough to overlap the transoms, and should be lashed together at each tip. The floor is held down by side rails over the outside stringers and lashed to them. If lumber can not be obtained, a floor may be made, of small spars, the interstices filled with brush, and the whole covered with loam or clay; Figs. 7 and 9.
Corduroy Roads
=1116. Corduroying= is done by laying logs crosswise of the road and touching each other. The result will be better if the logs are nearly of the same size. The butts and tips should alternate. If the logs are large the spaces may be filled with smaller poles. The bottom tier of logs should be evenly bedded and should have a firm bearing at the ends and not ride on the middle. The filling poles, if used, should be cut and trimmed to lie close, packing them about the ends if necessary. If the soil is only moderately soft the logs need be no longer than the width of the road. In soft marsh it may be necessary to make them longer.
The logs may be utilized as the wearing surface. In fact this is usually the case. They make a rough surface, uncomfortable for passengers and hard on wagons and loads, but the resistance to traction is much less than would be expected, and the roughness and slightly yielding surface make excellent footing for animals. Surface corduroy is perishable and can last but a short time. In marshes, where the logs can be placed below the ground-water level, they are preserved from decay, and if any suitable material can be found, to put a thin embankment over them, a good permanent road may be made.
Any tough, fibrous material may be used to temporarily harden the surface of a road. Hay or straw, tall weeds, corn and cane stalks have been used to good advantage. Such materials should be laid with the fibers crosswise of the road, and covered with a thin layer of earth, thrown on from the sides; except in sand, when it is better to dig a shallow trench across the road, fill it with the material and then dig another trench just in front of and in contact with the first and throw the sand from it back onto the material in the first trench, etc.
Brush work
=1117. A fascine= is a cylindrical bundle of brush, closely bound. The usual length is 18 ft. and the diam. 9 ins. when compressed. Lengths of 9 and 6 ft., which are sometimes used, are most conveniently obtained by sawing a standard fascine into 2 or 3 pieces. The weight of a fascine of partially seasoned material will average 140 lbs.
Fascines are made in a =cradle= which consists of five trestles. A =trestle= is made of two sticks about 6-1/2 ft. long and 3 ins. in diam, driven into the ground and lashed at the intersection as shown in Fig. 10. In making a cradle, plant the end trestles 16 ft. apart and parallel. Stretch a line from one to the other over the intersection, place the others 4 ft. apart and lash them so that each intersection comes fairly to the line.
=To build a fascine=, straight pieces of brush, 1 or 2 ins. at the butt, are laid on, the butts projecting at the end 1 ft. beyond the trestle. Leaves should be stripped and unruly branches cut off, or partially cut through, so that they will lie close. The larger straighter brush should be laid on the outside, butts alternating in direction, and smaller stuff in the center. The general object is to so dispose the brush as to make the fascine of uniform size, strength, and stiffness from end to end.
When the cradle is nearly filled, the fascine is compressed or =choked= by the =fascine choker=, Fig. 11, which consists of 2 bars 4 ft. long, joined at 18 ins. from the ends by a chain 4 ft. long. The chain is marked at 14 ins. each way from the middle by inserting a ring or special link. To use, two men standing on opposite sides pass the chain under the brush, place the short ends of the handles on top and pass the bars, short end first, across to each other. They then bear down on the long ends until the marks on the chain come together. Chokers may be improvised from sticks and rope or wire.
=Binding= will be done with a double turn of wire or tarred rope. It should be done in 12 places, 18 ins. apart, the end binders 3 ins. outside the end trestles. To bind a fascine will require 66 ft. of wire.
Improvised binders may be made from rods of live brush, hickory or hazel is the best. Place the butt under the foot and twist the rod to partially separate the fibers and make it flexible. A rod so prepared is called a =withe=. To use a withe, make a half turn and twist at the smaller end, Fig. 12; pass the withe around the brush and the large end through the eye. Draw taut and double the large end back, taking 2 half-hitches over its own standing part, Fig. 13.
When the fascine is choked and bound, saw the ends off square, 9 ins. outside the end binders. After a cradle is made, 4 men can make 1 fascine per hour, with wire binding. Withes require 1 man more.
=A fascine revetment= is made by placing the fascines as shown in Fig. 14. The use of headers and anchors is absolutely necessary in loose soils only, but they greatly strengthen the revetment in any case. A fascine revetment =must always be crowned= with sods or bags.
=1118.= In all brush weaving the following terms have been adopted and are convenient to use:
=Randing.=--Weaving a single rod in and out between pickets.
=Slewing.=--Weaving two or more rods together in the same way.
=Pairing.=--Carrying two rods together, crossing each other in and out at each picket.
=Wattling.=--A general term applied to the woven part of brush construction.
=1119. A hurdle= is a basket work made of brushwood. If made in pieces, the usual size is 2 ft. 9 ins. by 6 ft., though the width may be varied so that it will cover the desired height of slope.
A hurdle is made by describing on the ground an arc of a circle of 8 ft. radius and on the arc driving 10 pickets, 8 ins. apart, covering 6 ft. out to out, Fig. 15. Brush is then woven in and out and well compacted. The concave side of a hurdle should be placed next the earth. It wraps less than if made flat.
=In weaving the hurdle=, begin randing at the middle space at the bottom. Reaching the end, twist the rod as described for a withe, but at one point only, bend it around the end picket and work back. Start a second rod before the first one is quite out, slewing the two for a short distance. Hammer the wattling down snug on the pickets with a block of wood and continue until the top is reached. It improves the hurdle to finish the edges with two selected rods paired, Fig. 16. A pairing may be introduced in the middle, if desired, to give the hurdle extra endurance if it is to be used as a pavement or floor. If the hurdle is not to be used at once, or if it is to be transported, it must be sewed. The sewing is done with wire, twine, or withes at each end and in the middle, with stitches about 6 ins. long, as shown in Fig. 16. About 40 ft. of wire is required to sew one hurdle. No. 14 is about the right size, and a coil of 100 lbs. will sew 40 hurdles. Three men should make a hurdle in 2 hours, 2 wattling and the third preparing the rods.
=1120. Continuous hurdle.=--If conditions permit the revetment to be built in place, the hurdle is made continuous for considerable lengths. The pickets may be larger; they are driven farther apart, 12 or 18 ins., and the brush may be heavier. The construction is more rapid. The pickets are driven with a little more slant than is intended and must be anchored to the parapet. A line of poles with wire attached at intervals of 2 or 3 pickets will answer. The wires should be made fast to the pickets after the wattling is done. They will interfere with the wearing if fastened sooner. Two men should make 4 yds. of continuous hurdle of ordinary height in one hour.
=1121. Brush revetment.=--Pickets may be set as above described and the brush laid inside of them without weaving, being held in place by bringing the earth up with it. In this case the anchors must be fastened before the brush laying begins. The wires are not much in the way in this operation.
=1122. Gabion making.--A gabion= is a cylindrical basket with open ends, made of brush woven on pickets or stakes as described for hurdles. The usual size is 2 ft. outside diam. and 2 ft. 9 ins. height of wattling. On account of the sharp curvature somewhat better brush is required for gabions than will do for hurdles.
=The gabion form=, Fig. 17, is of wood, 21 ins. diam., with equidistant notches around the circumference, equal in number to the number of pickets to be used, usually 8 to 14, less if the brush is large and stiff, more if it is small and pliable. The notches should be of such depth that the pickets will project to 1 in. outside the circle. The pickets should be 1-1/4 to 1-3/4 ins. diam., 3 ft. 6 ins. long and sharpened, half at the small and half at the large end.
=To make a gabion=, the form is placed on the ground, level or nearly so, and the pickets are driven vertically in the notches, large and small ends down, alternately. The form is then raised a foot and held by placing a lashing around outside the pickets, tightened with a rack stick, Fig. 18. The wattling is randed or slewed from the form up. The form is then dropped down, the gabion inverted and the wattling completed. If the brush is small, uniform, and pliable, pairing will make a better wattling than randing. If not for immediate use, the gabion must be sewed as described for hurdles, the same quantity of wire being required.
The gabion, when wattled and sewed, is completed by cutting off the tops of the pickets 1 in. from the web, the bottom 3 ins., the latter sharpened after cutting, and driving a carrying picket through the middle of its length and a little on side of the axis. See that the middle of this picket is smooth. Three men should make a gabion in an hour.
Gabions may be made without the forms, but the work is slower and not so good. The circle is struck on the ground and the pickets driven at the proper points. The weaving is done from the ground up and the entire time of one man is required to keep the pickets in proper position.
=If brush is scarce=, gabions may be made with 6 ins. of wattling at each end, the middle left open. In filling, the open part may be lined with straw, grass, brush cuttings, or grain sacks, to keep the earth from running out.
=1123. Gabion revetment.=--The use of gabions in revetments is illustrated in Fig. 20. If more than two tiers are used, the separating fascines should be anchored back. Gabion revetments should be crowned with sods or bags.
The advantages of the gabion revetment are very great. It can be put in place without extra labor and faster and with less exposure than any other. It is self-supporting and gives cover from view and partial cover from fire quicker than any other form.
Several forms of gabions of other material than brush have been used. Sheet iron and iron and paper hoops are some of them. The iron splinters badly, is heavy, and has not given satisfaction. If any special materials are supplied the method of using them will, in view of the foregoing explanation, be obvious.
=1124. Timber or pole revetment.=--Poles too large for use in any other way may be cut to length and stood on end to form a revetment. The lower ends should be in a small trench and have a waling piece in front of them. There must also be a waling piece or cap at or near the top, anchored back. Fig. 21 shows this form.
=1125. Miscellaneous revetments.=--Any receptacles for earth which will make a stable, compact pile, as =boxes=, =baskets=, =oil or other cans=, may be used for a revetment. =Barrels= may be used for gabions. =Canvas= stretched behind pickets is well thought of in a foreign service. If the soil will make =adobe=, or sun-dried bricks, an excellent revetment may be made of them, but it will not stand wet weather.
Knots
=1126.= =Square= or =reef knot=, Fig. 22, commonly used for joining two ropes of the same size. The standing and running parts of each rope must pass through the loop of the other in the same direction, i. e., from above down ward or vice versa; otherwise a granny, is made, which is a useless knot that will not hold. The reef knot can be upset by taking one end of the rope and its standing part and pulling them in opposite directions. With dry rope a reef knot is as strong as the rope; with wet rope it slips before the rope breaks, while a double sheet bend is found to hold.
=1127. Two half hitches=, Fig. 23, especially useful for belaying, or making fast the end of a rope round its own standing part. The end may be lashed down or seized to the standing part with a piece of spun yarn; this adds to its security and prevents slipping.
This knot should never be used for hoisting a spar.
=1128. Clove hitch=, Fig. 24, generally used for fastening a rope at right angles to a spar or at the commencement of a lashing. If the end of the spar is free, the hitch is made by first forming two loops, as in Fig. 26, placing the right-hand loop over the other one and slipping the double loop (Fig. 27) over the end of the spar. If this can not be done, pass the end of the rope round the spar, bring it up to the right of the standing part, cross over the latter, make another turn round the spar, and bring up the end between the spar, the last turn, and the standing part, Fig. 25. When used for securing guys to sheer legs, etc., the knot should be made with a long end, which is formed into two half hitches round the standing part and secured to it with spun yarn.
=1129. Timber hitch=, Fig. 28, used for hauling and lifting spars. It can easily be loosed when the strain is taken off, but will not slip under a pull. When used for hauling spars, a half hitch is added near the end of the spar, Fig. 29.
=1130. Bowline=, Fig. 30, forms a loop that will not slip. Make loop with the standing part of the rope underneath, pass the end from below through the loop, over the part round the standing part of the rope, and then down through the loop c. The length of bight depends upon the purpose for which the knot is required.
=1131. Bowline on a bight=, Fig. 31. The first part is made like the above, with the double part of a rope; then the bight a is pulled through sufficiently to allow it to be bent past d and come up in the position shown. It makes a more comfortable sling for a man than a single bight.
=1132. Sheep shank=, Fig. 32, used for shortening a rope or to pass by a weak spot; a half hitch is taken with the standing parts around the bights.
=1133. Short splice.= To make a short splice, Figs. 33, 34, 35, unlay the strands of each rope for a convenient length. Bring the rope ends together so that each strand of one rope lies between the two consecutive strands of the other rope. Draw the strands of the first rope along the second and grasp with one hand. Then work a free strand of the second rope over the nearest strand of the first rope and under the second strand, working in a direction opposite to the twist of the rope. The same operation applied to all the strands will give the result shown by Fig. 34. The splicing may be continued in the same manner to any extent (Fig. 35) and the free ends of the strands may be cut off when desired. The splice may be neatly tapered by cutting out a few fibers from each strand each time it is passed through the rope. Rolling under a board or the foot will make the splice compact.
=1134. Long splice= (Figs. 36, 37).--Unlay the strands of each rope for a convenient length and bring together as for a short splice. Unlay to any desired length a strand, d, of one rope, laying in its place the nearest strand, a, of the other rope. Repeat the operation in the opposite direction with two other strands, c and f. Fig. 37 shows strands c and f secured by tying together. Strands b and e are shown secured by unlaying half of each for a suitable length and laying half of the other in place of the unlayed portions, the loose ends being passed through the rope. This splice is used when the rope is to run through a block. The diameter of the rope is not enlarged at the splice. The ends of the strands should not be trimmed off close until the splice has been thoroughly stretched by work.
=1135. Eye splice= (Figs. 38, 39, 40, 41).--Unlay a convenient length of rope. Pass one loose strand, a, under one strand of the rope, as shown in fig. 38, forming an eye of the proper size. Pass a second loose strand, b, under the strand of the rope next to the strand which secures a, Fig. 39. Pass the third strand, c, under the strand next to that which secures b, fig. 40. Draw all taut and continue and complete as for a short splice.
Lashings
=1136. To lash a transom to an upright spar=, Fig. 42, transom in front of upright.--A clove hitch is made round the upright a few inches below the transom. The lashing is brought under the transom, up in front of it, horizontally behind the upright, down in front of the transom, and back behind the upright at the level of the bottom of the transom and above the clove hitch. The following turns are kept outside the previous ones on one spar and inside on the other, not riding over the turns already made. Four turns or more are required. A couple of frapping turns are then taken between the spars, around the lashing, and the lashing is finished off either round one of the spars or any part of the lashing through which the rope can be passed. The final clove hitch should never be made around the spar on the side toward which the stress is to come, as it may jam and be difficult to remove. The lashing must be well beaten with handspike or pick handle to tighten it up. This is called a square shears are laid alongside of each other with their butts on the ground, lashing.
=1137. Lashing for a pair of shears=, Fig. 43.--The two spars for the points below where the lashing is to be resting on a skid. A clove hitch is made round one spar and the lashing taken loosely eight or nine times about the two spars above it without riding. A couple of frapping turns are then taken between the spars and the lashing is finished off with a clove hitch above the turns on one of the spars. The butts of the spars are then opened out and a sling passed over the fork, to which the block is hooked or lashed, and fore and back guys are made fast with clove hitches to the bottom and top spars, respectively, just above the each spar the distance from the butt to the center of the lashing. Lay two of the spars parallel to each other with an interval a little greater fork, Fig. 44.
=1138. To lash three spars together as for a gin or tripod.=--Mark on than the diameter. Rest their tips on a skid and lay the third spar between them with its butt in the opposite direction so that the marks on the three spars will be in line. Make a clove hitch on one of the outer spars below the lashing and take eight or nine loose turns around the three, as shown in Fig. 45. Take a couple of frapping turns between each pair of spars in succession and finish with a clove hitch on the central spar above the lashing. Pass a sling over the lashing and the tripod is ready for raising.
=1139. Holdfasts.=--To prepare a fastening in the ground for the attachment of guys or purchases, stout pickets are driven into the ground one behind the other, in the line of pull. The head of each picket except the last is secured by a lashing to the foot of the picket next behind, Fig. 46. The lashings are tightened by rack sticks, the points of which are driven into the ground to hold them in position. The distance between the stakes should be several times the height of the stake above the ground.
Another form requiring more labor but having much greater strength is called a "deadman," and consists of a log laid in a transverse trench with an inclined trench intersecting it at its middle point. The cable is passed down the inclined trench, takes several round turns on the log, and is fastened to it by half hitches and marlin stopping, Figs. 47, 48, 49. If the cable is to lead horizontally or inclined downward, it should pass over a log at the outlet of the inclined trench, Fig. 48. If the cable is to lead upward, this log is not necessary, but the anchor log must be buried deeper.
X. FIELD FORTIFICATIONS
=1140. Object.= The object of field fortifications is two-fold.
1. To increase the fighting power of troops by enabling the soldier to use his weapons with the greatest possible effect.
2. To protect the soldier against the enemy's fire.
=1141. How these objects are accomplished.=
These objects are accomplished:
1. By means of shelters--trenches, redoubts, splinterproofs, etc., which protect the soldier from the enemy's fire.
2. By means of obstacles--wire entanglements, abatis, pits, etc., which delay the advance of the enemy.
=1142. Classification.= Field fortifications are usually divided into three classes, =hasty intrenchments=, =deliberate intrenchments= and =siege works=.
=Nomenclature of the Trench.= The following illustration shows the names of the various parts of the trench.
=1143. Hasty intrenchments= include trenches dug by troops upon the battlefield to increase their fighting power. They are usually constructed in the presence of the enemy and in haste and embrace three forms viz:--the =lying trench=, the =kneeling trench=, and the =standing trench=.
=1144. Lying trench.= (Fig. 2.) This trench gives cover to a man lying down. When intrenching under fire the rifle trench can be constructed by a man lying down. He can mask himself from view in about 10 to 12 minutes and can complete the trench in 40 to 45 minutes. A good method is to dig a trench 18 inches wide back to his knees, roll into it and dig 12 inches wide alongside of it and down to the feet, then roll into the second cut and extend the first one back. Conditions may require men to work in pairs, one firing while the other uses his intrenching tool. Duties are exchanged from time to time until the trench is completed.
The height of the parapet should not exceed 1 foot. This trench affords limited protection against rifle fire and less against shrapnel.
=1145. Kneeling trench.= (Fig. 3.) Time permitting the lying trench may be enlarged and deepened until the kneeling trench has been constructed. The width of the bottom should be 2-1/2 feet--preferably 3 feet--and the relief (distance from bottom of trench to top of parapet) is 3 feet--the proper height for firing over in a kneeling position.
=1146. Standing trench= (Fig. 4) has a bottom width of 3 to 3-1/2 feet and a relief of 4-1/2 feet which is the proper firing height for men of average stature. As this trench does not give complete cover to men standing in it a passage way should be constructed in rear of it not less than 6 feet below the interior crest. This forms the complete trench (Fig. 5). Figures 6-7-8 show simple standing trenches used in the European War.
=1147. Deliberate intrenchments= comprise trenches and works constructed by troops not in line of battle and are usually intended to enable a small force to resist a much larger one. It frequently happens that hasty intrenchments are developed into deliberate intrenchments and from this stage pass into the domain of siege works.
=1148. Fire trenches=,--the trenches which shelter the firing line,--are of different types. No fixed type can be prescribed. The type must be selected with due regard to the terrain, enemy, time, tools, soil, etc., but all should conform to the requirements of a good field of fire, and protection for the troops behind a vertical wall, preferably with some head or over head cover.
The simplest form of fire trench is deep and narrow and has a flat concealed parapet (Fig. 9). When time will permit the simple trench should be planned with a view to developing it into a more complete form (Figs. 10 and 11). In all trenches as soon as practicable a passage way--2 feet wide at the bottom--should be provided, in rear of the firing step, for the men carrying supplies, ammunition, etc., and for the removal of the wounded.
When the excavated earth is easily removed a fire trench without parapet may be the one best suited to the soil and other conditions affecting the conditions of profile (Fig. 12). The enemy's infantry as well as artillery will generally have great difficulty in seeing this trench. Fig. 13 shows a squad trench. Fig. 14 shows a fire trench provided with protection against shrapnel. This trench is used in the European War.
In the European War the aim in constructing fire trenches seems to be to minimize and localize artillery effect as far as possible. The main excavation along the front is a continuous, very deep, communication, not in itself prepared for active defense. The actual firing is done from banquettes or firing steps just to the front of the passage or from trenches dug as far as 5 or 10 feet in front of the main excavation and reached by short passages. Figs 15 and 16 show the type of this construction. Fig. 17 shows a fire trench with parades and shelter.
=1149. Traverses.= Fire trenches are divided into sections or bays by means of traverses which intercept side or enfilade fire and limit the effect of shells, bombs or grenades, which burst inside of the trench. The traverses should be wide enough to screen the full width of the trench with a little to spare. The thickness of the traverse varies from 3 to 6 feet or more. Six feet is the dimension generally found in the traverses in the trenches on the European battle fronts.
=1150. Trench recesses; sortie steps.= It will be noted that in some of the diagrams of the trenches now being used in the European War the berm has been eliminated entirely. The object being to bring the firer closer to the vertical wall thus giving him better protection from shrapnel fire. There have also been added to the trench, recesses for hand grenades. These recesses are similar to recesses dug in the front wall of the trench for ammunition. One form of recess is shown in (Fig. 18). In order to provide facilities for rapidly mounting from the trench to charge, sortie steps and stakes have been provided in some trenches as shown in (Fig. 16).
=1151. Parados.= Instead of shrapnel, explosive shell is most frequently used in the European War. This necessitates the addition of a parados to the fire trench to protect against the back blast of high explosives. This is shown in (Figs. 8 and 17).
An interesting development in cover for the firing line is shown in dugouts constructed in the fire trenches in the European war. These dugouts are deep underground and shelter from 3 to 8 men each (Fig. 19). These dugouts will be discussed more in length under cover trenches.
=1152. Head cover= is the term applied to any horizontal cover which may be provided above the plane of fire. It is obtained by notching or loop-holing the top of the parapet so that the bottoms of the notches or loopholes are in the desired plane of fire. The extra height of parapet may be 12 to 18 inches and the loopholes may be 3 to 3-1/2 feet center to center.
Head cover is of limited utility. It increases the visibility of the parapet and restricts the field of fire. At close range the loopholes serve as aiming points to steady the enemy's fire and may do more harm than good at longer ranges. This is especially the case if the enemy can see any light through the loophole. He waits for the light to be obscured, when he fires, knowing there is a man's head behind the loophole. A background must be provided or a removable screen arranged so that there will be no difference in the appearance of the loophole whether a man is looking through it or not. Head cover is advantageous only when the conditions of the foreground are such that the enemy can not get close up.
=1153. Notches and loopholes=, Figs. 20-22, are alike in all respects, except that the latter have a roof or top and the former have not. The bottom, also called =floor= or =sole=, is a part of the original superior slope. The sides, sometimes called =cheeks=, are vertical or nearly so. The plan depends upon local conditions. There is always a narrow part, called the =throat=, which is just large enough to take the rifle and permit sighting. From the throat the sides diverge at an angle, called the =splay=, which depends upon the field of fire necessary.
The position of the throat may vary. If on the outside, it is less conspicuous but more easily obstructed by injury to the parapet and more difficult to use, since in changing aim laterally the man must move around a pivot in the plane of the throat. If the material of which the loophole is constructed presents hard surfaces, the throat should be outside, notwithstanding the disadvantages of that position, or else the sides must be stepped as in Fig. 22. In some cases it may be best to adopt a compromise position and put the throat in the middle, Fig. 22. Figs. 23 to 26 show details and dimensions of a loophole of sand bags.
A serviceable form of loophole consists of a pyramidal box of plank with a steel plate spiked across the small end and pierced for fire. Fig. 27 shows a section of such a construction. It is commonly known as the =hopper loophole=. The plate should be 3/8 in. thick, if of special steel; or 1/2 in., if ordinary metal. Fig. 28 shows the opening used by the Japanese in Manchuria and Fig. 29 that used by the Russians.
The construction of a notch requires only the introduction of some available rigid material to form the sides; by adding a cover the notch becomes a loophole. Where the fire involves a wide lateral and small vertical angle, loopholes may take the form of a long slit. Such a form will result from laying logs or fascines lengthwise on the parapet, supported at intervals by sods or other material, Fig. 31, or small poles covered with earth may be used, Fig. 30.
=1154. Overhead cover.= This usually consists of a raised platform of some kind covered with earth. It is frequently combined with horizontal cover in a single structure, which protects the top and exposed side. The supporting platform will almost always be of wood and may vary from brushwood or light poles to heavy timbers and plank. It is better, especially with brush or poles, to place a layer of sods, grass down, or straw, or grain sacks over the platform before putting on the earth, to prevent the latter from sifting through.
=The thickness of overhead cover= depends upon the class of fire against which protection is desired, and is sometimes limited by the vertical space available, since it must afford headroom beneath, and generally should not project above the nearest natural or artificial horizontal cover. For splinter proofs a layer of earth 6 to 8 ins. thick on a support of brush or poles strong enough to hold it up will suffice if the structure is horizontal. If the front is higher than the rear, less thickness is necessary; if the rear is higher than the front, more is required. For bombproofs a minimum thickness of 6 ins. of timber and 3 ft. of earth is necessary against field and siege guns, or 12 ins. timber and 6 ft. of earth against the howitzers and mortars of a heavy siege train, not exceeding 6 inches in caliber.
In determining the area of overhead cover to be provided, allow 6 sq. ft. per man for occupancy while on duty only, or 12 sq. ft. per man for continuous occupancy not of long duration. For long occupation 18 to 20 sq. ft. per man should be provided.
It is not practicable to give complete cover to rifle positions that will successfully withstand the heavy artillery of today. The use of overhead cover is usually limited to that sufficient for protection against rifle fire, machine gun fire, and shrapnel.
=1155. Cover trenches= are constructed to provide safe cover for the supports or reinforcements of the fire trenches or to provide cooking and resting facilities for the garrison of the neighboring fire trenches. The important point in cover trenches is safety. They vary in design from the simple rectangular trenches to elaborately constructed trenches having overhead cover, kitchens, shelters, latrines, dressing stations, etc. Cover trenches must not be mistaken for a secondary position, they are cover for the firing line, supports and reserves until they are required in the fire trenches. The cover trench requires a depth of at least 6 feet to protect men standing. Greater depths may be used when necessary. Fig. 36 is a section of an open cover trench and Fig. 37 of a closed one. This section may be used for a communicating trench. Fig. 38 shows a cover trench close to a fire trench. The character of overhead cover for trenches is shown in the diagrams under overhead cover. The distance of the cover trenches varies with the situation. The experience of the European war places the cover trenches from 15 to 50 yards in rear of the fire trenches. These trenches furnish shelter for at least 2/3 of the firing line and supports.
The reserves are furnished yet more elaborate shelter, with plenty of room for the men to lie down and rest and when practicable, bathing facilities are provided.
=1156. Dugouts.= An elaborate system of dugouts has developed along the lines occupied by the troops in the European war. These dugouts are located from 14 to 40 feet below the ground and are reached by stairs in timbered passage ways. At the foot of the stairs a tunnel or corridor runs forward and on either side or at the end, rooms have been dug out varying in size. Most of these rooms have been timbered and lined. Many are electrically lighted. In some of these underground shelters, accommodations for several hundred men have been prepared with all of the necessary facilities for making them comfortable. It must be understood that such elaborate preparations can only be made when troops face each other in trenches where operations have developed into practically a siege.
=1157. Communicating trenches.= These trenches as the name implies are for the purpose of providing safe communication between the cover and fire trenches. They may be also constructed just in rear of a series of fire trenches to provide a means of communication from one to the other. Communicating trenches also extend to the rear of the cover trenches and provide safe passage to fresh troops or supplies. These trenches are usually laid out in zig zag or curved lines (Fig. 39), to prevent enfilade fire from sweeping them. As a general rule excavated earth is placed on both sides of the trench to afford protection, the depth is usually from 6 to 7 feet. (Fig. 15) shows a typical communicating trench.
=1158. Lookouts.= To enable the garrison of a trench to get the greatest amount of comfort and rest, a lookout should be constructed and a sentinel stationed therein.
The simplest form would consist of two sandbags placed on the parapet and splayed so as to give the required view, and carefully concealed.
Better forms may be constructed, with one side resting on the berm by using short uprights with overhead cover, a slit on all sides being provided for observation.
At night, lookouts are usually posted at listening points located in or beyond the line of obstacles. These will be discussed under obstacles.
=1159. Supporting Points.= In some cases small supporting points may have to be established close behind the general line of trenches for the purpose of breaking up a successful attack on the trenches and to aid in delivering a counter attack. These points are strongly entrenched and have all around wire entanglements and are garrisoned by from 20 to 40 picked men or by larger forces if the situation demand it. In some cases machine guns are added to the force in the supporting point.
=1160. Example of trench system.= Having discussed trenches and obstacles somewhat in detail, let us take a combination of the whole showing a complete system such as is used today. (Fig. 40) is a good example.
Beginning at the front we have the line of wire entanglements or obstacles with their listening posts X, for guarding them. Connecting the listening posts to the fire trenches are the communicating trenches. The fire trenches are shown by the heavy black line running about 60 feet in rear of the obstacles. Note the many traverses shown by the indentations in the line. Points marked M with arrows projecting to the flanks are machine guns, so located as to sweep the front of the position with a cross fire. Points marked S are underground shelters for from 3 to 6 men. Points marked S' are shelters for 30 men. In rear of the firing trenches at a distance varying from 100 to 200 feet is the line of cover trenches. This line is connected with the fire trenches by the zig zagged line of communicating trenches. Note that the latrines (L) and first aid stations (F) are just off from the communicating trenches, while the larger shelter for men (S') are near the cover trenches. As the note on the diagram shows, the trench requires 250 men to occupy it with double that number in support. The trench has 108 loopholes with spaces between provided with a higher banquette so that the whole parapet may be manned for firing.
On the battlefields of Europe today there are generally three lines of fire trenches. This permits the defender to fall back to a 2nd or 3rd prepared position in case he is driven out of his first trench. On a hill we find a fire trench near the foot of the slope, one just forward of the military crest, and the third on the reverse slope of the hill.
In many instances the first line trenches consist of as many as four or five lines of trenches running in a general lateral direction and connected by deep narrow communicating trenches. The depth between the first and last of these trenches is, in some instances, not over a hundred yards. Sign boards are necessary at short intervals to prevent the soldiers from getting lost. The effect of having so many alternative firing trenches is to make it extremely difficult for an enemy to advance from, or even to hold one of them, even when he gains a footing, as he would be swept by fire from the supporting trenches in rear and also by flanking fire from the adjacent trenches.
=1161. Location.= There are two things to be considered in locating trenches: (1) The tactical situation, and (2) the nature of the ground. The first consideration requires that the trenches be so located as to give the best field of fire. Locating near the base of hills possesses the advantage of horizontal fire, but, as a rule, it is difficult to support trenches so located and to retreat therefrom in case of necessity. While location near the crest of hills--on the "military crest"--does not possess the advantage of horizontal fire, it is easier to support trenches so located and to retreat therefrom. Depending upon circumstances, there are times when it will be better to intrench near the base of hills and there are other times when it will be better to intrench on the "military crest," which is always in front of the natural crest. The construction of trenches along the "military crest" does not give any "dead space"--that is, any space to the front that can not be reached by the fire of the men in the trenches.
Whether we should construct our trenches on high or low ground is a matter that should always be carefully considered under the particular conditions that happen to exist at that particular time, and the matter may be summarized as follows:
The advantages of the high ground are:--
1. We can generally see better what is going on to our front and flanks; and the men have a feeling of security that they do not enjoy on low ground.
2. We can usually reenforce the firing line better and the dead and wounded can be removed more easily.
3. The line of retreat is better.
The disadvantages are:--
1. The plunging fire of a high position is not as effective as a sweeping fire of a low one.
2. It is not as easy to conceal our position.
The advantages of low ground, are:--
1. The low, sweeping fire that we get, especially when the ground in front is fairly flat and the view over the greater part of it is uninterrupted, is the most effective kind of fire.
2. As a rule it is easier to conceal trenches on low ground, especially from artillery fire.
3. If our trenches are on low ground, our artillery will be able to find good positions on the hill behind us without interfering with the infantry defense.
The disadvantages are:--
1. As a rule it will be more difficult to reenforce the firing line and to remove the dead and wounded from the trenches.
2. On a low position there will usually be an increase of dead space in our front.
3. The average soldier acting on the defensive dreads that the enemy may turn his flank, and this feeling is much more pronounced on low ground than on high ground. Should the enemy succeed in getting a footing on our flank with our trenches on top of the hill, it would be bad enough, but it would certainly be far worse if he got a footing on top of the hill, on the flank and rear, with our company on low ground in front. We, therefore, see there are things to be said for and against both high and low ground, and the most that can be said without examining a particular piece of ground is: Our natural inclination is to select high ground, but, as a rule, this choice will reduce our fire effect, and if there is a covered approach to our fire trenches and very little dead ground in front of it, with an extensive field of fire, there is no doubt the lower ground is better. However, if these conditions do not exist to a considerable degree, the moral advantage of the higher ground must be given great weight, especially in a close country.
The experience of the European war emphasizes the fact that the location of rifle trenches is today, just as much as ever, a matter of compromise to be determined by sound judgment on the part of the responsible officers. The siting of trenches so that they are not under artillery observation is a matter of great importance, but, it has yet to be proven that this requirement is more important than an extensive field of fire. There are many instances where to escape observation and fire from the artillery, trenches were located on the reverse slopes, giving only a limited field of fire. This restricted field of fire permitted the enemy to approach within a few hundred yards of the trench and robbed them of the concealment they had hoped to gain. The choice between a site in front, and one in rear of a crest, is influenced by local conditions which govern the effectiveness of our own and the enemy's fire. In general, the best location for effective fire trenches, lies between the military crest of rising ground and the lowest line from which the foreground is visible. If the position on the military crest is conspicuous, it is inadvisable.
With regard to the nature of the ground, trenches should, if practicable, be so located as to avoid stony ground, because of the difficult work entailed and of the danger of flying fragments, should the parapet be struck by an artillery projectile.
To locate the trace of the trenches, lie on the ground at intervals and select the best field of fire consistent with the requirements of the situation.
Trenches should be laid out in company lengths, if possible, and adjoining trenches should afford each other mutual support. The flanks and important gaps in the line should be protected by fire trenches echeloned in rear.
=1162. Concealment of trenches.= Owing to the facilities for observation that the aeroplanes and other air craft afford, and to the accuracy and effect of modern artillery fire, every possible means should be taken to conceal trenches, gun implacements, and other works. The aim should be to alter the natural surface of the ground as little as possible and to present a target of the smallest possible dimensions. Covering the parapet with brush or grass will afford temporary concealment. If the new earth can be sodded it aids greatly in concealing the trench. In some cases troops have gone to the extent of painting canvas to resemble the ground and have placed it over trenches, guns, etc. Straw and grass placed in the bottom of trenches make them less conspicuous to air scouts. When trenches are dug on a fairly steep slope care must be used to conceal the back of the trench, which, being higher than the parapet, will stand out as a scar on the hillside. Grass or brush may be used to conceal the back of the trench.
=1163. Dummy trenches.= May be constructed which attract the enemy's attention and draw his fire, or at least a part of it. The extent to which this method may be used may include the construction of dummy obstacles and guns, and even hats may be placed on the parapets.
=1164. Length of trench.= The usual minimum allowance of trench space is one yard per man, although in some tests, two feet was found sufficient for men to fire satisfactorily. Ordinarily one squad will occupy the space between two traverses which experience has shown should be about 15 feet apart.
=1165. Preparation of the foreground.= One of the first principles in improving the foreground is that an enemy attacking the trenches shall be continually exposed to fire especially in the last 400 or 500 yards. This requires a clearing of the foreground and a filling in of depressions or leveling of cover. Dead space may be swept by fire of trenches specially located for that purpose. Those features of the ground which obstruct the field of fire, restrict the view, or favor or the enemy's approach, should be removed as far as possible. On the other hand, features which favor the concealment of the trenches or increase the difficulty of the attack would better be left standing, especially when it is possible to fire through or over them.
=1166. Revetments.= By a revetment we mean a facing placed against the front or back wall of a trench to keep the earth in place.
When trenches are to be occupied for any length of time, they must be revetted. There are many forms of revetments. Sod revetments, stakes with brush behind them, stakes with planks, boards, or poles behind them and a common form seen in the trenches in Europe chicken wire with brush or canvas behind it.
=1167. Drainage.= All trenches should be dug so as to drain in case of rain. In favorable locations the trench may be constructed to drain automatically, by constructing it with an incline to one end. Under ordinary circumstances dry standing has to be provided in trenches by raising the foot level by the use of brush, boards, poles, etc. Bailing will have to be resorted to in most cases to drain the trench.
=1168. Water Supply.= At least 1/2 a gallon of water per man per day should be supplied. The supply is almost invariably liable to be contaminated, therefore, it should be sterilized by boiling or by treating. These are usually located just off from the communicating trenches. Some form of receptacle should be used and all deposits covered with chemicals.
=1169. Latrines.= Numerous latrines must be constructed in the trenches' earth. These receptacles are removed from time to time and emptied in pits dug for that purpose. Urinal cans must also be provided and cared for in a similar manner.
=1170. Illumination of the Foreground.= Battlefield illumination is a necessity where night attacks may be expected, and also as a protection to the line of obstacles. Portable searchlights have become an accepted part of every army. In addition to these, trenches must be supplied with reflector lights, star bombs, rockets and flares, arranged so that they can be put into action instantaneously when the enemy approaches.
The foreground should be entirely illuminated, leaving the defenders in the shadow. If the light is too close to the defenders parapet, they are illuminated and become a good target. Some flares will burn for 20 minutes and may be thrown to the front as grenades, fired as rockets, shot from small mortars, or placed well to the front to be set off by trip wires close to the ground. The best light devised is one that can be fired well to the front from a small mortar and then hung suspended from an open parachute above the enemy. Bonfires can be laid ready for lighting when no other means is at hand. Whatever form of illumination is adopted, it should withstand bad weather conditions and prolonged bombardment.
=1171. Telephones.= When armies have been forced to trench warfare and time has permitted an elaborate system of trenches to be constructed, telephone communication is established as soon as possible. The central station, with the switch-board is located in a shelter in rear of the cover trenches and lines are run to all trenches, lookout stations and listening points.
=1172. Siege works.= Comprise devices used by besiegers and besieged in attack and defense of strong fortifications and especially those devices enable troops to advance under continuous cover.