II. MANUAL OF THE BAYONET
(The numbers following the paragraphs are those of the Manual of the Bayonet, U. S. Army.)
=711.= The infantry soldier relies mainly on fire action to disable the enemy, but he should know that personal combat is often necessary to obtain success. Therefore, he must be instructed in the use of the rifle and bayonet in hand-to-hand encounters. (1)
=712.= The object of this instruction is to teach the soldier how to make effective use of the rifle and bayonet in personal combat; to make him quick and proficient in handling his rifle; to give him an accurate eye and a steady hand; and to give him confidence in the bayonet in offense and defense. When skill in these exercises has been acquired, the rifle will still remain a most formidable weapon at close quarters should the bayonet be lost or disabled. (2)
=713.= Efficiency of organizations in bayonet fighting will be judged by the skill shown by individuals in personal combat. For this purpose pairs or groups of opponents, selected at random from among recruits and trained soldiers, should engage in assaults, using the fencing equipment provided for the purpose. (3)
=714.= Officers and specially selected and thoroughly instructed noncommissioned officers will act as instructors. (4)
=715.= Instruction in bayonet combat should begin as soon as the soldier is familiar with the handling of his rifle and will progress, as far as practicable, in the order followed in the text. (5)
=716.= Instruction is ordinarily given on even ground, but practice should also be had on uneven ground, especially in the attack and defense of intrenchments. (6)
=717.= These exercises will not be used as a calisthenic drill. (7)
=718.= The principles of the commands are the same as those given in paragraphs 58, 64, and 87. Intervals and distances will be taken as in paragraphs 156 and 158, except that, in formations for bayonet exercises, the men should be at least four paces apart in every direction. (8)
=719.= Before requiring soldiers to take a position or execute a movement for the first time, the instructor executes the same for the purpose of illustration, after which he requires the soldiers to execute the movement individually. Movements prescribed in this manual will not be executed in cadence as the attempt to do so results in incomplete execution and lack of vigor. Each movement will be executed correctly as quickly as possible by every man. As soon as the movements are executed accurately, the commands are given rapidly, as expertness with the bayonet depends chiefly upon quickness of motion. (9)
=720.= The exercises will be interrupted at first by short and frequent rests. The rests will be less frequent as proficiency is attained. Fatigue and exhaustion will be specially guarded against as they prevent proper interest being taken in the exercises and delay the progress of the instruction. Rests will be given from the position of order arms in the manner prescribed in Infantry Drill Regulations. (10)
THE BAYONET
NOMENCLATURE AND DESCRIPTION
=721.= The bayonet is a cutting and thrusting weapon consisting of three principal parts, viz, the blade, guard, and grip. (11)
=722.= The blade has the following parts: Edge, false edge, back, grooves, point, and tang. The length of the blade from guard to point is 16 inches, the edge 14.5 inches, and the false edge 5.6 inches. Length of the rifle, bayonet fixed, is 59.4 inches. The weight of the bayonet is 1 pound; weight of rifle without bayonet is 8.69 pounds. The center of gravity of the rifle, with bayonet fixed, is just in front of the rear sight. (12)
I. INSTRUCTION WITHOUT THE RIFLE
=723.= The instructor explains the importance of good footwork and impresses on the men the fact that quickness of foot and suppleness of body are as important for attack and defense as is the ability to parry and deliver a strong point or cut. (13)
=724.= All foot movements should be made from the position of guard. As far as practicable, they will be made on the balls of the feet to insure quickness and agility. No hard and fast rule can be laid down as to the length of the various foot movements; this depends entirely on the situations occurring in combat. (14)
=725.= The men having taken intervals or distances, the instructor commands:
=1. Bayonet exercise, 2. GUARD.=
At the command =guard=, half face to the right, carry back and place the right foot about once and a half its length to the rear and about 3 inches to the right, the feet forming with each other an angle of about 60 deg., weight of the body balanced equally on the balls of the feet, knees slightly bent, palms of hands on hips, fingers to the front, thumbs to the rear, head erect, head and eyes straight to the front. (15)
=726.= To resume the attention, =1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION.= The men take the position of the soldier and fix their attention. (16)
=727. ADVANCE.= Advance the left foot quickly about once its length follow immediately with the right foot the same distance. (17)
=728. RETIRE.= Move the right foot quickly to the rear about once its length, follow immediately with the left foot the same distance. (18)
=729. 1. Front, 2. PASS.= Place the right foot quickly about once its length in front of the left, advance the left foot to its proper position in front of the right. (19)
=730. 1. Rear, 2. PASS.= Place the left foot quickly about once its length in rear of the right, retire the right foot to its proper position in rear of the left.
The passes are used to get quickly within striking distance or to withdraw quickly therefrom. (20)
=731. 1. Right, 2. STEP.= Step to the right with the right foot about once its length and place the left foot in its proper relative position. (21)
=732. 1. Left, 2. STEP.= Step to the left with the left foot about once its length and place the right foot in its proper relative position.
These steps are used to circle around an enemy, to secure a more favorable line of attack, or to avoid the opponent's attack. Better ground or more favorable light may be gained in this way. In bayonet fencing and in actual combat the foot first moved in stepping to the right or left is the one which at the moment bears the least weight. (22)
II. INSTRUCTION WITH THE RIFLE
=733.= The commands for and the execution of the foot movements are the same as already given for movements without the rifle. (23)
=734.= The men having taken intervals or distances, the instructor commands:
=1. Bayonet exercise, 2. GUARD.=
At the second command take the position of guard (see par. 15); at the same time throw the rifle smartly to the front, grasp the rifle with the left hand just below the lower band, fingers between the stock and gun sling, barrel turned slightly to the left, the right hand grasping the small of the stock about 6 inches in front of the right hip, elbows free from the body, bayonet point at the height of the chin. (24) (See Fig. 2)
=735. 1. Order, 2. ARMS.=
Bring the right foot up to the left and the rifle to the position of order arms, at the same time resuming the position of attention. (25)
=736.= During the preliminary instruction, attacks and defenses will be executed from guard until proficiency is attained, after which they may be executed from any position in which the rifle is held. (26)
ATTACKS
=737. 1. THRUST.=
Thrust the rifle quickly forward to the full length of the left arm, turning the barrel to the left, and direct the point of the bayonet at the point to be attacked, butt covering the right forearm. At the same time straighten the right leg vigorously and throw the weight of the body forward and on the left leg, the ball of the right foot always on the ground. Guard is resumed immediately without command.
The force of the thrust is delivered principally with the right arm, the left being used to direct the bayonet. The points at which the attack should be directed are, in order of their importance, stomach, chest, head, neck, and limbs. (27)
=738. 1. LUNGE.=
Executed in the same manner as the thrust, except that the left foot is carried forward about twice its length. The left heel must always be in rear of the left knee. Guard is resumed immediately without command. Guard may also be resumed by advancing the right foot if, for any reason, it is desired to hold the ground gained in lunging. In the latter case, the preparatory command =forward= will be given. Each method should be practiced. (28)
=739. 1. Butt, 2. STRIKE.=
Straighten right arm and right leg vigorously and swing butt of rifle against point of attack, pivoting the rifle in the left hand at about the height of the left shoulder, allowing the bayonet to pass to the rear on the left side of the head. Guard is resumed without command.
The points of attack in their order of importance are, head, neck, stomach, and crotch. (29)
=740. 1. Cut, 2. DOWN.=
Execute a quick downward stroke, edge of bayonet directed at point of attack. Guard is resumed without command. (30)
=741. 1. Cut, 2. RIGHT (LEFT).=
With a quick extension of the arms execute a cut to the right (left), directing the edge toward the point attacked. Guard is resumed without command.
The cuts are especially useful against the head, neck, and hands of an enemy. In executing left cut it should be remembered that the false, or back edge, is only 5.6 inches long. The cuts can be executed in continuation of strokes, thrusts, lunges, and parries. (31)
=742.= To direct an attack to the right, left, or rear the soldier will change front as quickly as possible in the most convenient manner, for example: =1. To the right rear, 2. Cut, 3. DOWN;= =1. To the right, 2. LUNGE;= =1. To the left, 2. THRUST=, etc.
Whenever possible the impetus gained by the turning movement of the body should be thrown into the attack. In general this will be best accomplished by turning on the ball of the right foot.
These movements constitute a change of front in which the position of guard is resumed at the completion of the movement. (32)
=743.= Good judgment of distance is essential. Accuracy in thrusting and lunging is best attained by practicing these attacks against rings or other convenient openings, about 3 inches in diameter, suitably suspended at desired heights. (33)
=744.= The thrust and lunges at rings should first be practiced by endeavoring to hit the opening looked at. This should be followed by directing the attack against one opening while looking at another. (34)
=745.= The soldier should also experience the effect of actual resistance offered to the bayonet and the butt of the rifle in attacks. This will be taught by practicing attacks against a dummy. (35)
=746.= Dummies should be constructed in such a manner as to permit the execution of attacks without injury to the point or edge of the bayonet or to the barrel or stock of the rifle. A suitable dummy can be made from pieces of rope about 5 feet in length plaited closely together into a cable between 6 and 12 inches in diameter. Old rope is preferable. Bags weighted and stuffed with hay, straw, shavings, etc., are also suitable. (36)
DEFENSES
=747.= In the preliminary drills in the defenses the position of guard is resumed, by command, after each parry. When the men have become proficient, the instructor will cause them to resume the position of guard instantly without command after the execution of each parry. (37)
=748. 1. Parry, 2. RIGHT.=
Keeping the right hand in the guard position, move the rifle sharply to the right with the left arm, so that the bayonet point is about 6 inches to the right. (38)
=749. 1. Parry, 2. LEFT.=
Move the rifle sharply to the left front with both hands so as to cover the point attacked. (39)
=750. 1. Parry, 2. HIGH.=
Raise the rifle with both hands high enough to clear the line of vision, barrel downward, point of the bayonet to the left front.
When necessary to raise the rifle well above the head, it may be supported between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand. This position will be necessary against attacks from higher elevations, such, as men mounted or on top of parapets. (40)
=751. 1. Low parry, 2. RIGHT (LEFT).=
Carry the point of the bayonet down until it is at the height of the knee, moving the point of the bayonet sufficiently to the right (left) to keep the opponent's attacks clear of the point threatened.
=752.= These parries are rarely used, as an attack below the waist leaves the head and body exposed. (41)
=753.= Parries must not be too wide or sweeping, but sharp, short motions, finished with a jerk or quick catch. The hands should, as far as possible, be kept in the line of attack. Parries against =butt strike= are made by quickly moving the guard so as to cover the point attacked. (42)
=754.= To provide against attack from the right, left, or rear the soldier will change front as quickly as possible in the most convenient manner, for example, =1. To the left rear, 2. Parry, 3. HIGH;= =1. To the right, 2. Parry, 3. RIGHT=, etc.
These movements constitute a change of front in which the position of guard is resumed at the completion of the movement.
In changing front for the purpose of attack or defense, if there is danger of wounding a comrade, the rifle should first be brought to a vertical position. (43)
III. INSTRUCTION WITHOUT THE BAYONET
=755. 1. Club rifle, 2 SWING.=
Being at order arms at the preparatory command quickly raise and turn the rifle, regrasping it with both hands between the rear sight and muzzle, barrel down, thumbs around the stock and toward the butt; at the sane time raise the rifle above shoulder farthest from the opponent, butt elevated and to the rear, elbows slightly bent and knees straight. Each individual takes such position of the feet, shoulders, and hands as best accords with his natural dexterity. =SWING.= Tighten the grasp of the hands and swing the rifle to the front and downward, directing it at the head of the opponent and immediately return to the position of =club rifle= by completing the swing of the rifle downward and to the rear. Repeat by the command. =SWING.=
The rifle should be swung with sufficient force to break through any guard or parry that may be interposed.
Being at =club rifle=, order arms is resumed by command.
The use of this attack against dummies or in fencing is prohibited. (44)
=756.= The position of club rifle may be taken from any position of the rifle prescribed in the Manual of Arms. It will not be taken in personal combat unless the emergency is such as to preclude the use of the bayonet. (45)
IV. COMBINED MOVEMENTS
=757.= The purpose of combined movements is to develop more vigorous attacks and more effective defenses than are obtained by the single movements; to develop skill in passing from attack to defense and the reverse. Every movement to the front should be accompanied by an attack, which is increased in effectiveness by the forward movement of the body. Every movement to the rear should ordinarily be accompanied by a parry and should always be followed by an attack. Movements to the right or left may be accompanied by =attacks= or =defenses=. (46)
=758.= Not more than three movements will be used in any combination. The instructor should first indicate the number of movements that are to be combined as =two movements= or =three movements=. The execution is determined by one command of execution, and the position of guard is taken upon the completion of the last movement only.
EXAMPLES
=Front pass and LUNGE.= =Right step and THRUST.= =Left step and low parry RIGHT.= =Rear pass, parry left and LUNGE.= =Lunge and cut RIGHT.= =Parry right and parry HIGH.= =Butt strike and cut DOWN.= =Thrust and parry HIGH.= =Parry high and LUNGE.= =Advance, thrust and cut RIGHT.= =Right step, parry left and cut DOWN.= =To the left, butt strike and cut DOWN.= =To the right rear, cut down and butt STRIKE.= (47)
=759.= Attacks against dummies will be practiced. The approach will be made against the dummies both in quick time and double time. (48)
V. PRACTICAL BAYONET COMBAT
=760.= The principles of practical bayonet combat should be taught as far as possible during the progress of instruction in bayonet exercises. (49)
=761.= The soldier must be continually impressed with the extreme importance of the offensive due to its moral effect. Should an attack fail, it should be followed immediately by another attack before the opponent has an opportunity to assume the offensive. Keep the opponent on the defensive. If, due to circumstances, it is necessary to take the defensive, constantly watch for an opportunity to assume the offensive and take immediate advantage of it. (50)
=762.= Observe the ground with a view to obtaining the best footing. Time for this will generally be too limited to permit more than a single hasty glance. (51)
=763.= In personal combat watch the opponent's eyes if they can be plainly seen, and do not fix the eyes on his weapon nor upon the point of your attack. If his eyes can not be plainly seen, as in night attacks, watch the movements of his weapon and of his body. (52)
=764.= Keep the body well covered and deliver attacks vigorously. The point of the bayonet should always be kept as nearly as possible in the line of attack. The less the rifle is moved upward, downward, to the right, or to the left, the better prepared the soldier is for attack or defense. (53)
=765.= Constantly watch for a chance to attack the opponent's left hand. His position of guard will not differ materially from that described in paragraph 24. If his bayonet is without a cutting edge, he will be at a great disadvantage. (34)
=766.= The butt is used for close and sudden attacks. It is particularly useful in riot duty. From the position of port arms a sentry can strike a severe blow with the butt of the rifle. (55)
=767.= Against a man on foot, armed with a sword, be careful that the muzzle of the rifle is not grasped. All the swordsman's energies will be directed toward getting past the bayonet. Attack him with short stabbing thrusts, and keep him beyond striking distance of his weapon. (56)
=768.= The adversary may attempt a greater extension in the thrust and lunge by quitting the grasp of his piece with the left hand and advancing the right as far as possible. When this is done, a sharp parry may cause him to lose control of his rifle, leaving him exposed to a counter-attack, which should follow promptly. (57)
=769.= Against odds a small number of men can fight to best advantage by grouping themselves so as to prevent their being attacked from behind. (58)
=770.= In fighting a mounted man armed with a saber every effort must be made to get on his near or left side, because here his reach is much shorter and his parries much weaker. If not possible to disable such an enemy, attack his horse and then renew the attack on the horseman. (59)
=771.= In receiving night attacks the assailant's movements can be best observed from the kneeling or prone position, as his approach generally brings him against the sky line. When he arrives within attacking distance rise quickly and lunge well forward at the middle of his body. (60)
VI. FENCING EXERCISES
=772.= Fencing exercises in two lines consist of combinations of thrusts, parries, and foot movements executed at command or at will, the opponent replying with suitable parries and returns. (61)
=773.= The instructor will inspect the entire fencing equipment before the exercise begins and assure himself that everything is in such condition as will prevent accidents. (62)
=774.= The men equip themselves and form in two lines at the order, facing each other, with intervals of about 4 paces between files and a distance of about 2 paces between lines. One line is designated as number 1; the other, number 2. Also as attack and defense. (63)
=775.= The opponents being at the order facing each other, the instructor commands: =SALUTE.=
Each man, with eyes on his opponent, carries the left hand smartly to the right side, palm of the hand down, thumb and fingers extended and joined, forearm horizontal, forefinger touching the bayonet. (Two) Drop the arm smartly by the side.
This salute is the fencing salute.
All fencing exercises and all fencing at will between individuals will begin and terminate with the formal courtesy of the fencing salute. (64)
=776.= After the fencing salute has been rendered the instructor commands: =1. Fencing exercise, 2. GUARD.=
At the command =guard= each man comes to the position of =guard=, heretofore defined, bayonets crossed, each man's bayonet bearing lightly to the right against the corresponding portion of the opponent's bayonet. The position is known as the engage or engage right. (65)
=777.= Being at the =engage right: ENGAGE LEFT=.
The attack drops the point of his bayonet quickly until clear of his opponent's rifle and describes a semicircle with it upward and to the right; bayonets are crossed similarly as in the engaged position, each man's bayonet bearing lightly to the left against the corresponding portion of the opponent's bayonet. (66)
=778.= Being at =engage left: ENGAGE RIGHT=.
The attack quickly drops the point of his bayonet until clear of his opponent's rifle and describes a semicircle with it upward and to the left and =engages=. (67)
=779.= Being =engaged: ENGAGE LEFT AND RIGHT=.
The attack =engages left= and then immediately =engages right=. (68)
=780.= Being =engaged left: ENGAGE RIGHT AND LEFT=.
The attack =engages right= and then immediately =engages left=. (69)
=781. 1. Number one, ENGAGE RIGHT (LEFT); 2. Number two, COUNTER.=
Number one executes the movement ordered, as above; number two quickly drops the point of his bayonet and circles it upward to the original position. (70)
=782.= In all fencing while maintaining the pressure in the engage, a certain freedom of motion of the rifle is allowable, consisting of the play, or up-and-down motion, of one bayonet against the other. This is necessary to prevent the opponent from divining the intended attack. It also prevents his using the point of contact as a pivot for his assaults. In changing from one engage to the other the movement is controlled by the left hand, the right remaining stationary. (71)
=783.= After some exercise in =engage=, =engage left=, and =counter=, exercises will be given in the =assaults=. (72)
ASSAULTS
=784.= The part of the body to be attacked will be designated by name as head, neck, chest, stomach, legs. No attacks will be made below the knees. The commands are given and the movements for each line are first explained thoroughly by the instructor; the execution begins at the command =assault=. Number one executes the attack, and number two parries; conversely, at command, number two attacks and number one parries. (73)
=785.= For convenience in instruction assaults are divided into =simple attacks=, =counter-attacks=, =attack on the rifle=, and =feints=. (74)
SIMPLE ATTACKS
=786.= Success in these attacks depends on quickness of movement. There are three simple attacks--the =straight=, the =disengagement=, and the =counter disengagement=. They are not preceded by a feint. (75)
=787.= In the =straight= the bayonet is directed straight at an opening from the engaged position. Contact with the opponent's rifle may, or may not, be abandoned while making it. If the opening be high or low, contact with the rifle will usually be abandoned on commencing the attack. If the opening be near his guard, the light pressure used in the engage may be continued in the attack.
Example: Being at the =engage right=, =1. Number one=, at neck (head, chest, right leg, etc.), =thrust; 2. Number two, parry right; 3. ASSAULT.= (76)
=788.= In the =disengagement= contact with the opponent's rifle is abandoned and the point of the bayonet is =circled under= or =over= his bayonet or rifle and directed into the opening attacked. This attack is delivered by one continuous spiral movement of the bayonet from the moment contact is abandoned.
Example: Being at the =engage right=, =1. Number one=, at stomach (left chest, left leg, etc.), =thrust, 2. Number two, parry left= (etc.); =3. ASSAULT.= (77)
=789.= In the =counter disengagement= a swift attack is made into the opening disclosed while the opponent is attempting to change the engagement of his rifle. It is delivered by one continuous spiral movement of the bayonet into the opening.
Example: Being at the =engage right=, =1. Number two, engage left; 2. Number one=, at chest, =thrust; 3. Number two, parry left; 4. ASSAULT.=
Number two initiates the movement, number one thrusts as soon as the opening is made, and number two then attempts to parry. (78)
=790.= A =counter-attack= or =return= is one made instantly after or in continuation of a parry. The parry should be as narrow as possible. This makes it more difficult for the opponent to recover and counter parry. The counter-attack should also be made at, or just before, the full extension of the opponent's attack, as when it is so made, a simple extension of the arms will generally be sufficient to reach the opponent's body.
Example: Being at =engage=, =1. Number two=, at chest, =lunge; 2. Number one, parry right=, and at stomach (chest, head, etc.), =thrust; 3. ASSAULT.= (79)
ATTACKS ON THE RIFLE
=791.= These movements are made for the purpose of forcing or disclosing an opening into which an attack can be made. They are the =press=, the =beat=, and the =twist=. (80)
=792.= In the =press= the attack quickly presses against the opponent's bayonet or rifle with his own and continues the pressure as the attack is delivered.
Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, press=, and at chest, =thrust; 2. Number two, parry right; 3. ASSAULT.= (81)
=793.= The attack by =disengagement= is particularly effective following =the press=.
Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, press=, and at stomach, =thrust; 2. Number two, low parry left; 3. ASSAULT.= (82)
=794.= The =beat= is an attack in which a sharp blow struck against the opponent's rifle for the purpose of forcing him to expose an opening into which an attack immediately follows. It is used when there is but slight opposition or no contact of rifles.
Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, beat= and at stomach (chest, etc.), =thrust; 2. Number two, parry left; 3. ASSAULT.= (83)
=795.= In the =twist= the rifle is crossed over the opponent's rifle or bayonet and his bayonet forced downward with a circular motion and a straight attack made into the opening. It requires superior strength on the part of the attack.
Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, twist=, and at stomach, =thrust; 2. Number two, low parry, left; 3. ASSAULT.= (84)
FEINTS
=796.= Feints are movements which threaten or simulate attacks and are made with a view to inducing an opening or parry that exposes the desired point of attack. They are either single or double, according to the number of such movements made by the attack. (85)
=797.= In order that the attack may be changed quickly, as little force as possible is put into a feint.
Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, feint= head =thrust= at stomach, =lunge; 2. Number two, parry right and low parry right; 3. ASSAULT.=
Number one executes the feint and then the attack. Number two executes both parries. (86)
=798.= In double feints first one part of the body and then another is threatened and a third attacked.
Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, feint straight thrust= at chest; =disengagement= at chest; at stomach, =lunge; 2. Number two, parry right, parry left,= and =low parry left; 3. ASSAULT.= (87)
=799.= An opening may be offered or procured by opposition, as in the =press= or =beat=. (88)
=800.= In fencing exercises every feint should at first be parried. When the defense is able to judge or divine the character of the attack the feint is not necessarily parried, but may be nullified by a counter feint. (89)
=801.= A =counter feint= is a feint following the opponent's feint or following a parry of his attack and generally occurs in combined movements. (90)
COMBINED MOVEMENTS
=802.= When the men have become thoroughly familiar with the various foot movements, parries, guards, attacks, feints, etc., the instructor combines several of them and gives the commands in quick succession, increasing the rapidity and number of movements as the men become more skillful. Opponents will be changed frequently.
1. Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, by disengagement= at chest, =thrust; 2. Number two, parry left, right step= (left foot first), and =lunge; 3. ASSAULT.=
2. Example: Being at =engage left=, =1. Number one, press and lunge; 2. Number two, parry right, left step,= and =thrust; 3. ASSAULT.=
3. Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, by disengagement= at chest, =thrust; 2. Number two, parry left, front pass=, and at head =butt strike; 3. Number one, right step; 4. ASSAULT.= (91)
=803.= Examples 1 and 2 are typical of movements known as =cross counters=, and example No. 3 of movements known as =close counters=. (92)
=804.= A =chancery= is an attack by means of which the opponent is disarmed, which causes him to lose control of his rifle, or which disables his weapon. (93)
=805.= When the different combinations are executed with sufficient skill the instructor will devise series of movements to be memorized and executed at the command assault. The accuracy and celerity of the movements will be carefully watched by the instructor, with a view to the correction of faulty execution. (94)
=806.= It is not intended to restrict the number of movements, but to leave to the discretion of company commanders and the ingenuity of instructors the selection of such other exercises as accord with the object of the drill. (95)
VII. FENCING AT WILL
=807.= As satisfactory progress is made the instructor will proceed to the exercises at will, by which is meant assaults between two men, each endeavoring to hit the other and to avoid being hit himself. Fencing at will should not be allowed to degenerate into random attacks and defenses. (96)
=808.= The instructor can supervise but one pair of combatants at a time. Frequent changes should be made so that the men may learn different methods of attack and defense from each other. (97)
=809.= The contest should begin with simple, careful movements, with a view to forming a correct opinion of the adversary; afterwards everything will depend on coolness, rapid and correct execution of the movements and quick perception of the adversary's intentions. (98)
=810.= Continual retreat from the adversary's attack and frequent dodging to escape attacks should be avoided. The offensive should be continually encouraged. (99)
=811.= In fencing at will, when no commands are given, opponents facing each other at the position of order arms, salute. They then immediately and simultaneously assume the position of guard, rifles engaged. Neither man may take the position of guard before his opponent has completed his salute. The choice of position is decided before the salute. (100)
=812.= The opponents being about two paces apart and the fencing salute having been rendered, the instructor commands, =1. At will, 2. ASSAULT=, after which either party has the right to attack. To interrupt the contest the instructor will command =HALT=, at which the combatants will immediately come to the order. To terminate the contest the instructor will command, =1. Halt, 2. SALUTE=, at which the combatants will immediately come to the order, salute, and remove their masks. (101)
=813.= When men have acquired confidence in fencing at will, one opponent should be required to advance upon the other in quick time at =charge bayonet=, from a distance not to exceed 10 yards, and deliver an attack. As soon as a hit is made by either opponent the instructor commands, =HALT=, and the assault terminates. Opponents alternate in assaulting. The assailant is likewise required to advance at double time from a distance not exceeding 20 yards and at a run from a distance not exceeding 30 yards. (102)
=814.= The instructor will closely observe the contest and decide doubtful points. He will at once stop the contest upon the slightest indication of temper. After conclusion of the combat he will comment on the action of both parties, point out errors and deficiencies and explain how they may be avoided in the future. (103)
=815.= As additional instruction, the men may be permitted to wield the rifle left handed, that is on the left side of the body, left hand at the small of the stock. Many men will be able to use this method to advantage. It is also of value in case the left hand is wounded. (104)
=816.= After men have fenced in pairs, practice should be given in fencing between groups, equally and unequally divided. When practicable, intrenchments will be used in fencing of this character.
In group fencing it will be necessary to have a sufficient number of umpires to decide hits. An individual receiving a hit is withdrawn at once from the bout, which is decided in favor of the group having the numerical superiority at the end. The fencing salute is not required in group fencing. (105)
RULES FOR FENCING AT WILL
=817.= 1. Hits on the legs below the knees will not be counted. No hit counts unless, in the opinion of the instructor, it has sufficient force to disable.
2. Upon receiving a hit, call out "hit."
3. After receiving a fair hit a counter-attack is not permitted. A position of engage is taken.
4. A second or third hit in a combined attack will be counted only when the first hit was not called.
5. When it is necessary to stop the contest--for example, because of breaking of weapons or displacement of means of protection--take the position of the order.
6. When it is necessary to suspend the assault for any cause, it will not be resumed until the adversary is ready and in condition to defend himself.
7. Attacks directed at the crotch are prohibited in fencing.
8. Stepping out of bounds, when established, counts as a hit. (106)
SUGGESTIONS FOR FENCING AT WILL
=818.= When engaging in an assault, first study the adversary's position and proceed by false attacks, executed with speed, to discover, if possible, his instinctive parries. In order to draw the adversary out and induce him to expose that part of the body at which the attack is to be made, it is advisable to simulate an attack by a feint and then make the real attack. (107)
=819.= Return attacks should be frequently practiced, as they are difficult to parry, and the opponent is within easier reach and more exposed. The return can be made a continuation of the parry, as there is no previous warning of its delivery, although it should always be expected. Returns are made without lunging if the adversary can be reached by thrusts or cuts. (108)
=820.= Endeavor to overcome the tendency to make a return without knowing where it will hit. Making returns blindly is a bad habit and leads to instinctive returns--that is, habitual returns with certain attacks from certain parries--a fault which the skilled opponent will soon discover. (109)
=821.= Do not draw the rifle back preparatory to thrusting and lunging (110)
=822.= The purpose of fencing at will is to teach the soldier as many forms of simple, effective attacks and defenses as possible. Complicated and intricate movements should not be attempted. (111)
HINTS FOR INSTRUCTORS
=823.= The influence of the instructor is great. He must be master of his weapon, not only to show the various movements, but also to lead in the exercises at will. He should stimulate the zeal of the men and arouse pleasure in the work. Officers should qualify themselves as instructors by fencing with each other. (112)
LESSONS OF THE EUROPEAN WAR
=824. Modification of our system of bayonet combat suggested.= The above gives, in toto, the system of bayonet exercises and combat at present prescribed by the War Department in the =Manual of the Bayonet=. However, the use of the bayonet in the present European war, which has given that weapon an importance and prominence heretofore unheard of, suggests, as indicated below, certain modifications of our system.
(a) Attack not to be directed against chest. The attack should be directed at the adversary's neck or stomach, and not against his chest; for, if the bayonet is driven into the chest, there will probably be difficulty in withdrawing it, and while your bayonet is being so held, imbedded in your adversary's chest, you are at the mercy of any other enemy soldier free to strike you.
(b) Melee on parapet. When the first wave of an attacking line reaches the enemy's trench, it is usually met outside the trench, the melee taking place on the parapet, and fortunate is the man who is skilled in handling his bayonet. Such a man has a much greater chance to live through the melee than the one who is not skillful in using his bayonet. In the excitement and confusion of this melee the greatest possible care must be taken not to stab some of your own men in the back.
(c) Position of feet. The British have been teaching their men to keep both feet pointing toward the enemy instead of having the right foot turned to the right, as in our system. Note the position of the feet in Figs. 15-18.
(d) The "Short point" (or "Short thrust") and the "Jab." There are two attacks used by European troops which we might learn with profit. They are the "Short point" (or "Short thrust") and the "Jab."
POSITION OF GUARD
(e) The short point (or short thrust). The short point (or short thrust) is taken from the position of guard (Fig. 14), by slipping the left hand up to the grip of the bayonet, grasping it and the barrel, as shown in this figure:
The rifle is then drawn back to the fullest extent of the right arm, thus: and a vigorous thrust is made at the objective (Fig. 15), immediately after which the bayonet is withdrawn vigorously, the left hand relaxed and the position of guard (Fig. 14) is resumed by pushing the rifle smartly forward until the left hand is in its proper place.
It should be practiced on sand bags or other targets in positions at the height of the rifle, above it and below it.
(f) The jab. The jab is taken from the first position of the "Short point" (Fig. 15), by slipping the right hand up to the left as the rifle is drawn back to make the "Short thrust" (Fig. 17).
Then make a vigorous upward thrust (Fig. 18) which should be aimed at the adversary's throat.
This may be practiced combined with the short thrust or the ordinary thrust. It may also be practiced with a run toward the target. It is a useful attack at close quarters.
(g) The butt. The rifle butt is used with great effect at close quarters, the blows being directed against an adversary's jaw or in the region of the heart.
(h) Tripping adversary. The men are taught how to trip up an enemy and how to use their knees in throwing their opponents off their balance.
(i) Withdrawing the bayonet. After driving the bayonet into an opponent, then the first consideration is to get it out of his body. This may be done by slipping the left hand up to the bayonet grip and exerting a vigorous pull, which is immediately followed by a return to the position of guard.
(j) Points in training. In the first stages of training, special attention is paid to a firm grip and proper handling of arms; then the greatest attention is given to "direction" when thrusting, lunging, and parrying.
Until these essentials have been thoroughly mastered, quickness should not be insisted upon.
Confidence comes after continued practice, and quickness and vigor will come with confidence.
After the men are taught to make all the attacks as individuals they should be given practice in them as groups.
Sandbags with discs marked on them to provide targets are used in instructing the British armies.
These bags are suspended from trees or trestles, or are put into trenches or pits, and are also placed on the ground.
An excellent scheme is used in teaching the men what the shock of a charge is like. The men are divided into two or more groups and are equipped with fencing outfits. One group is designated as the defense and is placed in trenches. The other groups are the attackers. They may be sent forward in waves or in one line. To make their advance more realistic they have to get over or around obstacles. To take in all phases the attackers are made stronger than the defense and the defense retires--whereupon the attackers endeavor to disable them by thrusting at the kidneys. Likewise the defense is made strong enough to drive off the offense.
In the charge the men are taught to run at the "High Port" (the rifle is held as in "Port arms," but is carried well above the head). The rifle is brought down to guard just before the enemy is met.
APPENDIX D
SEPTEMBER 15, 1917
INFANTRY DRILL REGULATIONS, 1911.
Paragraphs 120, 143, 146, 185, 187, 189, 194, 646, Infantry Drill Regulations, 1911, apply only to troops armed with the United States rifle, Model 1903. For troops armed with the United States rifle, Model 1917 (Enfield), the alternative paragraphs published herewith will govern.
By order of the Secretary of War:
=120.= The following rules govern the carrying of the piece:
First. The piece is not carried with cartridges in either the chamber or the magazine except when especially ordered. When so loaded, or supposed to be loaded, it is habitually carried locked; that is, with safety lock turned to the "=Safe.=" At all other times it is carried unlocked, with the trigger pulled.
Second. Whenever troops are formed under arms, pieces are immediately inspected at the commands: =1. INSPECTION, 2. ARMS, 3. ORDER (Right shoulder port), 4. ARMS.=
A similar inspection is made immediately before dismissal.
If cartridges are found in the chamber or magazine they are removed and placed in the belt.
Third. The bayonet is not fixed except in bayonet exercise, on guard, or for combat.
Fourth. =Fall in= is executed with the piece at the order arms. =Fall out=, =rest=, and =at ease= are executed as without arms. On resuming attention the position of order arms is taken.
Fifth. If at the order, unless otherwise prescribed, the piece is brought to the right shoulder, at the command =MARCH=, the three motions corresponding with the first three steps. Movements may be executed at the trail by prefacing the preparatory command with the words =at trail=; as =1. AT TRAIL, FORWARD, 2. MARCH.= The trail is taken at the command =MARCH=.
When the facings, alignments, open and close ranks, taking interval or distance, and assemblings are executed from the order, raise the piece to the trail while in motion and resume the order on halting.
Sixth. The piece is brought to the order on halting. The execution of the order begins when the halt is completed.
Seventh. A disengaged hand in double time is held as when without arms.
=143.= Being at order arms: =1. UNFIX, 2. BAYONET.=
If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the belt: Execute parade rest; grasp the handle of the bayonet firmly with the right hand, pressing the spring with the forefinger of the left hand; raise the bayonet until the handle is about 12 inches above the muzzle of the piece; the point to the left, back of the hand toward the body, and glancing at the scabbard, return the bayonet, the blade passing between the left arm and the body; regrasp the piece with the right hand and resume the order.
If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the haversack: Take the bayonet from the rifle with the left hand and return it to the scabbard in the most convenient manner.
If marching or lying down, the bayonet is fixed and unfixed in the most expeditious and convenient manner and the piece returned to the original position.
Fix and unfix bayonet are executed with promptness and regularity, but not in cadence.
=146.= Being at inspection arms: =1. ORDER (Right shoulder, port), 2. ARMS.=
At the preparatory command press the follower down with the fingers of the left hand, then push the bolt forward just enough to engage the follower, raise the fingers of the left hand, push the bolt forward, turn the handle down, pull the trigger, and resume =port arms=. At the command =ARMS=, complete the movement ordered.
To Load
=185.= Being in line or skirmish line at halt: =1. WITH DUMMY (Blank or ball) CARTRIDGES, 2. LOAD.=
At the command =load= each front rank man or skirmisher faces half right and carries the right foot to the right, about 1 foot, to such a position as will insure the greatest firmness and steadiness of the body; raises or lowers the piece and drops it into the left hand at the balance, left thumb extended along the stock and muzzle at the height of the breast. With the right hand he turns and draws the bolt back, takes a loaded clip and inserts the end in the clip slots, places the thumb on the powder space at the top cartridge, the fingers extending around the piece and tips resting on the magazine floor plate; forces the cartridges into the magazine by pressing down with the thumb; without removing the clip, thrusts the bolt home, turning down the handle; turns the safety lock to the "Safe" and carries the hand to the small of the stock. Each rear rank man moves to the right front, takes a similar position opposite the interval to the right of his front rank man, muzzle of the piece extending beyond the front rank, and loads.
A skirmish line may load while moving, the pieces being held as nearly as practicable in the position of load.
If kneeling or sitting, the position of the piece is similar; if kneeling, the left forearm rests on the left thigh; if sitting, the elbows are supported by the knees. If lying down, the left hand steadies and supports the piece at the balance, the toe of the butt resting on the ground, the muzzle off the ground.
For reference, these positions (standing, kneeling, and lying down) are designated as that of =load=.
=186.= For purposes of simulating firing, =1. SIMULATE, 2. LOAD=, raise the bolt handle as in the preceding paragraph, draw the bolt back until the cocking piece engages, then close the bolt, and turn the bolt handle down.
The recruits are first taught to simulate loading and firing; after a few lessons dummy cartridges are used. Later, blank cartridges may be used.
Omit last paragraph.
=187. Unload:= Take the position of load, turn the safety lock up and move the bolt alternately backward and forward until all the cartridges are ejected. After the last cartridge is ejected the chamber is closed by pressing the follower down with the fingers of the left hand, to engage it under the bolt, and then thrusting the bolt home. The trigger is pulled. The cartridges are then picked up, cleaned, and returned to the belt and the piece is brought to the order.
=189.= [Last paragraph]. To continue the firing: =1. AIM, 2. SQUAD, 3. FIRE.=
Each command is executed as previously explained. =Load= is executed by drawing back and thrusting home the bolt with the right hand, leaving the safety lock at the "Ready."
=194. Cease firing:= Firing stops; pieces are loaded and locked; the sights are laid down and the piece is brought to the order. Cease firing is used for long pauses to prepare for changes of position or to steady the men.
Company Inspection
=646.= Being in line at halt: =1. OPEN RANKS, 2. MARCH.=
At the command =march= the front rank executes right dress; the rear rank and the file closers march backward 4 steps, halt, and execute right dress; the lieutenants pass around their respective flanks and take post, facing to the front, 3 paces in front of the center of their respective platoons. The captain aligns the front rank, rear rank, and file closers, takes post 3 paces in front of the right guide, facing to the left and commands: =1. FRONT, 2. PREPARE FOR INSPECTION.=
At the second command the lieutenants carry saber; the captain returns saber and inspects them, after which they face about, order saber, and stand at ease; upon the completion of the inspection they carry saber, face about, and order saber. The captain may direct the lieutenants to accompany or assist him, in which case they return saber and, at the close of the inspection, resume their posts in front of the company, draw and carry saber.
Having inspected the lieutenants, the captain proceeds to the right of the company. Each man, as the captain approaches him executes =inspection arms=.
The captain takes the piece, grasping it with his right hand just below the lower band, the man dropping his hands; the captain inspects the piece, and, with the hand and piece in the same position as in receiving it, hands it back to the man, who takes it with the left hand at the balance and executes =order arms=.
As the captain returns the piece the next man executes =inspection arms=, and so on through the company.
Should the piece be inspected without handling, each man executes =order arms= as soon as the captain passes to the next man.
The inspection is from right to left in front, and from left to right in rear of each rank and of the line of file closers.
When approached by the captain the first sergeant executes =inspection saber=. Enlisted men armed with the pistol execute =inspection pistol= by drawing the pistol from the holster and holding it diagonally across the body, barrel up, and 6 inches in front of the neck, muzzle pointing up and to the left. The pistol is returned to the holster as soon as the captain passes.
Upon completion of the inspection the captain takes post facing to the left in front of the right guide and on line with the lieutenants and commands: =1. CLOSE RANKS, 2. MARCH.=
At the command march the lieutenants resume their posts in line; the rear rank closes to 40 inches, each man covering his file leader; the file closers close to 2 paces from the rear rank.
III. MANUAL OF PHYSICAL TRAINING
(EXTRACTS)
METHODS
=825.= In the employment of the various forms of physical training it is necessary that well-defined methods should be introduced in order that the object of this training may be attained in the most thorough and systematic manner. Whenever it is possible this work should be conducted out of doors. In planning these methods the following factors must be considered:
(a) The condition and physical aptitude of the men.
(b) The facilities.
(c) The time.
The question of the physical aptitude and general condition, etc., of the men is a very important one, and it should always determine the nature and extent of the task expected of them; never should the work be made the determining factor. In general, it is advisable to divide the men into three classes, viz., the recruit class, the intermediate class, and the advanced class. The work for each class should fit the capabilities of the members of that class and in every class it should be arranged progressively.
Facilities are necessarily to be considered in any plan of instruction, but as most posts are now equipped with better than average facilities the plan laid down in this Manual will answer all purposes.
Time is a decidedly important factor, and no plan can be made unless those in charge of this work know exactly how much time they have at their disposal. During the suspension of drills five periods a week, each of 45 minutes duration, should be devoted to physical training; during the drill period a 15-minute drill in setting-up exercises should be ordered on drill days. The time of day, too, is important. When possible, these drills should be held in the morning about two hours after breakfast, and at no time should they be held immediately before or after a meal.
Insist upon accurate and precise execution of every movement. By doing so those other essential qualities, besides strength and endurance--activity, agility, gracefulness, and accuracy--will also be developed.
Exercises which require activity and agility, rather than those that require strength only, should be selected.
It should be constantly borne in mind that these exercises are the means and not the end; and if there be a doubt in the mind of the instructor as to the effect of an exercise, it is always well to err upon the side of safety. Underdoing is rectifiable; overdoing is often not. The object of this work is not the development of expert gymnasts, but the development of physically sound men by means of a system in which the chances of bodily injury are reduced to a minimum. When individuals show a special aptitude for gymnastics they may be encouraged, within limits, to improve this ability, but never at the expense of their fellows.
The drill should be made as attractive as possible, and this can best be accomplished by employing the mind as well as the body. The movements should be as varied as possible, thus constantly offering the men something new to make them keep their minds on their work. A movement many times repeated presents no attraction and is executed in a purely mechanical manner, which should always be discountenanced.
Short and frequent drills should be given in preference to long ones, which are liable to exhaust all concerned, and exhaustion means lack of interest and benefit. All movements should be carefully explained, and, if necessary, illustrated by the instructor.
The lesson should begin with the less violent exercises, gradually working up to those that are more so, then gradually working back to the simpler ones, so that the men at the close of the drill will be in as nearly a normal condition as possible.
When one portion of the body is being exercised, care should be taken that the other parts remain quiet as far as the conformation of the body will allow. The men must learn to exercise any one part of the body independent of the other part.
Everything in connection with physical training should be such that the men look forward to it with pleasure, not with dread, for the mind exerts more influence over the human body than all the gymnastic paraphernalia that was ever invented.
Exercise should be carried on as much as possible in the open air; at all times in pure, dry air.
Never exercise the men to the point of exhaustion. If there is evidence of panting, faintness, fatigue, or pain, the exercise should be stopped at once, for it is nature's way of saying "too much."
By constant practice the men should learn to breathe slowly through the nostrils during all exercises, especially running.
A fundamental condition of exercise is unimpeded respiration. Proper breathing should always be insisted upon; "holding the breath" and breathing only when it can no longer be held is injurious. Every exercise should be accompanied by an unimpeded and, if possible, by an uninterrupted act of respiration, the inspiration and respiration of which depends to a great extent upon the nature of the exercise. Inhalation should always accompany that part of an exercise which tends to elevate and distend the thorax--as raising arms over head laterally, for instance; while that part of an exercise which exerts a pressure against the walls of the chest should be accompanied by exhalation, as for example, lowering arms laterally from shoulders or overhead.
If after exercising, the breathing becomes labored and distressed, it is an unmistakable sign that the work has been excessive. Such excessiveness is not infrequently the cause of serious injury to the heart and lungs or to both. In cases where exercise produces palpitation, labored respiration, etc., it is advisable to recommend absolute rest, or to order the execution of such exercises as will relieve the oppressed and overtaxed organ. Leg exercises slowly executed will afford great relief. By drawing the blood from the upper to the lower extremities they equalize the circulation, thereby lessening the heart's action and quieting the respiration.
Never exercise immediately after a meal; digestion is more important at this time than extraneous exercise.
Never eat or drink immediately after exercise; allow the body to recover its normal condition first, and the most beneficial results will follow. If necessary, pure water, not too cold, may be taken in small quantities, but the exercise should be continued, especially if in a state of perspiration.
Never, if at all possible, allow the underclothing to dry on the body. Muscular action produces an unusual amount of bodily heat; this should be lost gradually, otherwise the body will be chilled; hence, after exercise, never remove clothing to cool off, but, on the contrary, wear some wrap in addition. In like manner, be well wrapped on leaving the gymnasium.
Cold baths, especially when the body is heated, as in the case after exercising violently, should be discouraged. In individual instances such baths may appear apparently beneficial, or at least not injurious; in a majority of cases, however, they can not be used with impunity. Tepid baths are recommended. When impossible to bathe, the flannels worn while exercising should be stripped off; the body sponged with tepid water, and then rubbed thoroughly with coarse towels. After such a sponge the body should be clothed in clean, warm clothing.
Flannel is the best material to wear next to the body during physical drill, as it absorbs the perspiration, protects the body against drafts and, in a mild manner, excites the skin. When the conditions permit it the men may be exercised in the ordinary athletic costume, sleeveless shirt, flappers, socks, and gymnasium shoes.
COMMANDS--SETTING-UP EXERCISES
COMMANDS
=826.= There are two kinds of commands:
The preparatory indicates the movement to be executed.
The command of execution causes the execution.
In the command: =1. Arms forward, 2. RAISE=, the words =Arms forward= constitute the preparatory command, and =RAISE= the command of execution. Preparatory commands are printed in =bold face=, and those of execution in =CAPITALS=.
The tone of command is animated, distinct, and of a loudness proportioned to the number of men for whom it is intended.
The various movements comprising an exercise are executed by commands and, unless otherwise indicated, the continuation of an exercise is carried out by repeating the command, which usually takes the form of numerals the numbers depending upon the number of movements, that an exercise comprises. Thus, if an exercise consists of two movements, the counts will be one, two; or if it consists of eight movements, the counts will be correspondingly increased; thus every movement is designated by a separate command.
Occasionally, especially in exercises that are to be executed slowly, words rather than numerals are used, and these must be indicative of the nature of the various movements.
In the continuation of an exercise the preparatory command is explanatory, the command of execution causes the execution and the continuation is caused by a repetition of numerals denoting the number of movements required, or of words describing the movements if words are used. The numerals or words preceding the command =halt= should always be given with a rising inflection on the first numeral or word of command of the last repetition of the exercise in order to prepare the men for the command =halt=.
For example:
=1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. Thrust arms upward, 4. EXERCISE, ONE, TWO, ONE, TWO, ONE, HALT=; the rising inflection preparatory to the command halt being placed on the "one" preceding the "=halt=."
Each command must indicate, by its tone, how that particular movement is to be executed; thus, if an exercise consists of two movements, one of which is to be energized, the command corresponding to that movement must be emphasized.
Judgment must be used in giving commands, for rarely is the cadence of two movements alike; and a command should not only indicate the cadence of an exercise, but also the nature of its execution.
Thus, many of the arm exercises are short and snappy; hence the command should be given in a smart tone of voice, and the interval between the commands should be short.
The leg exercises can not be executed as quickly as those of the arms; therefore, the commands should be slightly drawn out and follow one another in slow succession.
The trunk exercises, owing to the deliberateness of execution, should be considerably drawn out and follow one another in slow succession.
The antagonistic exercises, where one group of muscles is made to antagonize another, tensing exercises, the commands are drawn still more. In these exercises words are preferable to numerals. In fact it should be the object of the instructor to convey to the men, by the manner of his command, exactly the nature of the exercise.
All commands should be given in a clear and distinct tone of voice, articulation should be distinct, and an effort should be made to cultivate a voice which will inspire the men with enthusiasm and tend to make them execute the exercises with willingness, snap, and precision. It is not the volume, but the quality, of the voice which is necessary to successful instruction.
THE POSITION OF ATTENTION
=827.= This is the position an unarmed dismounted soldier assumes when in ranks. During the setting-up exercises, it is assumed whenever the command attention is given by the instructor.
Having allowed his men to rest, the instructor commands: =1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION.= Figs. A and B.
The words =class=, =section=, or =company= may be substituted for the word "squad."
At the command =attention=, the men will quickly assume and retain the following position:
Heels on same line and as near each other as the conformation of the man permits.
Feet turned out equally and forming an angle of about 45 degrees.
Knees straight without stiffness.
The body erect on the hips, the spine extended throughout its entire length.
The shoulders falling naturally, are forced back until they are square.
Chest arched and slightly raised.
The arms hang naturally; thumbs along seams of trousers; back of hands out and elbows turned back.
Head erect, chin drawn in so that the axis of the head and neck is vertical; eyes straight to the front and, when the nature of the terrain permits it, fixed on an object at their own height.
Too much attention can not be given to this position, and instructors are cautioned to insist that the men accustom themselves to it. As a rule, it is so exaggerated that it not only becomes ridiculous, but positively harmful. The men must be taught to assume a natural and graceful position, one from which all rigidity is eliminated and from which action is possible without first relaxing muscles that have been constrained in an effort to maintain the position of attention. In other words, cooerdination rather than strength should be depended upon.
In the position described the weight rests principally upon the balls of the feet, the heels resting lightly upon the ground.
The knees are extended easily, but never locked.
The body is now inclined forward until the front of the thighs is directly over the point of the toes; the hips are square and the waist is extended by the erection of the entire spine, but never to such a degree that mobility of the waist is lost.
In extending the spine, the chest is naturally arched and the abdomen is drawn in, but never to the extent where it interferes with respiration.
In extending the spinal column, the shoulders must not be raised, but held loosely in normal position and forced back until the points of the shoulders are at right angles with an anterior-posterior plane running through the shoulders.
The chin should be square; i. e., horizontal and forced back enough to bring the neck in a vertical plane; the eyes fixed to the front and the object on which they are fixed must be at their own height whenever the nature of the terrain permits it.
When properly assumed, a vertical line drawn from the top of the head should pass in front of the ear, just in front of the shoulder and of the thigh, and find its base at the balls of the feet.
All muscles should be contracted only enough to maintain this position, which at all times should be a lithesome one, that can be maintained for a long period without fatigue--one that makes for activity and that is based upon a correct anatomical and physiological basis.
Instructors will correct the position of attention of every man individually and they will ascertain, when the position has been properly assumed, whether the men are "on their toes," i. e., carrying the weight on the balls of the feet, whether they are able to respire properly, and whether they find a strain across the small of the back, which should be as flat as possible. This should be repeated until the men are able to assume the position correctly without restraint or rigidity.
At the command =rest= or =at ease= the men, while carrying out the provisions of the drill regulations, should be cautioned to avoid assuming any position that has a tendency to nullify the object of the position of attention; standing on leg for instance; allowing the shoulders to slope forward; drooping the head; folding arms across chest, etc. The weight should always be distributed equally upon both legs; the head, trunk, and shoulders remain erect and the arms held in a position that does not restrict the chest or derange the shoulders. The positions illustrated here have been found most efficacious. Figs. C. and D.
FORMATIONS
=828.= The men form in a single or double rank, the tallest men on the right.
The instructor commands: =1. Count off.=
At this command, all except the right file execute "=eyes right=" and, beginning on the right, the men in each rank count 1, 2, 3, 4; each man turns his head and eyes to the front as he counts.
The instructor then commands: =1. Take distance, 2. MARCH, 3. Squad, 4. HALT.=
At the command =march=, No. 1 of the front rank moves straight to the front; Nos. 2, 3, and 4 of the front and Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 of the rear rank in the order named move straight to the front, each stepping off, so as to follow the preceding man at four paces; the command halt is given when all have their distances.
If it is desired that a less distance than four paces be taken, the distance desired should be indicated in the preparatory command. The men of the squad may be caused to cover No. 1 front rank by command cover.
The instructor then commands: =1. Right (left), 2. FACE, 3. COVER.=
At these commands the men face in the direction indicated and cover in file.
To assemble the squad the instructor commands: =1. Right (left), 2. FACE, 3. Assemble, 4. MARCH.=
After facing and at command march, No. 1 of the front rank stands fast, the other members of both ranks resuming their original positions, or for convenience in the gymnasium they may be assembled to the rear, in which case the assemblage is made on No. 4 of the rear rank.
Unless otherwise indicated, the guide is =always right=.
SPECIAL TRAINING
=829.= In addition to the regular squad or class work instructors should, when they notice a physical defect in any man, recommend some exercise which will tend to correct it.
The most common physical defects and corresponding corrective exercises are noted here.
DROOPING HEAD
=830.= Exercise the muscles of the neck by bending, turning, and circling the head, muscles tense.
ROUND AND STOOPED SHOULDERS
=831.= Stretch arms sideward from front horizontal, turning palms upward, muscles tense.
Swing arms forward and backward, muscles relaxed.
Circle arms forward and backward slowly, energize backward motion, muscles tense; forward motion with muscles relaxed.
Circle shoulders backward, move them forward first, then raise them, then move them backward as far as possible in the raised position, muscles tense, and then lower to normal position, muscles relaxed.
WEAK BACK
=832.= Bend trunk forward as far as possible and erect it slowly.
Bend trunk forward, back arched and head thrown back.
Bend trunk sideward, without moving hips out of normal position, right and left.
Lie on floor, face down, and raise head and shoulders.
WEAK ABDOMEN
=833.= Circle trunk right or left.
Bend trunk backward or obliquely backward.
Bend head and trunk backward without moving hips out of normal plane.
Lie on floor, face up, and raise head and shoulders slightly; or to sitting position or raise legs slightly; or to a vertical position.
To increase depth and width of chest
Arm stretchings, sideward and upward, muscles tense.
Same, with deep inhalations.
Arm swings and arm circles outward, away from the body.
Raise extended arms over head laterally and cross them behind the head.
Breathing exercises in connection with arm and shoulder exercises.
STARTING POSITIONS
=834.= In nearly all the arm exercises it is necessary to hold the arms in some fixed position from which the exercises can be most advantageously executed, and to which position the arms are again returned upon completing the exercise. These positions are termed =starting positions=; and though it may not be absolutely necessary to assume one of them before or during the employment of any other portion of the body, it is advisable to do so, since they give to the exercise a finished, uniform, and graceful appearance.
In the following positions, at the command =down=, resume the =attention=. Practice in assuming the starting position may be had by repeating the commands of execution, such as =raise, down=.
=835.= While the exercises given below have been grouped for convenient reference, into arm exercises, trunk exercises, leg exercises, etc., one entire group must not be given and then the next and so on.
Always bear in mind that the best results are obtained when those exercises which affect the extensor muscles chiefly are followed by those affecting the flexors; i. e., flexion should always be followed by extension, or vice versa. It is also advisable that a movement requiring a considerable amount of muscular exertion should be followed by one in which this exertion is reduced to a minimum. As a rule, especially in the setting-up exercises, one portion of the body should not be exercised successively; thus, arm exercises should be followed by a trunk exercise, and that in turn by a leg, shoulder, and neck exercise.
ARM EXERCISES
=836.= Intervals having been taken and attention assumed, the instructor commands:
=1. Arms forward, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN.= Fig. 1.
At the command =raise=, raise the arms to the front smartly, extended to their full length, till the hands are in front of and at the height of the shoulders, palms down, fingers extended and joined, thumbs under forefingers. At =Arms, DOWN=, resume position of attention.
=1. Arms upward 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN.= Fig. 2.
At the command =raise=, raise the arms from the sides, extended to their full length, with the forward movement, until they are vertically overhead, backs of hands turned outward, fingers as in 1.
This position may also be assumed by raising the arms laterally until vertical. The instructor cautions which way he desires it done.
=1. Arms backward, 2. CROSS, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN.= Fig. 3.
At the command =cross=, the arms are folded across the back; hands grasping forearms.
=1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN.= Fig. 4.
At the command =raise=, raise the forearms to the front until horizontal, elbow forced back, upper arms against the chest, hands tightly closed, knuckles down.
=1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN.= Fig. 5.
At the command =place=, place the hands on the hips, the finger tips in line with trouser seams; fingers extended and joined, thumbs to the rear, elbows pressed back.
Combination of arm exercises
=1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. THRUST ARMS FORWARD; SWING THEM SIDEWARD, FORWARD, AND BACK TO POSITION.=
Four counts; repeat 8 to 10 times.
The arms are thrust forward, then relaxed and swung sideward, then forward and finally brought back to position, pressing elbows well to the rear; execute moderately fast; exhale on the first and third and inhale on the second and fourth counts.
SETTING-UP EXERCISES
=837.= As has been stated previously, the setting-up exercises form the basis upon which the entire system of physical training in the service is founded. Therefore too much importance can not be attached to them. Through the number and variety of movements they offer it is possible to develop the body harmoniously with little if any danger of injurious results. They develop the muscles and impart vigor and tone to the vital organs and assist them in their functions; they develop endurance and are important factors in the development of smartness, grace, and precision. They should be assiduously practiced. The fact that they require no apparatus of any description makes it possible to do this out of doors or even in the most restricted room, proper sanitary conditions being the only adjunct upon which their success is dependent. No physical training drill is complete without them. They should always precede the more strenuous forms of training, as they prepare the body for the greater exertion these forms demand.
At the discretion of instructors these exercises may be substituted by others of a similar character. Instructors are cautioned, however, to employ all the parts of the body in every lesson and to suit the exercise as far as practicable to the natural function of the particular part of the body which they employ.
In these lessons only the preparatory command is given here; the command of execution, which is invariably =Exercise=, and the commands of continuance, as well as the command to discontinue, having been explained are omitted.
Every preparatory command should convey a definite description of the exercise required; by doing so long explanations are avoided and the men will not be compelled to memorize the various movements.
RECRUIT INSTRUCTION
First Series
Position of attention, from =at ease= and =rest=.
Starting position, Figs. 1 to 5.
TRUNK EXERCISES
=838. 1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. QUARTER BEND TRUNK FORWARD.=
Two counts; repeat 8 to 10 times, Fig. 6.
The trunk is inclined forward at the waist about 45 deg. and then extended again; the hips are as perpendicular as possible; execute slowly; exhale on first and inhale and raise chest on second count.
By substituting the words half or full for the word quarter in the command, the half bend, Fig. 7, and full bend exercise can be given.
=1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. BEND TRUNK BACKWARD.=
Two counts; repeat 6 to 8 times, Fig. 8.
The trunk is bent backward as far as possible; head and shoulders fixed; knees extended; feet firmly on the ground; hips as nearly perpendicular as possible; in recovering care should be taken not to sway forward; execute slowly; inhale on first and exhale on second count.
=1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. BEND TRUNK SIDEWARD, RIGHT OR LEFT.=
Two counts; repeat 6 to 8 times, Fig. 9.
The trunk, stretched at the waist, is inclined sideward as far as possible; head and shoulders fixed; knees extended and feet firmly on the ground; execute slowly; inhale on first and exhale on second count.
If an additional exercise is desired, by commanding: =CIRCLE TRUNK RIGHT or LEFT= a combination of the above trunk exercises is obtained.
LEG EXERCISES
=839. 1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. QUARTER BEND KNEES.=
Two counts; repeat 8 to 10 times, Fig. 10.
The knees are flexed until the point of the knee is directly over the toes; whole foot remains on ground; heels closed; head and body erect; execute moderately fast, emphasizing the extension; breathe naturally.
By substituting the words half or full for the word quarter in the command the half bend and full bend, Fig. 11, exercises can be given.
=1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. RAISE KNEE.=
Two counts; repeat 10 to 12 times. Fig. 12.
The thigh and knee are flexed until they are at right angles, thigh horizontal: toes depressed; the right knee is raised at =one= and the left at =two=; trunk and head erect; execute in cadence of quick time; breathe naturally.
SHOULDER EXERCISE
=840. 1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. MOVE SHOULDERS FORWARD, UP, BACK, AND DOWN.=
Four counts; repeat 8 to 10 times.
The shoulders are relaxed and brought forward; in that position they are raised: then they are forced back without lowering them; and then they are dropped back to position; execute slowly; exhale on the first; inhale on the second and third and exhale on the last count.
NECK EXERCISE
=841. 1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. TURN HEAD RIGHT, OR LEFT.=
Two counts; repeat 6 to 10 times, Fig. 13.
The head, chin square, is turned to the right, or left as far as possible, muscles of the neck being stretched; shoulders remain square; execute slowly: breathe naturally.
To vary this exercise the head may be bent forward and to the rear by substituting the proper commands.
BREATHING EXERCISE
=842. 1. Breathing exercise, 2. INHALE, 3. EXHALE.=
At =inhale= the arms are stretched forward overhead and the lungs are inflated; at =exhale= the arms are lowered laterally and the lungs deflated; execute slowly; repeat four times.
TOE EXERCISE
=843. 1. Arms backward, 2. CROSS, 3. RISE ON TOES.=
Two counts; repeat 8 to 10 times, Fig. 14.
The body is raised smartly until the toes and ankles are extended as much as possible; heels closed; head and trunk erect; in recovering position heels are lowered gently; breathe naturally.
COMBINATION EXERCISE
=844.= This exercise brings into play practically all of the muscles that have been used in the preceding exercises.
=1. LEANING REST IN FOUR COUNTS.=
Repeat 6 to 8 times, Figs. 15, 16.
At =one= knees are bent to squatting position, hands on the ground between knees; at =two= the legs are extended backward to the leaning rest; at =three= the first position is resumed, and at =four= the position of attention; hands should be directly under shoulders; back arched; knees straight; head fixed; execute moderately fast; breathe naturally.
WALKING AND MARCHING
=845.= The length of the full step in quick time is 30 inches, measured from heel to heel, and the cadence is at the rate of 120 steps per minute.
Proper posture and carriage have ever been considered very important in the training of soldiers. In marching, the head and trunk should remain immobile, but without stiffness; as the left foot is carried forward the right forearm is swung forward and inward obliquely across the body until the thumb, knuckles being turned out, reaches a point about the height of the belt plate. The upper arm does not move beyond the perpendicular plane while the forearm is swung forward, though the arm hangs loosely from the shoulder joint. The forearm swing ends precisely at the moment the left heel strikes the ground; the arm is then relaxed and allowed to swing down and backward by its own weight until it reaches a point where the thumb is about the breadth of a hand to the rear of the buttocks. As the right arm swings back, the left arm is swung forward with the right leg. The forward motion of the arm assists the body in marching by throwing the weight forward and inward upon the opposite foot as it is planted. The head is held erect; body well stretched from the waist; chest arched; and there should be no rotary motion of the body about the spine.
As the leg is thrown forward the knee is smartly extended, the heel striking the ground first.
The instructor having explained the principles and illustrated the step and arm swing, commands: =1. Forward, 2. MARCH=--and to halt the squad he commands: =1. Squad, 2. HALT.=
In executing the setting-up exercises on the march the cadence should at first be given slowly and gradually increased as the men become more expert; some exercises require a slow and others a faster pace; it is best in these cases to allow the cadence of the exercise to determine the cadence of the step.
The men should march in a single file at proved intervals. The command that causes and discontinues the execution should be given as the left foot strikes the ground.
On the march, to discontinue the exercise, command: =1. Quick time, 2. MARCH=, instead of =HALT=, as when at rest.
All of the arm, wrist, finger, and shoulder exercises, and some of the trunk and neck, may be executed on the march by the same commands and means as when at rest.
The following leg and foot exercises are executed at the command march; the execution always beginning with the left leg or foot.
1. =1. On toes, 2. MARCH.= 2. =1. On heels, 2. MARCH.= 3. =1. On right heel and left toe, 2. MARCH.= 4. =1. On left heel and right toe, 2. MARCH.= 5. =1. On toes with knees stiff, 2. MARCH.= 6. =1. Swing extended leg forward, ankle high, 2. MARCH.= 7. =1. Swing extended leg forward, knee high, 2. MARCH.= 8. =1. Swing extended leg forward, waist high, 2. MARCH.= 9. =1. Swing extended leg forward, shoulder high, 2. MARCH.= 10. =1. Raise heels, 2. MARCH.= 11. =1. Raise knees, thigh horizontal, 2. MARCH.= 12. =1. Raise knees, chest high, 2. MARCH.= 13. =1. Circle extended leg forward, ankle high, 2. MARCH.= 14. =1. Circle extended leg forward, knee high, 2. MARCH.= 15. =1. Circle extended leg forward, waist high, 2. MARCH.= 16. =1. Swing extended leg backward, 2. MARCH.= 17. =1. Swing extended leg sideward, 2. MARCH.= 18. =1. Raise knee and extend leg forward, 2. MARCH.= 19. =1. Raise heels and extend leg forward, 2. MARCH.=
DOUBLE TIMING
=846.= The length of the step in double time is 36 inches; the cadence is at the rate of 180 steps per minute. To march in double time the instructor commands: =1. Double time, 2. MARCH.=
If at a halt, at the first command shift the weight of the body to the right leg. At the command =march= raise the forearms, fingers closed; to a horizontal position along the waist line; take up an easy run with the step and cadence of double time, allowing a natural swinging motion to the arms inward and upward in the direction of the opposite shoulder.
In marching in quick time, at the command =march=, given as either foot strikes the ground, take one step in quick time, and then step off in double time.
When marching in double time and in running the men breathe as much as possible through the nose, keeping the mouth closed.
A few minutes at the beginning of the setting-up exercises should be devoted to double timing. From lasting only a few minutes at the start it may be gradually increased, so that daily drills should enable the men at the end of five or six months to double time 15 or 20 minutes without becoming fatigued or distressed.
After the double time the men should be marched for several minutes at quick time; after this the instructor should command:
=1. Route step, 2. MARCH.=
In marching at route step, the men are not required to preserve silence nor keep the step; if marching at proved intervals, the latter is preserved.
To resume the cadence step in quick time, the instructor commands: =1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION.=
Great care must be exercised concerning the duration of the double time and the speed and duration of the run. The demands made Upon the men should be increased gradually.
When exercise rather than distance is desired, the running should be done on the balls of the feet, heels raised from the ground.
DOUBLE TIMING EXERCISES
While the men are double timing the instructor may vary the position of the arms by commanding:
1. =1. Arms forward, 2. RAISE.= 2. =1. Arms sideward, 2. RAISE.= 3. =1. Arms upward, 2. RAISE.= 4. =1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE.= 5. =1. Hands on shoulders, 2. PLACE.= 6. =1. Arms forward, 2. CROSS.= 7. =1. Arms backward, 2. CROSS.=
At the command =down=, the double-time position for the arms and hands is resumed.
RIFLE EXERCISES
=847.= The object of these exercises, which may also be performed with wands or bar bells, is to develop the muscles of the arms, shoulders, and back so that the men will become accustomed to the weight of the piece and learn to wield it with that "handiness" so essential to its successful use. When these exercises are combined with movements of the various other parts of the body, they serve as a splendid, though rather strenuous, method for the all-round development of the men. As the weight of the piece is considerable, instructors are cautioned to be reasonable in their demands. Far better results are obtained if these exercises are performed at commands than when they are grouped and performed for spectacular purposes.
All the exercises start from the starting position, which is the low extended arm horizontal position in front of the body, arms straight; the right hand grasping the small of the stock and the left hand the barrel; the knuckles turned to the front and the distance between the hands slightly greater than the width of the shoulders. Fig. 17.
This position is assumed at the command: =1. Starting, 2. POSITION=; at the command =position= the piece is brought to the port and lowered to the front horizontal snappily.
To recover the position of order, command: =1. Order, 2. Arms=; the piece is first brought to the port and then to the order.
RIFLE DRILL COMBINATION
The following exercises consist of four movements, the third position always corresponding to the first position and the fourth to the starting position. When performed as a musical drill, the instructions laid down in that lesson are applicable here.
All exercises begin and end with the first or starting position. Fig. 17.
The form of command is, for example:
(Being at the starting position)
=1. First group, 2. FIRST, EXERCISE=;
=1. Second group, 2. THIRD, EXERCISE=;
Etc., Etc.
FIRST GROUP
=848.= First Exercise
Counts
1-2. Raise piece to bent arm front horizontal, shoulder high, and stride forward right, Fig. 18;
3-4. Face to the left on both heels and extend piece upward, Fig. 19;
5-6. Resume first position;
7-8. Resume starting position.
Repeat left, right, left.
=849.= Second Exercise
1-2. Raise piece to extended high horizontal, and stride sideward right, Fig. 20;
3-4. Bend right knee and lower piece to left horizontal, Fig. 21;
5-6. Resume first position;
7-8. Resume starting position.
Repeat left, right, left.
=850.= Third Exercise
1-2. Raise piece to high side perpendicular on the left, left hand up, and stride backward right, Fig. 22;
3-4. Face about on heels and swing piece down and up to high side perpendicular on the right, Fig. 23;
5-6. Resume first position;
7-8. Resume starting position.
Repeat left, right, left.
=851.= Fourth Exercise
1-2. Raise piece to extended high horizontal, and stride obliquely forward right, Fig. 24;
3-4. Face about on heels and lower piece to horizontal on shoulders; Fig. 25;
5-6. Resume first position;
7-8. Resume starting position.
Repeat left, right, left.
SECOND GROUP
=852.= First Exercise
1-2. Lower piece to front extended horizontal and bend trunk forward, Fig. 26;
3-4. Lunge obliquely forward right and raise piece to right oblique, left hand at shoulder, Fig. 27;
5-6. Resume first position;
7-8. Resume starting position.
Repeat left, right, left.
=853.= Second Exercise
1-2. Raise piece to high perpendicular on the left, left hand up, and bend trunk sideward right, Fig. 28;
3-4. Lunge sideward right and swing piece down and up to right high perpendicular, right hand up, Fig. 29;
5-6. Resume first position;
7-8. Resume starting position.
Repeat left, right, left.
=854.= Third Exercise
1-2. Raise piece to high extended arm horizontal and bend trunk backward, Fig. 30;
3-4. Lunge forward right, and swing piece to side horizontal, left hand to the rear, Fig. 31;
5-6. Resume first position;
7-8. Resume starting position.
Repeat left, right, left.
=855.= Fourth Exercise
1-2. Raise piece to right high perpendicular and side step position left, Fig. 32;
3-4. Lunge sideward left and swing piece to left high perpendicular, Fig. 33;
5-6. Resume first position;
7-8. Resume starting position.
Repeat left, right, left.
THIRD GROUP
=856.= First Exercise
1-2. Raise piece to front bent horizontal, arms crossed, left over right; lunge sideward right and bend trunk sideward right, Fig. 34;
3-4. Extend right knee and bend trunk to the left, bending left knee and recrossing arms, left over right, Fig. 35;
5-6. Resume first position;
7-8. Resume starting position.
Repeat left, right, left.
=857.= Second Exercise
1-2. Raise piece to bent arm horizontal; face right and lunge forward right and bend trunk forward, Fig. 36;
3-4. Raise trunk and turn to the left on both heels and extend piece overhead, Fig. 37;
5-6. Resume first position;
7-8. Resume starting position.
Repeat left, right, left.
=858.= Third Exercise
1-2. Raise piece to left high horizontal; lunge forward right, Fig. 38;
3-4. Bend trunk forward and swing piece to extended low horizontal, Fig. 39;
5-6. Resume first position;
7-8. Resume starting position.
Repeat left, right, left.
=859.= Fourth Exercise
1-2. Raise piece to high extended horizontal and hop to side straddle position, Fig. 40;
3-4. Bend trunk forward and swing piece to extended low horizontal, left hand between legs, right hand forward, Fig. 41;
5-6. Resume first position;
7-8. Resume starting position.
Repeat left, right, left.
GYMNASTIC CONTESTS
=860.= These exercises are those in which the benefits are lost sight of in the pleasure their attainment provides, which in the case of these contests is the vanquishing of an opponent. The men are pitted against each other in pairs; age, height, weight, and general physical aptitude being the determining factors in the selection.
In the contests in which superiority is dependent upon skill and agility no restrictions need be placed upon the efforts of the contestants; but in those that are a test of strength and endurance it is well to call a contest a "draw," when the men are equally matched and the contest is likely to be drawn out to the point of exhaustion of one or both contestants.
It is recommended that these contests be indulged in once or twice a month and then at the conclusion of the regular drill.
Contests that require skill and agility should alternate with those that depend upon force and endurance. In order to facilitate the instruction a number of pairs should be engaged at the same time.
1. Cane wrestling: The cane to be about an inch in diameter and a yard long, ends rounded. It is grasped with the right hand at the end, knuckles down, and with the left hand, knuckles up, inside of and close to the opponent's right hand. Endeavor is then made to wrest the cane from the opponent. Loss of grip with either hand loses the bout.
2. Cane twisting. Same cane as in 1. Contestants grasp it as in 1, only the knuckles of both hands are up, and the arms are extended overhead. Object: The contestants endeavor to make the cane revolve in their opponent's hand without allowing it to do so in their own. The cane must be forced down.
3. Cane pulling: Contestants sit on the ground, facing each other, legs straight and the soles of the feet in contact. The cane is grasped as in 2 but close to the feet. Object: To pull the opponent to his feet. The legs throughout the contest must be kept rigid.
4. "Bucked" contest: Contestants sit on the ground "bucked"; i. e., the cane is passed under the knees, which are drawn up, and the arms passed under the cane with the fingers laced in front of the ankles. Object: To get the toes under those of the opponent and roll him over.
5. Single pole pushing: Contestants grasp end of pole, 6 feet long and 2 inches thick, and brace themselves. Object: To push the opponent out of position.
6. Double pole pushing: The poles are placed under the arms close to the arm pits, ends projecting. Object: Same as in 5.
7. Double pole pulling: Position as in 6 but standing back to back. Object: To pull the opponent out of position.
8. "Cock fight": Contestants hop on one leg with the arms folded closely over the chest. Object: by butting with the fleshy part of the shoulder without raising the arms, or by dodging to make the opponent change his feet or touch the floor with his hand or other part of his body.
9. One-legged tug of war: Contestants hop on one leg and grasp hands firmly. Object: To pull the opponent forward or make him place the raised foot on the floor.
10. The "siege": One contestant stands with one foot in a circle 14 inches in diameter, the other foot outside, and the arms folded as in 8. Two other contestants, each hopping on one leg, endeavor to dislodge the one in the circle by butting him with the shoulder. The besieged one is defeated in case he raises the foot in the circle, or removes it entirely from the circle. The besiegers are defeated in case they change feet or touch the floor as in 8. As soon as either of the latter is defeated his place is immediately filled, so that there are always two of them. The besieged should resort to volting, ducking, etc., rather than to depend upon his strength.
11. One-armed tug: Contestants stand facing each other; right hands grasped, feet apart. Object: Without moving feet, to pull the opponent forward. Shifting the feet loses the bout.
12. "Tug royal": Three contestants stand facing inward and grasp each other's wrists securely with their feet outside a circle about three feet in diameter. Object: by pulling or pushing to make one of the contestants step inside of the circle.
13. Indian wrestling: Contestants lie upon the ground face up, right shoulders in close contact, right elbows locked; at one the right leg is raised overhead and lowered, this is repeated at two, and at three the leg is raised quickly and locked with the opponent's right leg. Object: to roll him over by forcing his leg down.
14. Medicine ball race. Teams of five or six men are organized and a track for each team is marked out. This track consists of marks on the floor or ground at distances of 4 yards. On each of these marks stands a man with legs apart, the team forming a column of files. At "ready," "get set," the contestants prepare for the race, and at "go," the first man in the column rolls a medicine ball, which he has on the floor in front of him, through his legs to No. 2, he in turn rolls it to 3, etc., when it reaches the last man he picks it up and runs to the starting place with it and, the others all having shifted back one mark, the rolling is repeated. This continues until the first man brings the ball back to the starting place and every man is in his original position. The ball should be kept rolling: each man, as it comes to him, pushing it on quickly. Any ball about 9 inches in diameter will answer; it may be made of strong cloth and stuffed with cotton waste.
IV. SIGNALING
Signals and Codes
General Service Code. (International Morse Code.)
=861.= Used for all visual and sound signaling, radiotelegraphy, and on cables using siphon recorders, used in communicating with Navy.
A . - B - . . . C - . - . D - . . E . F . . - . G - - . H . . . . I . . J . - - - K - . - L . - . . M - - N - . O - - - P . - - . Q - - . - R . - . S . . . T - U . . - V . . . - W . - - X - . . - Y - . - - Z - - . .
NUMERALS
1 . - - - - 2 . . - - - 3 . . . - - 4 . . . . - 5 . . . . . 6 - . . . . 7 - - . . . 8 - - - . . 9 - - - - . 0 - - - - -
PUNCTUATION
Period . . . . . . Comma . - . - . - . Interrogation . . - - . .
THE MORE IMPORTANT CONVENTIONAL FLAG SIGNALS
For communication between the firing line and the reserve or commander in rear. In transmission, their concealment from the enemy's view should be insured. In the absence of signal flags the headdress or other substitute may be used.
(See par. 96 for the signals.)
Wigwag
Signaling by flag, torch, hand lantern, or beam of searchlight (without shutter)[6]
=862.= 1. There is one position and there are three motions. The position is with flag or other appliance held vertically, the signalman facing directly toward the station with which it is desired to communicate. The first motion (the dot) is to the right of the sender, and will embrace an arc of 90 deg., starting with the vertical and returning to it, and will be made in a plane at right angles to the line connecting the two stations. The second motion (the dash) is a similar motion to the left of the sender. The third motion (front) is downward directly in front of the sender and instantly returned upward to the first position. This is used to indicate a pause or conclusion.
2. The beam of the searchlight, though ordinarily used with the shutter like the heliograph, may be used for long-distance signaling, when no shutter is suitable or available, in a similar manner to the flag or torch, the first position being a vertical one. A movement of the beam 90 deg. to the right of the sender indicates a dot, a similar movement to the left indicates a dash; the beam is lowered vertically for front.
3. To use the torch or hand lantern, a footlight must be employed as a point of reference to the motion. The lantern is more conveniently swung out upward to the right of the footlight for a dot, to the left for a dash, and raised vertically for front.
4. To call a station, make the call letter until acknowledged, at intervals giving the call or signal of the calling station. If the call letter of a station is unknown, wave flag until acknowledged. In using the searchlight without shutter throw the beam in a vertical position and move it through an arc of 180 deg. in a plane at right angles to the line connecting the two stations until acknowledged. To acknowledge a call, signal "Acknowledgment (or) I understand (----front)" followed by the call letter of the acknowledging station.
Notes on Wig-wagging
5. In order to avoid the flag wrapping itself about the staff, stand facing the receiving station, with feet apart. Hold the staff with the left hand at butt and right hand 24 inches from end. In moving flag to the right, bring it down with an outward and inward sweep, and then return it to the vertical. When the tip is farthest down the staff inclines to the right front and as the flag is brought upward it is swept inward and upwards and as it approaches the vertical position it sweeps forward slightly. In moving to the left the motion is similar,--at the lowest point the staff inclines to the left front. A combination of right and left is made with a figure-of-eight motion.
In making "front" the flag is lowered and moved very slightly to the left front and then swept slightly to the right front, making a figure-of-eight.
The body should be twisted and bent at the waist in making the light and left motions.
Care should be exercised in keeping the flag in front of the body in making "front," the figure-of-eight is necessarily very flat.
Do not make letters in a careless slipshod manner.
The Two-arm Semaphore Code
(See Plates I and II)
=863.= Semaphore signaling may be done with or without flags. Without flags it is rarely dependable beyond 600 yards.
In sending stand with feet apart, squarely facing the receiver.
In making letters which require the use of both arms on the same side of body, twist the body to that side and bend at waist, so as to throw both arms well away from body. But be careful to keep arms in plane of original position of body.
When a letter repeats--bring both hands (if a two-armed letter) to chest after first, then make second.
Do not try to send rapidly so as to exhibit your ability. Remember that the receiver's ability determines the speed to be used. Anyone can send faster than he himself can receive. If you want to display your skill have some one send rapidly to you.
In receiving, if you miss a letter--let it go and get the others. If you miss a word signal--"O" (waving flags or arms) and signal the last word you have received.
Rapidity is secondary to accuracy.
Take the positions for the various letters accurately. The horizontal position should not incline upward nor downward. In making an "L," for example, if the left arm is midway between its proper position and the horizontal it is difficult to tell whether it is L or M.
In making D, J, K, P, T, and V, the arm in the vertical position should be brought exactly in front of the body by carrying the shoulder in almost under the chin, twisting the elbow in until it is directly before the eyes, and the forearm held in the vertical position with the palm to the rear. When so done there is no possibility of this position being mistaken for any other.
"Manila Milkman" may be sent without changing the position of the right hand. In making I, be sure to twist body well to the right in order that the left arm may be seen in the upper slanting position to the right. City and similar words may be so made.
D may be made with either hand.
Be sure how next letter is made before moving hands. Make no false motions.
Acquire accuracy; then try for speed.
"CHOP-CHOP." The "chop-chop" signal is made by placing both arms at the right horizontal (that is, by bringing the left arm up to the position of the right arm as in the figure for letter "B"), and then moving each up and down, several times, in opposite direction, making a cutting motion.
END OF WORD. After each word the "Interval" signal is made.
END OF SENTENCE. After each sentence the chop signal is made twice.
END OF MESSAGE. At the end of a message the chop signal is made three times.
ERROR. Signal "A" several times quickly, followed by interval; then repeat the word.
TO BREAK IN. Signal "Attention."
NUMERALS. Numbers are always preceded by the signal, "Numerals." After "Numerals" has been signaled, everything that follows will be numbers until "Interval" is signaled, after which what follows will be letters.
Signaling with heliograph, flash lantern, and searchlight (with shutter)[7]
=864.= 1. The first position is to turn a steady flash on the receiving station. The signals are made by short and long flashes. Use a short flash for dot and a long steady flash for dash. The elements of a letter should be slightly longer than in sound signals.
2. To call a station, make the call letter until acknowledged, at intervals the call or signal of the calling station.
3. If the call letter of a station be unknown, signal a series of dots rapidly made until acknowledged. Each station will then turn on a steady flash and adjust. When the adjustment is satisfactory to the called station, it will cut off its flash, and the calling station will proceed with its message.
4. If the receiver sees that the sender's mirror needs adjustment, he will turn on a steady flash until answered by a steady flash. When the adjustment is satisfactory, the receiver will cut off his flash and the sender will resume his message.
5. To break the sending station for other purposes, turn on a steady flash.
Sound Signals[7]
=865.= 1. Sound signals made by the whistle, foghorn, bugle, trumpet, and drum may be used in a fog, mist, falling snow, or at night. They may be used with the dot and dash code.
2. In applying the code to whistle, foghorn, bugle, or trumpet, one short blast indicates a dot and one long blast a dash. With the drum, one tap indicates a dot and two taps in rapid succession a dash. Although these signals can be used with a dot and dash code, they should be so used in connection with a preconcerted or conventional code.
Morse Code. (American Morse Code)[7]
=866.= Used only by the army on telegraph lines, on short cables, and on field lines, and on all commercial lines in the United States.
A . - B - . . . C . . . D - . . E . F . - . G - - . H . . . . I . . J - . - . K - . - L -- M - - N - . O . . P . . . . . Q . . - . R . . . S . . . T - U . . - V . . . - W . - - X . - . . Y . . . . Z . . . . & . . . .
NUMERALS
1 . - - . 2 . . - . . 3 . . . - . 4 . . . . - 5 - - - 6 . . . . . . 7 - - . . 8 - . . . . 9 - . . - 0 ---
PUNCTUATION
Period . . - - . . Comma . - . - Interrogation - . . - .
FOOTNOTES:
[6] Extracts from Signal Book, United States Army.
[7] Extracts from Signal Book, United States Army.
I. THE GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION OF A COMPANY
=867. The proper performance of the duty of COMPANY COMMANDER, like the proper performance of any other duty, requires work and attention to business.=
The command of a company divides itself into two kinds of duty: government and administration.
The government includes the instruction, discipline, contentment, and harmony of the organization, involving, as it does, esprit de corps, rewards, privileges, and punishments.
The administration includes the providing of clothing, arms, ammunition, equipage, and subsistence; the keeping of records, including the rendition of reports and returns; and the care and accountability of Government and company property, and the disbursement of the company fund.
System and care are prerequisites of good administration.
The efficient administration of a company greatly facilitates its government.
THE CAPTAIN
=868.= With regard to his company the captain stands in the same light as a father to a large family of children. It is his duty to provide for their comfort, sustenance, and pleasure; enforce strict rules of obedience, punish the refractory and reward the deserving.
He should be considerate and just to his officers and men and should know every soldier personally and make him feel that he so knows him.
He should by word and act make every man in the company feel that the captain is his protector.
The captain should not be indifferent to the personal welfare of his men, and when solicited, being a man of greater experience, education, and information, he should aid and counsel them in such a way as to show he takes an interest in their joys and sorrows.
When any men are sick he should do everything possible for them until they can be taken care of by the surgeon. He can add much to the comfort and pleasure of men in the hospital by visiting them from time to time and otherwise showing an interest in their condition.
In fact, one of the officer's most important duties is to look after the welfare of his men--to see that they are well fed, well clothed and properly cared for in every other way--to see that they are happy and contented. The officer who does not look after the welfare of his men to the best of his ability, giving the matter his earnest personal attention, neglects one of the principal things that the Government pays him to do.
The soldier usually has a decided feeling for his captain, even though it be one of hatred. With regard to the higher grade of officers, he has respect for them according to regulations; otherwise, for the most part, he is indifferent. At the very most, he knows whether his post or regimental commander keeps him long at drill, and particularly whether he has any peculiar habits. The average soldier looks upon his captain as by far the most important personage in the command.
There is no other position in the Army that will give as much satisfaction in return for an honest, capable and conscientious discharge of duty, as that of captain. There is a reward in having done his full duty to his company that no disappointment of distinction, no failure, can deprive him of; his seniors may overlook him in giving credits, unfortunate circumstances may defeat his fondest hopes, and the crown of laurel may never rest upon his brow, but the reward that follows upon the faithful discharge of his duty to his company he can not be deprived of by any disaster, neglect or injustice.
He is a small sovereign, powerful and great, within his little domain.
=869. Devolution of Work and Responsibility.= The company commander should not attempt to do all the work--to look after all the details in person--he should not try to command directly every squad and every platoon. The successful company commander is the one who distributes work among his subordinates and organizes the help they are supposed to give him. By War Department orders, Army Regulations and customs of the service, the lieutenants and noncommissioned officers are charged with certain duties and responsibilities. Let every one of them carry the full load of their responsibility. The company commander should not usurp the functions of his subordinates--he should not relieve them of any of their prescribed or logical work and responsibility. On the contrary, he should give them more, and he should see that they "deliver the goods." Skill in distributing work among subordinates is one of the first essentials of leadership, as is the ability to get work out of them so that they will fill their functions to the full within the limits of their responsibility. Not only does devolution of work and responsibility cause subordinates to take more interest in their work (it makes them feel less like mere figure-heads), but it also teaches them initiative and gives them valuable experience in the art of training and handling men. Furthermore, it enables the company commander to devote more time to the larger and more important matters connected with the discipline, welfare, training, instruction and administration of the company.
The captain who allows his lieutenants to do practically nothing makes a mistake--he is doing something that will rob his lieutenants of all initiative, cause them to lose interest in the company, and make them feel like nonentities--like a kind of "fifth wheel"--it will make them feel they are not, in reality, a part of the company--it will prevent them from getting a practical, working knowledge of the government and administration of a company.
By allowing his lieutenants to participate to the greatest extent possible in the government and administration of the company, and by not hampering and pestering them with unnecessary instructions about details, the captain will get out of his lieutenants the very best that there is in them.
The captain should require RESULTS from his lieutenants, and the mere fact that a lieutenant is considered inefficient and unable to do things properly, is no reason why he should not be required to do them. The captain is by Army Regulations responsible for the efficiency and instruction of his lieutenants regarding all matters pertaining to the company, and he should require them to perform all their duties properly, resorting to such disciplinary measures as may be considered necessary. The lieutenant who can not, or who will not, perform his duties properly is a drag on the company, and such a man has no business in the Army, or in the Organized Militia.
THE LIEUTENANT
=870.= To be able to perform well the duties of captain when the responsibility falls upon him, should be the constant study and ambition of the lieutenant.
He is the assistant of the captain and should be required by the captain to assist in the performance of all company duties, including the keeping of records and the preparation of the necessary reports, returns, estimates and requisitions. The captain should give him lots to do, and should throw him on his own responsibility just as much as possible. He should be required to drill the company, attend the daily inspection of the company quarters, instruct the noncommissioned officers, brief communications, enter letters in the Correspondence Book, make out ration returns, reports, muster and pay rolls, etc., until he shows perfect familiarity therewith.
Whenever told to do a thing by your captain, do it yourself or see personally that it is done. Do not turn it over to some noncommissioned officer and let it go at that. If your captain wants some noncommissioned officer to do the thing, he himself will tell him to do it--he will not ask you to do it.
It is customary in the Army to regard the company as the property of the captain. Should the lieutenant, therefore, be in temporary command of the company he should not make any changes, especially in the reduction or promotion of noncommissioned officers without first having consulted the captain's wishes in the matter.
It is somewhat difficult to explain definitely the authority a lieutenant exercises over the men in the company when the captain is present. In general terms, however, it may be stated the lieutenant can not make any changes around the barracks, inflict any punishment or put men on, or relieve them from, any duty without the consent of the captain. It is always better if there be a definite understanding between the captain and his lieutenants as to what he expects of them, how he wishes to have certain things done and to what extent he will sustain them.
If the lieutenant wants anything from the company in the way of working parties, the services of the company artificer or company clerk, the use of ordnance stores or quartermaster articles, he should always speak to the captain about the matter.
THE CAPTAIN AND THE LIEUTENANTS
=871.= The company officers should set an example to their men in dress, military bearing, system, punctuality and other soldierly qualities. It should be remembered that the negligence of superiors is the cue for juniors to be negligent.
If the men of a company are careless and indifferent about saluting and if they are shabby and lax in their dress, the company commander is to blame for it--company officers can always correct defects of this kind, if they will only try.
The character and efficiency of officers and the manner in which they perform their duties are reflected in the conduct and deportment of their men.
Of course, courage is a prerequisite quality for a good officer, and every officer should seek to impress his men that he would direct them to do nothing involving danger that he would not himself be willing to do under similar circumstances.
If a company officer be ignorant of his duties, his men will soon find it out, and when they do they will have neither respect for, nor confidence in, him.
Company officers should take an active interest in everything that affects the amusement, recreation, happiness and welfare of their men.
An officer just joining a company should learn without delay the names of all the men. A roll of the organization should be gotten and studied.
While an officer can gruffly order a soldier to do a thing and have his orders obeyed, it should be remembered that, as a rule, human nature, especially American human nature, responds best to an appeal to pride, fairness, justice, reason, and the other nobler instincts of man. It is only in rare instances that the average man will give the best there is in him under coercion or pressure of authority.
There are but few men who have not some good in them, and this good can generally be gotten at, if one only goes about it in the right way. Study your men and try to arouse in them pride and interest in their work.
The soldier first learns to respect, then to honor and finally to love the officer who is strict but just; firm but kind--and this is the officer who will draw out of his men the very best there is in them.
=872.= Treat your men like men, and remember there is nothing that will so completely take the spirit out of a man as to find fault with him when he is doing his best.
Young officers sometimes run to one of two extremes in the treatment of their men--they either, by undue familiarity, or otherwise, cultivate popularity with the men; or they do not treat them with sufficient consideration--the former course will forfeit their esteem; the latter, ensure their dislike, neither of which result is conducive to commanding their respect.
Treat your soldiers with proper consideration, dignity, and justice--remember they are members of your profession, the difference being one of education, rank, command, and pay--but they are men, like yourself, and should be treated as such.
Under no circumstances should you ever swear at a soldier--not only is this taking a mean, unfair advantage of your position, but it is also undignified, ungentlemanly, and unmilitary. It is even more improper for you to swear at a soldier than it is for a superior to swear at you--in the latter case the insult can be properly resented; in the former, it must be borne in humiliating silence.
Remember, that if by harsh or unfair treatment you destroy a man's self-respect, you at the same time destroy his usefulness.
Familiarity is, of course, most subversive of discipline, but you can treat your men with sympathetic consideration without being familiar with them.
In dealing with enlisted men, do not use the same standard of intellect and morals that apply in the case of officers. And remember, too, that a thing that may appear small and trivial to an officer may mean a great deal to an enlisted man--study your men, learn their desires, their habits, their way of thinking, and then in your dealings with them try to look at things from their standpoint also. In other words in your treatment of your men be just as human as possible.
The treatment of soldiers should be uniform and just, and under no circumstances should a man be humiliated unnecessarily or abused. Reproof and punishment must be administered with discretion and judgment, and without passion; for the officer who loses his temper and flies into a tantrum has failed to obtain his first triumph in discipline. He who can not control himself can not control others.
Every officer should study himself carefully, he should analyze himself, he should place himself under a microscopic glass, so as to discover his weak points--and he should then try with his whole might and soul to make these weak points strong points. If, for instance, you realize that you are weak in applied minor tactics, or that you have no "bump of locality," or that you have a poor memory, or that you have a weak will, do what you can to correct these defects in your make-up. Remember "Stonewall" Jackson's motto: "A man can do anything he makes up his mind to do."
The Progress Company, Chicago, Ill., publishes "Mind Power," "Memory," "The Will," "The Art of Logical Thinking" (all by W. W. Atkinson), and several other books of a similar nature, that are both interesting and instructive. "The Power of the Will," by Haddock, for sale by Albert Lewis Pelton, Meriden, Conn., is an excellent book of its kind.
THE FIRST SERGEANT
=873.= It has been said the captain is the proprietor of the company and the first sergeant is the foreman.
Under supervision of the captain, he has immediate charge of all routine matters pertaining to the company.
In some companies in the Regular Army, it is customary for soldiers, except in cases of emergency, to get permission from the first sergeant to speak to the company commander at any time. In other organizations soldiers who wish to speak to the company commander away from the company quarters must first obtain the first sergeant's permission, but it is not necessary to get this permission to speak to the company commander when he is at the barracks.
The first sergeant is sometimes authorized to place noncommissioned officers in arrest in quarters and privates in confinement in the guardhouse, assuming such action to be by order of the captain, to whom he at once reports the facts. However, with regard to the confinement of soldiers by noncommissioned officers, attention is invited to the Army Regulations on the subject.
THE NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS
=(The status, duties, etc., of noncommissioned officers are covered in greater detail in Noncommissioned Officers' Manual, by the author. General agents: George Banta Publishing Co., Menasha, Wis.)=
=874.= The efficiency and discipline of a company depend to such an extent on the noncommissioned officers that the greatest care and judgment should be exercised in their selection. They should be men possessing such soldierly qualities as a high sense of duty, cheerful obedience to orders, force of character, honesty, sobriety and steadiness, together with an intelligent knowledge of drills, regulations, and orders.
They should exact prompt obedience from those to whom they give orders, and should see that all soldiers under them perform their military duties properly. They must not hesitate to reprove them when necessary, but such reproof must not be any more severe than the occasion demands.
The company officers must sustain the noncommissioned officers in the exercise of their authority, except, of course, when such authority is improperly or unjustly exercised. If they do wrong, they should be punished the same as the privates, but if it be simply an error of judgment they should merely be admonished. A noncommissioned officer should never be admonished in the presence of privates.
Judicious praising of noncommissioned officers in the presence of privates is not only gratifying to the noncommissioned officer, but it also tends to enhance the respect and esteem of the privates for him.
In addition to dividing the company into squads, each squad being under a noncommissioned officer as required by the Army Regulations, the company should also be divided into sections, each section being in charge of a sergeant. The squads and sections should, as far as possible, be quartered together in barracks, and the chiefs of squads and the chiefs of sections should be held strictly responsible for the conduct, dress, cleanliness, and the care of arms of the members of their respective squads and sections. Not only does this throw the corporals and the sergeants upon their own responsibility to a certain extent, but it also impresses upon them the importance of their position, and gets the privates in the habit of realizing and appreciating the authority exercised by noncommissioned officers.
When practicable, the noncommissioned officers should have separate rooms or tents, and should mess together at tables separate from the privates; for, everything that conduces to familiarity with inferiors tends to lower the dignity of the noncommissioned officers' position.
Throw your noncommissioned officers upon their own responsibility--throw them into deep water, so to speak, where they will either have to swim or sink. You can never tell what a man can really do until you have given him a chance to show you--until you have put him on his mettle--until you have tried him out. And very often men who seem to have nothing in them, men who have never before been thrown upon their own responsibility, will surprise you.
Do all you can to make your noncommissioned officers realize and appreciate the importance of their position. Consult them about different matters--get their opinions about various things. When going through the barracks at Saturday morning inspection, for instance, as you come to the different squads, have the squad leaders step to the front and follow you while you are inspecting their respective squads. If you find anything wrong with a man's bunk, speak to the squad leader about it. Also ask the squad leaders various questions about their squads.
Not only does such treatment of noncommissioned officers make them appreciate the importance, responsibility and dignity of their position, but it also gives them more confidence in themselves and raises them in the eyes of the privates.
Noncommissioned officers should always be addressed by their titles, by both officers and soldiers.
Noncommissioned officers are forbidden by regulations to act as barbers, or as agents for laundries, or in any other position of a similar character.
Everything possible should be done by the company officers to instruct the noncommissioned officers properly in their duties.[8]
So far as the company is concerned, the noncommissioned officers are expected to assist the company commander in carrying out his own orders and those of his superiors--they should see that all company orders are obeyed and that the known wishes of the captain are carried out. If, for instance, the captain should tell the first sergeant that the men in the company may play cards among themselves, but that noncommissioned officers are not to play with privates and that men from other companies are not allowed to take part in, or to be present at the games, then it is the duty of the first sergeant to see that these instructions are carried out--it is his duty to make frequent inspections of the tables at which the men may be playing to see that no noncommissioned officers are playing and that no outsiders are present. The first sergeant who confined himself to publishing the order to the company and then doing nothing more, would be neglectful of his proper duty.
Noncommissioned officers clothed in the proper uniform of their grade are on duty at all times and places for the suppression of disorderly conduct on the part of members of the company in public places. Men creating disorder will be sent to their quarters in arrest and the facts reported to the company commander without delay.
Noncommissioned officers can do much to prevent the commission of offenses by members of their commands, both when on and when off duty, and such prevention is as much their duty as reporting offenses after they are committed; in fact, it is much better to prevent the offense than to bring the offender to trial.
Company commanders should drill their noncommissioned officers thoroughly in the principles of discipline.
=875. Noncommissioned Officers Authorized to Confine Enlisted Men.= A company or detachment commander may delegate to his noncommissioned officers the authority to confine enlisted men in the guardhouse and to place them in arrest in quarters, provided the case is immediately reported to the company or detachment commander, who confirms the act of the noncommissioned officer and adopts it as his own.--W. D. decision, December, 1905.
=876. Reduction and Resignation.= A noncommissioned officer should never be reduced to ranks, except for grave and sufficient reasons. Nothing demoralizes the noncommissioned officers of a company so much and upsets discipline to such an extent as the feeling that upon the slightest pretext or fancy one is to be sent back to the ranks, to associate with the privates he has been required to discipline.
In some regiments noncommissioned officers are permitted to send in formal resignations, while in other regiments they are not, but, with the approval of the company commander, they may ask for reduction, giving proper, satisfactory and specific reasons. Of course, resignations submitted in a spirit of accepted insubordination or pique should not be considered, nor should they ever be in substitution for deserved disciplinary punishment. If a noncommissioned officer has good reasons for requesting reduction and the granting of the request would not result in detriment to the company, there is no reason why his application should not be favorably considered. However, in such a case, the noncommissioned officer should consult his company commander before submitting his request in writing. It is thought the preponderance of custom is against considering formal resignations.
Contentment and Harmony
=877.= The officers of the company should do everything possible to make the organization contented and harmonious. Contentment and harmony are not only conducive to good discipline and efficiency, but they also make the government of the company easy and reduce desertions to a minimum.
The showing of favoritism on the part of the captain is always a cause of great dissatisfaction amongst the soldiers in the company. Soldiers do not care how strict the captain is, just so he is fair and impartial, treating all men alike.
=878. The Mess.= The captain should give the mess his constant personal attention, making frequent visits to the kitchen and dining-room while the soldiers are at meals so as to see for himself what they are getting, how it is served, etc.
It is not saying too much to state that, in time of peace, a good mess is the real basis of the contentment of a company.
Ascertain what the soldiers like to eat and then gratify their appetites as far as practicable.
Be careful that the cook or the mess sergeant doesn't fall into a rut and satiate the soldiers day after day with the same dishes.
Give the ration your personal attention--know yourself what the company is entitled to, how much it is actually getting, what the savings amount to, etc.
=879. Library and Amusement Room.= A library and an amusement room, supplied with good books, magazines, papers, a billiard or pool table, and a phonograph, are a source of much pleasure and contentment.
=880. Athletic Apparatus.= A judicious investment of the company fund in baseballs, bats, dumb bells, Indian clubs, boxing gloves and other athletic goods, and the encouragement of baseball, basketball, quoits, etc., are in the interest of harmony and happiness.
Rewards and Privileges
=881.= 1. Deny all passes and requests for privileges of men whose conduct is not good, and on the other hand grant to men whose conduct is good, as many indulgences as is consistent with discipline.
2. Judicious praise in the presence of the first sergeant, a few noncommissioned officers, or the entire company, depending upon circumstances, very often accomplishes a great deal. After the according of such praise, let your action toward the man show that his good conduct is appreciated and that it has raised him in your estimation, and make him feel you are keeping your eye on him to see whether he will continue in his well doing.
3. Publication of commendatory orders, desirable special duty details, etc.
4. Promotion, and extra duty details which carry extra pay.
5. Meritorious conduct of importance should be noted in the soldier's military record and also on his discharge.
6. At the weekly company inspection, each chief of squad picks out the neatest and cleanest man in his squad--the captain then inspects the men so selected, the neatest and cleanest one being excused from one or two tours of kitchen police, or some other disagreeable duty; or given a two days' pass.
NOTE: Some officers do not think that good conduct should be especially rewarded, but that if all soldiers be held strictly accountable for their actions by a system of strict discipline, good conduct attains its own reward in the immunities it enjoys.
=882. Company punishment.= It is neither necessary nor desirable to bring every dereliction of duty before a court-martial for trial. In fact, the invariable preferring of charges for minor[9] offenses will, as a rule, injure rather than help the discipline of a command. The 104th Article of War states, "The commanding officer of any detachment, company, or higher command may, for minor offenses not denied by the accused, impose disciplinary punishments upon persons of his command without the intervention of a court-martial, unless the accused demands trial by court-martial." The disciplinary punishments authorized may include admonition, reprimand, withholding of privileges, extra fatigue, and restriction to certain specified limits, but shall not include forfeiture of pay or confinement under guard. (Par. 333, Manual for Courts-Martial.)
Some Efficacious Forms of Company Punishment
=883.= 1. Extra fatigue under the Company Supply Sergeant or the noncommissioned officer in charge of quarters, cleaning up around and in the company quarters, scrubbing pots, scouring tin pans, polishing stoves, cutting wood, policing the rears, cutting grass, pulling weeds, polishing the brass and nickel parts in the water closets and bath rooms, washing and greasing leather, cleaning guns, boiling greasy haversacks, and in camp, digging drains and working around slop holes.
If the work be done well the offender may be let off sooner--if the work be not done well, he may be tried for it.
2. Men may not be allowed to leave the immediate vicinity of the barracks for periods ranging from one to ten days, during which time they are subject to all kinds of disagreeable fatigue, and required to report to the N. C. O. in charge of quarters at stated hours.
3. Breaking rocks for a given number of days. For every man so punished, a private of the same company is detailed as a sentinel and for every four men a corporal is detailed in addition--the idea being to cause every man in each organization to take an interest in preventing his own comrades from violating rules and regulations.
4. When two soldiers get into a row that is not of a serious nature, a good plan is to set them at work scrubbing the barrack windows--one on the outside and one on the inside, making them clean the same pane at the same time. They are thus constantly looking in each other's faces and before the second window is cleaned they will probably be laughing at each other and part friends rather than nursing their wrath.
5. Confinement to barracks, reporting to the noncommissioned officer in charge of quarters once every hour, from reveille to, say, 9 P. M.
NOTE: Some company commanders follow, for moral effect, the practice of publishing to their companies all summary court convictions of soldiers belonging to the organization.
Withholding of Privileges
1. Withholding of passes and of credit at the post exchange.
2. Withholding of furloughs.
=884. Control of Drunken and Obscene Men.= In order to control drunken and obscene men, they have been bucked and gagged until sufficiently sober to regain self-control and quiet down. The use of a cold water hose in such cases has been known to accomplish good results. Great care and judgment, however, should be exercised and no more force used than is absolutely necessary.
It may also be said that persistently filthy men have been washed and scrubbed.
=885.= Saturday morning and other company inspections are intended to show the condition of the organization regarding its equipment, military appearance and general fitness for service, and the condition of the quarters as regards cleanliness, order, etc. Usually everyone except the guard, one cook, and others whose presence elsewhere can not be spared, are required to attend inspections, appearing in their best clothes, their arms and accouterments being shipshape and spick and span in every respect.
A man appearing at inspection with arms and equipments not in proper shape, especially if he be a recruit or if it be his first offense, may be turned out again several hours later, fully armed and equipped, for another inspection, instead of being tried by summary court.
Property Responsibility
=886.= Special attention should be given to the care and accountability of all company property.
1. All property (tents, axes, spades, chairs, hatchets, etc.) should be plainly marked with the letter of the company.
2. Keep a duplicate copy of every memorandum receipt given for property, and when such property is turned in or another officer's memorandum receipt is given covering the property, don't fail to get your original memorandum from the quartermaster.
3. See that the quartermaster gives you credit for all articles turned in, or property accounted for on statement of charges, proceedings of a surveying officer or otherwise.
4. Have a settlement with the quartermaster at the end of every quarter as required by Army Regulations, taking an inventory of all property held on memorandum receipt and submitting to the quartermaster a statement of charges and a certified list of the china and glassware unavoidably broken during the quarter.
5. Keep an account of all articles issued to the men, turned in to the quartermaster, condemned, expended, lost, stolen or destroyed.
6. Worn out and unserviceable, property that is beyond repair in the company should be submitted to the action of a surveying officer, the Survey Reports (Form No. 196, A. G. O.) being prepared in triplicate, and submitted to the commanding officer, who will appoint a surveying officer. No property that can be repaired in the company should ever be submitted to the action of a surveying officer or inspector. In this connection company commanders and supply sergeants should be thoroughly familiar with Ordnance Department pamphlet No. 1965 and G. O. 26, 1917, the two covering the care, repair and disposition of unserviceable Ordnance equipment.
7. Property that is to be submitted to the action of a surveying officer or an inspector should always first be carefully examined by the responsible officer in person, who should be prepared to give all necessary information in regard to it.
The property should be arranged in the order of enumeration in the survey or the inventory report, and should be arranged in rows of five, ten, or some other number, so that the numbers of the various articles can be counted at a glance.
The Army Regulations require that the responsible officer shall be present at the inspection of property by a regular inspector. He should also be present when property is acted on by a surveying officer.
8. All company property (Ordnance, Quartermaster, Signal and Engineer) except the litter (Medical Department) is gotten from the unit supply officer on memorandum receipt. The litter is gotten from the surgeon on memorandum receipt. Settlements are required to be made quarterly with the officers concerned, and also when relinquishing command.
Company Paperwork
=887. Scope of subject.= To cover in full the subject of company paperwork would require more space than it is practicable to spare in a manual of this nature, and consequently only brief reference is made herein to the principal books, records and papers connected with the administration of a company.
The subject of company paperwork, as well as Army administration in general, is covered in full in Army Paperwork, published by Geo. Banta Publishing Co., Menasha, Wis. Price $2.00, postpaid.
In connection with company paperwork, it may be remarked that now-a-days no company office is complete without a typewriter. For all-around field and garrison work the CORONA, which is used throughout the Army, is recommended. Not only is it less bulky and lighter than other machines, but it is simpler of construction and will stand harder usage. The Corona Folding Stand adds very much to the convenience of the machine for field use.
=888. Morning Report.= Which shows, at the hour the report is submitted, the exact condition of the company as to the number of officers and men present for duty, sick, absent, etc. All changes since the last report (the day before) are shown by name, under "Remarks," on the right-hand page, and by number on the left-hand page. In case of no change since last report, note, "No change," under, "Remarks," and also on the left-hand page. (See model given below.)
NOTE. The numbers 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, etc., entered by hand on the left in model, and which show the number of days from each printed number (date) to the end of the month, are entered the beginning of each month, and are a convenience in showing at once the number of rations to be added or deducted in the case of men joining or leaving the company.
=889. Daily Sick Report.= On which are entered the names of all enlisted men requiring medical attention and such of the company officers as may be excused from duty because of illness. The report is signed each day by the surgeon and the company commander, and shows whether or not the sickness was incurred in line of duty.
=890. Duty Roster.= On which is kept a record of all details for guard duty, kitchen police, and other details for service in garrison and in the field, except the authorized special and extra duty details. For instructions regarding the keeping of roster, see, "Details and Rosters," Manual of Interior Guard Duty and the Model and instructions on the form itself.
=891. Files of Orders.= A file will be kept of all orders issued by the company commander. Files will also be kept of all orders and instructions received from higher authority.
=892. Company Fund Book.= In which are entered all receipts to, and expenditures from, the company fund, together with the monthly proceeding of the Company Council of Administration, and a list of property, with cost thereof, purchased from the company fund. The model in the front of the book shows how the account is to be kept.
=893. Correspondence Book, with index.= In which is entered a brief of each item of correspondence in respect to which a record is necessary, and a notation of the action taken thereon.
=894. Document File=, being the original documents or communications when these are retained, and carbon, letter press, or other copies of letters, indorsements, or telegrams sent in regard to the same, all of which are filed according to serial numbers.
=895. Delinquency Record=, in which are noted the disciplinary punishments awarded by the company commander in compliance with the provisions of Army Regulations.
=896. Property Responsibility.= Two loose-leaf books in which are listed, in one all articles of quartermaster property, and in the other, all articles of ordnance property, issued each soldier for his personal use.
=897. Service Record.= (Formerly known as "Descriptive List.") One for each member of the company, in which is kept a full description of him, including date of enlistment, personnel description, record of deposits, trial by court-martial, record of vaccination, clothing account, etc.
=898. Descriptive Card of Public Animals.= To be kept in organizations supplied with public animals.
=899. Retained Copies of Rolls, Returns, etc.= Retained copies of the various rolls, reports, and returns (property and other) that are required by orders and regulations.
=900. Memorandum Receipts=, showing all articles of ordnance quartermaster, and other property that may be held on memorandum receipt, with date of receipt, from whom received, etc. The company commander has a quarterly settlement with the staff officers concerned.
=901. Abstract Record of Memorandum Receipts.= For keeping a record of property issued on memorandum receipt, in connection with the unit accountability equipment.
=902. Record of Rifles=, showing the number of the rifle, the Arsenal where made, date of receipt, to whom issued, and number of shots fired each target season. (Note. Geo. Banta Publishing Co., Menasha, Wis., print an excellent card for this purpose.)
=903. Summary Court Records.= Commanding officers are required to furnish organization commanders with true copies of all summary court records relating to men of their organizations, which papers form a part of the records of the organization.
=904. Statement of Clothing Charged to Enlisted Men.= When clothing is drawn individually from the quartermaster, the Individual Clothing Slips are entered on the Statement of Clothing Charged to Enlisted Men, which is filed with the requisition to which it pertains.
=905. Abstract of Clothing.= All individual clothing slips are entered on this abstract as the issues are made, the total quantities and money values being determined and the abstract completed at the end of month or when the organization leaves the vicinity of the issuing quartermaster for an extended period. At the close of period covered, the organization commander compares his copy of the abstract with the quartermaster's copy, and it is then filed with the Individual Clothing Slips and Statement of Clothing Charged to Enlisted men.
=906. Record of Size of Clothing.= A record of the sizes of clothing of every man in the company as ascertained by measurement.
=907. Company Target Records.= An individual record is kept for each man of the company and for every officer firing, on which are entered the record rifle practice and the qualification for each target season. A similar record is kept in the case of those required to fire with the pistol. Records are also kept of the company combat firing and the proficiency test, and of the combat practice. The combat practice records are kept until the close of the following target season, when they may be destroyed.
=908. Company Return.= On the first day of each month a Company Return for the preceding month is submitted to regimental headquarters. The return gives by name all changes since rendition of last return in the case of officers, and by number all changes in the case of enlisted men, and shows the condition of the company at midnight of the last day of the month for which rendered. All officers, present and absent, are accounted for by name, and under "Record of Events," is given a brief statement of the duties performed by the company during the month, including marches made, actions in which engaged, etc. See next page for a "Model" Company Return.
=909. Ration return.= In addition to rations, on this form are obtained soap, candles, matches, toilet paper, rock salt, vinegar for animals, flour for paste in target practice, towels, and ice, the allowances of which are prescribed in the Army Regulations.
The best way to show how a ration return is prepared is to give a "model" and then explain how the figures thereon were obtained.
The figures in the above "model" were obtained as follows:
(a) The enlisted strength of Co. "H," 50th Inf., present and absent according to the morning report of Feb. 29/16, was 97
(b) Deduct from the above the number of men absent according to the morning report of Feb. 29/16, and for whom rations will not, therefore, be drawn for any part or for the whole of the month of March, the number of men absent being (assumed) as follows:
On furlough 3 On detached service 2 Absent sick 2 Absent in confinement 1 Present sick in hospital 4 Attached to and rationed with the band 2 14 --------- Balance 83
(c) Add the number of men attached to the company for rations, which (it is assumed) consists of two general prisoners 2 --------- TOTAL 85
That is to say, we have 85 men for whom one ration per day must be drawn for the month of March, that is to say, 31 days.
Hence, the total number of rations will be, 85 x 31 = 2635 rations.
(d) Additions and deductions must be made as follows:
Additions
For the men who were attached to the company for rations and who joined during the month of February, from absent sick, furlough, detached service, etc., and which (let us assume) the "Plus" column of "Rations" on the company morning report for February shows to be 150
Deductions
For the men who left the company during the month of February, on account of being sent to the hospital sick, going on furlough, etc., and which (let us assume) the "Minus" column of "Rations" on the company morning report for February shows to be 200
Leaving us (a "Net correction") to be added of 50 --------- And making the total number due the company for the month of March 2585
EXTRA ISSUES
The Army Regulations fixes the maximum allowance of soap, toilet paper, matches, etc., the commanding officer being authorized, if he so desires, to determine the allowances, with the prescribed maximum. The allowances are based either on so much per ration, per so many rations, or per organization. In the case of candles and matches the allowance is left entirely to the commanding officer.
Example
(See "model" ration return above)
Soap. Allowance is 0.64 for each ration or 4 lbs. to 100 rations. 25.85 x 4 = 103.40, i. e., the company is entitled to 103 lbs. of soap for the month of March.
Toilet paper. Allowance is 1000 sheets for every 60 rations, 2585 / 60 = 43+, that is, the company is entitled to 43 packages of toilet paper.
Matches. Allowance of matches for lighting fires and lights, for which fuel and the illumination supplies are issued, is such as the commanding officer may order as necessary.
Flour. Allowance of flour for paste used in target practice is 50 lbs. for each troop or company for the practice season.
FOOTNOTES:
[8] Silicate Roll Blackboards, which are perfectly flexible and can be rolled tightly, like a map, without injury, may be obtained from the New York Silicate Book Slate Co., 20 Vesey St., New York. They are made in various sizes, about the most convenient for use in noncommissioned officers' schools is No. 3, three by four feet--price $2.
[9] For example, noisy or disorderly conduct in quarters, failure to salute officers, slovenly dressed at formations, rifle equipments not properly cleaned at inspection or other formations, overstaying pass, short absences without leave and absences from formations (especially for first offense).
II. DISCIPLINE
=910. Definition.= Discipline is not merely preservation of order, faithful performance of duty, and prevention of offenses--in other words, discipline is not merely compliance with a set of rules and regulations drawn up for the purpose of preserving order in an organization. This is only one phase of discipline. In its deeper and more important sense discipline may be defined as the habit of instantaneous and instinctive obedience under any and all circumstances--it is the habit whereby the very muscles of the soldier instinctively obey the word of command, so that under whatever circumstances of danger or death the soldier may hear that word of command, even though his mind be too confused to work, his muscles will obey. It is toward this ultimate object that all rules of discipline tend. In war, the value of this habit of instantaneous and instinctive obedience is invaluable, and during the time of peace everything possible should be done to ingrain into the very blood of the soldier this spirit, this habit, of instantaneous, instinctive obedience to the word of command.
=911. Methods of Attaining Good Discipline.= Experience shows that drill, routine, military courtesy, attention to details, proper rewards for good conduct, and invariable admonition or punishment of all derelictions of duty, are the best methods of attaining good discipline--that they are the most effective means to that end.
=912. Importance.= History shows that the chief factor of success in war is discipline, and that without discipline no body of troops can hold their own against a well-directed, well-disciplined force.
=913. Sound System.= We must bear in mind that what may be considered a sound system of discipline at one epoch or for one nation, may be inapplicable at another epoch or for another nation. In other words, sound discipline depends upon the existing state of civilization and education, the political institutions of the country, the national trait and the national military system. For example, the system of discipline that existed in the days of Frederick the Great, and which, in modified form, exists today in certain European armies, whereby the soldier was so inured to a habit of subjection that he became a sort of machine--a kind of automaton. Such a system of discipline, while answering admirably well its purpose at that time and for those nations, would not do at all in this day and generation, and with a people like ours, in whom the spirit of personal freedom and individual initiative are born. Of course, the discipline that will insure obedience under any and all conditions--the discipline that will insure prompt and unhesitating obedience to march, to attack, to charge--is just as important today as it was a thousand years ago, but we can not attain it by the machine-making methods of former times. The system we use must be in keeping with the national characteristics of our people and the tactical necessities of the day, the latter requiring individual initiative. According to the old system, the company commander imposed his will upon a body of submissive units; under the new system the company commander, backed by authority and greater knowledge, leads obedient, willing units, exacting ready obedience and loyal cooeperation. The company commander used to drive; now he leads.
=914. Means of attaining and maintaining such discipline.=
1. Explain to the men the importance of discipline and its value on the field of battle, and give the reasons that makes it necessary to subject soldiers to restrictions that they were not subjected to in civil life.
2. Do not impose unnecessary restrictions or hardships on your men, nor issue orders that have no bearing on their efficiency, health, cleanliness, orderliness, etc.
3. Demand a high standard of excellence in the performance of all duties whatsoever, and exact the utmost display of energy.
A system of discipline based on the above principles develops habits of self-control, self-reliance, neatness, order, and punctuality, and creates respect for authority and confidence in superiors.
=915. Punishment.= In maintaining discipline, it must be remembered the object of punishment should be two-fold: (a) To prevent the commission of offenses, and (b) to reform the offender. Punishment should, therefore, in degree and character depend upon the nature of the offense. Punishment should not be debasing or illegal, and the penalty should be proportionate to the nature of the offense. If too great, it tends to arouse sympathy, and foster friends for the offender, thus encouraging a repetition of the offense. A distinction, therefore, should be made between the deliberate disregard of orders and regulations, and offenses which are the result of ignorance or thoughtlessness. In the latter case the punishment should be for the purpose of instruction and should not go to the extent of inflicting unnecessary humiliation and discouragement upon the offender.
General Principles
=916.= In the administration of discipline the following principles should be observed.
1. Everyone, officers and soldiers, should be required and made to perform their full duty. If the post commander, for instance, requires the company commanders to do their full duty, they will require their noncommissioned officers to do their full duty, and the noncommissioned officers will in turn require the men to do the same.
2. Subordinates should be held strictly responsible for the proper government and administration of their respective commands, and all changes or corrections should be made through them.
3. Subordinates should have exclusive control of their respective commands, and all orders, instructions and directions affecting their commands should be given through them.
4. If, in case of emergency, it be not practicable to make certain changes or corrections, or to give certain orders, instructions or directions, through the subordinates, they should be notified at once of what has been done.
5. After a subordinate has been placed in charge of a certain duty, all instructions pertaining thereto should be given through him, and all meddling and interfering should be avoided. Interference by superiors relieves the subordinate of responsibility, and causes him to lose interest, become indifferent, and do no more than he is obliged to do.
6. The certainty of reward for, and appreciation of, meritorious conduct, should equal the certainty of punishment for dereliction of duty.
7. It is the duty of an officer or noncommissioned officer who gives an order to see that it is obeyed; carrying out orders received by him does not end with their perfunctory transmission to subordinates--this is only a small part of his duty. He must personally see that the orders so transmitted are made effective.
8. The treatment of soldiers should be uniform and just, and under no circumstances should a man be humiliated unnecessarily or abused. Reproof and punishment must be administered with discretion and judgment, and without passion; for an officer or noncommissioned officer who loses his temper and flies into a tantrum has failed to obtain his first triumph in discipline. He who can not control himself can not control others.
9. Punishment should invariably follow dereliction of duty, for the frequency of offenses depends, as a general rule, on the degree of certainty with which their commission is attended with punishment. When men know that their derelictions and neglects will be observed and reproved, they will be much more careful than they would be otherwise--that's human nature.
A strict adherence to the above general principles will instill into the minds of those concerned, respect for authority and a spirit of obedience.
Part III
MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS PERTAINING TO COMPANY TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION
I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COMPANY TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION[10]
=917. Object of Training and Instruction.= The object of training and instructing a company is to thoroughly knit together its different parts, its various elements (individuals, squads and platoons), into a complete, homogeneous mass, a cohesive unit, that will under any and all conditions and circumstances respond to the will of the captain--a cohesive unit that knows how to march, that knows how to live properly in camp, that knows how to fight and that can be readily handled tactically on the field of battle. In short, the object of training and instruction is to make out of the company an efficient, wieldy fighting weapon, to be manipulated by the captain. There is but one way this object can be obtained, and that is by work, work, work--and then more work--by constant care, attention and pains--by cooeperation, by team work, among the officers, the noncommissioned officers and the privates.
=918. Method and Progression.= Arrangement is an essential of sound teaching. Training and instruction in order to be easily understood and readily assimilated--in order to give the greatest results in the shortest time--must be carried on according to a methodical and progressive plan. Each subject or subjects upon a knowledge of which depend the proper understanding and mastering of another, should be studied and mastered before taking up the other subject, and the elementary and simpler aspects of a given subject must be mastered before taking up the higher and more difficult phases of the subject, which means that individual training and instruction must precede, and provide a sound foundation for, collective training and instruction--that is to say, for the higher tactical training and instruction of the company as a unit. These basic, fundamental principles of successful training and instruction apply to practical as well as theoretical training. For instance, in the subject of entrenchments we would first instruct the men individually in the use of the tools and in the construction and use of the trenches, after which we would pass on to the tactical use of entrenchments by the company. Also, in training and instructing the company in fire discipline, we would first explain to the men the power and tactical value of the rifle, and instruct them in their duties on the firing line as regards adjustment of sights, attention to commands, economy of ammunition, etc.; we would explain to the platoon commanders and guides their duties as regards control of fire, enforcement of fire discipline, etc., after which we would practice the company as a unit in fire action, and fire control, ending up with an exercise showing the tactical application of the rules and principles explained. And again, in the training and instruction of the company in the attack, we would first train and instruct the company in all the formations and operations that naturally precede an attack (patrolling, outposts, advance guard, rear guard), and also in those that form an inherent part of an attack (extended order, field firing, use of cover, etc.).
=919. Program.= The training and instruction of a company, whether practical or theoretical, should be carried on in accordance with a fixed, definite program, in which the subjects are arranged in a natural, progressive order.
=920. Simultaneous Instruction and Training.= The next question that presents itself is: Should instruction and training in each branch be completed before proceeding to the next, or should instruction and training be carried on simultaneously in two or more different subjects, as one, for example, are taught mathematics, French and history at the same time, a different hour of the day being devoted to each subject? In other words, should we, for instance, devote one hour of the day to attack, one hour to defense, and one hour to the service of security, thus preventing the soldier from getting weary of doing the same thing that whole day? Our answer is:
1st. If the instruction and training is being given on the ground where the application of the principles of any given subject is varied so much by the type of the ground and the nature of the situation, each type of ground affording a different solution of the problem, it is thought the best results can be obtained by finishing each subject before proceeding to the next, thus not losing the "atmosphere" of one subject by switching to the next, and also confusing the minds of the men with different principles.
2nd. However, if the instruction and training be theoretical and the time available each day be several hours, better results can be obtained by studying two or more subjects simultaneously. This would also be the case if the work be practical, but if it be such that the type of the ground and the nature of the situation will not of themselves afford variety in the application of the same principles.
=921. Responsibility.= The Army Regulations and War Department orders hold the company commander responsible for the training and instruction of the company. The subject is a most important one and should receive serious thought and study. Before admonishing one of your men for not knowing a subject, always ask yourself, "Have I made an effort to teach it to him?"
=922. Interest.= Special effort should be made to make the training and instruction of the company interesting, so that the work will not become monotonous and irksome, and thus cause the men to lose interest and get stale. To accomplish this, these points should be borne in mind:
Variety. Inject variety into the work. Do not keep the men too long at one thing.
Clearness. Every exercise, lesson or lecture should have in view a well-defined object, the meaning and importance of which must be explained to, and understood by, the men at the beginning of the exercise, lesson or lecture. In other words, at the beginning, explain the main, governing idea of the subject, and then take pains to explain in a simple, conversational way each phase as you come to it. Give the reasons for everything. You can not expect men to take an interest in things the meaning of which they do not understand and the reason for which they do not see. Make sure by asking questions of different ones as you go along that your explanations are understood.
Thoroughness. Every lecture, talk, drill or exercise should be carefully planned and arranged beforehand. Remember, that the men who are going to listen to your talk--the men who are going to go through the exercise--have the right to expect this of you, and you have no right to compel them to listen to lots of disconnected, half-baked statements, or make them go through a disjointed exercise or drill. In the case of tactical exercises always, if practicable, visit and examine the terrain beforehand. Of course, all this will mean work--additional work--but remember the government pays you to work.
Reality. Make all practical work as real as possible--do not permit the commission of absurdities--do not let men do things which manifestly they would not be able to do in actual practice--and you yourself be sure to make your exercises and tactical scheme as like real conditions of warfare as possible.
=923. Individual Initiative.= The effective range and great power of modern firearms cause troops in battle to be spread out over large areas, thus decentralizing control over men and operations, and consequently increasing the value and importance of individual initiative. The company commander should, therefore, practice, accustom and encourage the privates, noncommissioned officers and lieutenants in the development and exercise of individual initiative and responsibility. This should be borne in mind in all training and instruction.
Officers, noncommissioned officers and privates must not "lay down" just because they have no specific orders. Remember, the one thing above all others that counts in war, is =action, initiative=. Indeed, 'tis better to have acted and lost than never to have acted at all. Listen to what the Chief of Staff of the Army has to say about this in the preface to the Field Service Regulations: "Officers and men of all ranks and grades are given a certain independence in the execution of the tasks to which they are assigned and are expected to show initiative in meeting the different situations as they arise. Every individual, from the highest commander to the lowest private, must always remember that inaction and neglect of opportunities will warrant more severe censure than an error in the choice of means."
=924. Determination and Individual Intelligence.= While the value of discipline can hardly be overestimated, there are two other factors in battle that are fully as important, if not more so, and they are, =determination= to win, and =individual intelligence=, which, in war, as in all other human undertakings, almost invariably spell success. Therefore, make these two factors one of the basic principles of the instruction and training of the company, and do all you can to instill into your men a spirit of determination, and to develop in them individual intelligence. Every human being has in his soul a certain amount of determination, even though it be only enough to determine upon the small things of life. Some people are born with more determination than others, but it is a mistake to suppose that a man must remain through life with the same amount of determination that he brought into it. The attributes of the human mind, such as determination, bravery, ambition, energy, etc., are all capable of improvement and also of deterioration. It is essential therefore, for us to endeavor by all means in our power to improve our strength of character--our determination. It is, of course, useless for us to learn the art of war if we have not sufficient determination, when we meet the enemy, to apply the principles we have studied. There is no reason, however, why every officer, noncommissioned officer and private should not improve his determination of character by careful training in peace. It can only be done by facing the difficulties, thoroughly understanding the dangers, and asking ourselves repeatedly whether we are prepared to face the ordeal in war. Let us not think, in a vague sort of a way, that in war we shall be all right and do as well as most people. We know that we are not gifted with tremendous personal courage, and we know that, whatever happens, we shall not run away. But that is not enough. We must train ourselves to understand that in the hour of trial we can harden our hearts, that we can assume the initiative, and retain it by constant advance and constant attack; unless we can fill our hearts with the determination to win, we can not hope to do our full duty on the field of battle and acquit ourselves with credit.
=925. The Human Element.= No system of training and instruction that does not take into account human nature, can be thoroughly effective. The human element probably enters into war more than it does into any other pursuit. The old idea of turning a human being into a machine, by means of discipline, and making him dread his captain more than the enemy, died long ago, especially with the American people. In modern war success depends to a great extent upon the initiative, the individual action of the soldier and this action is greatly influenced by the soldier's state of mind at the moment, by the power that can be exercised over his mind by his comrades and those leading him. The company commander should, therefore, study the characteristics of the human mind with the object of ascertaining how he can influence the men under his command, so that in battle those human attributes which are favorable to success, may be strengthened and those which are favorable to defeat may be weakened. Of the former, courage, determination, initiative, respect, cheerfulness, comradeship, emulation and esprit de corps, are the principal ones; of the latter, fear, surprise, disrespect, and dejection, are the leading ones. By means of good, sound discipline, we can create, improve and foster the qualities mentioned that are favorable to success, and we can eliminate to a considerable extent, if not entirely, those that are detrimental to success.
=926. Fear.= The emotion of fear acts more powerfully upon the feelings of the individual soldier than any other emotion, and it is also probably the most infectious. Fear in a mild form is present in every human being. Nature wisely put it there, and society could not very well get along without it. For example, we stop and look up and down a crowded street before starting to cross, for fear of being run over; in going out in the cold we put on our overcoats, for fear of catching cold. In fact, we hardly do anything in life without taking a precaution of some kind. These are all examples of reasonable fear, which, within bounds is a perfectly legitimate attribute of a soldier in common with other human beings. For example, we teach the men to take advantage of cover when attacking, and we dig trenches when on the defense, in both cases for fear of being shot by the enemy. It is the unreasoning type of fear that plays havoc in war, and the most deadly and common form of it is a vague, indefinite, nameless dread of the enemy. If the average man was to analyze his feelings in war and was to ask himself if he were actually afraid of being killed, he would probably find that he was not. The ordinary soldier is prepared to take his chance, with a comfortable feeling inside him, that, although no doubt a number of people will be killed and wounded, he will escape. If, then, a man is not unreasonably afraid of being killed or wounded, is it not possible by proper training and instruction to overcome this vague fear of the enemy? Experience shows that it is. If a soldier is suffering from this vague fear of the enemy, it will at least be a consolation to him to know that a great many other soldiers, including those belonging to the enemy, are suffering in a similar manner, and that they are simply experiencing one of the ordinary characteristics of the human mind. If the soldier in battle will only realize that the enemy is just as much afraid of him as he is of the enemy, reason is likely to assert itself and to a great extent overcome the unpleasant feelings inside him. General Grant, in his Memoirs, relates a story to the effect that in one of his early campaigns he was seized with an unreasonable fear of his enemy, and was very much worried as to what the enemy was doing, when, all at once, it dawned upon him that his enemy was probably worrying equally as much about what he, Grant, was doing, and was probably as afraid as he was, if not even more so, and the realization of this promptly dispelled all of his, Grant's, fear. Confidence in one's ability to fight well will also do much to neutralize fear, and if a soldier knows that he can shoot better, march better, and attack better, than his opponent, the confidence of success that he will, as a result, feel will do much to dispel physical fear. By sound and careful training and instruction make your men efficient and this efficiency will give them confidence in themselves, confidence in their rifles, confidence in their bayonets, confidence in their comrades and confidence in their officers.
The physical methods of overcoming fear in battle are simply to direct the men's minds to other thoughts by giving them something for their bodies and limbs to do. It is a well-known saying that a man in battle frequently regains his lost courage by repeatedly firing off his rifle, which simply means that his thoughts are diverted by physical movements. This is no doubt one of the reasons why the attack is so much more successful in war than the defense, because in the attack the men are generally moving forward and having their minds diverted by physical motion from this vague dread of the enemy.
=927. Courage.= Courage, like all other human characteristics, is very infectious, and a brave leader who has no fear of the enemy will always get more out of his men than one who is not so well equipped in that respect. However, it is a well-known fact that a man may be brave far above his fellows in one calling or occupation, and extremely nervous in another. For example, a man may have greatly distinguished himself in the capture of a fort, who would not get on a horse for fear of being kicked off. Courage of this kind is induced chiefly by habit or experience--the man knows the dangers and how to overcome them, he has been through similar experiences before and he has come out of them with a whole skin. This type of courage can be developed by careful training during peace, and it can be increased by self-confidence--by so training the soldier that he knows and feels he will know what to do in any emergency which may arise, and how to do it; he will not be surprised by the unexpected event, which invariably occurs, and he will understand others besides himself are being troubled by unpleasant feelings, which it is his duty as a man and a soldier to overcome.
=928. Surprise.= Surprise may be said to be the mother of a panic, which is the worst form of fear. In such a case unreasoning fear sometimes turns into temporary insanity. Panic is most infectious, but, on the other hand, a panic can often be averted or stayed by the courageous action of one or more individuals, who can thus impose their will on the mass and bring the people to a reasonable state of mind. =Teach every man in the company that when surprised the only hope of success is to obey at once and implicitly the orders of his immediate commander.=
Surprises in war are not limited to the ordinary acceptance of the term, such as a sudden attack from an unexpected direction. The soldier who goes into battle, for instance, and hears the whiz of a bullet, or sees a shell burst in front of him, is surprised if he has not been taught in peace that these things have to be faced, and that for one bullet that hurts anyone thousands have to be fired. Similarly, a man sees a comrade knocked over; the horrors of war are immediately brought to him, and his courage begins to ebb--he has been surprised, because he has not realized in peace that men are bound to be killed in war. The whole atmosphere of the battlefield is a surprise to the average soldier with no previous experience--the enemy is everywhere, behind every bush, and lurking in every bit of cover, the air is full of bullets, and any advance towards the formidable-looking position held by the enemy is suicidal. However, if the soldier is properly trained and instructed in peace, he will not be greatly surprised at his novel surroundings; he will know that the enemy is not everywhere, and that one bullet sounds much more dangerous than it really is. A bullet sounds quite close when it is fifty yards away, and there is a popular saying that a man's weight in lead is fired for every man that is killed in war.
=929. Respect.= It is a mistake to imagine that all that is required from a soldier is respect to his officers and noncommissioned officers. Self-respect is fully as important. A soldier is a human being; if he possesses self-respect he will respect all that is good in his comrades, and they will respect all that is good in him. A man who respects himself knows how to respect other people. These are the men that form the backbone of the company, and are the best material on which to work in order to raise the general standard of courage in Battle. From a purely military point of view, it is absolutely necessary for an officer, noncommissioned officer, or private to possess some marked military qualifications in order to gain respect from others.
This respect engenders confidence in others. Self-respect in the individual can be encouraged, not by fulsome praise, but by a quiet appreciation of the good military qualities displayed by him, and by making use of those qualities whenever an opportunity occurs. For example, if a soldier is seen to do a good piece of scouting or patrolling, the first opportunity should be taken to give him a similar task, if possible in a more responsible position or on a more important occasion. Knowledge is a powerful factor in creating respect, and is probably second only to determination of character. It is essential, therefore, that all officers and noncommissioned officers should have a thorough knowledge of their duties--that they should be "on to their jobs."
=930. Cheerfulness.= Cheerfulness is a valuable military asset in war, and like all other characteristics of the human being, is very infectious, and in times of depression, such as during a long siege, or after the failure of an attack, it does more than anything else to restore the fighting power of the men.
=931. Contentment.= Contentment amongst troops in war is dependent upon these main factors: good leading, good food, and sufficient shelter and sleep. Of these, good leading is by far the most important, because it has been proved time and again that badly fed and badly quartered troops, who have suffered great hardships, will still be content and will fight in the most gallant and vigorous manner, provided they are well led. Although good leading emanates in the first instance from the highest military authorities, a great deal depends upon the company officers and noncommissioned officers. A good leader as a rule is careful of the comforts of his men; he obtains the best food and best shelter available, he does not wear out the men by unnecessary movements or unnecessary work, either in the field or in camp, and consequently when he does order them to do anything they know at once that it is necessary and they do it cheerfully.
=932. Comradeship.= Comradeship is a very valuable military characteristic. What a world of meaning there is in the words, "Me and my bunkie." A soldier may have many acquaintances and a number of friends, but he has but one "bunkie." In times of great danger two men who are "bunkies" will not shirk so easily as two independent men. The best in one man comes out to the surface and dominates any bad military points in the other. They can help each other in countless ways in war, and if one is unfortunately killed or wounded, the other will probably do his best to get even with the enemy at the earliest possible opportunity. This spirit may not be very Christianlike, but it is very human and practical, and helps to win battles, and to win battles is the only reason why soldiers go to war.
ART OF INSTRUCTION ON THE GROUND
=933. Advantages.= Whenever practicable, training and instruction should, in whole or in part, be imparted on the ground, as this gives the instruction a practical aspect that is most valuable, and enables the soldier to grasp and apply principles that he would not otherwise understand. Knowledge that a man can not apply has no value.
=934. Different Methods.= Instruction on the ground may be given according to one of these three methods:
1st Method. By means of a talk or lecture prepare the minds of the men for the reception and retention of the subject to be explained later on the ground. In other words, first explain the principles of the subject and then put a "clincher" on the information thus imparted by taking the men to some suitable ground, assuming certain situations and then by quizzing different men see how they would apply the principles just explained in the talk or lecture. For example, after a lecture on the selection of fire-positions take the men to some suitable nearby place and explain to them that the company is attacking toward that house and is being fired upon from that direction. Then continue:
=Captain:= Remember what I told you about the selection of good fire-positions during the advance. We want to use our rifles with effect, so we must be able to see the position of the enemy. On the other hand, we want to avoid being hit ourselves, if possible; so, we would like to get as much cover as possible. Now, Smith, do you think where we are at present standing is a good place for a fire-position?
=Smith:= No, sir.
=Captain:= Why not?
=Smith:= We can see the enemy from here, but he can see us better than we can see him, and can hit us easier than we can hit him.
=Captain:= Jones, can you choose a better place, either to the front or rear of where we are now standing?
=Jones:= I would choose a position along that row of bushes, about fifty yards to the front.
=Captain:= Why?
=Jones:= Because, etc., etc.
Twenty minutes' instruction in this manner, after a lecture, will firmly fix in the brains of the men the principles explained in the lecture.
It is a good plan to repeat the salient points of the lecture in the questions, as was done in the first question asked above, or to do so in some other way.
If a man can not give an answer, or choose a suitable place, explain the requirements again and help him to use his common sense.
2d Method. By practicing the men on the ground in the subject about which the talk or lecture was delivered.
3d Method. This may be called the ocular demonstration method, which consists in having a part of the company go through the exercise or drill, while the rest of the company observes what is being done. This method is illustrated by the following example:
=935. Attack.= The company commander has just delivered a talk to the company on the second stage of the attack, and has marched the company to a piece of ground suitable for practicing this particular operation, and which the company commander has himself visited beforehand (The ground should always be visited beforehand by the company commander, who should be thoroughly familiar with it. If possible, ground suitable for practicing the operation in question should always be selected.) The operation should begin about 1200 yards from the enemy's position. After pointing out the enemy's position to the company, the particular part of his line it is intended to assault and the direction the company is to advance, the company commander would then proceed something like this: "We are part of a battalion taking part in a battle, and there are companies to our right and left, with a support and reserve in our rear. So far we have been advancing over ground that is exposed to hostile artillery fire (or not exposed to hostile artillery fire, according to the actual country). We have just come under the enemy's infantry fire also, and consequently we must change our method of advancing. Our immediate object is to get forward, without expending more ammunition than is absolutely necessary, to a position close enough to the enemy to enable us to use our rifles with such deadly effect that we will be able to gain a superiority of fire. Now, is this place sufficiently close for the purpose? No, it is not--it's entirely too far away. Is that next ridge just in front of us close enough? No, it is not; it is at least 1,000 yards from the enemy's position. As a rule, we must get from eight to six hundred yards from the enemy's position before the real struggle for superiority of fire begins.
"The following are the main points to which attention must be paid during this part of the advance:
"1. We must halt in good fire position from which we can see and fire at the enemy, and from which we can not be seen very clearly.
"2. We must advance very rapidly over any open ground that is exposed to the enemy's artillery or rifle fire.
"3. We must find halting places, if possible under cover, or under the best cover available, so as to avoid making our forward rushes so long that the men will get worn out, and begin to straggle long before they get close enough to the enemy to use their rifles with deadly effect.
"4. Whenever possible, company scouts should be sent on ahead to select fire-positions."
Of course, the above points will have been explained already in the lecture, but this short summary is given in order to focus the minds of the men upon the action that must be taken by the privates, and squad leaders and the platoon commanders.
We now take one platoon and the remainder of the company looks on. The platoon commander is reminded that he is under artillery and infantry fire, and is then directed to advance, in proper formation, to the first fire-position available.
We will suppose there is a gentle slope up to the next ridge or undulation of the ground, and that there are no obstructions to the view except those afforded by the ground itself. The platoon now advances, the captain remaining with the rest of the company, pointing out mistakes as well as good points, and asking the men questions, such as:
=Captain:= Corporal Smith, should the whole platoon have gone forward together, or would it have been better to advance by squads?
=Corporal Smith:= I think it should have advanced by squads.
=Captain:= No, it was all right to advance as they did. At this distance the enemy's infantry fire would not be very deadly, the platoon is well extended as skirmishers, it would take considerably longer to go forward to the next position by successive squads and we want to advance at this stage as rapidly as possible; for, the longer we took, the longer would the men be exposed to fire, and consequently the greater would be the number of casualties.
=Captain:= Sergeant Jones, why did the platoon advance at a run when moving down the slope, and begin to walk just before reaching the foot of the slope?
=Sergeant Jones:= Because the slope is exposed and it was necessary to get over it as quickly as possible. They began to walk just before reaching the foot of the slope, because they struck dead ground and were covered from the enemy's fire by the ridge in front.
=Captain:= Corporal Adams, shouldn't the platoon have halted when it reached cover, so as to give the men a rest?
=Corporal Adams:= No, sir; the men had not run very far and walking gave them sufficient rest. It would have been an unnecessary loss of time to halt.
=Captain:= Harris, why did that man run on ahead as soon as the platoon halted?
=Pvt. Harris:= So he could creep up the crest of the ridge and lie down in exactly the spot that is the best fire-position--that is, where he can just see to fire over the crest and where the enemy can not see him.
=Captain:= Yes, that's right. All the men in the platoon might not stop at the best fire-position and in the hurry and excitement of the moment the platoon commander might also fail to do so, but if a man goes forward and lies down, the whole platoon knows that they must not go beyond him. Individual men who, owing to slight undulations of ground, may not be able to fire when they halt in line with this man, can creep up until they can see. Others who, for the same reason as regards the ground, find that if they get up on a line with the man they will be unduly exposed, will halt before that time.
=Captain:= Sergeant Roberts, is it necessary for another platoon to provide covering fire during the advance of the platoon?
=Sergeant Roberts:= No sir. At this range the enemy's infantry fire would not be very effective, and it is important to husband our ammunition for the later stages of the attack.
Having asked any other questions suggested by the situation or the ground, the captain will then take the rest of the company forward over the ground covered by the platoon, halting at the place where the platoon changed its pace from a rush to a walk, so that the men can see for themselves that cover from fire has been reached. He will then move the rest of the company forward and tell them to halt and lie down in what each man considers to be the best fire-position, not necessarily adopting the same position as that chosen by the leading platoon. The platoon commanders will then go along their platoons and point out any mistakes.
The leading platoon will now join the company and another platoon will be deployed in the fire position, the platoon commander being directed to advance to the next fire-position.
As we are now about 1,000 yards from the enemy's position the question will again arise as to whether covering fire is necessary.
If the enemy's rifle fire were heavy and accurate it might be necessary, but it should be avoided if possible, on account of the expenditure of ammunition.
We will suppose that the ground falls gently towards the enemy and is very exposed to view for about 300 yards, and half this distance away there is a low bank running parallel to the front of the attack and with a small clump of three or four trees on the bank directly in front of the platoon. Four hundred yards away is the bottom of the valley covered with bushes and shrubs. On the far side the ground rises with small undulations and low foot hills to the high ground occupied by the enemy.
There appears to be no marked fire-position which will afford any cover except the bank 150 yards away. The second platoon advances in the same manner as did the first and the captain with the commanders of the remaining platoons will continue to ask questions and point out what has been done right or wrong by the leading platoon. The first question which will arise is whether the platoon can reach the fire position offered by the bank in one rush, and secondly, whether the bank is a good fire-position. A former question will again crop up as to whether the whole platoon should go forward at once or whether the advance should be made by squads.
A hundred and fifty yards is a long way to advance without a halt, and if a halt is made on such exposed ground fire must be opened. Probably three advances, each of about fifty yards, would be made, covering fire being provided by the other platoons, which will be occupying the fire-position which the leading platoon has just left. This covering fire would not endanger the leading platoon as it would be delivered from just behind the crest and the leading platoon would be over the crest and out of sight and therefore out of fire from the platoon in rear.
The selection of a fire-position during this advance would depend upon very minute folds of the ground, or very low bushes, grass, etc., which might give a certain amount of cover from view, and therefore make it difficult for the enemy to aim or range accurately. We will suppose that the leading platoon has halted to fire about fifty yards in front, the remaining platoons, in turn, should then be taken forward, examining the ground very carefully as they go, and each platoon commander asked to halt his platoon in what he considers to be the best place.
The possibility of using a scout to select a fire-position would be considered, and a fire-position selected by one platoon would be compared with that selected by another.
The third platoon would then lead during the advance to the next fire-position, and so on with the fourth platoon, if necessary, until the bank was reached. The bank will afford a good deal of material for discussion. Is it a good fire-position or is it not, should it be occupied as such or should it be avoided altogether?
If we ask an artillery officer his opinion about the matter, he will tell us that by means of the clump of trees the defenders' artillery will be able to range with absolute accuracy on that bank. The direction of the bank is parallel to their front, and therefore they can fire at any part of it for some distance right and left of the clump without materially altering their range, and if any infantry occupy the bank they can bring a very deadly fire to bear against them.
There appears to be no doubt, from an artillery point of view, that our platoon should avoid occupying it and get out of its neighborhood as rapidly as possible.
There is another drawback as regards the bank: it is some 850 yards from the enemy's position and may be expected to be under an effective rifle fire. It is no doubt a good mark for the enemy, and, now we come to the crux of the whole matter; his artillery and infantry fire might not do us much damage so long as we remain behind the bank, but they might make it very unpleasant for us directly we try to leave this cover and advance further.
Before finally deciding what to do we must consider human nature, which is entirely in favor of halting behind the bank, and if allowed to remain there long, will be opposed to leaving it. We cannot hope to gain superiority of fire over the enemy at a range of 850 yards, so that a long halt at the bank is out of the question. But it appears to be an extraordinary thing, when we are searching everywhere for cover, that we should be doubtful about occupying such good cover when we find it.
If we decide not to occupy it, the logical conclusion is that, when preparing a position for defense, we should construct a good fire-position for the attack some 850 yards away, which is the last thing we should think of doing.
There is no doubt about it, that with badly-trained troops such a fire-position would be liable to become a snare, and that if they once occupied it, there would be great difficulty in getting them forward again, and probably the attack would be brought to a standstill at a critical time.
The answer appears to be found in the simple solution of good training. We must teach our men that when they get into such positions they must use the cover afforded, but for no longer than any other fire-position, and that they must get into the habit in peace of looking upon such localities with suspicion, and with the knowledge that they are not suitable for lengthy occupation in war, if the battle is to be won.
We now come to a still more difficult question of training, namely, how far can the company get forward from the bank without being compelled to stop in order to gain superiority of fire over the defense? In war we want to get as close as possible; the moral effect on the defense is greater, our fire is more effective, and we are likely to gain our object more rapidly. In peace there is no fire to stop us, and we move forward to ridiculous positions which we could not possibly reach in war without first gaining superiority of fire. The result of this is that we try to do the same thing when first we go to war, and we are stopped, probably much further back than we should have been if we had studied the question in peace.
Even on the most open ground we must get to within 600 yards of the enemy, and if the ground affords any cover in front, the exposed space must be rushed and the more forward position gained. Having pointed out this difficulty to the company during the previous lecture, and reminded them of it on the ground, we can now extend the whole company and move forward from the bank, using covering fire and letting each platoon commander decide how far he can get to the front after a series of rushes, the company acting as a whole.
The captain can then go down the line and discuss with each platoon the position it has reached. Whilst he is doing this, the remaining platoons can be trained in fire direction and control, which should be carefully watched and criticized by the platoon commanders. One platoon, owing to the nature of the ground in front of it, can get forward further than other platoons, and this should be brought home to each platoon, so as to avoid the possibility of playing the game of follow your leader, and one platoon halting merely because another has halted.
If there is still time available, and the ground is suitable, the company can be moved to a flank to choose a similar fire-position where the ground is more favorable to an advance, and where the company could get within 300 yards of the enemy, or even less, before it would be absolutely necessary to stop in order to gain superiority of fire.
If there is still time available, and the ground is suitable, the whole operation can be carried out in the opposite direction or in some other direction, and the platoons can thus be trained to appreciate that fire-positions which are good in one place are bad in another.
=936. Defense.= Demonstrations in defense can be carried out in a similar manner, the captain explaining to the company the general line of defense to be taken up, the portion allotted to the company, and the probable direction of the enemy's attack.
The cooeperation of the artillery and infantry will have been pointed out in the previous lecture: how some part of the enemy's advance will be dealt with by artillery alone, some part by both artillery and infantry, and some part by infantry alone.
This can now be pointed out to the men on the ground. Having considered the assistance provided by the artillery, the next point to decide upon is the exact position of the fire trench. The best way to proceed is to allot a certain portion of the front occupied by the company to each platoon and to let the platoon commanders take charge of the operations. The platoon commander can direct one of his squads to select a position for the trench, and that squad can lie down there. The remaining squads will then select a position in turn. If two squads select the same they can lie down together. The platoon commander will then fall in his platoon, and make them lie down in the most retired position chosen; he will ask the squad leader why the squad chose that locality in preference to any other, why they did not go ten yards further forward or ten yards further back; and he will explain to the whole platoon the advantages and disadvantages of selecting this locality. He will then move the whole platoon forward to the next position chosen by another squad and deal with that locality. Finally, he will select the position he thinks the best, giving his reasons why he has decided upon it, and place the whole platoon on it. When all the platoons have decided upon their line of defense, the captain will move the whole company in turn from the ground occupied by one platoon to that occupied by another, asking the platoon commander in each case to explain why the position was chosen in preference to any other.
He will give his decision as regards each platoon, and he will finally arrange for the position to be occupied by the whole company. One platoon, for some good reason, may have chosen a place which it would not be safe to occupy, owing to the fire of another platoon on the flank. Another platoon may have chosen a place which was very good as regards the field of fire in a direction which was already adequately defended by another platoon, but which had a bad field of fire over ground which no other platoon could fire upon. The company commander would adjust all these matters, and in the end one or more platoons might not be placed in the best position as regards their own particular front, but in the best as regards the whole company.
Having decided upon the exact site of the trenches and the general distribution of fire, the next matter to consider is the amount of clearing that is necessary, and the position and nature of any obstacles which may be required. Each platoon commander having been allotted a definite fire zone, can point out to his platoon what clearance is necessary; he can then ask each squad, as before, to choose the position for the obstacle. The company commander can then take the whole company to the position occupied by each platoon and tell the platoon commander to explain what ground they propose to clear, where they propose to place their obstacle, the material available for its construction, and in every case the reason why the decision has been arrived at. If digging is permitted, the trenches will now be constructed, and care will be taken that they are actually finished. It is far better to work overtime than to construct trenches which would be of little use in war and could not be properly defended. It is the exception rather than the rule to see trenches properly finished, fit for occupation, and capable of resisting a heavy attack. If the trenches cannot be dug the company can be taken to another part of the same position, where the ground in front is totally different, and the exercise can be repeated, the platoon and company commanders pointing out why a fire trench which was well sited in the first case would be badly sited if a similar position was selected in the second case.
=937. Outpost.= We can now turn to the method of training the company in outpost duty, making use of the same system of demonstration. Having pointed out to the company the locality where the main body is bivouacked, the fighting position which the main body will occupy in case a heavy attack is made against the outposts, and the general line of the outposts, the company commander will indicate on the ground the extent of front which is to be guarded by his company, stating whether imaginary companies continue the position on one or both flanks. He will point out the possible avenues of approach from the direction of the enemy to that portion of the position to be occupied by the company, and state from which direction the enemy is most likely to advance and why.
The first point to decide is the number of outguards and their exact position. In war this would always be done by the company commander, but if it is desired to give the junior officers of the company some instruction in this important detail, they should be sent out before the company arrives on the ground to reconnoiter the position and make their decisions. The exact siting of the trenches for the outguards, the construction of obstacles, and the clearance of the foreground having been decided upon and the positions selected for each outguard discussed, and a definite site selected, the next question to decide is the number and position of the sentries.
The platoon commander would then take each scheme in turn, visit with the whole platoon each position selected for the sentry, and decide finally what it would be best to do, giving, as usual, his reasons.
Having decided upon the positions of the sentries, and their line of retreat, so as not to mask the fire of the outguard, the next matter to consider would be the number of patrols that are required, and the particular areas of ground that must be examined by them periodically. The necessary trenches, obstacles, etc., would then be constructed.
Finally, the whole company should be assembled, marched to the position chosen for each outguard and the reasons for selecting the position explained by the company commander. The company should then be told off as an outpost company, and divided into outguards, supports, if any, and the necessary sentries over arms, patrols, etc., and marched to their respective posts.
If there is still time available each platoon commander can reconnoiter the ground for suitable positions for his outguards by night, take the outguards there, explain why the change of position is desirable, and direct the outguard commanders with their outguards to select positions for the sentries, following the same procedure as by day.
Although it is quite correct to select positions for night outposts during daylight, when possible, they should never be definitely occupied by the company before dark, when the forward movement could not be observed by the enemy. To practice night outposts by day is bad instruction, outguards and sentries are placed in positions which appear ridiculous to the ordinary mind, and the men get confused ideas on the subject. When it is desired to practice day and night outposts as an advanced exercise it is advisable to commence work in the afternoon, establish the day outposts, reconnoiter for the night outposts, make the change after dark and construct the necessary trenches, obstacles, etc., after dark.
It is, however, extremely important that the patrols should get to know their way about the country in front during the daylight, when possible, so that they will have some practice in recognizing land marks by night.
It frequently occurs, when training the company in outpost duties, that periods elapse during which the outguards are doing nothing. These opportunities should be taken to instruct the men in their duties when ordered to patrol to the front, the same system of demonstration being employed. For instance, the officer or noncommissioned officer commanding a piquet can select three men, point out certain ground in front which the sentries cannot see and which must be examined by a patrol, and proceed to instruct the whole picket in the best manner of carrying out this work. We will suppose that the patrol is working by day and that the ground to be visited is behind a small hill some 500 yards in front of the sentry. The commander of the picket will then explain to the men that the first object of the patrol is to reach the ground to be examined without being seen by any hostile patrols which may be moving about in front. Before proceeding further it is necessary for the patrol to decide upon the best line of advance. The various lines of advance will be discussed and the patrol asked to decide which they would select. Three other men can then be asked to give their opinion, and so on until all the men of the picket have expressed their views. The commander of the picket will then state which he considers the best line and give his reasons.
The next matter to decide is the method of advance to be adopted by the patrol. Are the three men to march past the sentry in one body and walk straight over the hill in front? If they do this there may be a hostile patrol hiding just behind the crest, watching the movements of our patrol, and directly the latter reach the hill they will be covered by the rifles of the hostile patrol at a few yards' range and will be captured or shot.
If the patrol is not to advance in one body how is it to act? There is plenty of time available, so that there are no objections to deliberate methods. The patrol should advance from cover to cover with one man always going forward protected by the rifles of the remaining two men who have halted in a good position to fire on any enemy that can fire on the leading man. The leading man having readied the cover in front will signal back all clear, and the two men in the rear will join him. They will then make their next advance in a similar manner.
By looking at the hill the patrol can make a good guess at the locality which a hostile patrol would select if it was on the hill. It would be a place where it could get a good view towards our outpost line, and where the patrol could not be seen itself from the outpost line. If the hill was quite bare with nothing but grass on it and flat round top, the best place for the enemy's patrol would be exactly on the top just behind the crest. In such a position he could not be seen by any sentry to the right or left of our picket. For example, if the hostile patrol chose a place on the side of the bare slope of the hill and looked over the crest line it would not be seen by our sentry, but it might be seen by another one on the flank.
The object of our patrol would be to approach the hill, not direct from the outguard, but either from the left or right of the hill and thus come on the flank of the enemy's patrol if he was there.
The whole picket can then be taken out to the front and follow the movements of the patrol from cover to cover until the hill is reached.
The next step will be to ascertain if there is any one on the top of the hill. If the hill is perfectly bare with a somewhat convex slope, it would be best for the three men to extend to about twenty yards interval and move forward together, prepared to drop on the first sign of the enemy, so that they can creep up and open fire on him without exposing themselves. Three men with magazine rifles extended in this manner, opposed to a hostile patrol collected in one party, should be able to deal with the latter without much difficulty. Their fire would be converging, and coming from different directions would confuse the hostile patrol, especially if the advance was made from a flank. The men of the patrol when creeping up the hill should avoid exposing themselves in the direction of the ground behind the hill, if possible, because they want to examine that ground later on, and if seen by the enemy they might fall into an ambuscade. If it is impossible to avoid being seen from the ground beyond, it would be best for the patrol to retire as though they were going back to the outposts, and then move round the flank of the hill and advance to the ground beyond from an unexpected direction. All this would be considered by the officer or noncommissioned officer commanding the picket, together with many other points.
Sufficient has been said to explain how this system of demonstration can be worked in connection with any class of operation in the field. It is certainly slow, and takes a long time, but no one is ever idle and every one is constantly learning something fresh, for the simple reason that, although one may know every detail of the subject, the ground constantly differs and requires to be dealt with in a common sense and skillful manner. The men are interested throughout, and one morning spent on this kind of work is worth several days of practice in the ordinary manner.
It should be remembered that this system of demonstration is only required to teach the men their work; when they have once learned it and thoroughly understand the necessary details they must be practiced in it, the company or platoon commander indicating what has been well done, what has been badly done, and what requires improvement. (See "Outposts," Par. 1051.)
OTHER EXAMPLES OF THE OCULAR DEMONSTRATION METHOD
=938.= The following illustrations will suggest other examples of the employment of the ocular demonstration method of instruction:
=The advantages and disadvantages of close and extended order.= Send a lieutenant or a noncommissioned officer with two or three squads of the older soldiers some distance to the front of the company, and have them advance toward the company, first in close order and then in extended order.
By =ocular demonstration= show the men who are watching the approach of the company how easy it would be even for the poorest shots to land bullets in the thick of a closed body, but how much of a less distinct target the extended order offers and how many spaces there are in the skirmish line for the bullets to pass through; also, how much more easily cover can be employed and the rifle used in the extended order. Let them see also how much more difficult it is for the officers and noncommissioned officers to maintain control over the movements of troops in extended order, and the consequent necessity and duty of every soldier, when in extended order, doing all he can, by attention and exertion, to keep order and help his officers and noncommissioned officers to gain success.
=939. The Use of Cover.= Send a lieutenant or noncommissioned officer with a couple of squads of old soldiers a few hundred yards to the front and have them advance on the company as if attacking, first without taking advantage of cover and then taking advantage of all available cover, the part of the company that is supposed to be attacked lying down and aiming and snapping at the approaching soldiers. Then reverse the operation--send the defenders out and have them advance on the former attackers. Explain that the requisites of good cover are: Ability to see the enemy; concealment of your own body; ability to use the rifle readily. Then have a number of men take cover and snap at an enemy in position, represented by a few old soldiers. Point out the defects and the good points in each case.
=940. Practice in Commanding Mixed Squads.= In order to practice noncommissioned officers in commanding mixed firing squads, and in order to drill the privates in banding themselves together and obeying the orders of anyone who may assume command, it is good training for two or more companies to practice reenforcing each other by one company assuming a given fire-position and the other sending up reenforcements by squads, the men being instructed to take positions anywhere on the firing line where they may find an opening. However, explain to the men that whenever possible units should take their positions on the firing line as a whole, but that in practice it is very often impossible to do this, and that the drill is being given so as to practice the noncommissioned officers in commanding mixed units on the firing line and also to give the privates practice in banding themselves into groups and obeying the command of any noncommissioned officer who may be over them.
=941. Operating Against Other Troops.= There is no better way of arousing interest, enthusiasm, and pride in training troops than by creating a feeling of friendly rivalry and competition amongst the men, and the best way to do this is to have one part of the company operate against the other in all such practical work as scouting, patrolling, attacking, etc. Whenever practicable, blank ammunition should be used. One of the sides should wear a white handkerchief around the hat or some other distinguishing mark. =The troops that are sent out must be given full and explicit instructions as to just exactly what they are to do, so that the principles it is intended to illustrate may be properly brought out.=
FOOTNOTES:
[10] This chapter is based on "Company Training," by General Haking, British Army, which is the best book the author has ever seen on the subject of company training. "Field Training of a Company of Infantry," by Major Craufurd, British Army, an excellent little book, was also consulted.