History for ready reference, Volume 5, Tunnage to Zyp and Supplement (part 7 of 11)

History for ready reference, Volume 5, Tunnage to Zyp and Supplement (part 7 of 11)

"All the other races had combined on the soil of Britain, the Welsh would not. The demands of feudal homage made by the kings of England were evaded or repudiated; the intermarriages by which Henry II. and John had tried to help on a national agreement had in every case failed. In every internal difficulty of English politics the Welsh princes had done their best to embarrass the action of the kings; they had intrigued with every aspirant for power, had been in league with every rebel. … The necessity of guarding the Welsh border had caused the English kings to found on the March a number of feudal lordships, which were privileged to exercise almost sovereign jurisdictions, and exempted from the common operation of the English law. The Mortimers at Chirk and Wigmore, the Bohuns at Hereford and Brecon, the Marshalls at Pembroke, and the Clares in Glamorgan, were out of the reach of the King, and often turned against one another the arms which had been given them to overawe the Welsh. … So long as the Welsh were left free to rebel the Marchers must be left free to fight. … Llewelyn, the prince of North Wales, had, by the assistance given to Simon de Montfort, earned as his reward a recognition of his independence, subject only to the ancient feudal obligations. All the advantages won during the early years of Henry III. had been thus surrendered. When the tide turned Llewelyn had done homage to Henry; but when he was invited, in 1273, to perform the usual service to the new king, he refused; and again, in 1274 and 1275, he evaded the royal summons. In 1276, under the joint pressure of excommunication and a great army which Edward brought against him, he made a formal submission; performed the homage, and received, as a pledge of amity, the hand of Eleanor de Montfort in marriage. But Eleanor, although she was Edward's cousin, was Earl Simon's daughter, and scarcely qualified to be a peacemaker. Another adviser of rebellion was found in Llewelyn's brother David, who had hitherto taken part with the English, and had received special favours and promotion from Edward himself. … The peace made in 1277 lasted about four years. In 1282 the brothers rose, seized the border castles of Hawarden, Flint, and Rhuddlan, and captured the Justiciar of Wales, Roger Clifford. Edward saw then that his time was come. He marched into North Wales, carrying with him the courts of law and the exchequer, and transferring the seat of government for the time to Shrewsbury. He left nothing undone that might give the expedition the character of a national effort. He collected forces on all sides; he assembled the estates of the realm, clergy, lords, and commons, and prevailed on them to furnish liberal supplies; he obtained sentence of excommunication from the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Welsh made a brave defence, and, had it not been for the almost accidental capture and murder of Llewelyn in December, England might have found the task too hard for her. The death of Llewelyn, however, and the capture of David in the following June, deprived the Welsh of their leaders, and they submitted. Edward began forthwith his work of consolidation. … In 1284 he published at Rhuddlan a statute, called the Statute of Wales, which was intended to introduce the laws and customs of England, and to reform the administration of that country altogether on the English system. The process was a slow one; the Welsh retained their ancient common law and their national spirit; the administrative powers were weak and not far-reaching; the sway of the lords Marchers was suffered to continue; and, although assimilated, Wales was not incorporated with England. It was not until the reign of Henry VIII. that the principality was represented in the English Parliament, and the sovereignty, which from 1300 onwards was generally although not invariably bestowed on the king's eldest son, conferred under the most favourable circumstances little more than a high-sounding title and some slight and ideal claim to the affection of a portion of the Welsh people. The task, however, which the energies of his predecessors had failed to accomplish was achieved by Edward. All Britain south of the Tweed recognised his direct and supreme authority, and the power of the Welsh nationality was so far broken that it could never more thwart the determined and united action of England."

W. Stubbs, The Early Plantagenets, chapter 10.

ALSO IN: D. Hume, History of England, chapter 13.

J. Lingard, History of England, volume 3, chapter 3.

C. Knight, Popular History of England, chapter 25.

_C. H. Pearson, History of England during the Early and Middle Ages._

{3644}

WALES: A. D. 1402-1413. Owen Glendower's Rebellion.

"Since the day when it was conquered by Edward I. Wales had given the kings of England very little trouble. The Welsh remained loyal to the son and grandson of their conqueror, and were the most devoted friends of Richard II., even when he had lost the hearts of his English subjects. But on the usurpation of Henry [IV.] their allegiance seems to have been shaken: and Owen Glendower, who was descended from Llewelyn, the last native prince of Wales, laid claim to the sovereignty of the country [A. D. 1402]. He ravaged the territory of Lord Grey of Ruthin, and took him prisoner near Snowdon; then, turning southwards, overran Herefordshire and defeated and took prisoner Sir Edmund Mortimer, uncle to that young Earl of March, who should have been heir to the crown after Richard according to the true order of descent. In this battle upwards of a thousand Englishmen were slain, and such was the fierce barbarity of the victors that even the women of Wales mutilated the dead bodies in a manner too gross to be described, and left them unburied upon the field till heavy sums were paid for their interment. It was necessary to put down this revolt of Glendower, and the King collected an army and went against him in person. It was the beginning of September; but owing, as the people thought, to magical arts and enchantments practised by the Welshman, the army suffered dreadfully from tempests of wind, rain, snow, and hail before it could reach the enemy. In one night the King's tent was blown down, and he himself would have been killed if he had not retired to rest with his armour on. Finally the enterprise had to be abandoned. … Glendower continued as troublesome as ever, and the King was unable from various causes to make much progress against him. At one time money could not easily be raised for the expedition. At another time, when he actually marched into the borders of Wales [A. D. 1405], his advance was again impeded by the elements. The rivers swelled to an unusual extent, and the army lost a great part of its baggage by the suddenness of the inundation. The French, too, sent assistance to Glendower, and took Carmarthen Castle. Some time afterwards [A. D. 1407] the King's son, Henry Prince of Wales, succeeded in taking the castle of Aberystwith; but very soon after Owen Glendower recovered it by stealth. In short, the Welsh succeeded in maintaining their independence of England during this whole reign, and Owen Glendower ultimately got leave to die in peace." On the accession of Henry V. (A. D. 1413), "the Welsh, who had been so troublesome to his father, admired his valour and claimed him as a true prince of Wales, remembering that he had been born at Monmouth, which place was at that time within the principality. They discovered that there was an ancient prophecy that a prince would be born among themselves who should rule the whole realm of England; and they saw its fulfilment in King Henry V."

J. Gairdner, The Houses of Lancaster and York, chapter. 4, section 3; and chapter 5, section 1.

ALSO IN: J. H. Wylie, History of England under Henry IV., volume 1, chapter 14.

----------WALES: End--------

WALES, Prince of.

"When Edward I. subdued Wales, he is said to have promised the people of that country a native prince who could not speak English, and taking advantage of the fact that his queen, Eleanor, was delivered of a child at Carnarvon Castle, in North Wales, he conferred the principality upon his infant son Edward, who was yet unable to speak. By the death of his eldest brother Alphonso, Edward became heir to the throne, to which he afterwards succeeded as Edward II.; but from this time forward, the principality has been appropriated solely to the eldest sons of the kings of England, who previous to this period had only borne the title of 'Lord Prince.' In 1841, for the first time, the dukedom of Saxony was introduced among the reputed titles of the Prince of Wales. This dignity his Royal Highness derives merely in right of his own paternal descent. … Without any new creation, and previous to his acquiring the title of Prince of Wales, the heir-apparent of the sovereign is Duke of Cornwall, the most ancient title of its degree in England. Edward the Black Prince … was created the first Duke of Cornwall in 1337. … The dukedom merges in the Crown when there is no heir apparent, and is immediately inherited by the prince on his birth, or by the accession of his father to the throne, as the case may be. … The earldom of Chester is one of the titles conferred by patent, but it was formerly a principality, into which it had been erected by the 21st of Richard II. In the reign of Henry IV., however, the act of parliament by which it had been constituted was repealed, and it has ever since been granted in the same patent which confers the title of Prince of Wales. As the eldest sons of the kings of Scotland have enjoyed the titles of Duke of Rothsay, Earl of Carrick, Baron Renfrew, and Hereditary Great Steward of Scotland, those dignities are also invariably attributed to the Prince of Wales."

C. R. Dodd, Manual of Dignities, part 2.

WALI.

An Arabian title, given to certain governors of extensive provinces under the caliphate. It seems to have had a viceroyal significance, marking the bearer of it as an immediate representative of the caliph.

_T. P. Hughes, Dictionary of Islam._

WALID I., Caliph, A. D. 705-715.

Walid II., Caliph, 743-744.

WALKER, William: Filibustering in Nicaragua.

See NICARAGUA: A. D. 1855-1860.

WALL IN BRITAIN, Roman.

See ROMAN WALLS IN BRITAIN.

WALL OF CHINA, The Great.

See CHINA: THE ORIGIN OF THE PEOPLE.

WALL OF PROBUS.

See GERMANY: A. D. 277.

WALLACE, William, and the Scottish struggle for independence.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1290-1305.

{3645}

WALLACHS, WALLACHIANS. WALLACHIA: The name.

This is one of the forms of a name which the ancient Germanic peoples seem to have given to non-Germanic nations whom they associated in any wise with the Roman empire.

See WELSH.

For an account of the Wallachians of southeastern Europe, and their country.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES.

WALLENSTEIN, Campaigns of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1624-1626; 1627-1629; 1630; 1631-1632; and 1632-1634.

WALLHOF, Battle of (1626).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1611-1629.

WALLINGFORD, Treaty of.

A treaty concluded, A. D. 1153, between King Stephen and Matilda, who claimed the English crown as the heir of her father, Henry I. By the treaty Stephen was recognized as king and Matilda's son Henry (who became Henry II.) was made his heir.

WALLOONS, The.

"In Namur, Liege, and Luxembourg, the speech is what is called Walloon, the same word as Welsh, and derived from the German root 'wealh,' a foreigner. By this designation the Germans of the Flemish tongue denoted the Romano-Belgic population whose language was akin to the French, and whom a hilly and impracticable country (the forest districts of the Ardennes) had more or less protected from their own arms. Now the Walloon is a form of the Romano-Keltic so peculiar and independent that it must be of great antiquity, i. e., as old as the oldest dialect of the French, and no extension of the dialects of Lorraine, or Champagne, from which it differs materially. It is also a language which must have been formed on a Keltic basis. … The Walloons, then, are Romano-Keltic; whereas the Flemings are Germans, in speech and in blood."

R. G. Latham, Ethnology of Europe, chapter 3.

See, also, NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1494-1519.

WALPOLE, The administration of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1714-1721, and 1727-1741.

WALPOLE COMPANY, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765-1768.

WÄLSCH, The.

See VENEDI.

WALTER, the Penniless, Crusade of.

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1096-1099.

WAMPANOAGS, POKANOKETS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY; also, NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1674-1675, 1675, 1676-1678.

WAMPUM.

"Wampum, or wompam, according to Trumbull was the name of the white beads made from stems or inner whorls of the Pyrula Carica or Canaliculata periwinkle shells so common on all the south Coast of New England. When strung they were called wampon or wampom—peage or peake or peg, equivalent to 'strings of white beads,' for peage means 'strung beads.' Color was the basis of the nomenclature, as well as of the difference in value. 'Wompi' was white; 'Sacki' was black; 'Suckauhock' was the black beads made from the dark part of the poquauhock, the common quahog, Venus' mercenaria or round clam shell. The value of the black was generally twice that of the white. … The word generally used among the Dutch who led in introducing the bead currency of the Indians, Sewan or Zeewand, was more general in its application than wampum. But whatever the difficult Indian linguistic process may have been, the New England men soon settled on wampum and peage as the working names for this currency. The shell cylinders, black or white, were about one-eighth of an inch in diameter and one-quarter long. There were shorter beads used for ornaments, but there is hardly any trace of them in the currency. … The Indians strung the beads on fibres of hemp or tendons taken from the flesh of their forest meat. … The strings of peage were embroidered on strips of deer-skin, making the 'Máchequoce,' a girdle or belt 'of five inches thicknesse,' or more, and to the value of ten pounds sterling or more, which was worn about the waist or thrown over the shoulders like a scarf. More than 10,000 beads were wrought into a single belt four inches wide. These belts were in common use like the gold and jewelry of our day. They also played the same symbolic part which survives in the crown jewels and other regalia of civilized nations. … Whenever the Indians made an important statement in their frequent negotiations, they presented a belt to prove it, to give force to their words. … It gave to the words the weight of hard physical facts and made the expression an emblem of great force and significance. The philologists call this literary office, this symbolic function of wampum, an elementary mnemonic record. The same was fulfilled by the quippus, knotted strings or quipu of the ancient Peruvians. … 'This belt preserves my words' was a common remark of the Iroquois Chief in council. … The Iroquois were a mighty nation, almost an incipient state. Their only records were in these mnemonic beads. … Tradition gives to the Narragansetts the honor of inventing these valued articles, valuable both for use and exchange. … The Long Island Indians manufactured the beads in large quantities and then were forced to pay them away in tribute to the Mohawks and the fiercer tribes of the interior. Furs were readily exchanged for these trinkets, which carried a permanent value, through the constancy of the Indian desire for them. … After the use of wampum was established in colonial life, contracts were made payable at will in wampum, beaver, or silver. … The use began in New England in 1627. It was a legal tender until 1661, and for more than three quarters of a century the wampum was current in small transactions."

_W. B. Weeden, Indian Money as a Factor in New England Civilization._

See, also, MONEY AND BANKING: 17th CENTURY; QUIPU; and MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1623-1629.

WANBOROUGH, Battle of.

See HWICCAS.

WANDIWASH, Battle of (1760).

See INDIA: A. D. 1758-1761.

WAPANACHKIK, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

WAPENING, The.

The mediæval armed assembly of Ghent and other Flemish towns.

J. Michelet, History of France, book 12, chapter 1.

WAPENTAKE, The.

See HUNDRED, THE.

WAPISIANAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.

WAPPINGERS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

WAR OF 1812, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1809; 1808; and 1810-1812, to 1815 (JANUARY).

WAR OF JENKINS' EAR, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1739-1741.

WAR OF LIBERATION.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1812-1813, to 1813 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

{3646}

WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1740, to 1744-1745; NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1745, and 1746-1747; ITALY: A. D. 1741-1743, to 1746-1747; AIX-LA-CHAPELLE: THE CONGRESS.

WAR OF THE FEDERATION.

See VENEZUELA: A. D. 1829-1886.

WAR OF THE LOVERS, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1578-1580.

WAR OF THE QUEEN'S RIGHTS.

See NETHERLANDS (THE SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1667.

WAR OF THE REBELLION (of the American Slave States), or War of Secession.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER), and after.

Statistics.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (MAY) STATISTICS.

WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1702, and after; NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1702-1704, and after; GERMANY: A. D. 1702, and after; ITALY: A. D. 1701-1713; NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1702-1710; and UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

WAR OF THE THREE HENRYS.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1584-1589.

WARAUS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.

WARBECK, PERKIN, Rebellion of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1487-1497.

WARBURG, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1760.

WARD, General Artemas, and the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (APRIL-MAY), (MAY-AUGUST), and (JUNE).

WARINGS, The.

See VARANGIANS.

WARNA, VARNA, Battle of (1444).

See TURKS: A. D. 1402-1451.

WARREN, Dr. Joseph, and the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (MAY), and (JUNE).

WARS OF RELIGION IN FRANCE, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1560-1563, to 1593-1598.

WARS OF THE ROSES.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1455-1471.

WARSAW: A. D. 1656. Three days battle with Swedes and Brandenburgers. Defeat of the Poles.

See BRANDENBURG: A. D. 1640-1688; and SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1644-1697.

WARSAW: A. D. 1792-1794. Occupied by the Russians. Their forces expelled. Capture of the city by Souvorof. Its acquisition by Prussia.

See POLAND: A. D. 1791-1792; and 1793-1796.

WARSAW: A. D. 1807. Created a Grand Duchy, and ceded to the King of Saxony.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1807 (JUNE-JULY).

WARSAW: A. D. 1815. The Grand Duchy given to Russia.

See VIENNA, THE CONGRESS OF.

WARSAW: A. D. 1830-1831. Revolt. Attack and capture by the Russians.

See POLAND: A. D. 1830-1832.

WARTBURG, Luther at.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1521-1522.

German students' demonstration (1817).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1817-1820.

WARTENBURG, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).

WARWICK, the King-maker.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1455-1471.

WARWICK PLANTATION.

See RHODE ISLAND: A. D. 1641-1647.

WASHAKIS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES, SHOSHONEAN FAMILY.

WASHINGTON, George: First campaigns.

See OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1754, and 1755.

In the War of the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (MAY-AUGUST), to 1783 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER).

The framing of the Federal Constitution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787.

Presidential election and administration.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1789, to 1796.

Farewell Address.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1796.

----------WASHINGTON (City): Start--------

WASHINGTON (City): A. D. 1791. The founding of the Federal Capital.

"One important duty which engaged the President's [Washington's] attention during part of the recess [of Congress] related to the purchase and survey of the new Federal city. The site chosen on the Potomac by himself and the commissioners, in conformity with law [see UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1789-1792], lay a few miles to the north of Mount Vernon on the Maryland side of the river, at the confluence of the Eastern Branch, and just below Georgetown. The tradition goes that, while a young surveyor scouring the neighboring country, Washington had marked the advantages of this spot for a great city. … The entire soil belonged in large parcels to a few plain, easy, Maryland farmers, who rode over to Georgetown for their flour and bacon. One of these only, David Burns, was obstinate about making terms; and the subsequent rise of land in the western quarter of the city, which his farmhouse now occupied, rendered his little daughter in time the heiress of Washington, and confirmed his claims to historical consideration as the most conspicuous grantor of the National Capital. For procuring this choice spot on behalf of his countrymen, the President conducted the negotiations in person, and the purchase of the Federal city was concluded upon just and even generous terms. Each owner surrendered his real estate to the United States with no restriction except that of retaining every alternate lot for himself. The government was permitted to reserve all tracts specially desired at £25 an acre, while the land for avenues, streets, and alleys should cost nothing. Thus the Federal Capital came to the United States as substantially a free conveyance of half the fee of the soil in consideration of the enhanced value expected for the other half. … Major l'Enfant, a French architect, was selected to plan and lay out the new city. The highways were mapped and bounded substantially as they exist at this day, being so spacious and so numerous in comparison with building lots as to have admitted of no later change, in the course of a century, except in the prudent direction of parking, enlarging sidewalks, and leaving little plats in front of houses to be privately cared for. Streets running due north and south from the northern boundary to the Potomac were intersected at right angles by others which extended east and west. {3647} To mar the simplicity of this plan, however, which so far resembled that of Philadelphia, great avenues, 160 feet wide, were run diagonally, radiating like spokes, from such main centres as Capitol Hill and the President's house. … This new Capital, by the President modestly styled 'the Federal City,' but to which the commissioners, by general acclamation, proceeded in September to affix his illustrious name, was America's first grand essay at a metropolis in advance of inhabitants. … The founder himself entered with unwonted ardor into the plans projected for developing this the new Capital. Not only did he picture the city which bore his name as an instructor of the coming youth in lessons of lofty patriotism, but he prophesied for it national greatness apart from its growth as the repository of the nation. He believed it would become a prosperous commercial city, its wharves studded with sails, enjoying all the advantages of Western traffic by means of a canal linking the Potomac and Ohio rivers, so as to bring Western produce to the seaboard. The ten-mile square which comprised the territorial District of Columbia, inclusive of the Capital, stretched across the Potomac, taking Georgetown from the Maryland jurisdiction, and Alexandria from Virginia. … The first corner-stone of this new Federal district was publicly laid with Masonic ceremonies, and though the auction sale of city lots in autumn proved disappointing, the idea prevailed that the government would gain from individual purchasers in Washington city a fund ample enough for erecting there all the public buildings at present needed."

J. Schouler, History of the United States, chapter 2, section 2 (volume 1).

ALSO IN: M. Clemmer, Ten Years in Washington, chapters 1-3.

C. B. Todd, The Story of Washington, chapters 1-2.

_J. A. Porter, The City of Washington (Johns Hopkins University Studies, series 3, numbers 11-12)._

WASHINGTON (City): A. D. 1814. In the hands of the British. Destruction of public buildings.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1814 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).

WASHINGTON (City): A. D. 1861 (April). The threatening activity of rebellion. Peril of the national capital.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (APRIL) ACTIVITY OF REBELLION.

WASHINGTON (City): A. D. 1861 (April-May). The coming of the first defenders of the national capital.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (APRIL), and (APRIL-MAY: MARYLAND).

WASHINGTON (City): A. D. 1862 (April). Abolition of Slavery in the District of Columbia.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (APRIL-JUNE).

WASHINGTON (City): A. D. 1864. Approached and threatened by Early.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (JULY: VIRGINIA-MARYLAND).

WASHINGTON (City): A. D. 1867. Extension of suffrage to the Negroes.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1867 (JANUARY).

----------WASHINGTON (City): End--------

WASHINGTON, Fort: A. D. 1776. Capture by the British.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).

WASHINGTON, The proposed state, to be formed west of Pennsylvania.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1784.

WASHINGTON (State): A. D. 1803. Was it embraced in the Louisiana Purchase? Grounds of American possession.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.

WASHINGTON (State): A. D. 1846. Possession for the United States secured by the settlement of the Oregon boundary question with England.

See OREGON: A. D. 1844-1846.

WASHINGTON (State): A. D. 1889. Admission to the Union.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1889-1890.

WASHINGTON, Treaty of (1842).

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1842 THE ASHBURTON TREATY.

Treaty of (1871).

See ALABAMA CLAIMS: A. D. 1871.

WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, St. Louis.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: REFORMS &c.: A. D. 1865-1886.

WASHOAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: WASHOAN FAMILY.

WAT TYLER'S REBELLION.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1381.

WATAUGA ASSOCIATION, The.

See TENNESSEE: A. D. 1769-1772.

WATERFORD: A. D. 1170. Stormed and taken by Strongbow.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1169-1175.

WATER-LILY SECT, The.

See TRIAD SOCIETY.

WATERLOO CAMPAIGN, Napoleon's.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1815 (JUNE).

WATERLOO FIELD, in Marlborough's Campaigns:

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1705.

WATERWAYS.

See (in Supplement) COMMERCE, MODERN.

WATHEK, Al, Caliph, A. D. 841-847.

WATLING STREET.

The Milky Way was known to our early English ancestors as Watling Street, signifying the road "by which the hero-sons of Waetla marched across" the heavens. When they settled in England they transferred the name Watling Street to the great Roman road which they found traversing the island, from London to Chester. Portions of the road, in London and elsewhere, still bear the name. Even in Chaucer's time the Milky Way appears to have been sometimes called Watling Street.

J. R. Green, The Making of England, page 166.

ALSO IN: _T. Wright, The Celt, the Roman and the Saxon._

See ROMAN ROADS IN BRITAIN.

WATT, James, and the Steam Engine.

See STEAM ENGINE: A. D. 1765-1785.

WATTIGNIES, Battle of (1793).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY-DECEMBER) PROGRESS OF THE WAR.

WAUHATCHIE, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER: TENNESSEE).

WAYNE, General Anthony, and the storming of Stony Point.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778-1779 WASHINGTON GUARDING THE HUDSON.

Chastisement of the Northwestern Indians.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1790-1795.

WAYNESBOROUGH, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (FEBRUARY-MARCH: VIRGINIA).

WAYS AND MEANS COMMITTEE.

See CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES.

WEALH.

See THEOW.

WEAVING BROTHERS, The.

See BEGUINES.

{3648}

WEBSTER, Daniel, and the Dartmouth College case.

See (in Supplement) DARTMOUTH COLLEGE.

The Tariff Question.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION (UNITED STATES): A. D. 1816-1824; and 1828.

Debate with Hayne.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1828-1833.

In the Cabinet of President Tyler.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1841; and 1842 THE ASHBURTON TREATY.

Seventh of March Speech.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1850.

In the Cabinet of President Fillmore. The Hülsemann Letter.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1850-1851.

WECKQUAESGEEKS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

WEDMORE, Peace of.

A treaty of peace concluded between King Alfred and the Danes, by which the latter were bound to remain peacefully on that side of England which lay north and east of "Watling Street" (the Roman road from London to Chester) and to submit to baptism.

E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, chapter 2, section 4 (volume l).

See ENGLAND: A. D. 855-880.

WEHLAU. Treaty of (1657).

See BRANDENBURG: A. D. 1640-1688.

WEIMAR.

For an account of the origin of the Duchy of Saxe Weimar;

See SAXONY: A. D. 1180-1553.

"Small indeed is the space occupied on the map by the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar; yet the historian of the German Courts declares, and truly, that after Berlin there is no Court of which the nation is so proud. … Small among German princes is mine, poor and narrow his kingdom, limited his power of doing good.' Thus sings Goethe in that poem, so honourable to both, wherein he acknowledges his debt to Karl August. … Weimar is an ancient city on the Ilm, a small stream rising in the Thuringian forests, and losing itself in the Saal, at Jena; this stream on which the sole navigation seems to be that of ducks, meanders peacefully through pleasant valleys, except during the rainy season, when mountain-torrents swell its current and overflow its banks. The Trent, between Trentham and Stafford—'the smug and silver Trent' as Shakespeare calls it—will give an idea of this stream. The town is charmingly placed in the Ilm valley, and stands some eight hundred feet above the level of the sea. 'Weimar,' says the old topographer, Mathew Merian, 'is Weinmar, because it was the wine market for Jena and its environs. Others say it was because some one here in ancient days began to plant the vine, who was hence called Weinmayer. But of this each reader may believe just what he pleases.' On a first acquaintance, Weimar seems more like a village bordering a park, than a capital with a Court, having all courtly environments. … Saxe-Weimar has no trade, no manufactures, no animation of commercial, political, or even theological activity. This part of Saxony, be it remembered, was the home and shelter of Protestantism in its birth. Only a few miles from Weimar stands the Wartburg, where Luther, in the disguise of Squire George, lived in safety, translating the Bible, and hurling his inkstand at the head of Satan, like a rough-handed disputant as he was. In the marketplace of Weimar stand, to this day, two houses from the windows of which Tetzel advertised his indulgences, and Luther afterwards in fiery indignation fulminated against them. These records of religious struggle still remain, but are no longer suggestions for the continuance of the strife. … The theologic fire has long burnt itself out in Thuringia. In Weimar, where Luther preached, another preacher came, whom we know as Goethe. In the old church there is one portrait of Luther, painted by his friend Lucas Kranach, greatly prized, as well it may be; but for this one portrait of Luther, there are a hundred of Goethe. It is not Luther, but Goethe, they think of here; poetry, not theology, is the glory of Weimar. And, corresponding with this, we find the dominant characteristic of the place to be no magnificent church, no picturesque ancient buildings, no visible image of the earlier ages, but the sweet serenity of a lovely park. The park fills the foreground of the picture, and always rises first in the memory. … Within its limits Saxe Weimar displayed all that an imperial court displays in larger proportions: it had its ministers, its army, its chamberlains, pages, and sycophants. Court favour, and disgrace, elevated and depressed, as if they had been imperial smiles, or autocratic frowns. A standing army of six hundred men, with cavalry of fifty hussars, had its War Department, with war minister, secretary, and clerk. As the nobles formed the predominating element of Weimar, we see at once how, in spite of the influence of Karl August, and the remarkable men he assembled round him, no real public for Art could be found there. Some of the courtiers played more or less with Art, some had real feeling for it; but the majority set decided faces against all the beaux esprits. … Not without profound significance is this fact that in Weimar the poet found a Circle, but no Public. To welcome his productions there were friends and admirers; there was no Nation. Germany had no public."

G. H. Lewes, The Life and Works of Goethe. book 1, chapter 1.

WEISSENBURG, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (JULY-AUGUST).

WELATABIANS, The.

See WILZEN.

WELDON RAILROAD, Battles on the.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (AUGUST: VIRGINIA).

WELFS.

See GUELFS.

WELLESLEY, MARQUIS OF. The Indian Administration of.

See INDIA: A. D. 1798-1805.

WELLESLEY COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: REFORMS &c.: A. D. 1804-1891.

WELLINGHAUSEN, KIRCHDENKERN, Battle of(1761).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1761-1762.

WELLINGTON. Campaigns of.

See INDIA: A. D. 1798-1805; SPAIN: A. D. 1808-1809, to 1812-1814; and FRANCE: A. D. 1815.

Ministry.

See ENGLAND: A. D.1827-1828; 1830.

WELSH, The Name of the.

"The Germans, like our own ancestors, called foreign, i. e. non-Teutonic nations, Welsh. Yet apparently not all such nations, but only those which they in some way associated with the Roman Empire: the Cymry of Roman Britain, the Romanized Kelts of Gaul, the Italians, the Roumans or Wallachs of Transylvania and the Principalities. It does not appear that either the Magyars or any Slavonic people were called by any form of the name Welsh."

J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, chapter 17, foot-note.

"Wealhas, or Welshmen; … it was by this name, which means 'strangers,' or 'unintelligible people,' that the English knew the Britons, and it is the name by which the Britons, oddly enough, now know themselves."

J. R. Green, The Making of England, page 122.

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WENCESLAUS, WENZEL, VACSLAV I., King of Bohemia, A. D. 1230-1253.

Wenceslaus I., King of Hungary, 1301-1305;

Wenceslaus III. of Bohemia, 1305-1306.

Wenceslaus II., King of Bohemia, 1278-1305.

Wenceslaus IV., King of Bohemia, 1378-1419; King of Germany, 1378-1400.

WENDS, The.

"The Germans call all Slavonians Wends. No Slavonian calls himself so."

R. G. Latham, The Germany of Tacitus; Prolegomena, section 15.

See, also, SLAVONIC PEOPLES; VENEDI; VANDALS; and AVARS: 7TH CENTURY.

WENTWORTH, Thomas (Earl of Strafford).

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1634-1637, 1640, 1640-1641; and IRELAND: A. D. 1633-1639.

WENZEL.

See WENCESLAUS.

WERBACH, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866.

WERBEN, The camp of Gustavus Adolphus at.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631.

WERGILD.

"The principle that every injury to either person or property might be compensated by a money payment was common to all the northern nations. It was introduced into Gaul by the conquering Franks, and into Britain by the English invaders. Every man's life had a fixed money value, called the 'wergild.' In the case of a freeman, this compensation for murder was payable to his kindred; in that of a slave, to his master. The amount of the wergild varied, according to a graduated scale, with the rank of the person slain."

T. P. Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional History, page 41.

WEROWANCE.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: POWHATAN CONFEDERACY.

WESLEYS, The, and early Methodism.

See METHODISTS.

WESSAGUSSET, Weston's settlement at.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1622-1628.

WESSEX, The Kingdom of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 477-527.

WEST INDIA COMPANY, The Dutch.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1621-1646.

WEST INDIA COMPANY, The French.

See CANADA: A. D. 1663-1674.

WEST INDIES, The.

"The name West Indies recalls the fact that the discovery of the new world originated in an attempt to find a western route to the eastern seas, and that, when Columbus crossed the Atlantic and sighted land on the other side, he fancied he had reached the further coasts of the Indies.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1484-1492, and 1492.

'In consequence of this mistake of Columbus,' says Adam Smith, 'the name of the Indies has stuck to those unfortunate countries ever since.' The islands, or some of them, have long borne the name of Antilles. Antillia or Antigua was a mythical island [see ANTILLES] which found a place on mediæval maps, and the name was applied by geographers to Hispaniola and Cuba upon their first discovery. In modern times Cuba, Hispaniola or Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico have usually been known as the Greater Antilles; and the ring of smaller islands, including the Windward and the Leeward Islands, as the Lesser Antilles. The terms Windward and Leeward themselves demand some notice. The prevailing wind in the West Indies being the north-east trade wind, the islands which were most exposed to it were known as the Windward islands, and those which were less exposed were known as the Leeward. According]y, the Spaniards regarded the whole ring of Caribbean islands as Windward islands, and identified the Leeward islands with the four large islands which constitute the Greater Antilles as given above. The English sailors contracted the area of Windward and Leeward, subdividing the Caribbean islands into a northern section of Leeward islands and a southern section of Windward islands, which project further into the Atlantic. In 1671 this division was made a political one, and the English Caribbean islands, which had before constituted one government, were separated into two groups, under two Governors-in-chief; the islands to the north of the French colony of Guadeloupe forming the government of the Leeward islands, the islands to the south of Guadeloupe forming the government of the Windward islands. Latterly the signification has been again slightly modified; and, for administrative purposes under the Colonial Office, the Leeward islands group now includes the more northerly section of the Caribbean islands belonging to Great Britain, from the Virgin islands to Dominica [embracing Antigua, St. Christopher or St. Kitts, Nevis, Montserrat, the Virgin Islands, Dominica, Barbuda, Redonda, and Anguilla]; while the Windward islands are artificially restricted to St. Lucia, St. Vincent, the Grenadines, and Grenada, the two most windward of all, Barbados and Tobago, being separated from the group." Barbados is a distinct crown colony, and Tobago is joined with Trinidad to form another.

C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies, volume 2, section 2. chapters 1, and 4-7.

ALSO IN: _C. H. Eden, The West Indies._

_T. Southey, Chronological History of the West Indies._

See, also, CUBA; HAYTI; and JAMAICA.

WEST POINT.

"The importance of fortifying the Hudson River at its narrow passes among the Highlands was suggested to the Continental Congress by the Provincial Assembly of New York at an early period of the war [of Independence]. On the 6th of October, 1775, the former directed the latter to proceed to make such fortifications as they should deem best. On the 18th of November, Congress resolved to appoint a commander for the fortress, with the rank of colonel, and recommended the New York Assembly, or Convention, to empower him to raise a body of 200 militia from the counties of Dutchess, Orange, and Ulster, and a company of artillery from New York city, to garrison them." As the result of these proceedings a fort named "Constitution" was constructed on Martelaer's Rock (now Constitution Island) opposite West Point, under the direction of an English engineer, Bernard Romans. "After the capture of Forts Clinton and Montgomery, near the lower entrance to the Highlands, in 1777, and the abandonment of Fort Constitution by the Americans a few days afterward, public attention was directed to the importance of other and stronger fortifications in that vicinity. … Washington requested General Putnam to bestow his most serious attention upon that important subject. He also wrote to Governor Clinton, at the same time, desiring him to take the immediate supervision of the work; but his legislative duties, then many and pressing, made it difficult for him to comply. Clinton … made many valuable suggestions respecting the proposed fortifications. He mentioned West Point as the most eligible site for a strong fort."

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In the spring of 1778, "a committee of the New York Legislature, after surveying several sites, unanimously recommended West Point as the most eligible. Works were accordingly commenced there under the direction of Kosciuszko. … Kosciuszko arrived on the 20th of March, and the works were pushed toward completion with much spirit. The principal redoubt, constructed chiefly of logs and earth, was completed before May, and named Fort Clinton. … At the close of 1779, West Point was the strongest military post in America. In addition to the batteries that stood menacingly upon the hilltops, the river was obstructed by an enormous iron chain. … West Point was considered the keystone of the country during the Revolution, and there a large quantity of powder, and other munitions of war and military stores, were collected. These considerations combined made its possession a matter of great importance to the enemy, and hence it was selected by Arnold as the prize which his treason would give as a bribe.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1780 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER)].

When peace returned, it was regarded as one of the most important military posts in the country, and the plateau upon the point was purchased by the United States Government. … The Military Academy at West Point was established by an act of Congress which became a law on the 16th of March, 1802. Such an institution, at that place, was proposed by Washington to Congress in 1793; and earlier than this, even before the war of the Revolution had closed, he suggested the establishment of a military school there. But little progress was made in the matter until 1812."

B. J. Lossing, Field-book of the Revolution, volume 1, pages 702-706.

ALSO IN: _E. C. Boynton, History of West Point._

----------WEST VIRGINIA: Start--------

WEST VIRGINIA: A. D. 1632. Partly embraced in the Maryland grant to Lord Baltimore.

See MARYLAND: A. D. 1632.

WEST VIRGINIA: A. D. 1861 (April-June). Opposition to Secession. Loyal State Government organized.

See VIRGINIA; A. D. 1861 (JANUARY-JUNE).

WEST VIRGINIA: A. D. 1861 (JUNE-JULY). General McClellan's successful campaign. The Rebels driven out.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JUNE-JULY: WEST VIRGINIA).

WEST VIRGINIA: A. D. 1861 (JUNE-NOVEMBER). Steps taken toward separation from Virginia. Constitutional Convention at Wheeling.

See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1861 (JUNE-NOVEMBER).

WEST VIRGINIA: A. D. 1861 (AUGUST-DECEMBER). The campaign of Rosecrans against Lee.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (AUGUST-DECEMBER: WEST VIRGINIA).

WEST VIRGINIA: A. D. 1862 (APRIL-DECEMBER). The completed separation from Old Virginia. Admission to the Union.

The work of the convention at Wheeling which framed a constitution for the new State of West Virginia was satisfactorily performed, and "on the first Thursday of April, 1862, the people approved the constitution by a vote of 18,862 in favor of it with only 614 against it. The work of the representatives of the projected new State being thus ratified, the Governor called the Legislature of Virginia together on the 6th day of May, and on the 13th of the same month that body gave its consent, with due regularity, to 'the formation of a new State within the jurisdiction of the said State of Virginia.' A fortnight later, on the 28th of May, Senator Willey introduced the subject in Congress by presenting a memorial from the Legislature of Virginia, together with a certified copy of the proceedings of the Constitutional Convention and the vote of the people. The constitution was referred to the Committee on Territories and a bill favorable to admission was promptly reported by Senator Wade of Ohio. The measure was discussed at different periods, largely with reference to the effect it would have upon the institution of slavery, and Congress insisted upon inserting a provision that 'the children of slaves, born in the State after the 4th day of July, 1863, shall be free; all slaves within the said State who shall at that time be under the age of ten years shall be free when they arrive at the age of twenty-one years all slaves over ten and under twenty-one shall be free at the age of twenty-five years; and no slave shall be permitted to come into the State for permanent residence therein.' This condition was to be ratified by the convention which framed the constitution, and by the people at an election held for the purpose, and, upon due certification of the approval of the condition to the President of the United States, he was authorized to issue his proclamation declaring West Virginia to be a State of the Union. … On the 14th of July, three days before Congress adjourned, the bill passed the Senate by a vote of 23 to 17. Mr. Rice of Minnesota was the only Democrat who favored the admission of the new State. … Mr. Chandler and Mr. Howard of Michigan voted in the negative because the State had voluntarily done nothing towards providing for the emancipation of slaves; Mr. Sumner and Mr. Wilson, because the Senate had rejected the anti-slavery amendment [proposed by Mr. Sumner, declaring immediate emancipation in the new State]; Mr. Trumbull and Mr. Cowan, because of the irregularity of the whole proceeding. The bill was not considered in the House until the next session. It was taken up on the 9th of December," and was warmly debated. "On the passage of the bill the ayes were 96 and the noes were 55. The ayes were wholly from the Republican party, though several prominent Republicans opposed the measure. Almost the entire Massachusetts delegation voted in the negative, as did also Mr. Roscoe Conkling, Mr. Conway of Kansas and Mr. Francis Thomas of Maryland. The wide difference of opinion concerning this act was not unnatural. But the cause of the Union was aided by the addition of another loyal commonwealth, and substantial justice was done to the brave people of the new State. … To the old State of Virginia the blow was a heavy one. In the years following the war it added seriously to her financial embarrassment, and it has in many ways obstructed her prosperity."

J. G. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, volume 1, chapter 21.

In the legislative Ordinance of 1861 the proposed new State was called Kanawha; but in the Constitutional Convention this name was changed to West Virginia.

ALSO IN: V. A. Lewis, History of West Virginia, chapters 25-26.

E. McPherson, Political History of the United States during the Great Rebellion, pages 377-378.

J. G. Nicolay and J. Hay, Abraham Lincoln, volume 6, chapter 14.

WEST VIRGINIA: A. D. 1862 (MAY-JUNE). Fremont's Mountain Department.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA).

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WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

See AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1800-1840.

WESTERN EMPIRE, The.

See ROME: A. D. 394-395, and 423-450; and GERMANY: A. D. 800.

WESTERN LANDS, Cession of, to the United States by the States.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786.

WESTERN RESERVE OF CONNECTICUT.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786; PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1753-1799; and OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1786-1796.

WESTFALIA.

See WESTPHALIA.

WESTMINSTER, Provisions of.

See OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF.

WESTMINSTER, Statutes of.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1275, and 1285.

WESTMINSTER, Treaty of.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674.

WESTMINSTER ASSEMBLY OF DIVINES.

See ENGLAND: A. D.1643 (JULY); and 1646 (MARCH).

WESTMINSTER PALACE.

"Westminster was from the days of Edward the Confessor the recognised home of the great council of the nation as well as of the king. How this came about, history does not record; it is possible that the mere accident of the existence of the royal palace on the bank of the Thames led to the foundation of the abbey, or that the propinquity of the abbey led to the choice of the place for a palace; equal obscurity covers the origin of both. … At Westminster Henry I held his councils, and Stephen is said to have founded the chapel of his patron saint within the palace. … From the very first introduction of representative members the national council had its regular home at Westminster. There, with a few casual exceptions, … all the properly constituted parliaments of England have been held. The ancient Palace of Westminster, of which the most important parts, having survived until the fire of 1834 and the construction of the New Houses of Parliament, were destroyed in 1852, must have presented a very apt illustration of the history of the Constitution which had grown up from its early simplicity to its full strength within those venerable walls. It was a curious congeries of towers, halls, churches, and chambers. As the administrative system of the country had been developed largely from the household economy of the king, the national palace had for its kernel the king's court, hall, chapel, and chamber. … As time went on, every apartment changed its destination: the chamber became a council room, the banquet hall a court of justice, the chapel a hall of deliberation. … The King's Chamber, or Parliament Chamber, was the House of Lords from very early times until the union with Ireland, when the peers removed into the lesser or White Hall, where they continued until the fire. The house of commons met occasionally in the Painted Chamber, but generally sat in the Chapter House or in the Refectory of the abbey, until the reign of Edward VI, when it was fixed in S. Stephen's chapel. … After the fire of 1834, during the building of the new houses, the house of lords sat in the Painted Chamber, and the house of commons in the White Hall or Court of Requests. It was a curious coincidence, certainly, that the destruction of the ancient fabric should follow so immediately upon the great constitutional change wrought by the reform act, and scarcely less curious that the fire should have originated in the burning of the ancient Exchequer tallies, one of the most permanent relics of the primitive simplicity of administration."

W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 20, sections 735-736 (volume 3).

WESTMINSTER SCHOOL.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.—ENGLAND.

WESTPHALIA: The country so named.

See SAXONY: THE OLD DUCHY.

WESTPHALIA, The Circle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1493-1519.

WESTPHALIA, The Kingdom of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1807 (JUNE-JULY); 1813(SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER), and (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

WESTPHALIA, The Peace of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

WESTPORT, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MARCH-OCTOBER: ARKANSAS-MISSOURI).

WETTIN, House of.

See SAXONY: A. D. 1180-1553.

WEXFORD: Stormed by Cromwell (1649).

See IRELAND: A. D. 1649-1650.

WHIG PARTY OF THE UNITED STATES.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1834.

WHIGS (WHIGGAMORS): Origin of the name and the English Party.

"The southwest counties of Scotland have seldom corn enough to serve them round the year: and the northern parts producing more than they need, those in the west come in summer to buy at Leith the stores that come from the north: and from a word 'whiggam,' used in driving their horses, all that drove were called the 'whiggamors,' and shorter the 'whiggs.' Now in that year [1648], after the news came down of Duke Hamilton's defeat [at the battle of Preston—see ENGLAND: A. D. 1648 (APRIL-AUGUST)], the ministers animated their people to rise and march to Edenburgh; and they came up marching on [at] the head of their parishes, with an unheard-of fury, praying and preaching all the way as they came. The marquis of Argile and his party came and headed them, they being about 6,000. This was called the 'whiggamors' inroad; and ever after that all that opposed the court came in contempt to be called 'whiggs': and from Scotland the word was brought into England, where it is now one of our unhappy terms of distinction."

G. Burnet, History of My Own Time, book 1 (Summary), section 43 (volume 1).

"We find John Nicoll, the diarist, in 1666, speaking of the west-country Presbyterians as 'commonly called the Whigs, implying that the term was new. The sliding of the appellation from these obscure people to the party of the opposition in London a few years later, is indicated by Daniel Defoe as occurring immediately after the affair of Bothwell Bridge in 1679. The Duke of Monmouth then returning from his command in Scotland, instead of thanks for his good service, found himself under blame for using the insurgents too mercifully. 'And Lauderdale told Charles, with an oath, that the Duke had been so civil to the Whigs because he was himself a Whig in his heart. This made it a court-word; and in a little while all the friends and followers of the Duke began to be called Whigs.'"

R. Chambers, Domestic Annals of Scotland, volume 2, page 172.

ALSO IN: J. H. Burton, History of Scotland, chapter 74 (volume 7).

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1680.

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WHIPS, Party.

The "party whips," in English politics, are "an extremely useful and hard-working body of officials. Being charged with the duty of keeping the respective sides in readiness for all emergencies, they are generally to be found in the lobby, where they make themselves acquainted with the incomings and outgoings of members, and learn a good deal as to their prospective movements. The whips are the gentlemen who issue those strongly underlined circulars by which legislators are summoned on important nights; and who, by their watchfulness and attention, can generally convey reliable intelligence to the party chiefs. If the Ministers, for example, are engaged in any controversy, and their whips are not absolutely certain of a majority, they would make arrangements for a succession of men to keep on talking till the laggards could be brought to their places." The whips also arrange "pairs," by which members of opposite parties, or on opposite sides of a given question, agree in couples, not to vote for a certain fixed period of time, thereby securing freedom to be absent without causing any loss of relative strength to their respective parties. This arrangement is common in most legislative bodies. "In addition to these duties, the whips of the opposing forces have to move for the issue of new writs in the place of deceased members—task never undertaken till they have a candidate ready for the fray."

Popular Account of Parliamentary Procedure, page 18.

ALSO IN: E. Porritt, The Englishman at Home, page 198, and appendix K.

WHISKY INSURRECTION, The.

See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1794.

WHISKY RING, The.

The Whisky Ring, so called, brought to light in the United States in 1875, "was an association, or series of associations, of distillers and Federal officials for the purpose of defrauding the Government of a large amount of the tax imposed on distilled spirits, and, further, of employing a part of the proceeds in political corruption. On the trial of the indictments a number of Federal officers were convicted."

A. Johnston, History of American Politics, chapter 23.

ALSO IN: _The Whisky Frauds: Testimony Taken (44th Congress, 1st Session, H. R. Mis. Doc's, Number 186, volume 9)._

WHITE BOYS.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1760-1798.

WHITE CAMELLIA, Knights of the.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1866-1871.

WHITE CASTLE OF MEMPHIS, The.

See ATHENS: B. C. 460-449.

WHITE CITY, The.

See BELGRADE.

WHITE COCKADE, The.

"This is the badge at the same time of the House of Stuart and of the House of Bourbon."

E. E. Morris, The Early Hanoverians, page 138.

WHITE COMPANY, The.

See ITALY: A. D. 1343-1393.

WHITE CROSS, Order of the.

An order founded by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, 1814.

WHITE EAGLE, Order of the.

A Polish order of knighthood, instituted in 1325 by Ladislaus IV., and revived by Augustus in 1705.

WHITE FRIARS.

See CARMELITE FRIARS.

WHITE GUELFS (Bianchi).

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1295-1300, and 1301-1313.

WHITE HOODS OF FRANCE.

"The Caputiati, or Capuchons, or White Hoods, [was] a sect originating with a wood-cutter of Auvergne, by name Durand, about the year 1182. Their primary object was the maintenance of peace, and the extermination of the disbanded soldiery, whom the English kings had spread over the south of France, and [who] were now ravaging the country under the name of Routiers or Cotereaux. The members of this religious association were bound by no vow, and made no profession of any particular faith; they were only distinguished by the white head-gear that gave them their name, and wore a little leaden image of the Virgin on their breast. They found favour at first with the bishops, especially in Burgundy and the Berri, and were even, from the best political causes, countenanced by Philip Augustus. They thus rose to such a degree of power that on the 20th of July, 1183, they surrounded a body of 7,000 of the marauding party, and suffered not one man to escape. They were, however, soon intoxicated with success, and threw out some hints about restoring the primæval liberty of mortals and universal equality; thereby incurring the displeasure of Hugo Bishop of Auxerre, who took arms against them, and put an end to the sect by the might of the sword in 1186."

L. Mariotti, Frà Dolcino and his times, chapter 1.

WHITE HOODS OF GHENT, The.

See FLANDERS: A. D. 1379-1381.

WHITE HOUSE, The.

The plain white freestone mansion at Washington in which the President of the United States resides during his term of office is officially styled the "Executive Mansion," but is popularly known as the White House. "It was designed by James Hoban in 1792. The corner-stone was laid on October 13, 1792, and its construction went on side by side with that of the Capitol. … President John Adams and his wife, on arriving … in November, 1800, found it habitable, although but six of its rooms were furnished. … In his design Hoban copied closely the plan of a notable Dublin palace, the seat of the Dukes of Leinster."

C. B. Todd, The Story of Washington, page 264.

ALSO IN: M. Clemmer, Ten Years in Washington, chapter 19.

WHITE HUNS, The.

See HUNS, WHITE.

WHITE MONKS.

See CISTERCIAN ORDER.

WHITE MOUNTAIN, Battle of the (1620).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1620.

WHITE OAK ROAD, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (MARCH-APRIL: VIRGINIA).

WHITE OAK SWAMP, Retreat through.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JUNE-JULY: VIRGINIA).

WHITE PENITENTS, WHITE COMPANIES.

"The end of the 14th century witnessed a profound outburst of popular devotion. The miserable condition of the Church, distracted by schism, and the disturbed state of every country in Europe, awoke a spirit of penitence and contrition at the prospect of another great Jubilee, and the opening of a new century. {3653} Bands of penitents wandered from place to place, clad in white garments; their faces, except the eyes, were covered with hoods, and on their backs they wore a red cross. They walked two and two, in solemn procession, old and young, men and women together, singing hymns of penitence, amongst which the sad strains of the 'Stabat Mater' held the chief place. At times they paused and flung themselves on the ground, exclaiming 'Mercy,' or 'Peace,' and continued in silent prayer. All was done with order and decorum; the processions generally lasted for nine days, and the penitents during this time fasted rigorously. The movement seems to have originated in Provence, but rapidly spread through Italy. Enemies were reconciled, restitution was made for wrongs, the churches were crowded wherever the penitents, or 'Bianchi' ['White Penitents,' 'White Companies,' 'Whitemen' are various English forms of the name] as they were called from their dress, made their appearance. The inhabitants of one city made a pilgrimage to another and stirred up their devotion. The people of Modena went to Bologna; the Bolognese suspended all business for nine days, and walked to Imola, whence the contagion rapidly spread southwards. For the last three months of 1399 this enthusiasm lasted, and wrought marked results upon morals and religion for a time. Yet enthusiasm tended to create imposture."

M. Creighton, History of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation, volume 1, pages 145-146.

ALSO IN: T. A. Trollope, History of the Commonwealth of Florence, volume 2, page 297.

See, also, FLAGELLANTS.

WHITE PLAINS, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).

WHITE RUSSIA.

See RUSSIA, GREAT, &c.

WHITE SEA, The.

See ÆGEAN.

WHITE SHIP, The sinking of the.

William, the only legitimate son of Henry I. of England, accompanied his father on a visit to Normandy (A. D. 1120). "When they were about to return by the port of Barfleur, a Norman captain, Thomas Fitz-Stephen, appeared and claimed the right of taking them in his ship, on the ground that his father had been captain of the 'Mora,' in which the Conqueror crossed to invade England. The king did not care to alter his own arrangements, but agreed that his son should sail in the 'Blanche Nef' [the White Ship] with Fitz-Stephen. William Ætheling, as the English called him, was accompanied by a large train of unruly courtiers, who amused themselves by making the sailors drink hard before they started, and dismissed the priests who came to bless the voyage with a chorus of scoffing laughter. It was evening before they left the shore, and there was no moon; a few of the more prudent quitted the ship, but there remained nearly 300—a dangerous freight for a small vessel. However, fifty rowers flushed with wine made good way in the waters; but the helmsman was less fit for his work, and the vessel struck suddenly on a sunk rock, the Raz de Catteville. The water rushed in, but there was time to lower a boat, which put off with the prince. When in safety, he heard the cries of his sister, the countess of Perche, and returned to save her. A crowd of desperate men leaped into the boat; it was swamped, and all perished."

C. H. Pearson, History of England during the Early and Middle Ages, volume 1, page 445.

WHITE TERROR, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794-1795 (JULY-APRIL).

WHITE TOWER, The.

See TOWER OF LONDON.

WHITE TOWN, The.

See ROCHELLE.

WHITE VALLEY, Battle of the (1476).

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: 14-18TH CENTURIES.

WHITNEY, Eli, and the invention of the cotton-gin.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1793 WHITNEY'S COTTON-GIN; and 1818-1821.

WICHITAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

WIDE AWAKES.

In the American presidential canvass of 1860, there were organized among the supporters of Abraham Lincoln numerous companies of young Republicans who undertook the parades and torchlight processions of the campaign in a systematic and disciplined way that was then quite new. They were simply uniformed in glazed-cloth caps and capes and took the name of Wide Awakes.

WIGHT, Isle of: Conquest by the Jutes.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 449-473.

WIGHT, Isle of: A. D. 1545. Occupation by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1532-1547.

WILDCAT BANKS.

"During Jackson's struggle with the Bank of the United States [see UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1833-1836, and 1835-1837] many new banks had been formed in various States, generally with little or no capital to pay the notes which they issued. They bought large quantities of cheaply printed bills. As these bills had cost them very little, they could afford to offer a higher price in paper money for lands in distant States and Territories than others could afford to offer in gold and silver. Having bought the lands for this worthless money, the wildcat bankers sold them for good money, hoping that their own bills would not soon find their way back for payment. If they were disappointed in this hope, the bank 'failed,' and the managers started a new one."

A. Johnston, History of the United States for Schools, section 496.

See, also: MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1837-1841.

WILDERNESS, Hooker's Campaign in the.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (APRIL-MAY: VIRGINIA).

WILDERNESS, Battle of the.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MAY: VIRGINIA) GRANT'S MOVEMENT.

WILHELMINA, Queen of the Netherlands, A. D. 1890-.

WILKES, John, The case of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1762-1764; and 1768-1774.

WILKINSON, General James, and Aaron Burr.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1806-1807.

Command on the Northern frontier.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1813 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER).

WILLIAM (of Holland), King of Germany: A. D. 1254-1256.

William (called The Silent), Prince of Orange, Count of Nassau, Stadtholder of the United Provinces, 1558-1584.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1555-1559, to 1581-1584.

William I., German Emperor, 1870-1888; King of Prussia, 1861-1888.

William I. (called The Conqueror), King of England (and Duke of Normandy), 1066-1087.

William I., King of Naples and Sicily, 1154-1166.

William I., King of the Netherlands, 1815-1840.

William II., German Emperor and King of Prussia, 1888-.

William II. (called Rufus or The Red), King of

{3654}

England, 1087-1100.

William II., King of Naples and Sicily, 1166-1189.

William II., King of the Netherlands, 1840-1849.

William II., Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of the United Provinces, 1647-1650.

William III., King of Naples and Sicily, 1194.

William III., King of the Netherlands, 1849-1890.

William III., Prince of Orange and Stadtholder of the United Provinces, A. D. 1672-1702; King of England (with Queen Mary, his Wife), 1689-1702.

William IV., King of England, 1830-1837.

William IV. (called The Lion), King of Scotland, 1165-1214.

WILLIAM HENRY, Fort: A. D. 1757. The French capture and the massacre of prisoners.

See CANADA: A. D. 1756-1757.

WILLIAMS, Roger, Founder of Rhode Island and Apostle of Religious Liberty.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1636; and RHODE ISLAND: A. D. 1631-1636, to 1683.

WILLIAMS COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: AMERICA: A. D. 1793.

WILLIAMSBURG, Canada, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1813 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER).

WILLIAMSBURG, Virginia, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MAY: VIRGINIA).

WILLOWS, Battle of the.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 378.

WILMINGTON, Delaware: A. D. 1638. The founding of the city.

See DELAWARE: A. D. 1638-1640.

WILMINGTON, Delaware: A. D. 1865. Occupied by the National forces.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (FEBRUARY-MARCH: NORTH CAROLINA).

WILMOT PROVISO, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1845-1846.

WILSON, James, and the framing of the Federal Constitution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787.

WILSON TARIFF ACT, The.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION (UNITED STATES): A. D. 1894.

WILSON'S CREEK, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JULY-SEPTEMBER: MISSOURI).

WILSON'S RAID.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (APRIL-MAY).

WILZEN, WELATABIANS, The.

"The Wilzen, as the Franks called them, or the Welatabians, as they called themselves, were perhaps the most powerful of the Sclavonian tribes, and at [the time of Charlemagne] occupied the southern coast of the Baltic; their immediate neighbors were the Abodrites, old allies of the Franks, whom they harassed by continual raids." Charlemagne led an expedition into the country of the Wilzen in 789 and subdued them.

J. I. Mombert, History of Charles the Great, book 2, chapter 4.

WIMPFEN, Battle of (1622).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1621-1623.

WINCEBY FIGHT (1643).

The sharp encounter known as Winceby Fight, in the English civil war, was one of Cromwell's successes, which drove the royalist forces out of the Lincolnshire country, and compelled the Marquis of Newcastle, who was besieging Hull, to abandon the siege. "Cromwell himself was nearer death in this action than ever in any other; the victory, too, made its due figure, and 'appeared in the world.' Winceby, a small upland hamlet, in the Wolds, not among the Fens, of Lincolnshire, is some five miles west of Horncastle. The confused memory of this Fight is still fresh there." The Fight occurred October 10, 1643.

T. Carlyle, Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, letter 18 (volume 1).

See HULL.

WINCHESTER, General: Defeat at the Raisin.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812-1813 HARRISON'S NORTHWESTERN CAMPAIGN.

WINCHESTER, England: Origin of.

"There can be little doubt that a town, of greater or less importance, has existed since the earliest dawn of English history on the same place where stands the Winchester of to-day. … If the first founders of the ancient city were Celtic Britons, covering with their rude dwellings the summit and sides of S. Catherine's Hill they were certainly conquered by the Belgæ, also probably of Celtic origin, who, crossing over from Gaul, established themselves in a large district of southern England. But whether in their time Winchester was called Caer Gwent is doubtful; very probably it was simply Gwin or Gwent, the white place. … But as there is no question of the Roman occupation of Britain, first by Julius Cæsar, later on by Claudius and Vespasian, so we know that the settlement on the Itchen was turned into Venta Belgarum, and S. Catherine's Hill converted into a Roman camp. … Venta, as well as many other towns, was completely Romanised. … But the time arrived when Rome could no longer defend herself at home, and was thus forced to leave Britain to contend with the wild Northmen who had already begun their inroads. The Britons implored their former masters to come back and help them, but in vain. … We know how Vortigern, chief among the southern British kings, invited the Saxon adventurers to help him against the Picts and Scots, who encroached more and more in Britain. … In 495 (as we learn from the Brito-Welsh Chronicle), there · came two ealdormen to Britain, Cerdic and Cymric,' who landed at Hamble Creek, and eventually, after many battles much extolled in the Saxon Chronicle, became kings of the West Saxons. Cerdic is said to have been crowned in Venta, to have slaughtered most of the inhabitants and all the priests, and to have converted the cathedral into a heathen temple. … The name Venta now becomes Wintana, with the affix of 'ceaster,' Saxon for fortified place."

A. R. R. Bramston and A. C. Leroy, Historic Winchester, chapter I.

See, also, VENTA.

WINCHESTER, Virginia: A. D. 1862. Defeat of General Banks. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA).

WINCHESTER, Virginia: A. D. 1864. Sheridan's victory.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (AUGUST-OCTOBER: VIRGINIA).

WINCHESTER SCHOOL.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.—ENGLAND.

WINDSOR CASTLE: Rebuilt by Edward III.

See GARTER, KNIGHTS OF THE.

WINDWARD ISLANDS, The.

See WEST INDIES.

WINEDI.

See VENEDI.

{3655}

WINGFIELD, Battle of.

Fought, A. D. 655, between King Oswin of Northumberland and King Penda of Mercia, the latter being defeated and slain.

WINKELRIED, Arnold von, at the battle of Sempach.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1386-1388.

WINNEBAGOES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

WINSLOW, Edward, and the Plymouth colony.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D.1623-1629 (PLYMOUTH), and after.

WINTHROP, John, and the colony of Massachusetts Bay.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1629-1630, and after.

WINTHROP, John, Jr., and the founding of Connecticut.

See CONNECTICUT: A. D. 1634-1637.

WINTHROP, Theodore: Death at Big Bethel.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JUNE: VIRGINIA).

WIPPED'S-FLEET, Battle of.

The decisive battle fought, A. D. 465, between the Jutes under Hengest and the Britons, which settled the conquest of Kent by the former.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 449-473.

WISBY, Its Code of Maritime Laws.

See HANSA TOWNS.

WISBY: A. D. 1361. Taken and plundered by the Danes.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES: A. D. 1018-1397.

----------WISCONSIN: Start--------

WISCONSIN: The aboriginal inhabitants.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES:: SIOUAN FAMILY.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1634-1673. Visited by Nicolet, and traversed by Marquette and Joliet.

See CANADA: A. D. 1634-1673.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1763. Cession to Great Britain.

See SEVEN YEARS WAR: THE TREATIES.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1763. The King's proclamation excluding settlers.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1763.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1774. Embraced in the Province of Quebec.

See CANADA: A. D. 1763-1774.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1784. Included in the proposed states of Sylvania, Michigania and Assenisipia.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1784.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1785. Partially covered by the western land claims of Massachusetts, ceded to the United States.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1787. The Ordinance for the Government of the Northwest Territory. Perpetual exclusion of Slavery.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1787.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1805-1848. Territorial vicissitudes. Admission into the Union as a State.

From 1805 to 1809, Wisconsin formed a part of Indiana Territory. From 1809 to 1818 her territory was embraced In the Territory of Illinois, excepting a small projection at the northeast which was left out of the described boundaries and belonged nowhere. When Illinois became a State, in 1818, and her present boundaries were established, an the country north of them was joined to Michigan Territory. In 1834 that huge Territory was still further enlarged by the temporary addition to it of a great area west of the Mississippi, embracing the present states of Iowa, Minnesota and part of Dakota. It was an unwieldy and impracticable territorial organization, and movements to divide it, which had been on foot long before this last enlargement, soon attained success. In 1836, the year before Michigan became a State, with her present limits, the remaining Territory was organized under the name of Wisconsin. Two years later, "by act of June 12, 1838, congress still further contracted the limits of Wisconsin by creating from its trans-Mississippi tract the Territory of Iowa. This, however, was in accordance with the original design when the country beyond the Mississippi was attached to Michigan Territory for purposes of temporary government, so no objection was entertained to this arrangement on the part of Wisconsin. The establishment of Iowa had reduced Wisconsin to her present limits, except that she still held, as her western boundary, the Mississippi river to its source, and a line drawn due north therefrom to the international boundary. In this condition Wisconsin remained until the act of congress approved August 6, 1846, enabling her people to form a state constitution. … Wisconsin was admitted into the Union, by act approved May 29, 1848, with her present limits."

R. G. Thwaites, The Boundaries of Wisconsin (Wisconsin State Historical Society Collections, volume 11, pages 455-468).

ALSO IN: B. A. Hinsdale, The Old Northwest, chapter 17.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1832. The Black Hawk War.

See ILLINOIS: A. D. 1832.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1854. Early formation of the Republican Party.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1854-1855.

----------WISCONSIN: End--------

WISCONSIN, University of.

"In 1838, two years after organization as a Territory, Wisconsin petitioned Congress for aid to establish a university. The request was granted, the usual seventy-two sections of land were set aside for this object, and the Territorial Legislature at once passed a law establishing the University of the Territory of Wisconsin. The organization of a board of trustees was, however, the only other action which took place previous to the adoption of the State Constitution In 1848; this provided for the establishment of a State university 'at or near the seat of government,' and stated, emphatically, that the lands granted for a university should constitute a perpetual fund, the income of which should be devoted to the support of this institution. This declaration was apparently to little purpose, as the State has treated these domains as granted absolutely, and not as held in trust. There is probably no worse example of mismanaged public educational funds on record than is to be found in connection with this institution. … The entire sum realized from the 46,080 acres was only 'about $150,000.' The University of Wisconsin was established in 1850 on the basis of the funds thus secured, but even while passing laws for the sale of the university lands the Legislature realized that the income would be insufficient to support the institution, and they therefore petitioned Congress for seventy-two additional sections in lieu of the saline lands granted to the State in 1848 but never located. Congress granted this petition in 1854. … An opportunity to atone for past errors was now afforded the Legislature. It began to be realized, after it was too late to enact suitable laws to remedy the evil, that the best lands had been sold at a disadvantage. {3656} It was felt that, whereas the policy pursued had benefited the State at large, it was not faithful to the increase of the seminary fund. … After fully examining the claims of the regents and the condition of the university in 1872 for four years, this body granted $10,000 annually, to atone for the injustice done by the State in selecting for an endowment unproductive lands."

F. W. Blackmar, History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education in the United States (Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1890, number 1), pages 250-251.

WISHOSKAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: WISHOSKAN FAMILY.

WISIGOTHS.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS).

WISMAR.

See HANSA TOWNS.

WITCHCRAFT, Salem.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1692; and 1692-1693.

WITE-THEOW.

See THEOW.

WITENAGEMOT, The.

"The Witenagemot or assembly of the wise. This [in old English history] is the supreme council of the nation, whether the nation be Kent or Mercia as in the earlier, or the whole gens Anglorum et Saxonum, as in the later history. The character of the national council testifies to its history as a later development than the lower courts, and as a consequence of the institution of royalty. The folkmoot or popular assembly of the shire is a representative body to a certain extent: it is attended by the representatives of the hundreds and townships, and has a representative body of witnesses to give validity to the acts that are executed in it. … The council of the aggregated state is not a folkmoot but a witenagemot. … On great occasions … we must understand the witenagemot to have been attended by a concourse of people whose voices could be raised in applause or in resistance to the proposals of the chiefs. But that such gatherings shared in any way the constitutional powers of the witan, that they were organised in any way corresponding to the machinery of the folkmoot, that they had any representative character in the modern sense, as having full powers to act on behalf of constituents, that they shared the judicial work, or except by applause and hooting influenced in any way the decision of the chiefs, there is no evidence whatever. … The members of the assembly were the wise men, the sapientes, witan; the king, sometimes accompanied by his wife and sons; the bishops of the kingdom, the ealdormen of the shires or provinces, and a number of the king's friends and dependents. … The number of the witan was thus never very large."

W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 6, sections 51-52 (volume 1).

The constitution and powers of the witenagemot are very fully discussed by Mr. Kemble, who gives also a list of the recorded witenagemots, with comments on the business transacted in them.

J. M. Kemble, The Saxons in England, book 2, chapter 6 (volume 2).

ALSO IN: _R. Gneist, The English Parliament._

See, also, PARLIAMENT, THE ENGLISH: EARLY STAGES OF ITS EVOLUTION; and ENGLAND: A. D. 958.

WITIGIS, King of the Ostrogoths.

See ROME: A. D. 535-553.

WITT, John De, The administration and the murder of.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1647-1650; 1651-1660, to 1672-1674.

WITTELSBACH, The House of.

See BAVARIA: A. D. 1180-1356.

WITTENBERG, Luther at.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1017, and after.

WITTENBERG UNIVERSITY.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL: GERMANY.

WITTENWEIHER, Battle of (1638).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

WITTSTOCK, Battle of (1636).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

WITUMKAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

WIZA.

See THRACIANS.

WOCCONS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

WOIPPY, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).

WOIWODES, VOIVODES, WAIWODES.

See POLAND: A. D. 1078-1652; and BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: A. D. 1341-1356 (SERVIA).

WOLFE, General, Victory and death of.

See CANADA: A. D. 1759.

WOLFENBÜTTEL, Duchy of.

See SAXONY: A. D. 1178-1183.

WOLSEY, The ministry and fall of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1513-1529; and 1527-1534.

WOMAN ORDER, General Butler's.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MAY-DECEMBER: LOUISIANA).

----------WOMAN'S RIGHTS: Start--------

WOMAN'S RIGHTS. WOMAN SUFFRAGE: A. D. 1790-1849. The pioneer advocates.

"In 1790, Mary Wollstonecraft's 'Vindication of the Rights of Women,' published in London, attracted much attention from liberal minds. She examined the position of woman in the light of existing civilizations, and demanded for her the widest opportunities of education, industry, political knowledge, and the right of representation. … Following her, came Jane Marcet, Eliza Lynn, and Harriet Martineau—each of whom in the early part of the 19th century exerted a decided influence upon the political thought of England. … Frances Wright, a person of extraordinary powers of mind, born in Dundee, Scotland, in 1797, was the first woman who gave lectures on political subjects in America. When sixteen years of age she heard of the existence of a country in which freedom for the people had been proclaimed; she was filled with joy and a determination to visit the American Republic where the foundations of justice, liberty, and equality had been so securely laid. In 1820 she came here, traveling extensively North and South. She was at that time but twenty-two years of age. … Upon her second visit she made this country her home for several years. Her radical ideas on theology, slavery, and the social degradation of woman, now generally accepted by the best minds of the age, were then denounced by both press and pulpit, and maintained by her at the risk of her life. … In 1832, Lydia Maria Child published her 'History of Woman,' which was the first American storehouse of information upon the whole question, and undoubtedly increased the agitation. In 1836, Ernestine L. Rose, a Polish lady—banished from her native country by the Austrian tyrant, Francis Joseph, for her love of liberty—came to America, lecturing in the large cities North and South upon the 'Science of Government.' She advocated the enfranchisement of woman. Her beauty, wit, and eloquence drew crowded houses. {3657} About this period Judge Hurlbut, of New York, a leading member of the Bar, wrote a vigorous work on 'Human Rights,' in which he advocated political equality for women. This work attracted the attention of many legal minds throughout that State. In the winter of 1836, a bill was introduced into the New York Legislature by Judge Hertell, to secure to married women their rights of property. This bill was drawn up under the direction of Honorable John Savage, Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court, and Honorable John C. Spencer, one of the revisers of the statutes of New York. It was in furtherance of this bill that Ernestine L. Rose and Paulina Wright at that early day circulated petitions. The very few names they secured show the hopeless apathy and ignorance of the women as to their own rights. As similar bills were pending in New York until finally passed in 1848, a great educational work was accomplished in the constant discussion of the topics involved. During the winters of 1844-5-6, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, living in Albany, made the acquaintance of Judge Hurlbut and a large circle of lawyers and legislators, and, while exerting herself to strengthen their convictions in favor of the pending bill, she resolved at no distant day to call a convention for a full and free discussion of woman's rights and wrongs. … In 1840, Margaret Fuller published an essay in the Dial, entitled 'The Great Lawsuit, or Man vs. Woman: Woman vs. Man.' In this essay she demanded perfect equality for woman, in education, industry, and politics. It attracted great attention and was afterward expanded into a work entitled 'Woman in the Nineteenth Century.' … In the State of New York, in 1845, Reverend Samuel J. May preached a sermon at Syracuse, upon 'The Rights and Conditions of Women,' in which he sustained their right to take part in political life, saying women need not expect 'to have their wrongs fully redressed, until they themselves have a voice and a hand in the enactment and administration of the laws.' … In 1849, Lucretia Mott published a discourse on woman, delivered in the Assembly Building, Philadelphia, in answer to a Lyceum lecture which Richard H. Dana, of Boston, was giving in many of the chief cities, ridiculing the idea of political equality for woman. … It was her early labors in the temperance cause that first roused Susan B. Anthony to a realizing sense of woman's social, civil, and political degradation, and thus secured her life-long labors for the enfranchisement of woman. In 1847 she made her first speech at a public meeting of the Daughters of Temperance in Canajoharie, New York. The same year Antoinette L. Brown, then a student at Oberlin College, Ohio, the first institution that made the experiment of co-education, delivered her first speech on temperance in several places in Ohio, and on Woman's Rights, in the Baptist church at Henrietta, New York. Lucy Stone, a graduate of Oberlin, made her first speech on Woman's Rights the same year in her brother's church at Brookfield, Massachusetts. Nor were the women of Europe inactive."

E. C. Stanton, S. B. Anthony, and M. J. Gage, editors, History of Woman Suffrage, chapter 1.

WOMAN'S RIGHTS: A. D. 1804-1891. The higher Education of women in America.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: REFORMS &C.: A. D. 1804-1891.

WOMAN'S RIGHTS: A. D. 1839-1848. Legal emancipation of women in the United States.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1839-1848.

WOMAN'S RIGHTS: A. D. 1840-1890. The organized agitation.

"In 1840 a 'World's Antislavery Convention' was held in London, and all Antislavery organizations throughout the world were invited to join in it, through their delegates. Several American societies accepted the invitation, and elected delegates, six or eight of whom were women, Lucretia Mott and Mrs. Wendell Phillips among them. The excitement caused by their presence in London was intense, for the English Abolitionists were very conservative, and never dreamed of inviting women to sit in their Convention. And these women who had come among them had rent the American Anti-slavery Societies in twain, had been denounced from the pulpit, anathematized by the press, and mobbed by the riffraff of the streets. … A long and acrimonious debate followed on the admission of the women. … When the vote was taken, the women delegates were excluded by a large majority. William Lloyd Garrison did not arrive in London until after the rejection of the women. When he was informed of the decision of the Convention he refused to take his seat with the delegates. And throughout the ten days' sessions he maintained absolute silence, remaining in the gallery as a spectator. … The London Convention marked the beginning of a new era in the woman's cause. Hitherto, the agitation of the question of woman's equal rights had been incidental to the prosecution of other work. Now the time had come when a movement was needed to present the claims of woman in a direct and forcible manner, and to take issue with the legal and social order which denied her the rights of human beings, and held her in everlasting subjection. At the close of the exasperating and insulting debates of the 'World's Antislavery Convention,' Lucretia Mott and Mrs. Elizabeth Cady Stanton agreed to hold a Woman's Rights Convention on their return to America, and to begin in earnest the education of the people on the question of woman's enfranchisement. Mrs. Stanton had attended the Convention as a bride, her husband having been chosen a delegate. Accordingly the first Woman's Rights Convention of the world was called at Seneca Falls, New York, on the 19th and 20th of July, 1848. It was attended by crowds of men and women, and the deepest interest was manifested in the proceedings. 'Demand the uttermost,' said Daniel O'Connell, 'and you will get something.' The leaders in the new movement, Lucretia Mott and Mrs. Stanton, with their husbands, and Frederick Douglass, acted on this advice. They demanded in unambiguous terms all that the most radical friends of women have ever claimed. … The Convention adjourned to meet in Rochester, New York, August 2, 1848. … A third Convention was held at Salem, Ohio, in 1850; a fourth in Akron, Ohio, in 1851; a fifth in Massillon, Ohio, in 1852; another at Ravenna, Ohio, in 1853, and others rapidly followed. The advocates of woman suffrage increased in number and ability. Superior women, whose names have become historic, espoused the cause—Frances D. Gage, Hannah Tracy Cutler, Jane G. Swisshelm, Caroline M. Severance, Celia C. Burr, who later be·came Mrs. C. C. Burleigh, Josephine S. Griffing, Antoinette L. Brown, Lucy Stone, Susan B. Anthony, Paulina W. Davis, Caroline H. Dall, Elizabeth Oakes Smith, Ernestine L. Rose, Mrs. C. H. Nichols, Dr. Harriot K. Hunt; the roll-call was a brilliant one, representing an unusual versatility of culture and ability. {3658} The First National Woman Suffrage Convention was held in Worcester, Massachusetts, October 23 and 24, 1850. It was more carefully planned than any that had yet been held. Nine States were represented. The arrangements were perfect—the addresses and papers were of the highest character—the audiences were at a white heat of enthusiasm. The number of cultivated people who espoused the new gospel for women was increased by the names of Ralph Waldo Emerson, Theodore Parker, Bronson and Abby May Alcott, Thomas W. Higginson, William I. Bowditch, Samuel E. and Harriet W. Sewall, Henry Ward Beecher, Henry B. Blackwell, Ednah D. Cheney, Honorable John Neal, Reverend William H. Channing, and Wendell Phillips. … A dozen years were spent in severe pioneer work and then came the four years Civil War. All reformatory work was temporarily suspended, for the nation then passed through a crucial experience, and the issue of the fratricidal conflict was national life or national death. The transition of the country from peace to the tumult and waste of war was appalling and swift, but the regeneration of its women kept pace with it. … The development of those years, and the impetus they gave to women, which has not yet spent itself, has been wonderfully manifested since that time. … It has been since the war, and as the result of the great quickening of women which it occasioned, that women have organized missionary, philanthropic, temperance, educational, and political organizations, on a scale of great magnitude. … In 1869, two great National organizations were formed. One styled itself 'The National Woman Suffrage Association,' and the other was christened 'The American Woman Suffrage Association.' The first established its headquarters in New York, and published a weekly paper, 'The Revolution,' which was ably edited by Mrs. Stanton and Miss Anthony. 'The American' made its home in Boston, and founded 'The Woman's Journal,' which was edited by Mrs. Mary A. Livermore, Mrs. Julia Ward Howe, Mrs. Lucy Stone, William Lloyd Garrison and Thomas W. Higginson. … After twenty years of separate activities, a union of the two national organizations was effected in 1890, under the composite title of 'The National American Woman Suffrage Association.'"

_M. A. Livermore, Woman in the State (Woman's Work in America, chapter 10)._

WOMAN'S RIGHTS: A. D. 1842-1892. Women in the Medical profession.

"The first advocate for women medical students, Miss Elizabeth Blackwell, after many years of struggle obtained entrance into the medical faculty of Geneva in 1842; in 1847 she received her doctor's degree, and went to England, Germany, and finally to Paris, to complete her studies. Her example fired others. In that same year a medical college for women was founded in Boston, in 1850 a similar one in Philadelphia, one in New York in 1868, and in Chicago in 1870. Soon after, the greater number of universities in America were thrown open to women, and by this their studies were largely extended. The difficulties proved far greater in Europe. The universities of Zurich in 1864, and of Berne in 1872, were the first to receive lady students for the study of medicine. In 1868 the Medical Faculty of Paris, chiefly through the intervention of the Empress Eugenie, first admitted lady students to follow the medical course. In Italy, in 1876, they obtained equal success; in Russia, an ukase of the Czar Alexander II., of November 2nd, 1872, conferred upon ladies the right to attend the medical courses in the Medico-Chirurgical Academy of St. Petersburg, but this permission was subsequently withdrawn on political grounds, on the accession of a new government. In 1874 the first school of medicine for women was started in London; in 1876 they were admitted to the study of medicine in Dublin. In Germany and Austro-Hungary women are not allowed to enter the universities, although ladies' associations have obtained thousands of signatures to petition both parliaments on the subject. From statistical sources, we learn that there are seventy lady doctors in practice in London, five in Edinburgh, and two in Dublin. Seven hundred lady doctors practise in Russia, of whom fifty-four are the heads of clinical schools and laboratories. In Italy, at the same time, there were only six. Spain has but two qualified lady doctors. Roumania, also, has two. Sweden, Norway, and Belgium have likewise comparatively few. In Berlin there are Dr. Franziska Tiburtius and Dr. Lehmus (who founded a poly-clinical school which is increasing year by year), Dr. Margaret Mengarin-Traube and Fraulein Kuhnow. In Austria, Dr. Rosa Kerschbaumer is the sole possessor of Government authority to practise her profession. In India, where native religion forbids their women calling in men doctors, there has been a strong movement in favour of ladies, and they have now one hundred lady doctors, three of whom are at the head of the three most important hospitals. The largest number of women practising medicine is in America."

A. Crepaz, The Emancipation of Women, pages 99-103.

"The medical faculty of the University of Paris opened its doors to women in 1868, but at first only a very few availed themselves of the privileges thus offered. In 1878 the number in attendance was 32; during the next ten years (1878-1888) it increased to 114, and is at present 183, of whom the great majority (167) are Russians. The remainder are Poles, Rumanians, Servians, Greeks, and Scotch, and only one German."

_The Nation, February 14, 1895._

WOMAN'S RIGHTS: A. D. 1865-1883. The higher Education of Women in England.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: REFORMS &c.: A. D. 1865-1883.

WOMAN'S RIGHTS: A. D. 1869-1894. Progress in Europe and America.

A certain number of the English cities "occupy a privileged position, under the title of 'municipal boroughs.' These alone are municipal corporations, enjoying a considerable degree of autonomy by virtue of charters of incorporation granted in the pleasure of the crown. … The other cities have as such no legal existence: they are simply geographical units. In past times the privilege of incorporation was often granted to wretched little hamlets. But whether they were once of consequence or not, the municipal corporations degenerated everywhere into corrupt oligarchies. The municipal reform of 1835 destroyed these hereditary cliques and extended the municipal franchise to all the inhabitants who paid the poor tax as occupants of realty. {3659} But in doing this … it was expressly provided in the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 that the electoral franchise in the municipal boroughs should belong to male persons only. Before long the unorganized condition of the larger towns that were not municipal boroughs received the attention of Parliament. It did not grant them communal autonomy,—there could be no question of that,—but conceded special powers to establish sanitary systems and to undertake works of public utility such as lighting, paving, sewerage, etc. The special acts passed for these purposes from time to time, as the necessity for them arose, were consolidated and made general in two statutes: the Public Health Act of 1848, for a class of towns designated as 'local government districts,' and the Commissioners' Clauses Act of 1847, for the cities described as 'improvement commissions districts.' These acts gave to these urban agglomerations an incipient municipal organization, by establishing boards of health in some, and in others commissions to direct the public works. In both these classes of 'nascent, half-developed municipalities,' which had scarcely emerged from the parochial phase of local self-government, the authorities—i. e. the members of the boards of health and the commissioners—were elected, as in the parishes, by the rate-payers without distinction of sex. As these cities enlarged and developed, they were admitted to the honor of municipal incorporation. But since the Municipal Corporations Act limited the franchise to men, it resulted that while the city which was promoted to the rank of municipal borough saw its rights increased, a part of its inhabitants—the women—saw theirs suppressed. This anomaly gave the advocates of woman suffrage a chance to demand that the ballot be granted to women in the municipal boroughs. In 1869 Mr. Jacob Bright introduced such a measure in the House of Commons, and it was adopted almost without discussion. … But when the English legislator placed the administration of the 'nascent, half-developed municipalities'—which were only temporarily such and which might become cities of the first rank—on the same plane, as far as the suffrage of women was concerned, with the government of the parishes, he substituted a fluctuating for a permanent test, and as a result wiped out his own line of demarcation. When this fact was brought out, Parliament could not but recognize and bow to it. This recognition was decisive: it resulted in the overthrow of the electoral barriers against women in the entire domain of local self-government. The clause which, upon the proposal of Mr. Jacob Bright, was inserted in section 9 of the municipal act of 1869, found its way into the revised municipal act of 1882. Section 63 of this latter act reads: 'For all purposes connected with and having reference to the right to vote at municipal elections, words importing in this act the masculine gender include women.' This clause gave women the ballot in the municipal boroughs, but did not make them eligible to office. And as the general qualification for municipal suffrage is the occupancy by the elector in his own name of a house subject to the poor tax, the law includes independent women only, not married women. … When in 1881 the municipal suffrage was extended to women in Scotland, the question whether the separated woman could vote was decided in her favor. But of course this does not change the position of married women in England. A year after the introduction of the municipal suffrage of women they obtained (in 1870) the school vote also, in connection with the establishment of the existing system of primary instruction. … It still remained for women to make their way into the local government of the county; but county government, although representative, was not elective. In 1888 county councils were established, chosen by the ratepayers. The analogy of the municipal councils demanded that women should be included among the electors of the new local assemblies. Accordingly the Local Government Act of 1888 admits women to the electorate in England, and the act of 1889 gives them the same right in Scotland. … In Sweden local self-government is exercised in first instance, in the city and country communes, by the tax-payers in general assembly, or town meeting, where their votes are reckoned in proportion to the taxes paid, according to a graded scale, just as in the English vestries. In the cities with a population above 3,000 the taxpayers elect a communal council. … In the full assemblies of the communes that have no councils, and in the elections at which councillors are chosen, unmarried women have the same right of participation as men. … The next higher instance of local self-government consists of provincial councils (landstings). All the municipal electors, women not excepted, vote for the members of these councils. … In Norway women have no share in local government, except in the school administration. … In Denmark women are entirely excluded from local government; but they have been admitted to it in one Danish dependency—Iceland. … Finland, which was attached to Sweden for centuries before it fell under the sway of Russia, is still influenced by the movement of legislation in the former mother-country. … The law of February 6, 1865, concerning the rural communes, admitted women to communal rights under almost the same conditions as in Sweden. … The law of April 14, 1856, concerning the organization of the rural communes in the six eastern provinces of the kingdom of Prussia (section 6), as well as the analogous law of March 19, 1856, for the province of Westphalia (section 15), provide that persons of female sex who possess real property carrying with it the right to vote shall be represented—the married women by their husbands, the single women by electors of the male sex. A similar provision was adopted for the province of Schleswig-Holstein, after its annexation by Prussia (law of September 22, 1867, section 11). But in the Rhine province, where the administrative and the private law still show deep traces of the French influence, women are expressly excluded from the communal franchise. … In Saxony women are admitted to the communal vote in the country districts on the same terms as men. … Eligibility to communal office is denied to women in all the countries enumerated above. In Austria, as one consequence of the revolutionary movement of 1848, the legislator endeavored to infuse fresh life into the localities by giving a liberal organization to the rural communes. The law of 1849 granted communal rights to all persons paying taxes on realty and industrial enterprises, and also to various classes of 'capacities'—ministers of religion, university graduates, school principals and teachers of the higher grades, etc. {3660} Among the electors of the first and most important group, based wholly upon property, were included women, minors, soldiers in active service and some other classes of persons who, as a rule, were excluded from suffrage, on condition that their votes be cast through representatives. … The Russian village community, the mir, which has come down across the centuries into our own time with very few changes in its primitive organization, is a typical example of rudimentary local self-government, where all who have an interest, not excepting the women, have a right to be heard in the common assemblies. … In the Dominion of Canada local suffrage has only recently been granted to women. The first law regulating this matter was passed in the province of Ontario (Upper Canada) in 1884. This law has served as an example, and in part also as a model, for the other provinces. The electoral rights granted to women by the legislation of the province of Ontario may be grouped under four heads: (a) participation in municipal elections, (b) participation in municipal referenda, (c) participation in school-board elections, and (d) eligibility to office. All unmarried women and widows twenty-one years of age, subjects of her Majesty and paying municipal taxes on real property or income, may vote in municipal elections. … Finally, all taxpayers resident in the school district are recognized by the laws of 1885 and 1887 as eligible to the office of school trustee. … Female suffrage does not exist in the great French-speaking province of Quebec (Lower Canada), in New Brunswick or in Prince Edward Island. … In almost all the continental [Australasian] colonies the municipal suffrage rests upon the same basis as does the parish franchise of the mother-country, i. e. the possession or occupation of real property. … [In the United States] several States have granted to women simply the right of being elected to school offices, provided always that they possess the qualifications prescribed for men. The question is thus decided in California, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Pennsylvania and Rhode Island. … At the present time the system of granting to women both rights—eligibility and suffrage—in school matters has been adopted in the following states besides Massachusetts: Colorado, North and South Dakota, Idaho, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Vermont, Washington and Wisconsin and the territory of Arizona. Of course to this list must be added Wyoming, where women vote at all elections, and Kansas, where they possess complete local suffrage. Finally, Kentucky and Nebraska admit women only to the school franchise, and that only under special conditions."

_M. Ostrogorski, Local Woman Suffrage (Political Science Quarterly, December, 1891)._

"In three Territories … the right of voting at legislative elections was given by the legislature of the Territory, and in one of these, Wyoming, it was retained when the Territory received Statehood in 1890. In Utah it was abolished by a Federal statute, because thought to be exercised by the Mormon wives at the bidding of their polygamous husbands, and thus to strengthen the polygamic party. In Washington Territory the law which conferred it in 1883 was declared invalid by the courts in 1887, because its nature had not been properly described in the title, was re-enacted immediately afterwards, and was in 1888 again declared invalid by the United States Territorial Court, on the ground that the Act of Congress organizing the Territorial legislature did not empower it to extend the suffrage to women. In enacting their State Constitution (1889) the people of Washington pronounced against female suffrage by a majority of two to one; and a good authority declared to me that most of the women were well pleased to lose the privilege. In 1893 the legislature of Colorado submitted to the voters (in virtue of a provision in the Constitution) a law extending full franchise for all purposes to women, and it was carried by a majority of 6,347. … In Michigan in 1893, women received the suffrage in all municipal elections. In Michigan, however, the law has since been declared unconstitutional. … In Connecticut, the latest State which has extended school suffrage to women (1893), it would appear that the women have not, so far, shown much eagerness to be registered. However, while the advanced women leaders and Prohibitionists started a campaign among the women voters, the husbands and brothers of conservative proclivities urged their wives and sisters to register, and not without success. In Wyoming (while it was still a Territory) women served as jurors for some months till the judges discovered that they were not entitled by law to do so, and in Washington (while a Territory) they served from 1884 to 1887, when the legislature, in regranting the right of voting, omitted to grant the duty or privilege of jury service. … As respects the suffrage in Wyoming, the evidence I have collected privately is conflicting. … No opposition was offered in the Convention of 1889, which drafted the present Constitution, to the enactment of woman suffrage for all purposes. The opinion of the people at large was not duly ascertained, because the question was not separately submitted to them at the polls, but there can be little doubt that it would have been favourable. … The whole proceedings of the Convention of 1889 leave the impression that the equal suffrage in force since 1869 had worked fairly, and the summing up of the case by a thoughtful and dispassionate British observer (Mr. H. Plunkett) is to the same effect."

J. Bryce, The American Commonwealth (3d edition), chapter 96 (volume 2).

"No complete and reliable statistics have ever been obtained of the number of women who register and vote on school questions. This varies greatly in different localities, and in the same localities in different years. With women, as with men, the questions connected with the schools do not suffice to bring out many voters as a rule. Those few who have voted hitherto have been of more than average character and ability, and influenced wholly by public spirit. But comparatively few, even of suffragists, have as yet availed themselves of the privilege. To secure any general participation of women in elections, a wider range of subjects must be thrown open to them. Wherever, as in Kansas, party issues and moral questions are involved, the women show a greater interest. In several States, as in Kansas, Iowa, and Rhode Island, prohibition amendments are said to have been carried by the efforts of women-workers at the polls, although not themselves voters."

The Nation, April 28, 1887, page 362.

{3661}

WOOL, General John E.: In the war of 1812.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).

WOOD'S HALFPENCE.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1722-1724.

WOOLLY-HEADS, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1850.

WOOLSACK, The.

"Perhaps you have noticed, when paying a visit to the House of Lords in holiday time, a comfortable kind of ottoman in front of the throne. This is the Woolsack, the seat of the Lord Chancellor [who presides in the House of Lords]. In the reign of Elizabeth an Act of Parliament was passed to prevent the exportation of wool, and to keep in mind this source of our national wealth, woolsacks were placed in the House of Lords, whereon the judges sat."

A. C. Ewald, The Crown and its Advisers, lecture 3.

WORCESTER, Marquis of, The inventions of.

See STEAM ENGINE.

WORCESTER, Battle of.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1651 (AUGUST).

WORDE, Wynkyn de, The Press of.

See PRINTING &c.: A. D. 1476-1491.

WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, The.

See CHICAGO: A. D. 1892-1893.

[Transcriber's note] See _C. D. Arnold and H. D. Higinbotham, Official Views Of The World's Columbian Exposition https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/22847_

WORLD'S FAIR, The First.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1851.

WORMS.

"Worms (Wormatia) (Borbetomagus), situated on the left bank of the Rhine, existed long before the Roman conquest, and is supposed to have been founded by the Celts, under the name of Borbetomagus. … In the 4th and 5th centuries it was a flourishing town in the possession of the Burgundians. Under their King Gundahar, the vicinity of Worms was the scene of the popular legend handed down in the romantic poem known as the Nibelungen-lied. In 496, by the victory of Tolbiacum, it formed a part of the empire of Clovis."

W. J. Wyatt, History of Prussia, volume 2, page 447.

WORMS: A. D.406. Destruction by the Germans.

See GAUL: A. D. 406-409.

WORMS: A. D. 1521. The Imperial Diet. Luther's summons and appearance.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1521-1522.

WORMS: A. D. 1713. Taken by the French.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

WORMS: A. D. 1743. Treaty between Austria, Sardinia and England.

See ITALY: A. D. 1743; and AUSTRIA: A. D. 1743-1744.

WORMS: A. D. 1792. Occupied by the French Revolutionary Army.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1792 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER).

WORMS, Concordat of(1122).

See PAPACY: A. D. 1056-1122.

WÖRTH, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (JULY-AUGUST).

WRANGLERS, Senior.

At Oxford and Cambridge Universities, "by a strange relic of the logical and disputatory studies of the Middle Ages, the candidates for University honors maintained in public some mathematical thesis, about which they disputed in Latin, never, as it may be supposed, of the best. To keep up the illusion of the monkish time, and the seven liberal arts, a little metaphysics and a good deal of theology were thrown in at the time of the examination; but the real business of the 'schools' at Cambridge was mathematics. The disputing, however, was so important a part of the performances that the first division of those to whom were awarded honors were called by distinction,'the wranglers'; and the head man—the proud recipient of all the glory which at the end of a four years' course the ancient University showered on the son she possessed most distinguished in her favorite studies—was called the senior wrangler. In process of time, the disputations and Latin were all done away with. An examination from printed papers was made the test. Yet, still, every year, at the end of the arduous eight days' trial, the undergraduate who takes his bachelor's degree in virtue of passing the best examination in mathematics, is called the senior wrangler; and attains the proudest position that Cambridge has to bestow."

W. Everett, On the Cam, lecture 2.

WRIT OF HABEAS CORPUS. WRIT OF MAINPRISE. WRIT DE HOMINE REPLEGIANDO.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1679.

WRITS OF ASSISTANCE.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1761; and MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1761.

WROXETER, Origin of.

See URICONIUM.

----------WÜRTEMBERG: Start--------

WÜRTEMBERG: Early Suevic population.

See SUEVI.

WÜRTEMBERG: Founding of the Dukedom.

"Conrad of Beutelsbach, the first of this family that appears upon record, got the County of Würtemberg from the Emperor Henry IV. in 1103, and was succeeded by his son Ulrick I. as Count of Würtemberg, in 1120. Henry, the fourteenth in lineal descent from Ulrick, was made Duke of Würtemberg in 1519. Frederick II., and eighth Duke of Würtemberg, succeeded his father in 1797, and was proclaimed King of Würtemberg in 1805."

Sir A. Halliday, Annals of the House of Hanover, volume 1, page 430.

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1801-1803. Acquisition of territory under the Treaty of Luneville.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1805-1806. Aggrandized by Napoleon. Created a Kingdom. Joined to the Confederation of the Rhine.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1805-1806; and 1806 (JANUARY-AUGUST).

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1809. Incorporation of the rights and revenues of the Teutonic Order with the Kingdom.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1813. Abandonment of the Rhenish Confederacy and the French Alliance.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH).

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1816. Accession to the Holy Alliance.

See HOLY ALLIANCE.

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1866. The Seven Weeks War. Indemnity to Prussia.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866.

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1870-1871. Treaty of union with the Germanic Confederation, soon transformed into the German Empire.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1870 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER); and 1871.

----------WÜRTEMBERG: End--------

WÜRTZBURG, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER).

WUZEER, VIZIR.

See OUDE; and VIZIR.

WYANDOT CONSTITUTION, The.

See KANSAS: A. D. 1854-1859.

WYANDOTS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: HURONS OR WYANDOTS.

{3662}

WYAT'S INSURRECTION.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1554.

WYCLIF'S REFORMATION.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1360-1414; BOHEMIA: A. D. 1405-1415, and BEGUINES.

WYOMING: The Name.

"Wyoming is a corruption of the name given to the locality by the Indians. They called it 'Maughwauwame.' The word is compounded of 'maughwau,' large, and 'wame,' plains. The name, then, signifies 'The Large Plains.' The Delawares pronounced the first syllable short, and the German missionaries, in order to come as near as possible to the Indian pronunciation wrote the name M'chweuwami. The early settlers, finding it difficult to pronounce the word correctly, spoke it Wauwaumie, then Wiawumie, then Wiomic, and, finally, Wyoming,"

G. Peck, Wyoming: Its History &c., chapter 1.

WYOMING (State): A. D. 1803. Eastern portion embraced in the Louisiana Purchase.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.

WYOMING (State): A. D. 1890. Admission to the Union as a State.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: 1889-1890.

WYOMING (Valley): A. D. 1753-1799. Connecticut claims and settlements. The Pennamite and Yankee War.

See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1753-1799.

WYOMING (Valley): A. D. 1755. The Grasshopper War of the Delaware and Shawanese tribes of American Indians.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SHAWANESE.

WYOMING (Valley): A. D. 1778. The Tory and Indian invasion and massacre. Its misrepresentation by historians and poets.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778 (JULY).

X.

X, Y, Z, CORRESPONDENCE, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1797-1799.

XENOPHON'S RETREAT.

See PERSIA: B. C. 401-400.

XERES DE LA FRONTERA, Battle of (A. D. 711).

See SPAIN: A. D. 711-713.

XERXES.

See PERSIA: B. C, 486-405, and GREECE: B. C. 480-479.

Y.

YAKOOB BEG, The Dominion of.

The Chinese obtained possession of Kashgar or Chinese Turkestan (see TURKESTAN) about 1760, and held it for a century, overcoming much revolt during the last forty years of that period. In 1862, the revolt assumed a more formidable character than it had borne before. Its beginning was among a neighboring people called, variously, the Tungani, Dungani, or Dungans. These were "a Mahomedan people settled in the north-west province of Kansuh and in a portion of Shensi. Many of them had migrated westward at the time of the wars of Keen Lung, and had colonized various parts of the Chinese conquests. During a century this movement westward had continued, and in 1862 the Tungani represented the majority of the population, not only in parts of Kansuh, but also in the country to the west, as far as Ili and the city of Turfan. Although Mahomedans, they had acted as the soldiers of the Chinese. They had won their battles, laid down their roads, and held the Tartar population in check. From the Tungani the Chinese never for an instant expected danger. They were certainly heretics; but then they were part and parcel of themselves in every other respect. They hated the Khokandians and the people of Kashgar with a hatred that was more bitter than that they bore to the Khitay or Buddhist Chinese. In all essentials the Tungani were treated exactly like the most favoured children of the empire. … The only cause that it is possible to assign for their rebellion is that vague one of the religious revival which was then manifesting itself among the Mahomedans all over the world. But whatever the cause, the consequences were clear enough. In 1862 a riot occurred at a village in Kansuh. Order was restored with some small loss of life; and the momentary alarm which had been caused by it passed away. The alarm was, however, only too well founded. A few weeks afterwards a more serious riot took place at the town of Houchow or Salara. This was the signal for the rising of the Tungani in all directions. The unanimity shown by the various Tungani settlements proved that there had been a preconcerted arrangement amongst them; but the Chinese had known nothing of it. … The few Imperial troops remaining in the province of Kansuh were unable to withstand the desperate and unanimous assault of the Mahomedans. They were swept out of existence, and with them the larger portion of the Khitay population as well. The Mahomedan priests took the lead in this revolt, and the atrocities which they and their followers enacted were of the most horrible and blood-thirsty character. The butchery of tens of thousands of their Buddhist subjects in Kansuh appealed loudly to the Chinese Government for revenge; and it was not long before their troops restored Kansuh to its allegiance. Those of the Tungani who were captured were given over to the executioner. But a large number escaped, fleeing westward to those cities beyond the desert, where other Mussulmans had imitated, with like success, the deeds of their kinsmen in Kansuh. … No sooner then did the tidings of the events in Kansuh reach Hamil and Barkul, Turfan and Manas, than risings at once took place against the Khitay. In all cases the movement was successful. The Manchus were deposed: the 'mollahs' were set up in their stead. After a short interval the other cities of Karashar, Kucha, and Aksu, followed the example, with an identical result. The Tungan revolt proper had then reached its limit. … The communications between Pekin and Jungaria were cut, and a hostile territory of nearly 2,000 miles intervened. To restore those communications, to reduce that hostile country, would demand a war of several campaigns; and China was not in a condition to make the slightest effort. All that her statesmen could hope for was, that she would not go irretrievably to pieces. {3663} The Tungani flourished on the misfortunes of the empire. … During some months after the first successes of the Tungani, the people of Kuldja and Kashgaria remained quiet, for the prestige of China's power was still great. But when it became evident to all, that communication was hopelessly cut off between the Chinese garrisons and the base of their strength in China, both the Tungan element and the native population began to see that their masters were ill able to hold their own against a popular rising. This opinion gained ground daily, and at last the whole population rose against the Chinese and massacred them. … But no sooner had the Chinese been overthrown, than the victors, the Tungani and the Tarantchis, began to quarrel with each other. Up to the month of January, 1865, the rising had been carried out in a very irregular and indefinite manner. … It was essentially a blind and reckless rising, urged on by religious antipathy; and, successful as it was, it owed all its triumphs to the embarrassments of China. The misfortunes of the Chinese attracted the attention of all those who felt an interest in the progress of events in Kashgaria. Prominent among these was a brother of Wali Khan, Buzurg Khan [heir of the former rulers, the exiled Khojas], who resolved to avail himself of the opportunity afforded by the civil war for making a bold attempt to regain the place of his ancestors. Among his followers was Mahomed Yakoob, a Khokandian soldier of fortune, already known to fame in the desultory wars and feuds of which Central Asia had been the arena. His previous career had marked him out pre-eminently as a leader of men, and he now sought in Eastern Turkestan that sphere of which Russian conquests had deprived him in its Western region. There is little to surprise us in the fact that, having won his battles, Yakoob deposed and imprisoned his master Buzurg. In several campaigns between 1867 and 1873 he bent back the Tungani from his confines, and established an independent government in the vast region from the Pamir to beyond Turfan, and from Khoten and the Karakoram to the Tian Shan. He treated on terms of dignity with the Czar, and also with the Government of India. He received English envoys and Russian ambassadors, and his palace was filled with presents from London and St. Petersburg. … Urged on by some vague ambition, he made war upon the Tungani, when every dictate of prudence pointed to an alliance with them. He destroyed his only possible allies, and in destroying them he weakened himself both directly and indirectly. In the autumn of 1876 Yakoob Beg had indeed pushed forward so far to the east that he fancied he held Barkul and Hamil in his grasp; and the next spring would probably have witnessed a further advance upon these cities had not fate willed it otherwise. With the capture of the small village of Chightam, in 92° E. longitude, Yakoob's triumphs closed. Thus far his career had been successful; it may then be said to have reached its limit. In the autumn of 1876, the arrival of a Chinese army on his eastern frontier changed the current of his thoughts. … From November, 1876, until March, 1877, the Chinese generals were engaged in massing their troops on the northern side of the Tian Shan range. … Yakoob's principal object was to defend the Devan pass against the Chinese; but, while they attacked it in front, another army under General Chang Yao was approaching from Hamil. Thus outflanked, Yakoob's army retreated precipitately upon Turfan, where he was defeated, and again a second time at Toksoun, west of that town. The Chinese then halted. They had, practically speaking, destroyed Yakoob's powers of defence. That prince retreated to the town of Korla, where he was either assassinated or poisoned early in the month of May. … Korla was occupied on the 9th of October without resistance; and towards the end of the same month, Kucha, once an important city, surrendered. The later stages of the war were marked by the capture of the towns of Aksu, Ush Turfan, and Kashgar. With the fall of the capital, on the 17th of December, 1877, the fighting ceased. The Chinese authority was promptly established in the country as far south as Yarkand, and after a brief interval in Khoten."

D. C. Boulger, Central Asian Questions, chapter 12.

YALE COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: AMERICA: A. D. 1701-1717.

YAMASIS AND YAMACRAWS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

YAMCO, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

YANACONAS. MAMACONAS.

"The Yanaconas were a class existing [in Peru] in the time of the Incas, who were in an exceptional position. They were domiciled in the houses of their masters, who found them in food and clothing, paid their tribute, and gave them a piece of land to cultivate in exchange for their services. But to prevent this from degenerating into slavery, a decree of 1601 ordered that they should be free to leave their masters and take service elsewhere on the same conditions." The Mamaconas of Peru were a class of domestic servants.

C. R. Markham, Colonial History of South America, (Narrative and Critical History of America, volume 8, page 296).

YANAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: YANAN FAMILY.

YANKEE: Origin of the term.

"The first name given by the Indians to the Europeans who landed in Virginia was 'Wapsid Lenape' (white people); when, however, afterwards, they began to commit murders on the red men, whom they pierced with swords, they gave to the Virginians the name 'Mechanschican' (long knives), to distinguish them from others of the same colour. In New England they at first endeavoured to imitate the sound of the national name of the English, which they pronounced 'Yengees.'" After about the middle of the Revolutionary War the Indians applied the name "Yengees" exclusively to the people of New England, "who, indeed, appeared to have adopted it, and were, as they still are, generally through the country called 'Yankees,' which is evidently the same name with a trifling alteration. They say they know the 'Yengees,' and can distinguish them by their dress and personal appearance, and that they were considered as less cruel than the Virginians or 'long knives.' The proper English they [for 'they' read 'the Chippeways and some other nations.'—Editor's foot-note] call 'Saggenash.'"

J. Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations (Pennsylvania Historical Society Memoirs, volume 12) pages 142-143.

{3664}

"The origin of this term [Yankees]. so frequently employed by way of reproach to the New England people, is said to be as follows. A farmer, by name Jonathan Hastings, of Cambridge, about the year 1713, used it as a cant, favorite word, to express excellency when applied to any thing; as a Yankee good horse, Yankee cider, &c., meaning an excellent horse and excellent cider. The students at college, having frequent intercourse with Mr. Hastings, and hearing him employ the term on all occasions, adopted it themselves, and gave him the name of Yankee Jonathan; this soon became a cant word among the collegians to express a weak, simple, awkward person, and from college it was carried and circulated through the country, till, from its currency in New England, it was at length taken up and unjustly applied to the New Englanders in common, as a term of reproach: It was in consequence of this that a particular song, called 'Yankee doodle,' was composed in derision of those scornfully called Yankees."

J. Thatcher, Military Journal during the Revolutionary War, page 19.

"Dr. William Gordon, in his History of the American War, edition 1789, volume i., pages 324,325, says it was a favourite cant word in Cambridge, Massachusets, as early as 1713, and that it meant 'excellent.' … Cf. Lowland Sc. 'yankie,' a sharp, clever, forward woman; 'yanker,' an agile girl, an incessant speaker; 'yanker,' a smart stroke, a great falsehood; 'yank,' a sudden and severe blow, a sharp stroke; 'yanking,' active, pushing (Jamieson). … If Dr. Gordon's view be right, the word 'yankee' may be identified with the Sc. 'yankie,' as above; and all the Scotch words appear to be of Scandinavian origin, due, ultimately Icel. 'jaga,' to move about. … The fundamental idea is that of 'quick motion'; see 'yacht.' But the word cannot be said to be solved."

_W. W. Skeat, Etymological Dictionary._

"The best authorities on the subject now agree upon the derivation of this term from the imperfect effort made by the Northern Indians to pronounce the word 'English.'"

M. Schele de Vere, Americanisms, page 22.

ALSO IN: Notes and Queries, series 1, volume 6, page 57.

YANKTONS. The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

YARD-LAND.

An ancient holding of land in England equivalent to the virgate.

See HIDE OF LAND; and MANORS.

YATASSEES. The.

See TEXAS: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

YEAR BOOKS, English.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1307-1509.

YEAR OF ANARCHY, The.

See ATHENS: B. C. 404-403.

YEAR OF METON, The.

See METON, THE YEAR OF.

YELLOW FEVER, Appearance of.

See PLAGUE: 18TH CENTURY.

YELLOW FORD, Battle of the (1598).

See IRELAND: A. D. 1559-1603.

YELLOW TAVERN, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MAY: VIRGINIA) SHERIDAN'S RAID.

YELLOWS (of Venezuela) The.

See VENEZUELA: A. D. 1829-1886.

YEMAMA, Battle of.

See ACRABA.

YENIKALE, Attack on (1855).

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1854-1856.

YEOMEN.

"A 'yeoman' is defined by Sir Thomas Smith (Rep. Anglor. lib. 1. c. 24) as he whom our law calls 'legalem hominem,' a free-born man that may dispend of his own free land in yearly revenues to the sum of forty shillings. But it had also a more general application, denoting like 'valet' a higher kind of service, which still survives in the current phrase to do 'yeoman's service.' In the household of the mediæval knight or baron the younger sons of yeomen would form a large proportion of the servitors, and share with the younger sons of knight or squire the common name of 'valetti.' The yeomen too who lived on their own land, but wore the 'livery of company' of some baron or lesser territorial magnate, would also be his 'valets.' The mediæval 'yeoman' was the tenant of land in free socage. The extent of his holding might be large or small."

T. P. Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional History, page 343, foot-note.

"At the period when the higher gentry began to absorb what remained of the feudal nobility, and established themselves definitely as an upper class, the small landowners—freeholders holding estates of inheritance or for life—long leaseholders and the larger copyholders made corresponding progress, and the yeomen (the common term applied to all of them) began in their turn to fill the position and take the rank of an agricultural middle class. The reign of Henry VI. had marked the zenith of their influence; they had by that time fully realized the fact of their existence as a body. The inferior limit of their class was approximately determined by the electoral qualification of the forty-shilling freeholder (under the Act of 1430), or by the £4 qualification for the office of juror. The superior limit was marked from a legal point of view by the property qualification of a magistrate, but socially there was not on this side any definite boundary line. In 1446 it was considered necessary to forbid the county electors to return 'valetti,' that is yeomen, to the House of Commons, a proof that custom and opinion left to themselves did not look upon the higher section of their class as unworthy of a seat in Parliament, an honour originally confined to the knights. Fortescue testifies almost with triumph to the fact that in no country of Europe were yeomen so numerous as in England."

E. Boutmy, The English Constitution, part 2, chapter 4.

In later English use the word "yeoman" has signified "a man of small estate in land, not ranking among the gentry."

YEOMEN OF THE GUARD.

"This corps was instituted by Henry VII. in 1485. It now consists of 100 men, six of whom are called Yeomen Hangers, and two Yeomen Bed-goers; the first attending to the hangings and tapestries of the royal apartments, and the second taking charge of all beds during any royal removals. The yeomen of the guard carry up the royal dinner, and are popularly designated as 'beef-eaters, 'respecting the origin of which name some differences of opinion exist, for many maintain that they never had any duties connected with the royal beaufet. A yeoman usher and a party of yeomen attend in the great chamber of the palace on drawing-room and levee days, to keep the passage clear."

C. R. Dodd, Manual of Dignities, part 2, section 1.

YERMOUK, Battle of (A. D. 636).

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 632-639.

YEZID I., Caliph, A. D. 679-683.

Yezid II., Caliph, 720-724.

Yezid III., Caliph, 744.

YNCAS, INCAS.

See PERU.

{3665}

YNGAVI, Battle of (1841).

See PERU: A. D. 1826-1876.

YORK: The Roman capital of Britain.

See EBORACUM.

YORK: The capital of Deira and Northumbria.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 547-633.

YORK: A. D. 1189. Massacre of Jews.

See JEWS: A. D. 1189.

YORK: A. D. 1644.

Parliamentary siege raised by Prince Rupert.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1644 (JANUARY-JULY).

YORK, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1777. The American Congress in session.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1777 (JANUARY-DECEMBER).

YORKINOS, The.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1822-1828.

YORKISTS.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1455-1471.

YORKTOWN: A. D. 1781. Surrender of Cornwallis and his army to Washington.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781 (MAY-OCTOBER).

YORKTOWN: A. D. 1862. McClellan's siege.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MARCH-MAY: VIRGINIA).

YOUNG, Brigham, and the Mormons.

See MORMONISM: A. D. 1830-1846, 1846-1847; and UTAH: A. D. 1849-1850, and 1857-1859.

YOUNG IRELAND MOVEMENT, The.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1841-1848.

YOUNG ITALY.

See ITALY: A. D. 1831-1848.

YPRES: A. D. 1383. Unsuccessful but destructive siege by the English.

See FLANDERS: A. D. 1383.

YPRES: A. D. 1648. Taken by the French.

See NETHERLANDS (SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1647-1648.

YPRES: A. D.1659. Restored to Spain.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.

YPRES: A. D. 1679. Ceded to France.

See NIMEGUEN, THE PEACE OF.

YPRES: A. D. 1713. Ceded to Holland.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1713-1715.

YPRES: A. D. 1744-1748. Taken by the French and restored to Austria.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1743-1744; and AIX-LA-CHAPELLE: THE CONGRESS.

YPRES: A. D. 1794. Siege and capture by the French.

See FRANCE; A. D. 1794 (MARCH-JULY).

YUCATAN: The aboriginal inhabitants, their civilization and its monuments.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MAYAS, and QUICHES; also MEXICO, ANCIENT.

YUCATAN: Discovery. Disputed origin of the name.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1517-1518.

YUCHI.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: UCHEAN FAMILY.

YUGUARZONGO, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

YUKIAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: YUKIAN FAMILY.

YUMAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: YUMAN FAMILY.

YUMAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: APACHE GROUP.

YUNCAS, The.

See PERU: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

YUNGAY, Battle of (1839).

See PERU: A. D. 1826-1876.

YUROKS, EUROCS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MODOCS.

Z.

ZAB, Battle of the (A. D. 750).

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 715-750.

ZACHARIAS, Pope, A. D. 741-752.

ZAGONARA, Battle of (1424).

See ITALY: A. D. 1412-1447.

ZAHARA: A. D. 1476. Surprise, capture and massacre by the Moors.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1476-1492.

ZALACCA, Battle of (1086).

See ALMORAVIDES; and PORTUGAL: EARLY HISTORY.

ZAMA, Battle of (B. C. 202).

See PUNIC WARS: THE SECOND.

ZAMBESIA.

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1885-1893.

ZAMINDARS, OR ZEMINDARS.

See TALUKDARS; also INDIA: A. D. 1785-1793.

ZAMZUMMITES, The.

See JEWS: EARLY HEBREW HISTORY.

ZANCLE.

See MESSENE IN SICILY, FOUNDING OF.

ZANZIBAR: A. D. 1885-1886. Seizure of territory by Germany.

See AFRICA: A. D. 1884-1891.

ZAPORO, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

ZAPOTECS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ZAPOTECS, etc.

ZARA: A. D. 1203. Capture and Destruction.

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1201-1203.

ZARAGOSSA.

See SARAGOSSA.

ZARAKA, The.

See SARANGIANS.

ZARANGIANS, The.

See SARANGIANS.

ZARATHUSTRA, ZOROASTER.

See ZOROASTRIANS.

ZEA.

See PIRÆUS.

ZEALOTS, The.

A party among the Jews which forced on the great struggle of that people with the Roman power,—the struggle which ended in the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. A party of ardent patriots in its origin, and embracing the flower of the nation, it degenerated, by enlistment of the passions of the populace, into a fierce, violent, desperate faction, which Ewald (History of Israel, book 7) compares to that of the Jacobins of the French Revolution.

_Josephus, The Jewish War._

ZEEWAND.

See WAMPUM.

ZEGRIS, The.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1238-1273; and 1476-1492.

ZELA, Battle of (B. C. 47).

See ROME: B. C. 47-46.

ZEMINDARS, ZAMINDARS.

See TALUKDARS; also INDIA: A. D. 1785-1793.

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ZEMSTVO, The.

"The Zemstvo (in Russia] is a kind of local administration which supplements the action of the rural communes [see MIR], and takes cognizance of those higher public wants which individual communes cannot possibly satisfy. Its principal duties are to keep the roads and bridges in proper repair, to provide means of conveyance for the rural police and other officials, to elect the justices of peace, to look after primary education and sanitary affairs, to watch the state of the crops and take measures against approaching famine, and in short to undertake, within certain clearly-defined limits, whatever seems likely to increase the material and moral well-being of the population. In form the institution is parliamentary—that is to say, it consists of an assembly of deputies which meets at least once a year, and of a permanent executive bureau elected by the assembly from among its members. … Once every three years the deputies are elected in certain fixed proportions by the landed proprietors, the rural communes, and the municipal corporations. Every province (guberniya) and each of the districts (uyezdi) into which the province is subdivided has such an assembly and such a bureau."

D. M. Wallace, Russia, chapter 14.

ZENDAVESTA, The.

See ZOROASTRIANS.

ZENDECAN, Battle of (1038).

See TURKS: A. D. 999-1183.

ZENGER'S TRIAL.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1720-1734.

ZENO, Roman Emperor (Eastern). A. D. 474-491.

ZENOBIA, The Empire of.

See PALMYRA.

ZENTA, Battle of (1697).

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1683-1699.

ZEPHATHAH, Battle of.

Fought by Asa, king of Judah, with Zerah the Ethiopian, whom he defeated.

2 Chronicles, xiv. 9-15.

ZEUGITÆ, The.

See ATHENS: B. C. 594.

ZEUGMA.

See APAMEA.

ZIELA, Battle of.

A battle fought in the Mithridatic War, B. C. 67, in which the Romans were badly defeated by the Pontic king.

T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 5, chapter 2.

ZIGANI. ZIGEUNER. ZINCALI. ZINGARRI.

See GYPSIES.

ZINGIS KHAN, The conquests of.

See MONGOLS: A. D. 1153-1227; and INDIA: A. D. 977-1290.

ZINGLINS.

See HAYTI: A. D. 1804-1880.

ZINZENDORF, Count, and the Moravian Brethren.

See MORAVIAN OR BOHEMIAN BRETHREN.

ZION.

See JERUSALEM: CONQUEST AND OCCUPATION BY DAVID.

ZNAIM, Armistice of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

ZOAN. TANIS. SAN.

These are the names which, at different periods, have been given to an ancient city near the northeastern borders of Egypt, the ruins of which have been identified and are being explored, on the east bank of the canal that was formerly the Tanitic branch of the Nile. Both in Egyptian history and Biblical history Zoan was an important place. "The whole period of the Hebrew sojourn is closely interwoven with the history of Zoan. Here ruled the king in whose name Egypt was governed by the Hebrew, who was no less than regent; here ruled those who still favoured the people of Israel. Under the great Oppression, Zoan was a royal residence."

R. S. Poole, Cities of Egypt, chapter 5.

ALSO IN: _W. M. F. Petrie, Tanis (2d Mem., Egypt Expl. Fund)._

See, also, JEWS: THE CHILDREN OF ISRAEL IN EGYPT.

ZOBAH, Kingdom of.

A kingdom of brief importance, extending from the Orontes to the Euphrates, which appears among the allies of the Ammonites, in their war with David King of Israel.

H. Ewald, Lectures on the History of Israel, volume 3, pages 150-152.

ZOE AND THEODORA, Empresses in the East (Byzantine, or Greek). A. D. 1042.

ZOHAR, The.

See CABALA.

ZOHARITES, The.

A singular Jewish sect which sprang up in Poland during the seventeenth century, taking its name from the Zohar, one of the books of the Cabala, on which it founded its faith.

H. H. Milman, History of the Jews. book 28.

ZOLLPARLAMENT, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866-1870.

ZOLLVEREIN, The German.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION AND CONVENTIONS (GERMANY): A. D. 1833. Also (in Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1815-1848.

ZOQUES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ZAPOTECS. etc.

ZORNDORF, Battle or.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1758.

ZOROASTRIANS. MAGIANS. PARSEES.

"The Iranians were in ancient times the dominant race throughout the entire tract lying between the Suliman mountains and the Pamir steppe on the one hand, and the great Mesopotamian valley on the other. … At a time which it is difficult to date, but which those best skilled in Iranian antiquities are inclined to place before the birth of Moses, there grew up, in the region whereof we are speaking, a form of religion marked by very special and unusual features. … Ancient tradition associates this religion with the name of Zoroaster. Zoroaster, or Zarathrustra, according to the native spelling, was, by one account, a Median king who conquered Babylon about B. C. 2458. By another, which is more probable, and which rests, moreover, on better authority, he was a Bactrian, who, at a date not quite so remote, came forward in the broad plain of the middle Oxus to instil into the minds of his countrymen the doctrines and precepts of a new religion. … His religion gradually spread from 'happy Bactra,' 'Bactra of the lofty banner,' first to the neighbouring countries, and then to all the numerous tribes of the Iranians, until at last it became the established religion of the mighty empire of Persia, which, in the middle of the 6th century before our era, established itself on the ruins of the Assyrian and Babylonian kingdoms, and shortly afterwards overran and subdued the ancient monarchy of the Pharaohs. In Persia it maintained its ground, despite the shocks of Grecian and Parthian conquest, until Mohammedan intolerance drove it out at the point of the sword, and forced it to seek a refuge further east, in the peninsula of Hindustan. Here it still continues, in Guzerat and in Bombay, the creed of that ingenious and intelligent people known to Anglo-Indians—and may we not say to Englishmen generally?—as Parsees [see PARSEES]. The religion of the Parsees is contained in a volume of some size, which has received the name of 'the Zendavesta.' … 'Anquetil Duperron introduced the sacred book of the Parsees to the knowledge of Europeans under this name; and the word thus introduced can scarcely be now displaced. {3667} Otherwise, 'Avesta-Zend' might be recommended as the more proper title. 'Avesta' means 'text,' and Zend means 'comment.' 'Avesta u Zend,' or 'Text and Comment,' is the proper title, which is then contracted into 'Avesta-Zend.' … Subjected for the last fifty years to the searching analysis of first-rate orientalists—Burnouf, Westergaard, Brockhaus, Spiegel, Haug, Windischmann, Hübschmann,—this work has been found to belong in its various parts to very different dates, and to admit of being so dissected as to reveal to us, not only what are the tenets of the modern Parsees, but what was the earliest form of that religion whereof theirs is the remote and degenerate descendant. Signs of a great antiquity are found to attach to the language of certain rhythmical compositions called Gâthâs or hymns; and the religious ideas contained in these are found to be at once harmonious, and also of a simpler and more primitive character than those contained in the rest of the volume. From the Gâthâs chiefly, but also to some extent from other, apparently very ancient, portions of the Zendavesta, the characteristics of the early Iranian religion have been drawn out by various scholars, particularly by Dr. Martin Haug. … The most striking feature of the religion, and that which is generally allowed to be its leading characteristic, is the assertion of Dualism. By Dualism we mean the belief in two original uncreated principles, a principle of good and a principle of evil. … Both principles were real persons, possessed of will, intelligence, power, consciousness, and other personal qualities. To the one they gave the name of Ahura-Mazda, to the other that of Angro-Mainyus. … The names themselves sufficiently indicated to those who first used them the nature of the two beings. Ahura-Mazda was the 'all-bountiful, all-wise, living being' or 'spirit,' who stood at the head of all that was good and lovely, beautiful and delightful. Angro-Mainyus was the 'dark and gloomy intelligence' that had from the first been Ahura-Mazda's enemy, and was bent on thwarting and vexing him. And with these fundamental notions agreed all that the sacred books taught concerning either being. … The two great beings who thus divided between them the empire of the universe were neither of them content to be solitary. Each had called into existence a number of inferior spirits, who acknowledged their sovereignty, fought on their side, and sought to execute their behests. At the head of the good spirits subject to Ahura-Mazda stood a band of six dignified with the title of Amesha-Spentas, or 'Immortal Holy Ones.' … In direct antithesis to these stood the band, likewise one of six, which formed the council and chief support of Angro-Mainyus. … Besides these leading spirits there was marshalled on either side an innumerable host of lesser and subordinate ones, called respectively 'ahuras' and 'devas,' who constituted the armies or attendants of the two great powers, and were employed by them to work out their purposes. The leader of the angelic hosts, or 'ahuras' was a glorious being, called Sraosha or Serosh—'the good, tall, fair Serosh,' who stood in the Zoroastrian system where Michael the Archangel stands in the Christian. … Neither Ahura-Mazda nor the Amesha-Spentas were represented by the early Iranians under any material forms. The Zoroastrian system was markedly anti-idolatrous: and the utmost that was allowed the worshipper was an emblematic representation of the Supreme Being by means of a winged circle, with which was occasionally combined an incomplete human figure, robed and wearing a tiara. … The position of man in the cosmic scheme was determined by the fact that he was among the creations of Ahura-Mazda. Formed and placed on earth by the Good Being, he was bound to render him implicit obedience, and to oppose to the utmost Angro-Mainyus and his creatures. His duties might be summed up under the four heads of piety, purity, industry, and veracity. Piety was to be shown by an acknowledgment of Ahura-Mazda as the One True God, by a reverential regard for the Amesha-Spentas and the Izeds, or lower angels, by the frequent offering of prayers, praises, and thanksgivings, the recitation of hymns, the occasional sacrifice of animals, and the performance from time to time of a curious ceremony known as that of the Haoma or Homa [see SOMA.—HAOMA). … The purity required of the Iranians was inward as well as outward. … The duty of veracity was inculcated perhaps more strenuously than any other. … If it be asked what opinions were entertained by the Zoroastrians concerning man's ultimate destiny, the answer would seem to be, that they were devout and earnest believers in the immortality of the soul, and a conscious future existence. … The religion of the early Iranians became corrupted after a time by an admixture of foreign superstitions. The followers of Zoroaster, as they spread themselves from their original seat upon the Oxus over the regions lying south and south-west of the Caspian Sea, were brought into contact with a form of faith considerably different from that to which they had previously been attached, yet well adapted for blending with it. This was Magism, or the worship of the elements [see MAGIANS). The early inhabitants of Armenia, Cappadocia, and the Zagros mountain-range, had, under circumstances that are unknown to us, developed this form of religion, and had associated with its tenets a priest-caste. … The four elements, fire, air, earth, and water, were recognised as the only proper objects of human reverence. … When the Zoroastrians came into contact with Magism, it impressed them favourably. … The result was that, without giving up any part of their previous creed, the Iranians adopted and added on to it an the principal points of the Magian belief, and all the more remarkable of the Magian religious usages. This religious fusion seems first to have taken place in Media. The Magi became a Median tribe, and were adopted as the priest-caste of the "Median nation." This "produced an amalgam that has shown a surprising vitality, having lasted above 2,000 years—from the time of Xerxes, the son of Darius Hystaspis (B. C. 485-465) to the present day."

G. Rawlinson, Religions of the Ancient World, chapter 3.

"As the doctrines of Zoroaster bear in several points such a striking resemblance to those of Christianity, it is a question of grave importance to ascertain the age in which he lived. … Since there can be no doubt that … we must assign to Zarathustra Spitama a date prior to the Median conquest of Babylon by a Zoroastrian priest king, the only question remaining to be solved is, whether he lived only a short time, or long, before that event. {3668} I am inclined to believe that he lived only about 100 or 200 years before that time, and that the conquest of Babylon was one of the last consequences of the great religious enthusiasm kindled by him. He preached, like Moses, war and destruction to all idolaters and wicked men. … According to this investigation we cannot assign to Zarathustra Spitama a later date than about 2300 B. C. Thus he lived not only before Moses, but even, perhaps, before Abraham. … He was the first prophet of truth who appeared in the world, and kindled a fire which thousands of years could not entirely extinguish."

M. Haug, Lectures on an Original Speech of Zoroaster (Yasna 45), pages 17, 26.

M. Haug, Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings and Religion of the Parsees.

"Prof. Darmesteter has published a new translation [of the Zend Avesta] with a most ably written introduction, in which he maintains the thesis that not a line of our Avesta text is older than the time of Alexander's conquest, while the greater part belongs to a much later date. We may briefly remind our readers that, according to the traditional view, the old Zoroastrian books, which belong to the times of the Achæmenidæ, were destroyed at the Macedonian conquest, but that portions were preserved by the people, who retained the old faith, during the long period of the Arsacidan rule, though the Court favoured Greek civilization. … According to this view, we still possess the genuine remains of the old pre-Alexandrine literature, mutilated and corrupted during the period of Arsacidan indifference, but yet, so far as they go, a faithful representative of the sacred text of the Achæmenian time. … Professor Darmesteter, on the contrary, maintains that all our texts are post-Alexandrine in form and in substance. Some may belong to the 1st century B. C. or A. D., and some, as the legislative parts of the Vendidad, may be founded on older texts now lost; but a large portion was composed by the priests of Ardashir's Court in the 3d century. The Gâthâs, which till now have been generally considered as the ancient nucleus of the whole system and ascribed to Zoroaster himself, are, in the Professor's opinion, certainly modern, and are relegated to the 1st century of our era."

_The Athenæum, June 30, 1894_

ALSO IN: _W. Geiger, Civilization of the Eastern Iranians._

_W. Geiger, and F. von Spiegel, The Age of the Avesta._

_D. F. Karaka, History of the Parsis._

_S. Johnson, Oriental Religions: Persia._

ZOTTS.

See GYPSIES.

ZOUAVES, The.

During the wars of the French in Algeria, there arose a body of soldiers "who, both in the campaign in Algeria and in the contest in the Crimea, have acquired the very highest renown. The name of the Zouaves will never be forgotten as long as the story of the siege of Sebastopol endures. … They were originally intended to be regiments composed of Frenchmen who had settled in Algeria, or their descendants; but the intermixture of foreigners in their ranks ere long became so considerable, that when they were transported to the shores of the Crimea, though the majority were French, they were rather an aggregate of the 'Dare-devils' of all nations. In their ranks at Sebastopol were some that held Oxford degrees, many those of Göttingen and Paris, crowds who had been ruined at the gaming-table, not a few who had fled from justice, or sought escape from the consequences of an amorous adventure. Yet had this motley crowd, composed of the most daring and reckless of all nations, become, in the rude school of the wars in Algeria, an incomparable body of soldiers, second to none in the world in every military duty, perhaps superior to any in the vehemence and rush of an assault."

Sir A. Alison, History of Europe, 1815-1852, chapter 45.

ZÜLPICH, Battle of (A. D. 496).

See ALEMANNI: A. D. 496-504; also FRANKS: A. D. 481-511.

ZULUS, AMAZULU. The Zulu War.

See SOUTH AFRICA: ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS: and SOUTH AFRICA, A. D. 1877-1879.

ZUÑI.

See AMERICA, PREHISTORIC; also AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ZUÑIAN FAMILY, and PUEBLOS.

ZURICH: A. D. 1519-1524. Beginning of the Swiss Reformation, under Zwingli.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1519-1524; and SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1528-1531.

ZURICH: A. D. 1799. Battle of French and Russians. Carnage in the city.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (AUGUST-DECEMBER).

ZURICH, Treaty of (1859).

See ITALY: A. D. 1859-1861.

ZUTPHEN: A. D. 1572. Massacre by the Spaniards.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1572-1573.

ZUTPHEN: A. D. 1586. Battle of English and Spaniards. Death of Sir Philip Sidney.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1585-1586.

ZUTPHEN: A. D. 1591. Capture by Prince Maurice.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1588-1593.

ZUYDERZEE, Naval battle on the (1573).

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1573-1574.

ZWINGLI, and the Swiss Reformation.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1519-1524; and SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1528-1531.

ZYP, Battle of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER).

{3669}

SUPPLEMENT.

This Supplement contains:

1. Some passages translated from German and French writings, touching matters less competently treated in the body of the work, where the compilation is restricted to "the literature of history in the English language," either originally or in published translations.

2. Some postscripts on recent events, and some excerpts from recent books.

3. Treatment of some topics that were omitted from their places in the body of the work, either intentionally or by accident, and which it seems best to include.

4. Some cross-references needed to complete the subject-indexing of the work throughout.

5. A complete series of chronological tables, by centuries.

6. A series of dynastic genealogies, in a form different from the usual plan of their construction, and which, it is hoped, may be found more easily intelligible.

7. Select bibliographies, partly annotated, of several of the more important fields of history.

8. A full list of the works quoted from in this compilation of "History for Ready Reference and Topical Reading," with the names of the publishers.

The selections and translations from the German, excepting Bismarck's speeches, have been made by Ernest F. Henderson, A. M., Ph. D., author of "A History of Germany in the Middle Ages." Mr. Henderson has also prepared and annotated the bibliography of German and French writings.

---------- A --------

ABELARD AND THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL (page 692).

ABHORRERS.

Charles II. and his court, in England, were troubled about 1680 with numerous petitions for the calling of parliament. "As the king found no law by which he could punish those importunate, and, as he deemed them, undutiful solicitations, he was obliged to encounter them by popular applications of a contrary tendency. Wherever the church and court party prevailed, addresses were framed, containing expressions of the highest regard to his majesty, the most entire acquiescence in his wisdom, the most dutiful submission to his prerogative, and the deepest abhorrence of those who endeavoured to encroach upon it, by prescribing to him any time for assembling the parliament. Thus the nation came to be distinguished into 'petitioners' and 'abhorrers.'"

D. Hume, History of England, chapter 68.

ACCAD. ACCADIANS.

See SEMITES: PRIMITIVE BABYLONIA (page 2888).

ADAIS.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ADAIS (page 77).

ADAMS, John Quincy. His defense of the right of petition.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1842 (page 3378).

ADELBERT COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION (page 743).

ADMIRALTY LAW, History of.

See LAW (page 1955).

ADVENTURERS, Merchant.

See MERCHANT ADVENTURERS (page 2153).

----------AFRICA: Start--------

AFRICA. A chronological record of European Exploration, Missionary Settlement, Colonization and Occupation.

AFRICA: 1415. Conquest of Ceuta by the Portuguese.

AFRICA: 1434-1461. Portuguese explorations down the western coast, from Cape Bojador to Cape Mesurado, in Liberia, under the direction of Prince Henry, called the Navigator.

AFRICA: 1442. First African slaves brought into Europe by one of the ships of the Portuguese-Prince Henry.

AFRICA: 1471-1482. Portuguese explorations carried beyond the Guinea Coast, and to the Gold Coast, where the first settlement was established, at El Mina.

AFRICA: 1482. Discovery of the mouth of the Zaire or Congo by the Portuguese explorer, Diogo Cao, or Diego Cam.

AFRICA: 1485-1596. Establishment of Roman Catholic missions on the western coast, and creation, by Pope Clement VIII., of the diocese of Mbazi (San Salvador), embracing Congo, Angola and Benguela.

AFRICA: 1486. Unconscious rounding of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomew Diaz.

AFRICA: 1490-1527. Visit to Abyssinia of Pedro da Covilhão, or Covilham, the Portuguese explorer.

AFRICA: 1497. Voyage of Vasco da Gama round the Cape of Good Hope to India.

{3670}

AFRICA: 1505-1508. Portuguese settlements and fortified stations' established on the eastern coast, from Sofala to Zanzibar.

AFRICA: 1506. Discovery of Madagascar by the Portuguese.

AFRICA: 1520-1527. Portuguese embassy to Abyssinia, narrated by Father Alvarez.

AFRICA: 1552-1553. Beginning of English voyages to the Guinea and Gold Coasts.

AFRICA: 1560. French trading to the Senegal and Gambia begun.

AFRICA: 1562. First slave-trading voyage of Sir John Hawkins to the Guinea Coast.

AFRICA: 1569. Expedition of Barreto up the Zambesi from its mouth to Sena and beyond.

AFRICA: 1578. Founding of St. Paul de Loando, the capital of the Portuguese possessions on the west coast.

AFRICA: 1582 (about). Founding of the French post, St. Louis, at the mouth of the Senegal.

AFRICA: 1588. First (English) African Company chartered by Queen Elizabeth.

AFRICA: 1595. Opening of trade on the western coast by the Dutch.

AFRICA: 1618-1621. Exploration of the River Gambia by George Thompson and Captain Richard Jobson, for the Royal Niger Company of England.

AFRICA: 1625. Jesuit mission of Father Lobo and his companions to Abyssinia.

AFRICA: 1637. Visit of Claude Jannequin, Sieur de Rochfort, to the River Senegal.

AFRICA: 1644. Fort Dauphin founded by the French in the island of Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1652. Dutch settlement at the Cape of Good Hope.

AFRICA: 1662. British African Company chartered by Charles II. and fort built on the Gambia.

AFRICA: 1664-1684. Wars of France with the Algerines.

AFRICA: 1681-1683. Brandenburg African Company formed by "the Great Elector"; settlements established and trade opened on the western coast.

AFRICA: 1694-1724. Explorations of the River Senegal and interior by André Brue, the French governor, for the Royal Senegal Company.

AFRICA: 1698. Arab conquests from the Portuguese on the eastern coast, breaking their ascendancy.

AFRICA: 1702-1717. Captivity of Robert Drury in Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1723. Exploration of the Gambia by Captain Bartholomew Stibbs, for the English Royal African Company.

AFRICA: 1736. Moravian Mission planted on the Gold Coast.

AFRICA: 1737. Moravian Mission planted by George Schmidt among the Hottentots; suppressed by the Dutch government in 1744, and revived in 1792.

AFRICA: 1754. Substantial beginning of the domination in Madagascar of the Hovas, a people of Malay origin.

AFRICA: 1758. British conquest of the French establishments on the Senegal.

AFRICA: 1761-1762. Dutch expedition from Cape Colony beyond the Orange River into Namaqualand.

AFRICA: 1768-1763. Journey of James Bruce to the fountains of the Blue Nile in Abyssinia.

AFRICA: 1774. Founding of a French colony in Madagascar by Count Benyowsky.

AFRICA: 1775-1776. Explorations of Andrew Sparrman from Cape Town to Great Fish River.

AFRICA: 1778. Cession by Portugal to Spain of the island of Fernando Po.

AFRICA: 1779. Recovery of Senegal from the English by the French.

AFRICA: 1781-1785. Travels of M. Le Vaillant from the Cape of Good Hope into the interior of South Africa, among the Hottentots and Kafirs.

AFRICA: 1787. Founding of the English settlement for freed slaves at Sierra Leone.

AFRICA: 1788. Formation of the African Association in England, under the presidency of Sir Joseph Banks, for systematic exploration in the interest of geographical science.

AFRICA: 1789-1794. Fruitless attempts by agents of the African Association to reach the Niger and Timbuctoo from the west coast and from the Nile.

AFRICA: 1795. The Cape Colony taken from the Dutch by the English.

AFRICA: 1795-1797. The first exploring journey of Mungo Park, in the service of the African Association, from the Gambia, penetrating to the Niger, at Sego.

AFRICA: 1798. Mission of Dr. John Vanderkemp to the Kafirs, with the support of the London Missionary Society.

AFRICA: 1798. Journey of the Portuguese Dr. Lacerda from the Lower Zambesi to the kingdom of Cazembe, on Lake Moero.

AFRICA: 1800. Unsuccessful attempts of the Dutch Missionary Society in Cape Town among the Bechuanas.

AFRICA: 1801-1805. War of the United States with the pirates of Tripoli.

AFRICA: 1802-1806. Restoration of Cape Colony to the Dutch and its reconquest by the English.

AFRICA: 1802-1811. Journey of the Pombeiros, Baptista and Jose (negroes) across the continent from Angola to Tete, on the Zambesi River.

AFRICA: 1804. Founding of the Church of England Mission in Sierra Leone.

AFRICA: 1805. Second expedition of Mungo Park from the Gambia to the Niger, from which he never returned.

AFRICA: 1805. Travels of Dr. Lichtenstein in Bechuanaland.

AFRICA: 1806. Missionary journey of Christian and William Albrecht beyond the Orange River.

AFRICA: 1809. Second conquest of Senegal by the English.

AFRICA: 1810. Missions in Great Namaqualand and Damaraland begun by the London Missionary Society.

AFRICA: 1812. Exploration of the Orange River and the headwaters of the Limpopo by Campbell, the missionary.

AFRICA: 1812-1815. Journey of Burckhardt under the auspices of the African Association, up the Nile, through Nubia, to Berbera, Shendy, and Suakin; thence through Jidda to Mecca, in the character of a Mussulman.

AFRICA: 1815. Senegal restored to France by the Treaty of Paris.

AFRICA: 1815. War of the United States with the piratical Algerines.

AFRICA: 1815. Shipwreck and enslavement of Captain James Riley in Morocco.

AFRICA: 1816. Bombardment of Algiers by a British fleet under Lord Exmouth.

AFRICA: 1816-1818. Fatal and fruitless attempts of Tuckey, Peddie, Campbell, Gray and Dochard to explore the lower course and determine the outlet of the Niger.

{3671}

AFRICA: 1818. Mission in Madagascar undertaken by the London Missionary Society.

AFRICA: 1818. Beginning, on the Orange River, of the missionary labors of Robert Moffat in South Africa.

AFRICA: 1818. Exploration of the sources of the Gambia by Gaspard Mollien, from Fort St. Louis, at the mouth of the Senegal.

AFRICA: 1818-1820. Exploration of Fezzan to Its southern limit, from Tripoli, by Captain Lyon.

AFRICA: 1820. First Wesleyan Mission founded in Kafirland.

AFRICA: 1820. Treaty abolishing the slave-trade in Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1821. Mission-work in Kaffraria undertaken by the Glasgow Missionary Society.

AFRICA: 1822. Founding of the republic of Liberia by the American Colonization Society.

AFRICA: 1822. Official journey of Lieutenant Laing from Sierra Leone in the "Timannee, Kooranko and Soolima" countries.

AFRICA: 1822-1825. Expedition of Captain Clapperton, Dr. Oudney, and Colonel Denham, from Tripoli to Lake Tchad and beyond.

AFRICA: 1825-1826. Expedition of Major Laing, in the service of the British Government, from Tripoli, through the desert, to Timbuctoo, which he reached, and where he remained for a month. Two days after leaving the city he was murdered.

AFRICA: 1825-1827. Expedition of Captain Clapperton from the Bight of Benin to Sokoto.

AFRICA: 1827. Moravian Mission settled in the Tambookie territory, South Africa.

AFRICA: 1827. Journey of Linant de Bellefonds, for the African Association, up the White Nile to 18° 6' north latitude.

AFRICA: 1827-1828. Journey of Caillé from a point on the west coast, between Sierra Leone and the Gambia, to Jenna and Timbuctoo; thence to Fez and Tangier.

AFRICA: 1828. Undertakings of the Basle Missionary Society on the Gold Coast.

AFRICA: 1830-1831. Exploration of the Niger to the sea by Richard and John Lender, solving the question as to its mouth.

AFRICA: 1830-1846. French conquest and subjugation of Algiers.

AFRICA: 1831. Portuguese mission of Major Monteiro and Captain Gamitto to the court of Muata Cazembe.

AFRICA: 1831. Absorption of the African Association by the Royal Geographical Society of London.

AFRICA: 1832-1834. First commercial exploration of the lower Niger, from its mouth, by Macgregor Laird, with two steamers.

AFRICA: 1833. Mission in Basutoland established by the Evangelical Missionary Society of Paris.

AFRICA: 1834. Beginning of missionary labors under the American Board of Missions in South Africa.

AFRICA: 1834. Mission founded at Cape Palmas on the western coast, by the American Board for Foreign Missions.

AFRICA: 1834. The Great Trek of the Dutch Boers from Cape Colony and their founding of the republic of Natal.

AFRICA: 1835. Mission among the Zulus established by the American Board of Foreign Missions.

AFRICA: 1835-1849. Persecution of Christians in Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1836-1837. Explorations of Captain Sir James E. Alexander in the countries of the Great Namaquas, the Bushmen and the Hill Damaras.

AFRICA: 1839-1811. Egyptian expeditions sent by Mehemet Ali up the White Nile to latitude 6° 35' North; accompanied and narrated in part by Ferdinand Werne.

AFRICA: 1839-1843. Missionary residence of Dr. Krapf in the kingdom of Shoa, in the Ethiopian highlands.

AFRICA: 1840. Arrival of Dr. Livingstone in South Africa as a missionary.

AFRICA: 1841. Expedition of Captains Trotter and Allen, sent by the British Government to treat with tribes on the Niger for the opening of commerce and the suppression of the slave trade.

AFRICA: 1842. Travels of Dr. Charles Johnston in Southern Abyssinia.

AFRICA: 1842. Gaboon Mission, on the western coast near the equator, founded by the American Board of Foreign Missions.

AFRICA: 1842. The Rhenish Mission established by German missionaries at Bethanien in Namaqualand.

AFRICA: 1842. Wesleyan and Norwegian Missions opened in Natal.

AFRICA: 1842-1862. French occupation of territory on the Gaboon and the Ogowé.

AFRICA: 1843. British annexation of Natal, and migration of the Boers to found the Orange Free State.

AFRICA: 1843. Exploration of the Senegal and the Falémé by Huard-Bessinières and Raffenel.

AFRICA: 1843-1845. Travels and residence of Mr. Parkyns in Abyssinia.

AFRICA: 1843-1848. Hunting journeys of Gordon Cumming in South Africa.

AFRICA: 1844. Mission founded by Dr. Krapf at Mombassa, on the Zanzibar coast.

AFRICA: 1845. Duncan's journey for the Royal Geographical Society from Whydah, via Abome, to Adofudia.

AFRICA: 1845. Mission to the Cameroons established by the Baptist Missionary Society of England.

AFRICA: 1846. Unsuccessful attempt of Raffenel to cross Africa from Senegal to the Nile, through the Sudan.

AFRICA: 1846. Mission of Samuel Crowther (afterwards Bishop of the Niger), a native and a liberated slave, to the Yoruba country.

AFRICA: 1846. Mission on Old Calabar River founded by the United Presbyterian Church in Jamaica.

AFRICA: 1847-1849. Interior explorations of the German missionaries Dr. Krapf and Mr. Rebmann, from Mombassa on the Zanzibar coast.

AFRICA: 1848. Founding of the Transvaal Republic by the Boers.

AFRICA: 1849. Missionary journey of David Livingstone northward from the country of the Bechuanas, and his discovery of Lake Ngami.

AFRICA: 1849-1851. Journey of Ladislaus Magyar from Benguela to the kingdoms of Bihe and Moluwa on the interior table-land, and across the upper end of the Zambesi valley.

AFRICA: 1850. Sale of Danish forts at Quetta, Adds, and Fingo, on the western coast, to Great Britain.

AFRICA: 1850-1851. Travels of Andersson and Galton from Walfish Bay to Ovampo-land and Lake Ngami.

AFRICA: 1850-1855. Travels of Dr. Barth from Tripoli to Lake Tchad, Sokoto and the Upper Niger to Timbuctoo, where he was detained for nine months.

AFRICA: 1851. Discovery of the Zambesi by Dr. Livingstone.

{3672}

AFRICA: 1852-1863. Hunting and trading journeys of Mr. Chapman in South Africa, between Natal and Walfish Bay and to Lake Ngami and the Zambesi.

AFRICA: 1853. Founding of the Diocese of Natal by the English Church and appointment of Dr. Colenso to be its bishop.

AFRICA: 1853-1856. Journey of Dr. Livingstone from Linyanti, the Makololo capital, up the Zambesi and across to the western coast, at St. Paul de Loando, thence returning entirely across the continent, down the Zambesi to Quilimane at its mouth, discovering the Victoria Falls on his way.

AFRICA: 1853-1858. Ivory-seeking expeditions of John Petherick, up the Bahr-el-Ghazel.

AFRICA: 1853-1859. Roman Catholic mission established at Gondokoro, on the Upper Nile.

AFRICA: 1854. Exploration of the Somali country—the "eastern horn of Africa"—by Captains Burton and Speke.

AFRICA: 1855. Beginning of attempts by the French governor of Senegal, General Faidherbe, to carry the flag of France into the Western Sudan.

AFRICA: 1856-1859. Journeys of Du Chaillu in the western equatorial regions, on the Gaboon and the Ogobai.

AFRICA: 1857-1858. Expedition of Captains Burton and Speke, from Zanzibar, through Uzaramo, Usagara, Ugogo, and Unyamwezi, to Ujiji, on Lake Tanganyika—making the first European discovery of the lake; returning to Kazé, and thence continued by Speke alone, during Burton's illness, to the discovery of Lake Victoria Nyanza.

AFRICA: 1858. Journey of Andersson from Walfish Bay to the Okavango River.

AFRICA: 1858. English mission station founded at Victoria on the Cameroons coast.

AFRICA: 1858-1863. Expedition of Dr. Livingstone, in the service of the British Government, exploring the Shiré and the Rovuma, and discovering and exploring Lake Nyassa—said, however, to have been known previously to the Portuguese.

AFRICA: 1860-1861. Journey of Baron von Decken from Mombassa on the Zanzibar coast, to Kilimanjaro mountain.

AFRICA: 1860-1862. Return of Speke, with Captain Grant, from Zanzibar to Lake Victoria Nyanza, visiting Karagwe, and Uganda, and reaching the outlet of the Nile; thence through Unyoro to Gondokoro, and homeward by the Nile.

AFRICA: 1861. Establishment of the Universities Mission by Bishop Mackenzie on the Upper Shiré.

AFRICA: 1861-1862. English acquisition of the town and kingdom of Lagos on the Bight of Benin by cession from the native ruler.

AFRICA: 1861-1862. Sir Samuel Baker's exploration of the Abyssinian tributaries of the Nile.

AFRICA: 1861-1862. Journey of Captain Burton from Lagos, on the western coast, to Abeokuta, the capital of the Akus, in Yoruba, and to the Camaroons Mountains.

AFRICA: 1861-1862. Journey of Mr. Baines from Walfish Bay to Lake Ngami and Victoria Falls.

AFRICA: 1862. Resumption of the Christian Mission in Madagascar, long suppressed.

AFRICA: 1862-1867. Travels of Dr. Rohlfs in Morocco, Algeria and Tunis, and exploring journey from the Gulf of the Syrtes to the Gulf of Guinea.

AFRICA: 1863. Travels of Winwood Reade on the western coast.

AFRICA: 1863. Incorporation of a large part of Kaffraria with Cape Colony.

AFRICA: 1863. Second visit of Du Chaillu to the western equatorial region and journey to Ashangoland.

AFRICA: 1863-1864. Official mission of Captain Burton to the King of Dahomey.

AFRICA: 1863-1864. Exploration of the Bahr-el-Ghazel from Khartoum by the wealthy Dutch heiress, Miss Tinné, and her party.

AFRICA: 1863-1865. Expedition by Sir Samuel Baker and his wife up the White Nile from Khartoum, resulting in the discovery of Lake Albert Nyanza, as one of its sources.

AFRICA: 1864. Mission of Lieutenant mage and Dr. Quintin, sent by General Faidherbe from Senegal to the king of Segou, in the Sudan.

AFRICA: 1866. Founding of a Norwegian mission in Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1866-1873. Last journey of Dr. Livingstone, from the Rovuma River, on the eastern coast, to Lake Nyassa; thence to Lake Tanganyika, Lake Moero, Lake Bangweolo, and the Lualaba River, which he suspected of flowing into the Albert Nyanza, and being the ultimate fountain head of the Nile. In November, 1871, Livingstone was found at Ujiji, on Lake Tanganyika, by Henry M. Stanley, lender of an expedition sent in search of him. Declining to quit the country with Stanley, and pursuing his exploration of the Lualaba, Livingstone died May 1, 1873, on Lake Bangweolo.

AFRICA: 1867. Mission founded in Madagascar by the Society of Friends.

AFRICA: 1867-1868. British expedition to Abyssinia for the rescue of captives; overthrow and death of King Theodore.

AFRICA: 1868. British annexation of Basutoland in South Africa.

AFRICA: 1869. Christianity established as the state religion in Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1869. Fatal expedition of Miss Tinné from Tripoli into the desert, where she was murdered by her own escort.

AFRICA: 1869-1871. Explorations of Dr. Schweinfurth between the Bahr-el-Ghazel and the Upper Congo, discovering the Wellé River.

AFRICA: 1869-1873. Expedition of Dr. Nachtigal from Tripoli through Kuka, Tibesti, Borku, Wadai, Darfur, and Kordofan, to the Nile.

AFRICA: 1870-1873. Official expedition of Sir Samuel Baker, in the service of the Khedive of Egypt, Ismail Pasha, to annex Gondokoro, then named Ismalia, and to suppress the slave-trade in the Egyptian Sudan, or Equatoria.

AFRICA: 1871. Transfer of the rights of Holland on the Gold Coast to Great Britain.

AFRICA: 1871. Annexation of Griqualand West to Cape Colony.

AFRICA: 1871. Scientific tour of Sir Joseph D. Hooker and Mr. Ball in Morocco and the Great Atlas.

AFRICA: 1871. Missionary journey of Mr. Charles New in the Masai country and ascent of Mount Kilimanjaro.

AFRICA: 1871-1880. Hunting journeys of Mr. Selous in South Africa, beyond the Zambesi.

AFRICA: 1872-1875. Travels of the naturalist, Reinhold Buchholz, on the Guinea coast.

AFRICA: 1872-1879. Trave]s of Dr. Holub between the South African diamond fields and the Zambesi.

AFRICA: 1873-1875. Expedition of Captain V. L. Cameron, from Zanzibar to Lake Tanganyika, and exploration of the Lake; thence to Nyangwe on the Lnalaba, and thence across the continent, through Ulunda, to the Portuguese settlement at Benguela, on the Atlantic coast.

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AFRICA: 1873-1875. Travels of the naturalist, Frank Oates, from Cape Colony to the Victoria Falls.

AFRICA: 1873-1876. Explorations of Güsfeldt, Falkenstein and Pechuel-Loesche, under the auspices of the German African Association, from the Loango coast, north of the Congo.

AFRICA: 1874. British expedition against the Ashantees, destroying their principal town Coomassie.

AFRICA: 1874. Mission of Colonel Chaillé-Long from General Gordon, at Gondokoro, on the Nile, to M'tesé, king of Uganda, discovering Lake Ibrahim on his return, and completing the work of Speke and Baker, in the continuous tracing of the course of the Nile from the Victoria Nyanza.

AFRICA: 1874-1875. Expedition of Colonel C. Chaillé-Long to Lake Victoria Nyanza and the Makraka Niam-Niam country, in the Egyptian service.

AFRICA: 1874-1876. First administration of General Gordon, commissioned by the Khedive as Governor of Equatoria.

AFRICA: 1874-1876. Occupation and exploration of Darfur and Kordofan by the Egyptians, under Colonels Purdy, Mason, Prout and Colston.

AFRICA: 1874-1877. Expedition of Henry M. Stanley, fitted out by the proprietors of the New York Herald and the London Daily Telegraph, which crossed the continent from Zanzibar to the mouth of the Congo River; making a prolonged stay in the empire of Uganda and acquiring much knowledge of it; circumnavigating Lakes Victoria and Tanganyika, and exploring the then mysterious great Congo River throughout its length.

AFRICA: 1874-1877. Explorations of Dr. Junker in Upper Nubia and in the basin of the Bahr-el-Ghazel.

AFRICA: 1875. Expedition of Dr. Pogge, for the German African Association, from the west coast, south of the Congo, in the Congo basin, penetrating to Kawende, beyond the Ruru or Lulua River, capital of the Muata Yanvo, who rules a kingdom as large as Germany.

AFRICA: 1875. Expedition of Colonel Chaillé-Long into the country of the Makraka Niam-Niams.

AFRICA: 1875. Founding by Scottish subscribers of the mission station called Livingstonia, at Cape Maclear, on the southern shores of Lake Nyassa; headquarters of the mission removed in 1881 to Bandawé, on the same lake.

AFRICA: 1875. Mission founded at Blantyre, in the highlands above the Shiré, by the Established Church of Scotland.

AFRICA: 1875-1876. Seizure of Berbera and the region of the Juba River, on the Somali Coast, by Colonel Chaillé-Long, for the Khedive of Egypt, and their speedy evacuation, on the remonstrance of England.

AFRICA: 1876. Conference at Brussels and formation of the International African Association, under the presidency of the king of the Belgians, for the exploration and civilization of Africa.

AFRICA: 1876. Voyage of Romolo Gessi around Lake Albert Nyanza.

AFRICA: 1876. Mission in Uganda established by the Church Missionary Society of England.

AFRICA: 1876-1878. Scientific explorations of Dr. Schweinfurth in the Arabian Desert between the Nile and the Red Sea.

AFRICA: 1876-1880. Explorations and French annexations by Svorgnan de Brazza between the Ogowé and the Congo.

AFRICA: 1877. The Livingstone Inland Mission, for Christian work in the Congo valley, established by the East London Institute for Home and Foreign Missions.

AFRICA: 1877-1879. Second administration of General Gordon, as Governor-General of the Sudan, Darfur and the Equatorial Provinces.

AFRICA: 1877-1879. War of the British in South Africa with the Zulus, and practical subjugation of that nation.

AFRICA: 1877-1879. Journey of Serpa Pinto across the continent from Benguela via the Zambesi.

AFRICA: 1877-1880. Explorations of the Portuguese officers, Capello and Ivens, in western and central Africa, from Benguela to the territory of Yacca, for the survey of the river Cuango in its relations to the hydrographic basins of the Congo and the Zambesi.

AFRICA: 1878. Founding in Glasgow of the African Lakes Company, or "The Livingstone Central Africa Company," for trade on Lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika; by which company the "Stevenson Road" was subsequently built between the two lakes above named.

AFRICA: 1878. Walfish Bay and fifteen miles around it (on the western coast, in Namaqualand) declared British territory.

AFRICA: 1878. Journey of Paul Soleillet from Saint-Louis to Segou.

AFRICA: 1878-1880. Royal Geographical Society's East Central African expedition, under Joseph Thomson, to the Central African lakes, Tanganyika, Nyassa and Leopold, from Zanzibar.

AFRICA: 1879. Establishment, by the Belgian International Society, of a station at Karema, on the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1879. Formation of the International Congo Association and the engagement of Mr. Stanley in its service.

AFRICA: 1879. Missionary expeditions to the Upper Congo region by the Livingstone Inland Mission and the Baptist Missionary Society.

AFRICA: 1879. Journey of Mr. Stewart, of the Livingstonia Mission, on Lake Nyassa, from that lake to Lake Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1879. Discovery of the sources of the Niger, in the hills about 200 miles east of Freetown, the capital of Sierra Leone, by the French explorers, Zweifel and Moustier.

AFRICA: 1879-1880. Journey of Dr. Oskar Lenz, under the auspices of the German African Society, from Morocco to Timbuctoo, and thence to the Atlantic coast in Senegambia. The fact that the Sahara is generally above the sea-level, and cannot therefore be flooded, was determined by Dr. Lenz.

AFRICA: 1879-1881. Expedition of Dr. Buchner from Loanda to Kawende and the kingdom of the Muata Yanvo, where six months were spent in vain efforts to procure permission to proceed further into the interior.

AFRICA: 1880. Mission established by the American Board of Foreign Missions in "the region of Bihé and the Coanza," or Quanza, south of the Congo.

AFRICA: 1880-1881. War of the British with the Boers of the Transvaal.

AFRICA: 1880-1881. Official mission of the German explorer, Gerhard Rohlfs, accompanied by Dr. Stecker, to Abyssinia.

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AFRICA: 1880-1884. Campaigns of Colonel Borgnis-Desbordes in Upper Senegal, capturing Bamakou and extending French supremacy to the Niger.

AFRICA: 1880-1884. German East African Expedition, under Kaiser, Böhm, and Reichard, to explore, in the Congo Basin, the region between the Lualaba and the Luapula.

AFRICA: 1880-1886. Explorations of Dr. Junker in the country of the Niam-Niam, seeking to determine the course and the outlet of the great river Wellé, and his journey from the Equatorial Province held by Emin Pasha against the Mahdl, through Unyoro and Uganda, to Zanzibar.

AFRICA: 1880-1889. Journey of Captain Casati, as correspondent of the Italian geographical review, "L' Exploratore," from Suakin, on the Red Sea, into the district of the Mombuttu, west of Lake Albert, and the country of the Niam-Niam; in which travels he was arrested by the revolt of the Mahdi and forced to remain with Emin Pasha until rescued with the latter by Stanley, in 1889.

AFRICA: 1881. French Protectorate extended over Tunis.

AFRICA: 1881. Portuguese expedition of Captain Andrada from Senna on the Zambesi River to the old gold mines of Manica.

AFRICA: 1881. Journey of F. L. and W. D. James from Suakin, on the Red Sea, through the Base country, in the Egyptian Sudan.

AFRICA: 1881. Founding of a mission on the Congo, at Stanley Pool, by the Baptist Missionary Society of England.

AFRICA: 1881-1884. Expedition of Dr. Pogge and Lieutenant Wissmann to Nyangwe on the Lualaba, from which point Lieutenant Wissmann pursued the journey to Zanzibar, crossing the continent, while Dr. Pogge, returning, died soon after his arrival at St. Paul de Loanda.

AFRICA: 1881-1885. Revolt of the Mahdl in the Sudan; the mission of General Gordon to Khartoum to effect the evacuation of the country; his beleaguerment there by the Mahdists; the unsuccessful expedition from England to rescue him; the fall of the city and his death.

AFRICA: 1881-1887. French protectorate established over territory on the Upper Niger and Upper Senegal.

AFRICA: 1882. Italian occupation of Abyssinian territory on the Bay of Assab.

AFRICA: 1882. Formation in England of the National African Company for the development of trade in the region of the Niger.

AFRICA: 1882. Missionary visit to the Masal people by Mr. J. T. Last.

AFRICA: 1882-1883. German scientific expedition, under Dr. Böhm and Herr Reichard, to Lakes Tanganyika and Moero.

AFRICA: 1882-1883. Journey of Mr. H. H. Johnston on the Congo.

AFRICA: 1882-1885. Mr. Stutfield's travels through Morocco.

AFRICA: 1883. German acquisition of territory on Angra Pequeña Bay, in Great Namaqualand.

AFRICA: 1883. Exploration of Masailand by Dr. Fischer, under the auspices of the Hamburg Geographical Society.

AFRICA: 1883. Explorations of Lieutenant Giraud in East Central Africa, descending for some distance the Luapula, which flows out of Lake Bangweolo, but driven back by hostile natives.

AFRICA: 1883. Geological and botanical investigation of the basins of Lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika, by Mr. Henry Drummond, for the African Lakes Company.

AFRICA: 1883. Journey of Mr. O'Neill to Lake Shirwa and the sources of the Lujenda.

AFRICA: 1883. Journey of Mr. Révoil in the South Somali country to the Upper Jub.

AFRICA: 1883-1884. Explorations of Mr. Joseph Thomson from Mombassa, through Masailand, to the northeast corner of the Victoria Nyanza, under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society.

AFRICA: 1883-1885. War of the French with the Hovas of Madagascar, resulting in the establishment of a French Protectorate over the island.

AFRICA: 1883-1885. Exploration of Lieutenant Giraud in the lake region—Lake Nyassa to Lake Bangweolo, Lake Moero and Lake Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1883-1886. Austrian expedition, under Dr. Holub, from Cape Colony, through the Boer states, Bechuanaland and Matabeleland to the Zambesi, and beyond, to the borders of the Mashukulumbe territory, where the party was attacked, plundered, and driven back.

AFRICA: 1884. Annexation by Germany of the whole western coast (except Walfish Bay) between the Portuguese Possessions and those of the British in South Africa.

AFRICA: 1884. German occupation of territory on the Cameroons River, under treaties with the native chiefs. English treaties securing contiguous territory to and including the delta of the Niger.

AFRICA: 1884. German Protectorate over Togoland on the Gold Coast declared.

AFRICA: 1884. Expedition of Dr. Peters, representing the Society of German Colonization, to the coast region of Zanzibar, and his negotiation of treaties with ten native chiefs, ceding the sovereignty of their dominions.

AFRICA: 1884. Crown colony of British Bechuanaland acquired by convention with the South African Republic.

AFRICA: 1884. Portuguese Government expedition, under Major Carvalho, from Loanda to the Central African potentate called the Muata Yanvo.

AFRICA: 1884. Exploration of the Benué and the whole region of the Adamawa, by Herr Flegel, for the German African Society.

AFRICA: 1884. Scientific expedition of Mr. H. H. Johnston to Kilimanjaro mountain, sent by the British Association for the Advancement of Science and the Royal Society.

AFRICA: 1884. Discovery of the M'bangi or Ubangi River (afterwards identified with the Wellé—see below, 1887), by Captain Hansens and Lieutenant Van Gèle.

AFRICA: 1884. Exploration of Reichard in the southeastern part of the Congo State.

AFRICA: 1884-1885. The Berlin Conference of Powers, held to determine the limits of territory conceded to the International Congo Association; to establish freedom of trade within that territory, and to formulate rules for regulating in future the acquisition of African territory.

AFRICA: 1884-1885. Journey of Mr. Walter M. Kerr from Cape Colony, across the Zambesi, to Lake Nyassa, and down the Shiré River to the coast.

AFRICA: 1884-1885. Travels of Mr. F. L. James and party in the Somali country.

AFRICA: 1884-1887. Exploration by Dr. Schinz of the newly acquired German territories in southwest Africa.

AFRICA: 1885. Transfer of the rights of the Society of German Colonization to the German East Africa Company, and extension of imperial protection to the territories claimed by the Company. German acquisition of Witu, north of Zanzibar.

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AFRICA: 1885. Agreement between Germany and France, defining their respective spheres of influence on the Bight or Biafra, on the slave coast and in Senegambia.

AFRICA: 1885. Transformation of the Congo Association into the Independent State of the Congo, with King Leopold of Belgium as its sovereign.

AFRICA: 1885. British Protectorate extended to the Zambesi, over the country west of the Portuguese province of Sofala, to the 20th degree of east longitude.

AFRICA: 1885. British Protectorate extended over the remainder of Bechuanaland.

AFRICA: 1885. Italian occupation of Massowa, on the Red Sea.

AFRICA: 1885. Mission of Mr. Joseph Thomson, for the National African Company, up the Niger, to Sokoto and Gando, securing treaties with the sultans under which the company acquired paramount rights.

AFRICA: 1885-1888. Mission of M. Borelli to the kingdom of Shoa (Southern Ethiopia) and south of it.

AFRICA: 1885-1889. When, after the fall of Khartoum and the death of General Gordon, in 1885, the Sudan was abandoned to the Mahdi and the fanatical Mohammedans of the interior, Dr. Edward Schnitzer, better known as Emin Pasha, who had been in command, under Gordon, of the province of the Equator, extending up to Lake Albert, was cut off for six years from communication with the civilized world. In 1887 an expedition to rescue him and his command was sent out under Henry M. Stanley. It entered the continent from the west, made its way up the Congo and the Aruwimi to Yambuya; thence through the unexplored region to Lake Albert Nyanza and into communication with Emin Pasha; then returning to Yambuya for the rearguard which had been left there; again traversing the savage land to Lake Albert, and passing from there, with Emin and his companions, by way of Lake Albert Edward Nyanza (then ascertained to be the ultimate reservoir of the Nile system) around the southern extremity of the Victoria Nyanza, to Zanzibar, which was reached at the end of 1889.

AFRICA: 1886. Settlement between Great Britain and Germany of the coast territory to be left under the sovereignty of the Sultan of Zanzibar, and of the "spheres of influence" to be appropriated respectively by themselves, between the lakes and the eastern coast, north of the Portuguese possessions.

AFRICA: 1886. Agreement between France and Portugal defining limits of territory in Senegambia and at the mouth of the Congo.

AFRICA: 1886. Transformation of the National African Company into the British Royal Niger Company, with a charter giving powers of administration over a large domain on the River Niger.

AFRICA: 1886. Mission station founded by Mr. Arnot at Bunkeya, in the southeastern part of the Congo State.

AFRICA: 1886-1887. Journey of Lieutenant Wissmann across the continent, from Luluaburg, a station of the Congo Association, in the dominion of Muata Yanvo, to Nyangwe, on the Lualaba, and thence to Zanzibar.

AFRICA: 1886-1889. Expeditions of Dr. Zintgraff in the Cameroons interior and to the Benue, for the bringing of the country under German influence.

AFRICA: 1887. Annexation of Zululand, partly to the Transvaal, or South African Republic, and the remainder to the British possessions.

AFRICA: 1887. French gunboats launched on the Upper Niger, making a reconnoissance nearly to Timbuctoo.

AFRICA: 1887. Identity of the Wellé River with the M'bangi or Ubangi established by Captain Van Gèle and Lieutenant Liénart.

AFRICA: 1887. First ascent of Kilimanjaro by Dr. Hans Meyer.

AFRICA: 1887-1889. Exploration by Captain Ringer of the region between the great bend of the Niger and the countries of the Gold Coast.

AFRICA: 1887-1890. Expedition of Count Teleki through Masailand, having for its most important result the discovery of the Basso-Narok, or Black Lake, to which the discoverer gave the name of Lake Rudolf, and Lake Stefanie.

AFRICA: 1888. Chartering of the Imperial British East Africa Company, under concessions granted by the sultan of Zanzibar and by native chiefs, with powers of administration over a region defined ultimately as extending from the river Umba northward to the river Jub, and inland to and across Lake Victoria near its middle to the eastern boundary of the Congo Free State.

AFRICA: 1888. British supremacy over Matabeleland secured by treaty with its King Lobengula.

AFRICA: 1888. British Protectorate extended over Amatongaland.

AFRICA: 1888. Ascent of Mt. Kilimanjaro by Mr. Ehlers and Dr. Abbott; also by Dr. Hans Meyer.

AFRICA: 1888. Travels of Joseph Thomson in the Atlas and southern Morocco.

AFRICA: 1889. Royal charter granted to the British South Africa Company, with rights and powers in the region called Zambesia north of British Bechuanaland and the South African Republic, and between the Portuguese territory on the east and the German territory on the west.

AFRICA: 1889. Will of King Leopold, making Belgium heir to the sovereign rights of the Congo Free State.

AFRICA: 1889. Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia acknowledged by the Negus.

AFRICA: 1889. Portuguese Roman Catholic Mission established on the south shore of Lake Nyassa. Portuguese exploration under Serpa Pinto in the Lake Nyassa region, with designs of occupancy frustrated by the British.

AFRICA: 1889. Journey of M. Crampel from the Ogowé to the Likuala tributary of the Congo, and return directly westward to the coast.

AFRICA: 1889. Dr. Wolf's exploration of the southeast Niger basin, where be met his death.

AFRICA: 1889. Major Macdonald's exploration of the Benue, sometimes called the Tchadda (a branch of the Niger), and of its tributary the Kebbi.

AFRICA: 1889. Journey of Mr. H. H. Johnston north of Lake Nyassa and to Lake Leopold.

AFRICA: 1889. Journey of Mr. Sharpe through the country lying between the Shiré and Loangwa Rivers.

AFRICA: 1889. Mr. Pigott's journey to the Upper Tana, in the service of the Imperial British East Africa Company.

AFRICA: 1889-1890. British Protectorate declared over Nyassaland and the Shiré Highlands.

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AFRICA: 1889-1890. Italian Protectorate established over territory on the eastern (oceanic) Somali coast, from the Gulf of Aden to the Jub River.

AFRICA: 1889-1890. Imperial British East Africa Company's expedition, under Jackson and Gedge, for the exploring of a new road to the Victoria Nyanza and Uganda.

AFRICA: 1889-1890. Captain Lugard's exploration of the river Sabakhi for the Imperial British East Africa Company.

AFRICA: 1889-1890. Journey of Lieutenant Morgen from the Cameroons, on the western coast to the Benue.

AFRICA: 1889-1890. French explorations in Madagascar by Dr. Catat and MM. Maistre and Foucart.

AFRICA: 1890. Anglo-German Convention, defining boundaries of the territories and "spheres of influence" respectively claimed by the two powers; Germany withdrawing from Vitu, and from all the eastern mainland coast north of the river Tana, and conceding a British Protectorate over Zanzibar, in exchange for the island of Heligoland in the North Sea.

AFRICA: 1890. French "sphere of influence" extending over the Sahara and the Sudan, from Algeria to Lake Tchad and to Say on the Niger, recognized by Great Britain.

AFRICA: 1890. Exploration of the river Sangha, an important northern tributary of the Congo, by M. Cholet.

AFRICA: 1890. Exploring journey of M. Hodister, agent of the Upper Congo Company, up the Lomami river and across country to the Lualaba, at Nyangwe.

AFRICA: 1890. Journey of Mr. Garrett in the interior of Sierra Leone to the upper waters of the Niger.

AFRICA: 1890. Journey of Dr. Fleck from the western coast across the Kalihari to Lake Ngami.

AFRICA: 1890-1891. Italian possessions in the Red Sea united in the colony of Eritrea.

AFRICA: 1890-1891. Mission of Captain Lugard to Uganda and signature of a treaty by its king acknowledging the supremacy of the British East Africa Company.

AFRICA: 1890-1891. Exploration by M. Paul Crampel of the central region between the French territories on the Congo and Lake Tchad, ending in the murder of M. Crampel and several of his companions.

AFRICA: 1890-1891. Journey of Mr. Sharpe from Mandala, in the Shiré Highlands, to Garenganze, the empire founded by an African adventurer, Mshidi, in the Katanga copper country, between Lake Moero and the Luapula river on the east, and the Lualaba on the west.

AFRICA: 1890-1891. Journey of Lieutenant Mizon from the Niger to the Congo.

AFRICA: 1890-1891. Journey of Captain Becker from Yambuya, on the Aruwimi, north-northwest to the Wellé.

AFRICA: 1890-1892. Italian explorations in the Somali countries by Signor Robecchi, Lieutenant Baudi di Vesme, Prince Ruspoli, and Captains Bottego and Grixoni.

AFRICA: 1890-1893. Expedition of Dr. Stuhlmann, with Emin Pasha, from Bagamoyo, via the Victoria Nyanza and the Albert Edward, to the plateau west of the Albert Nyanza. From this point Dr. Stuhlmann returned, while Emin pursued his way, intending it is said, to reach Kibonge, on the right bank of the Congo, south of Stanley Falls. He was murdered at Kinena, 150 miles northeast of Kibonge, by the order of an Arab chief.

AFRICA: 1891. Extension of the British Protectorate of Lagos over the neighboring districts of Addo, Igbessa, and Ilaro, which form the western boundary of Yoruba.

AFRICA: 1891. Treaty between Great Britain and Portugal defining their possessions; conceding to the former an interior extension of her South African dominion up to the southern boundary of the Congo Free State, and securing to the latter defined territories on the Lower Zambesi, the Lower Shiré, and the Nyassa, as well as the large block of her possessions on the western coast.

AFRICA: 1891. Convention between Portugal and the Congo Free State for the division of the disputed district of Lunda.

AFRICA: 1891. Convention of the Congo Free State with the Katanga Company, an international syndicate, giving the Company preferential rights over reputed mines in Katanga and Urua, with a third of the public domain, provided it established an effective occupation within three years.

AFRICA: 1891. French annexation of the Gold Coast between Liberia and the Grand Bassam.

AFRICA: 1891. Opening of the Royal Trans-African Railway, in West Africa, from Loanda to Ambaca, 140 miles.

AFRICA: 1891. Survey of a railway route from the eastern coast to Victoria Lake by the Imperial British East Africa Company.

AFRICA: 1891. Exploration of the Jub River, in the Somali country, by Commander Dundas.

AFRICA: 1891. Exploration by Captain Dundas, from the eastern coast, up the river Tana to Mount Kenia.

AFRICA: 1891. Mr. Bent's exploration of the ruined cities of Mashonaland.

AFRICA: 1891. Journey of M. Maistre from the Congo to the Shari.

AFRICA: 1891. Journeys of Captain Gallwey in the Benin country, West Africa.

AFRICA: 1891. Mission established by the Berlin Missionary Society in the Konde country, at the northern end of Lake Nyassa.

AFRICA: 1891-1892. Incorporation of the African Lakes Company with the British South Africa Company. Organization of the administration of Northern Zambesia and Nyassaland.

AFRICA: 1891-1892. Expedition of the Katanga Company, under Captain Stairs, from Bagamoyo to Lake Tanganyika, thence through the country at the head of the most southern affluents of the Congo, the Lualaba and the Luapula.

AFRICA: 1891-1892. Belgian expeditions under Captain Bia and others to explore the southeastern portion of the Congo Basin, on behalf of the Katanga Company, resulting in the determination of the fact that the Lukuga River is an outlet of Lake Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1891-1892. Journey of Dr. James Johnston across the continent, from Benguela to the mouth of the Zambesi, through Bihe, Ganguela, Barotse, the Kalihari Desert, Mashonaland, Manica, Gorongoza, Nyassa, and the Shiré Highlands.

AFRICA: 1891-1892. Expedition of Mr. Joseph Thomson, for the British South Africa Company, from Kilimane or Quillimane on the eastern coast to Lake Bangweolo.

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AFRICA: 1891-1892. Journey of Captain Monteil from the Niger to Lake Tchad and across the Sahara to Tripoli.

AFRICA: 1891-1892. Exploration by Lieutenant Chaltin of the river Lulu, and the country between the Aruwimi and the Welle Makua rivers, in the Congo State.

AFRICA: 1891-1893. Journey of Dr. Oscar Baumann from Tanga, a port on the eastern coast, in the northern part of the German Protectorate; passing to the south of Kilimanjaro, discovering two lakes between that mountain and the Victoria Nyanza; exploring the southeastern shores of the Victoria, traversing the Shashi countries lying east of the lake, and the Urundi country between the Victoria and Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1891-1894. Expedition under the command of Captain Van Kerckhoven and M. de la Kéthulle de Ryhove, fitted out by the Congo Free State, for the subjugation of the Arabs, the suppression of the slave trade and the exploration of the country, throughout the region of the Wellé or Ubangi Uellé and to the Nile.

AFRICA: 1892. Decision of the Imperial British East Africa Company to withdraw from Uganda.

AFRICA: 1892. Practical conquest of Dahomey by the French, General Dodds taking possession of the capital November 16.

AFRICA: 1892. Journey of M. Méry in the Sahara to the south of Wargla, resulting in a report favorable to the construction of a railway to tap the Central Sudan.

AFRICA: 1892. French expedition under Captain Binger to explore the southern Sudan and to act conjointly with British officials in determining the boundary between French and English possessions.

AFRICA: 1892. Journey of Mr. Sharpe from the Shiré River to Lake Moero or Mweru and the Upper Luapula.

AFRICA: 1892-1893. Construction of a line of telegraph by the British South African Company, from Cape Colony, through Mashonaland, to Fort Salisbury, with projected extension across the Zambesi and by the side of Lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika to Uganda,—and ultimately down the valley of the Nile.

AFRICA: 1892-1893. French scientific mission, under M. Dècle, from Cape Town to the sources of the Nile.

AFRICA: 1892-1893. Italian explorations, under Captain Bòttego and Prince Ruspoli, in the upper basin of the River Jub.

AFRICA: 1893. Brussels Antislavery Conference, ratified in its action by the Powers.

AFRICA: 1893. Official mission of Sir Gerald Porter to Uganda, sent by the British Government to report as to the expediency of the withdrawal of British authority from that country.

AFRICA: 1893. Scientific expedition of Mr. Scott-Elliot to Uganda.

AFRICA: 1893. Scientific expedition of Dr. Gregory, of the British Museum, from Mombassa, on the eastern coast, through Masailand to Mount Kenia.

AFRICA: 1893. Journey of Mr. Bent to Aksum, in Abyssinia, the ancient capital and sacred city of the Ethiopians.

AFRICA: 1893. Journey of M. Foureau in the Sahara, crossing the plateau of Tademait from north to south.

AFRICA: 1893-1894. German scientific survey of Mount Kilimanjaro, under Drs. Lent and Volkens.

AFRICA: 1893-1894. Expedition of Mr. Astor Chanler and Lieutenant von Höhnel from Witu, on the eastern coast, to the Jombini Range and among the Rendile.

AFRICA: 1893-1894. Explorations of Baron von Uechtritz and Dr. Passarge on the Benue.

AFRICA: 1893-1894. Journey of Baron von Schele from the eastern coast to Lake Nyassa, and thence by a direct route to Kihsa.

AFRICA: 1893-1894. Journey of Count von Götzen across the continent, from Dar-es-Salaam, on the eastern coast, to the Lower Congo.

AFRICA: 1894. Treaty between Great Britain and the Congo Free State, securing to the former a strip of land on the west side of the Nile between the Albert Nyanza and 10° north latitude, and to the latter the large Bahr-el-Ghazel region, westward. This convention gave offense to France, and that country immediately exacted from the Congo Free State a treaty stipulating that the latter shall not occupy or exercise political influence in a region which covers most of the territory assigned to it by the treaty with Great Britain.

AFRICA: 1894. Franco-German Treaty, determining the boundary line of the Cameroons, or Kamerun.

AFRICA: 1894. Treaty concluded by Captain Lugard, November 10, at Nikki, in Borgu, confirming the rights claimed by the Royal Niger Company over Borgu, and placing that country under British protection.

AFRICA: 1894. Agreement between the British South Africa Company and the Government of Great Britain, signed November 24, 1894, transferring to the direct administration of the Company the Protectorate of Nyassaland, thereby extending its domain to the south end of Lake Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1894. Renewed war of France with the Hovas of Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1894. Expedition of Dr. Donaldson Smith from the Somali coast, aiming to reach Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie, but stopped and turned back by the Abyssinians, in December.

AFRICA: 1894. Visit of Mr. Cecil Rhodes to England to arrange financially for the extension of the Cape railway system northwards from Mafeking into Matabeleland.

AFRICA: 1894. Completed conquest of Dahomey by the French; capture of the deposed king, January 25, and his deportation to exile in Martinique. Decree of the French Government, June 22, directing the administrative organization of the "colony of Dahomey and Dependencies"; with a ministerial order of the same date which divides the new conquest into "Territoirés annexés; Territoirés protégés; Territoirés d'action politique."

AFRICA: 1894. Occupation of Timbuctoo by a French force.

AFRICA: 1894. Journey of Count von Götzen across the continent, from the eastern coast, through Ruanda and the Great Forest to and along the Lowa, an eastern tributary of the Congo, reaching the Lower Congo in December.

AFRICA: 1894. Exploration of the Upper Congo and the Lukuga by Mr. R. Dorsey Mohun, American Agent on the Congo, and Dr. Hinde.

AFRICA: 1894. Scientific to the Zambesi and Lake Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1894-1895. War of the Italians in their colony of Eritrea with both the Abyssinians and the Mahdists. Italian occupation of Kassala as a base of operations against the Mahdists.

{3678}

AFRICA: 1895. Franco-British agreement, signed January 21, 1895, respecting the "Hinterland" of Sierra Leone, which secures to France the Upper Niger basin.

AFRICA: 1895. Convention between Belgium and France signed February 5, recognizing a right of pre-emption on the part of the latter, with regard to the Congo State, in case Belgium should at any time renounce the sovereignty which King Leopold desires to transfer to it.

AFRICA: 1895. Russian scientific expedition to Abyssinia, under Lieutenant Leontieff.

----------AFRICA: End--------

AKKADIANS, ACCADIANS.

See SEMITES: PRIMITIVE BABYLONIA (page 2888).

ALEXANDRIA: Early Christian Church.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100, and 100-312 (pages 43 and 445).

ALEXANDRIA: Library.

See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2003).

AMANA COMMUNITY, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1843-1874 (page 2945).

----------AMERICA: Start--------

AMERICA: The discoverers of the Northern Continent. Mr. Harrisse's conclusions.

"The main points attained in this elaborate survey of all the facts and documents known can be recapitulated as follows,—perhaps with less assurance than a desire to be succinct may undesignedly impart to our expressions:

1. The discovery of the continent of North America, and the first landing on its east coast were accomplished not by Sebastian Cabot, but by his father John, in 1497, under the auspices of King Henry VII.

2. The first landfall was not Cape Breton Island, as is stated in the planisphere made by Sebastian Cabot in 1544, but eight or ten degrees further north, on the coast of Labrador; which was then ranged by John Cabot, probably as far as Cape Chudley.

3. This fact was tacitly acknowledged by all pilots and cosmographers throughout the first half of the 16th century; and the knowledge of it originated with Sebastian Cabot himself, whatever may have been afterwards his contrary statements in that respect.

4. The voyage of 1498, also accomplished under the British flag, was likewise carried out by John Cabot personally. The landfall on that occasion must be placed south of the first; and the exploration embraced the northeast coast of the present United States, as far as Florida.

5. In the vicinity of the Floridian east coast, John Cabot, or one of his lieutenants, was detected by some Spanish vessel, in 1498 or 1499.

6. The English continued in 1501, 1502, 1504, and afterwards, to send ships to Newfound·land, chiefly for the purpose of fisheries. …

7. The Portuguese mariners who lived in the Azores were the first who probed the Atlantic in search of oceanic islands and continents. Their objective, after the discovery achieved by Christopher Columbus, was the north-east coast of the New World.

8. The earliest authentic records of Lusitanian transatlantic expeditions begin only with Gaspar Corte-Real, who made three, and not two voyages only; all to the same regions, as follows: The first voyage of that navigator was undertaken previous to May, 1500, in the direction of Greenland and Newfoundland, and proved an absolute failure. The second voyage lasted from the early part of the summer of 1500 until the autumn of that year, and embraced the east coast of Newfoundland, from its northernmost point down to Cape Race. The third expedition set out from Lisbon early In the spring of 1501. It was composed of three vessels. One of these returned to port On the 8th or 9th of October, the second on the 11th following. As to the third, which was under the Immediate command of Gaspar Corte-Real, it was ice-bound or shipwrecked, we do not know when nor where, but probably in Hudson Bay, during the winter of 1501-1502. The country visited during the first part of the expedition seems to have been the northern extremity of Newfoundland and the coast of Labrador.

9. The expedition of Miguel Corte-Real in search of his brother, sailed May 10, 1502, and was also lost. …

10. Portugal continued to send ships to the fishing banks; and the region south of Newfoundland was explored, particularly by João Alvares Fagundes before 1521. …

11. The assertion that already in the time of Christopher Columbus navigators and geographers believed in the existence of a continent interposed between the West Indies and Asia, and which was not Cathay, stands uncontroverted either by contemporary authorities, or by the early Spanish charts. Nay, it is corroborated by that class of proofs.

12. The absolute insularity of Cuba was an acknowledged fact years before the periplus made by Sebastian de Ocampo, in 1508.

13. The mainland of the New World was believed to be a continent distinct from Cathay and from India the moment navigators commenced to search after a strait leading from the Atlantic Ocean to the Asiatic seas.

14. The idea that America was a mere prolongation of Asia ceased therefore to be entertained almost immediately after the discovery of its east coast; by John Cabot in 1497; by Americus Vespuccius, before 1501; by Gaspar Corte-Real, before 1502.

15. Christopher Columbus himself soon ceased to think that he had discovered Cathay, or the Asiatic coast.

16. So early as October, 1501, the notion prevailed in Europe that from Circulus articus to Pollus Antarticus, the newly discovered land formed a single coast line belonging to a separate continent."

H. Harrisse, Discovery of North America, part 1, book 8, chapter 5.

AMERICA: The alleged first voyage of Vespucius.

In the first volume of this work (page 52) the argument in support of the disputed claim for Amerigo Vespucci, or Vespucius, that he made a voyage in 1497-8 during which he coasted the American continent from Honduras to Cape Hatteras, is given in an excerpt from Dr. Fiske's "Discovery of America." The following, from a paper by Mr. Clements R. Markham, read before the Royal Geographical Society in June, 1892, presents, in part, the counter argument: "Vespucci's account of his alleged first voyage is briefly as follows. He says that he went to Spain to engage in mercantile pursuits, but that after some years he resolved to see the world and its marvels. King Ferdinand having ordered four ships to go forth and make discoveries to the westward, Vespucci was chosen by His Highness to go in the fleet, to assist in the work of discovery. They sailed from Cadiz on May 10th, 1497, and reached Grand Canary, which, he says, is in 27° 30' North, and 280 leagues from Lisbon. {3679} There they remained eight days, and then sailed for thirty-seven (twenty-seven, Latin version) days on a W. S. W. course ('Ponente pigliando una quarta di libeccio'), reaching land when they were nearly 1,000 leagues from Grand Canary. For they found, by their instruments, that they were in 16° North latitude and 75° West longitude. Vespucci then gives a long account of the natives. After some days they came to a village built over the water, like Venice, about forty-four houses resting on very thick poles. Sailing along the land for 80 leagues, they came to another people, speaking a different language, where Vespucci saw an iguana being roasted, which he describes. He made an excursion inland for 18 leagues, and found the country very populous. This place was on the Tropic of Cancer, where the latitude is 23° North. The province is called 'Parias' (Latin version), 'Lariab' (Italian version). Thence they sailed, always in sight of the land, on a Northwest course ('verso el maestrale') for 870 leagues, having intercourse with many tribes, and finding some gold. When they had been absent thirteen months the ships begun to leak, and required caulking, so they entered the best harbour in the world, where there were many friendly people. Here they refitted, and remained for thirty-seven days. They then sailed eastward for seven days, and carne to some islands 100 leagues off the mainland, inhabited by fierce people called 'Iti.' They had encounters with the natives, when one of their men was killed and twenty-two were wounded. They then sailed for Spain with 222 slaves, arriving at Cadiz on October 15th, 1498, where they sold their slaves, and were well received. This is the story of Vespucci. It has been considered to be a fabrication from that time to this, for the following reasons. Vespucci was at Seville or San Lucar, as a provision merchant, from the middle of April, 1497, to the end of May, 1498, as is shown by the official records, examined by Muñoz, of expenses incurred in fitting out the ships for western expeditions. Moreover, no expedition for discovery was despatched by order of King Ferdinand in 1497; and there is no allusion to any such expedition in any contemporary record. The internal evidence against the truth of the story is even stronger. Vespucci says that he sailed West South West for nearly 1,000 leagues from Grand Canary. This would have taken him to the Gulf of Paria, which is rather more than 900 leagues West South West from Grand Canary. It would never have taken him near the land at 16° North. Even with a course direct for that point, instead of a West North West course, and disregarding intervening land, the distance he gives would leave him 930 miles short of the alleged position. No actual navigator would have made such a blunder. He evidently quoted the dead reckoning from Ojeda's voyage, and invented the latitude at random. It is useless for the defenders of Vespucci to refer to the faulty reckonings of those days, and to pilots thinking they were near the Canaries when they were off the Azores. This is a different matter. It is the case of a man alleging that he has fixed his position by observations, and giving a dead reckoning nearly a thousand miles out, in the belief that it would bring him to the same point. It is fudging, but the fudging of a man ignorant of a pilot's business. His statement that he went Northwest for 870 leagues (2,610 miles) from a position in latitude 23° North, is still more preposterous. Such a course and distance would have taken him right across the continent to somewhere in British Columbia. The chief incidents in the voyage are those of the Ojeda voyage in 1499. There is the village built on piles called Little Venice. There is the best harbour in the world, which was the Gulf of Cariaco, where Ojeda refitted. There was the encounter with natives, in which one Spaniard was killed and 22 were wounded. These numbers are convincing evidence. … Vespucci does not mention the commanders of the expedition, nor any Spanish name whatever, and only gives two names of places, namely, 'Parias' or 'Lariab,' and 'Iti,' both imaginary. Humboldt was aware of the proofs that Vespucci could not have been absent from Spain in 1497-98, and that the incidents of his alleged first voyage belonged to that of Ojeda; but he was reluctant to believe in actual fraud. He therefore suggested that there were misprints with regard to the dates; that the first voyage of Vespucci was that of Ojeda; and that the Florentine merchant returned home from Española in time to join the voyage of Pinzon in 1500, which was the second voyage. But no one was allowed to land from Ojeda's ships at Española, and the dates are too detailed, and occur too clearly in both versions, to admit of the wholesale alterations demanded by this theory. The Baron Varnhagen, in his defences of Vespucci, published in 1865 at Lima, and in 1869 at Vienna, takes a bolder course. He adopts the whole of the statements of Vespucci as perfectly true, including the dates; but his defence does not amount to much. He was evidently unaware of the extent of the error in Vespucci's reckoning, and did not realise the inevitable inference. He got over the Little Venice difficulty by suggesting that there were many other villages built on piles, and that there might have been one on the coast of Tabasco. That is true. There was also the old Quebec hotel in Portsmouth Harbour; but this is not the point, and he failed to see where the difficulty lies. The Little Venice was a discovery in Ojeda's voyage when Vespucci was present. Its recurrence here, and its omission in the version of Ojeda's voyage by Vespucci, are the suspicious points which Varnhagen fails to explain away. Of the words 'Parias' and 'Lariab' in the two versions, Varnhagen prefers the latter. It is quite impossible to tell which form, or whether either, was in the original manuscript. Although there is no such place as 'Lariab,' yet a Mexican author, named Orozco, said that some of the names of places near Tampico, where the Huasteca language is spoken, ended in 'ab.' This is a point, so far as it goes—which is not very far. Even the voyage of 870 leagues Northwest from latitude 23°, does not daunt the Baron. He ignores Vespucci's course, and takes him a marvellous voyage round the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the peninsula of Florida, to Cape Hatteras, where he certainly does not find the best harbour in the world. Thence Vespucci is taken to Bermuda, identified as 'Iti,' and so home. It is well known that Bermuda was uninhabited before its settlement by Europeans, and that there were no signs of previous inhabitants; while the 'Iti' of Vespucci was densely peopled with fierce savages. But this is ignored by Varnhagen. {3680} It would certainly have been a most extraordinary voyage, and it is still more extraordinary, that though the secret must have been known to many people at the time, it should have been inviolably kept without any object in such secrecy, and that the discoveries should have appeared on no map and in no narrative. Yet Vespucci's story, though a bold flight, bears no comparison with the grandeur of Varnhagen's conception of it."

C. R. Markham, Fourth Centenary of his Discovery, note 2 (Royal Geographical Society, Proceedings, 1892, September).

AMERICA: Monetary effects of the discovery of America.

See MONEY AND BANKING: 16-17TH CENTURIES (page 2208).

----------AMERICA: End--------

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Iroquois Confederacy. Hiawatha the founder.

See IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY (page 1802).

AMERICAN COLONIAL TRADE.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MODERN.

AMERICAN LIBRARIES.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2017, and after).

AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2021).

AMHERST COLLEGE, The founding of.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 733).

AMPERE'S ELECTRO-MAGNETIC DISCOVERIES.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: A. D. 1820-1825 (page 772).

[Transcriber's note: For a detailed look at electrical theory of 1892.]

T. O'Conor Sloane, The Standard Electrical Dictionary, www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26535.

AMSTERDAM, The founding of the Bank of.

See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2208).

ANÆSTHETICS, The discovery of.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 19TH CENTURY (page 2143).

ANARCHISM AND NIHILISM.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1839-1894; and 1860-1870 (pages 2941 and 2948).

ANDORRA.

"The pastoral and picturesque valley of Andorra, a jumble of hills, enclosed on all sides by the Pyrenean spurs, extends about 7 L. long by 6 broad, and is bounded by the French and Spanish ridges, by Puigcerdá to the South and East, by the Comté de Foix (départ. de l'Ariège) to the North, and by the Corregimiento of Talaru to the West. Watered by the Balira [or Valira], Ordino, and Os, it is one of the wildest districts of the Spanish Pyrenees, abounding in timber, which is floated down the Balira and Segre to Tortosa. The name Andorra is derived from the Arabic Aldarra, 'a place thick with trees,' among which is found the Cabra Montaraz, with bears, boars, and wolves."

R. Ford, Handbook for Travellers in Spain, part 1, section 6.

"The republic of Andorra is said to owe its existence to a defeat of the Saracens by Charlemagne or Louis le Débonnaire, but in reality up to the French Revolution the valley enjoyed no sovereign rights whatever. It was a barony of the Counts of Urgel and of Aragon. In 1278 it was decided that Andorra should be held jointly by the Bishops of Urgel and the Counts of Foix. In 1793 the French republic declined to receive the customary tribute, and in 1810 the Spanish Cortes abolished the feudal regime. Andorra thus became an independent state. The inhabitants, however, continue to govern themselves in accordance with old feudal customs, which are not at all reconcilable with the principles of modern republics. The land belongs to a few families. There is a law of entail, and younger brothers become the servants of the head of the family, whose hospitality they enjoy only on condition of their working for him. The tithes were only abolished in 1842. The 'liberty' of these mountaineers consists merely in exemption from the Spanish conscription and impunity in smuggling; and, to increase their revenues, they have recently established a gambling-table. Their legitimate business consists in cattle-breeding, and there are a few forges and a woollen factory. The republic of Andorra recognises two suzerains, viz. the Bishop of Urgel, who receives an annual tribute of £25, and the French Government, to whom double that sum is paid. Spain and France are represented by two provosts, the commandant of Séo de Urgel exercising the functions of viceroy. The provosts command the militia and appoint the bailiffs, or judges. They, together with a judge of appeal, alternately appointed by France and Spain, and two 'rahonadores,' or defenders of Andorran privileges, form the Cortes. Each parish is governed by a consul, a vice-consul, and twelve councillors elected by the heads of families. A General Council, of which the consuls and delegates of the parishes are members, meets at the village of Andorra. But in spite of these fictions Andorra is an integral part of Spain, and the carabineers never hesitate to cross the frontiers of this sham republic. By language, manners, and customs the Andorrans are Catalans. Exemption from war has enabled them to grow comparatively rich."

E. Reclus, The Earth and its Inhabitants: Europe, Spain, section 6.

ANN ARBOR, University at.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 732).

ANNAM.

See TONKIN (page 3114).

ANSELM: Dispute with William Rufus.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1087-1135 (page 796).

ANTIOCH, The early Christian Church in.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100 (page 435).

ANTIOCH COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION (page 744).

ANTI-SEMITE MOVEMENT, The.

See JEWS: 19TH CENTURY (page 1931).

APOSTLES, Missionary labors of the.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100 (page 433).

ARABS: Ancient and Mediæval Commerce.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE.

ARABS: Medical Science.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 7-11TH CENTURIES (page 2129).

----------ARCTIC EXPLORATION: Start--------

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: A Chronological Record.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1500-1502. Discovery and exploration of the coast of Labrador and the entrance of Hudson Strait by the Cortereals.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1553. Voyage of Willoughby and Chancellor from London, in search of a northeast passage to India. Chancellor reached Archangel on the White Sea, and opened trade with Russia, while Willoughby perished with all his crew.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1556. Exploring voyage of Stephen Burroughs to the northeast, approaching Nova Zembla.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1576-1578. Voyages of Frobisher to the coast of Labrador and the entrance to Davis Strait, discovering the bay which bears his name, and which he supposed to be a strait leading to Cathay; afterwards entering Hudson Strait.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1580. Northeastern voyage of Pet and Jackman, passing Nova Zembla.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1585-1587. Three voyages of John Davis from Dartmouth, in search of a northwestern passage to India, entering the strait between Greenland and Baffinland which bears his name and exploring it to the 72nd degree north latitude.

{3681}

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1594-1595. Dutch expeditions (the first and second under Barentz) to the northeast, passing to the north of Nova Zembla, or Novaya Zem]ya, but making no progress beyond it.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1596-1597. Third voyage of Barentz, when he discovered and coasted Spitzbergen, wintered in Nova Zembla with his crew, lost his ship in the ice, and perished, with one third of his men, in undertaking to reach the coast of Lapland in open boats.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1602. Exploration for a northwest passage by Captain George Weymouth, for the Muscovy Company and the Levant Company, resulting in nothing but a visitation of the entrance to Hudson Strait.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1607. Polar voyage of Henry Hudson, for the Muscovy Company of London, attaining the northern coast of Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1608. Voyage of Henry Hudson to Nova Zembla for the Muscovy Company.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1610. Voyage of Henry Hudson, in English employ, to seek the northwest passage, being the voyage in which he passed through the Strait and entered the great Bay to which his name has been given, and in which he perished at the hands of a mutinous crew.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1612-1614. Exploration of Hudson Bay by Captains Button, Bylot, and Baffin, practically discovering its true character and shaking the previous theory of its connection with the Pacific Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1614. Exploring expedition of the Muscovy Company to the Greenland coast, under Robert Fotherby, with William Baffin for pilot, making its way to latitude 80°.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1616. Voyage into the northwest made by Captain Baffin with Captain Bylot, which resulted in the discovery of Baffin Bay, Smith Sound, Jones Sound, and Lancaster Sound.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1619-1620. Voyage of Jens Munk, sent by the King of Denmark to seck the northwest passage; wintering in Hudson Bay, and losing there all but two of his crew, with whom he succeeded in making the voyage home.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1632. Voyages of Captains Fox and James into Hudson Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1670. Grant and charter to the Hudson Bay Company, by King Charles II. of England, conferring on the Company possession and government of the whole watershed of the Bay, and naming the country Prince Rupert Land.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1616. Voyage of Captain John Wood to Nova Zembla, seeking the northeastern passage.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1728. Exploration of the northern coasts of Kamtschatka by the Russian Captain Vitus Behring, and discovery of the Strait which bears his name.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1741. Exploration of northern channels of Hudson Bay by Captain Middleton.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1743. Offer of £20,000 by the British Parliament for the discovery of a northwest passage to the Pacific.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1746. Further exploration of northern channels of Hudson Bay by Captains Moor and Smith.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1753-1754. Attempted exploration of Hudson Bay by the colonial Captain Swaine, sent out from Philadelphia, chiefly through the exertions of Dr. Franklin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1765. Russian expedition of Captain Tchitschakoff, attempting to reach the Pacific from Archangel.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1768-1769. Exploration of Nova Zembla by a Russian officer, Lieutenant Rosmyssloff.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1769-1770. Exploring journey of Samuel Hearne, for the Hudson Bay Company, from Churchill, its most northern post, to Coppermine River and down the river to the Polar Sea.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1773. Voyage of Captain Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave, toward the North Pole, reaching the northeastern extremity of Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1779. Exploration of the Arctic coast, east and west of Behring Strait, by Captain Cook, in his last voyage.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1789. Exploring journey of Alexander Mackenzie, for the Northwest Company, and discovery of the great river flowing into the Polar Sea, which bears his name.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1806. Whaling voyage of Captain Scoresby to latitude 81° 30' and longitude 19° east.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1818. Unsatisfactory voyage of Commander John Ross to Baffin Bay and into Lancaster Sound.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1818. Voyage of Captain Buchan towards the North Pole, reaching the northern part of Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1820. First voyage of Lieutenant Parry, exploring for a northwest passage, through Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, Lancaster Sound, and Barrow Strait, to Melville Island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1822. Journey of Captain (afterwards Sir John) Franklin, Dr. Richardson, and Captain (afterwards Sir George) Back, from Fort York, on the western coast of Hudson Bay, by the way of Lake Athabasca, Great Slave Lake, and Coppermine River, to Coronation Gulf, opening into the Arctic Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1824. Russian expeditions for the survey of Nova Zembla.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1820-1824. Russian surveys of the Siberian Polar region by Wrangel and Anjou.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1821-1823. Second voyage of Captain Parry, exploring for a northwest passage to the Pacific Ocean, through Hudson Strait and Fox Channel, discovering the Fury-and-Hecla Strait, the northern outlet of the Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1821-1824. Russian surveying expedition to Nova Zembla, under Lieutenant Lutke.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1822. Whaling voyage of Captain Scoresby to the eastern coast of Greenland, which was considerably traced and mapped by him.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1822-1823. Scientific expedition of Captain Sabine, with Commander Clavering, to Spitzbergen and the eastern coast of Greenland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1824-1825. Third voyage of Captain Parry, exploring for a northwest passage, by way of Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, and Lancaster Sound, to Prince Regent Inlet, where one of his ships was wrecked.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1825-1827. Second journey of Franklin, Richardson, and Back, from Canada to the Arctic Ocean; Franklin and Back by the Mackenzie River and westward along the coast to longitude 149° 37'; Richardson by the Mackenzie River and the Arctic coast eastward to Coppermine River.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1826. Voyage of Captain Beechey through Behring Strait and eastward along the Arctic coast as far as Point Barrow.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1827. Fourth voyage of Captain Parry, attempting to reach the North Pole, by ship to Spitzbergen and by boats to 82° 45' north latitude.

{3682}

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1829-1833. Expedition under Captain Ross, fitted out by Mr. Felix Booth, to seek a northwest passage, resulting in the discovery of the position of the north magnetic pole, southwest of Boothia, not far from which Ross' ship was ice-bound for three years. Abandoning the vessel at last, the explorers made their way to Baffin Bay and were rescued by a whale-ship.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1833-1835. Journey of Captain Back from Canada, via Great Slave Lake, to the river which he discovered and which bears his name, flowing to the Polar Sea.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1836-1837. Voyage of Captain Back for surveying the straits and channels in the northern extremity of Hudson Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1837-1839. Expeditions of Dease and Simpson, in the service of the Hudson Bay Company, determining the Arctic coast line as far east as Boothia.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1845. Departure from England of the government expedition under Sir John Franklin, in two bomb-vessels, the Erebus and the Terror, which entered Baffin Bay in July and were never seen afterward.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848. Expedition of Sir John Richardson and Mr. John Rae down the Mackenzie River, searching for traces of Sir John Franklin and his crews.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848-1849. Expedition under Sir James Clarke Ross to Baffin Bay and westward as far as Leopold Island, searching for Sir John Franklin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848-1851. Searching expedition of the Herald and the Plover, under Captain Kellett and Commander Moore, through Behring Strait and westward to Coppermine River, learning nothing of the fate of the Franklin party.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850. Searching expedition sent out by Lady Franklin, under Captain Forsyth, for the examination of Prince Regent Inlet.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851. United States Grinnell Expedition, sent to assist the search for Sir John Franklin and his crew, consisting of two ships, the Advance and the Rescue, furnished by Mr. Henry Grinnell and officered and manned by the U. S. Government, Lieutenant De Haven commanding and Dr. Kane surgeon. Frozen into the ice in Wellington Channel, in September, 1850, the vessels drifted helplessly northward until Grinnell Land was seen and named, then southward and westward until the next June, when they escaped in Baffin Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851. Franklin search expedition, sent out by the British Government, under Captain Penny, who explored Wellington Channel and Cornwallis Island by sledge journeys.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851. Discovery of traces of Franklin and his men at Cape Riley and Beechey Island, by Captain Ommaney and Captain Austin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1852. Franklin search expedition under Captain Collinson, through Behring Strait and eastward into Prince of Wales Strait, sending sledge parties to Melville Island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1854. Franklin search expedition under Captain McClure, through Behring Strait and westward, between Banks Land and Prince Albert Land, attaining a point within 25 miles of Melville Sound, already reached from the East; thus demonstrating the existence of a northwest passage, though not accomplishing the navigation of it. McClure received knighthood, and a reward of £10,000 was distributed to the officers and crew of the expedition.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1851. Expedition of Dr. Rae, sent by the British Government to descend the Coppermine River and search the southern coast of Wollaston Land, which he did, exploring farther along the coast of the continent eastward to a point opposite King William's Land.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1851-1852. Franklin search expedition sent out by Lady Franklin under Captain Kennedy, for a further examination of Prince Regent Inlet and the surrounding region.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1852-1854. Franklin search expedition of five ships sent out by the British Government under Sir Edward Belcher, with Captains McClintock, Kellett, and Sherard Osborn under his command. Belcher and Osborn, going up Wellington Channel to Northumberland Sound, were frozen fast; McClintock and Kellett experienced the same misfortune near Melville Island, where they had received Captain McClure and his crew, escaping from their abandoned ship. Finally all the ships of Belcher's fleet except one were abandoned. One, the Resolute, drifted out into Davis Strait in 1855, was rescued, bought by the United States Government and presented to Queen Victoria.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1853-1854. Hudson Bay Company expedition by Dr. Rae, to Repulse Bay and Pelly Bay, on the Gulf of Boothia, where Dr. Rae found Eskimos in possession of articles which had belonged to Sir John Franklin, and his men, and was told that in the winter of 1850 they saw white men near King William's Land, traveling southward, dragging sledges and a boat, and, afterwards saw dead bodies and graves on the mainland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1853-1855. Grinnell expedition, under Dr. Kane, proceeding straight northward through Baffin Bay, Smith Sound and Kennedy Channel, nearly to the 79th degree of latitude, where the vessel was locked in ice and remained fast until abandoned in the spring of 1855, the party escaping to Greenland and being rescued by an expedition under Lieutenant Hartstein which the American Government had sent to their relief.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1855. Cruise of the U. S. ship Vincennes, Lieutenant John Rodgers commanding, in the Arctic Sea, via Behring Strait to Wrangel Land.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1855. Expedition of Mr. Anderson, of the Hudson Bay Company, down the Great Fish River to Point Ogle at its mouth, seeking traces of the party of Sir John Franklin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1857-1859. Search expedition sent out by Lady Franklin, under Captain McClintock, which became ice-bound in Melville Bay, August, 1857, and drifted helplessly for eight months, over 1,200 miles; escaped from the ice in April, 1858; refitted in Greenland and returned into Prince Regent Inlet, whence Captain McClintock searched the neighboring regions by sledge journeys, discovering, at last, In King William's Land, not only remains but records of the lost explorers, learning that they were caught in the ice somewhere in or about Peel Sound, September, 1846; that Sir John Franklin died on the 11th of the following June; that the ships were deserted on the 22d of April, 1848, on the northwest coast of King William's Land, and that the survivors, 105 in number, set out for Back or Great Fish River. They perished probably one by one on the way.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1860-1861. Expedition of Dr. Hayes to Smith Sound; wintering on the Greenland side at latitude 78° 17'; crossing the Sound with sledges and tracing Grinnell Land to about 82° 45'.

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ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1860-1862. Expedition of Captain Hall on the whaling ship George Henry, and discovery of relics of Frobisher.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1864-1869. Residence of Captain Hall among the Eskimos on the north side of Hudson Strait and search for further relics of the Franklin expedition.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1867. Tracing of the southern coast of Wrangel Land by Captains Long and Raynor, of the whaling ships Nile and Reindeer.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1867. Transfer of the territory, privileges and rights of the Hudson Bay Company to the Dominion of Canada.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1868. Swedish Polar expedition, directed by Professor Nordenskiöld, attaining latitude 81° 42', on the 18th meridian of east longitude.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1869. Yacht voyage of Dr. Hayes to the Greenland coasts.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1869-1870. German Polar expedition, under Captain Koldewey, one vessel of which was crushed, the crew escaping to an ice floe and drifting 1,100 miles, reaching finally a Danish settlement on the Greenland coast, while the other explored the east coast of Greenland to latitude 77°.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1871-1872. Voyage of the steamer Polaris, fitted out by the U. S. Government, under Captain Hall; passing from Baffin Bay, through Smith Sound and Kennedy Channel, into what Kane and Hayes had supposed to be open sea, but which proved to be the widening of a strait, called Robeson Strait by Captain Hall, thus going beyond the most northerly point that had previously been reached in Arctic exploration. Wintering in latitude 81° 38' (where Captain Hall died), the Polaris was turned homeward the following August. During a storm, when the ship was threatened with destruction by the ice, seventeen of her crew and party were left helplessly on a floe, which drifted with them for 1,500 miles, until they were rescued by a passing vessel. Those on the Polaris fared little better. Forced to run their sinking ship ashore, they wintered in huts and made their way south in the spring, until they met whale-ships which took them on board.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1872-1874. Austro-Hungarian expedition, under Captain Weyprecht and Lieutenant Payer, seeking the northeast passage, with the result of discovering and naming Franz Josef Land, Crown Prince Rudolf Land and Petermann Land, the latter (seen, not visited) estimated to be beyond latitude 83°. The explorers were obliged to abandon their ice-locked steamer, and make their way by sledges and boats to Nova Zembla, where they were picked up.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1875. Voyage of Captain Young, attempting to navigate the northwest passage through Lancaster Sound, Barrow Strait and Peel Strait, but being turned back by ice in the latter.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1875-1876. English expedition under Captain Nares, in the Alert, and the Discovery, attaining by ship the high latitude of 82° 27', in Smith Sound, and advancing by sledges to 83° 20' 26", while exploring the northern shore of Grinnell Land and the northwest coast of Greenland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1876-1878. Norwegian North-Atlantic expedition, for a scientific exploration of the sea between Norway, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Jan Mayen, and Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878. Discovery of the island named "Einsamkeit," in latitude 77° 40' North and longitude 860 East, by Captain Johannesen, of the Norwegian schooner Nordland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878-1879. Final achievement of the long-sought, often attempted northeast passage, from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, by the Swedish geographer and explorer, Baron Nordenskiöld, on the steamer Vega, which made the voyage from Gothenburg to Yokohama, Japan, through the Arctic Sea, coasting the Russian and Siberian shores.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878-1883. Six annual expeditions to the Arctic Seas of the ship Willem Barentz, sent out by the Dutch Arctic Committee.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879. Cruise of Sir Henry Gore-Booth and Captain Markham, R. N., in the cutter Isbjorn to Nova Zembla and in Barentz Sea and the Kara Sea.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879-1880. Journey of Lieutenant Schwatka from Hudson Bay to King William Island, and exploration of the western and southern shores of the latter, searching for the journals and logs of the Franklin expedition.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879-1882. Polar voyage of the Jeannette, fitted out by the proprietor of the New York Herald and commanded by Commander De Long, United States Navy. The course taken by the Jeannette was through Behring Strait towards Wrangel Land, and then northerly, until she became ice-bound when she drifted helplessly for nearly two years, only to be crushed at last. The officers and crew escaped in three boats, one of which was lost in a storm; the occupants of the other two boats reached different mouths of the river Lena. One of these two boats, commanded by Engineer Melville, was fortunate enough to find a settlement and obtain speedy relief. The other, which contained commander De Long, landed in a region of desolation, and all but two of its occupants perished of starvation and cold.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1880-1882. First and second cruises of the United States Revenue Steamer Corwin in the Arctic Ocean, via Behring Strait, to Wrangel Land seeking information concerning the Jeannette and searching for two missing whaling ships.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1880-1882. Two voyages of Mr. Leigh Smith to Franz Josef Land, in his yacht Eira, in the first of which a considerable exploration of the southern coast was made, while the second resulted in the loss of the ship and a perilous escape of the party in boats to Nova Zembla, where they were rescued.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881. Expedition of the steamer Rodgers to search for the missing explorers of the Jeannette; entering the Arctic Sea through Behring Strait, but abruptly stopped by the burning of the Rodgers, on the 30th of November, in St. Lawrence Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881. Cruise of the United States Alliance, Commander Wadleigh, via Spitzbergen, to 79° 3' 36" north latitude, searching for the Jeannette.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881-1884. International undertaking of expeditions to establish Arctic stations for simultaneous meteorological and magnetic observations: by the United States at Smith Sound and Point Barrow; by Great Britain at Fort Rae; by Russia at the mouth of the Lena and in Nova Zembla; by Denmark at Godhaab, in Greenland; by Holland at Dickson's Haven, near the mouth of the Yenisei; by Germany in Cumberland Sound, Davis Strait; by Austro-Hungary on Jan Mayen Island; by Sweden at Mussel Bay in Spitzbergen. The United States expedition to Smith Sound, under Lieutenant Greeley, established its station on Discovery Bay. Exploring parties sent out attained the highest latitude ever reached, namely 83° 24'. After remaining two winters and failing to receive expected supplies, which had been intercepted by the ice, Greeley and his men, twenty-five in number, started southward, and all but seven perished on the way. The survivors were rescued, in the last stages of starvation, by a vessel sent to their relief under Captain Schley, United States Navy.

{3684}

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1882-1883. Danish Arctic expedition of the Dijmphna, under Lieutenant Hovgaard; finding the Varna of the Dutch Meteorological Expedition beset in the ice at 69° 42' North latitude and 64° 45' East longitude; both vessels becoming frozen in together and drifting for nearly twelve months, being carried to 71° North; the Dijmphna taking the crew of the Varna, which succumbed to the ice pressure and went down; the Danish ship finally being liberated, August 1, 1893, and regaining Vardo, Norway, in October of that year.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883. Expedition of Lieutenant Ray, United States Navy, from Point Barrow, on the Arctic Ocean, to Meade River.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883. Expedition of Baron Nordenskiöld to Greenland, making important explorations in the interior, but failing to find the temperate central valleys which the Baron's theoretical studies had led him to expect.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883-1885. East Greenland expedition of Captain Holm and Lieutenant Garde, surveying and mapping the coast from 59° 49' to 68° 45' North latitude, and studying its geology, meteorology and natural history.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1884. Second cruise of the U. S. Revenue Marine Steamer Corwin in the Arctic Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1886. Reconnoissance of the Greenland inland ice by Civil Engineer R. E. Peary, United States Navy, "to gain a practical knowledge of the obstacles and ice conditions of the interior," and "to put to the test of actual use certain methods and details of equipment."

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1888. Journey of Dr. Nansen across South Greenland, from the icebound eastern coasts to the Danish settlements on the western.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890. Swedish expedition to Spitzbergen, under G. Nordenskiöld and Baron Klinkowström.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890. Danish scientific explorations in North and South Greenland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890. Russian exploration of the Malo-Zemelskaya, or Timanskaya tundra, in the far north of European Russia, on the Arctic Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1892. Expedition of Lieutenant Peary, United States Navy, with a party of seven persons, including Mrs. Peary, establishing headquarters on McCormick Bay, on the north side of Murchison Sound, north west Greenland; thence making sledge journeys to the northeastern coast of Greenland, at Independence Bay and northward from it to latitude 82°, and following the coast southward to Cape Bismarck. The surveys of Lieutenant Peary have gone far toward proving Greenland to be an island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1892. Danish East Greenland expedition of Lieutenant Ryder, wintering on Denmark Island in Scoresby's Sound, from which boat journeys were made and the interior ramifications of the Sound surveyed and mapped.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1893. Expeditions of Dr. Drygalski to Greenland for the study of the movement of the great glaciers.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1892. Swedish expedition of Bjorling and Kallstenius, the last records of which were found on one of the Cary Islands, in Baffin Bay, in the autumn of 1892.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1892. French expedition under M. Ribot to explore the islands of Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893. Expedition of Dr. Nansen, who sailed June 24, in the Fram from Christiania, for the New Siberian Islands, thence aiming to enter a current which flows, in Dr. Nansen's belief, across the Arctic region to Greenland, touching the North Pole, or nearly, in its course.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893. Russian expedition, under Baron Toll, to the New Siberian Islands and the Siberian Arctic coasts.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893. Danish expedition to Greenland, under Lieutenant Garde, for a geographical survey of the coast and study of the inland ice.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893-1894. Expedition of Lieutenant Peary and party (Mrs. Peary again of the number), landing in Bowdoin Bay, Inglefield Gulf, north of McCormick Harbor, in August, 1893; attempting in the following March a sledge journey with dogs to Independence Bay, but compelled to turn back when no more than a quarter of the distance had been traversed. An auxiliary expedition brought back most of the party to Philadelphia in September, 1894; but Lieutenant Peary with two men remained in Greenland to continue explorations.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893-1894. Scientific journey of Mr. Frank Russell, under the auspices of the State University of Iowa, from Lake Winnipeg to the mouth of Mackenzie River and to Herschel Island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1894. Expedition of Mr. Walter Wellman, an American journalist, purposing to reach Spitzbergen via Norway, and to advance thence towards the Pole, with aluminum boats, weighing only 400 pounds each, and provided with runners for use on the ice. The party left Tromsoë May 1, but were arrested before the end of the month by the crushing of their vessel in the ice at Walden. They were picked up and brought back to Norway.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1894. Departure of what is known as the Jackson-Harmsworth North Polar Expedition, which sailed from Greenhithe, in England, July 11, under the command of Mr. F. G. Jackson, Mr. Harmsworth equipping the expedition at his personal cost. Its plan is to make Franz Josef Land a base of operations from which to advance carefully and persistently towards the Pole.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1895. Preparations of Herr Julius von Payer, the explorer of Franz Josef Land, for an artistic and scientific expedition to the east coast of Greenland, in which he will be accompanied by landscape and animal painters, photographers, and savants.

----------ARCTIC EXPLORATION: End--------

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, The Constitution of.

See CONSTITUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC (page 511).

ARMENIA, Atrocities in.

See TURKS: A. D. 1895 (page 3157).

ARYAN NATIONS OF EUROPE.

See EUROPE (page 990, and after).

ASCHAM, Roger, and "The Scholemaster."

See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE (page 708).

{3685}

ASCLEPIADÆ, The.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE, GREEK (page 2124).

ASIA MINOR, Missionary journeys of St. Paul in.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100 (page 436).

ASOKA, and the rise of Buddhism.

See INDIA: B. C. 312 (page 1704).

ASSIGNATS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

See MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1789-1796 (page 2212).

ASSYRIAN EDUCATION, Ancient.

See EDUCATION, ANCIENT (page 674).

ASSYRIAN LIBRARIES.

See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2000).

ASSYRIAN MONEY AND BANKING.

See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2199).

ATHENS: Outline sketch of ancient history.

See EUROPE (pages 992-996).

ATLANTIC CABLE, The laying of the.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: A. D. 1854-1866 (page 776).

ATTAINDER. BILL OF ATTAINDER.

"An attainder ('attinctura') is a degradation or public dishonouring, which draws after it corruption of blood. It is the consequence of any condemnation to death, and induces the disherison of the heirs of the condemned person, which can only be removed by means of parliament. A bill of attainder, or of pains and penalties, inflicts the consequences of a penal sentence on any state criminal. … By the instrumentality of such bill the penalties of high treason are generally imposed. Penalties may, however, be imposed at pleasure, either in accordance with, or in contravention of, the common law. No other court of law can protect a person condemned in such manner. The first bill of the kind occurred under Edward IV., when the commons had to confirm the statute condemning Clarence to death. This convenient method of getting rid of disagreeable opponents was in high favour during the reign of Henry VIII. The bills of pains and penalties were hurried through the parliament, and the parties accused were not even put upon their trial. Thus were the illustrious Sir Thomas More and Bishop Fisher, for misprision of treason, without regular trial, without examination of witnesses, or hearing the accused in their self-defence, legally consigned to the scaffold. Anne Boleyn was formally tried for high treason by the house of peers; but the head of Catharine Howard was disposed of by a simple bill of attainder. This was the first case in which the offence charged was created by the very bill against which the pretended criminal was held to have offended. Under Philip and Mary the benefit of clergy was, by means of a bill, withheld from a certain Rufford. What had been an instrument of kingly despotism, under Tudor sway, was converted, under the Stuarts, into a parliamentary engine against the crown. The points of indictment against Strafford were so weak that the lords were for acquitting him. Thereupon, Sir Arthur Haselrig introduced a bill of attainder in the commons. The staunch friends of freedom, such as Pym and Hampden, did not support this measure; but yet it passed through the commons with only 59 dissentient voices. After the 35 peers opposed to the trial of Strafford had withdrawn, the terror-stricken lords accepted the bill by 26 against 19 votes. … This parliamentary administration of justice has by no means been relinquished. A bill of attainder may refer simply to a concrete case, and contrive penalties for acts which are not specially punishable by statute, whereas an impeachment applies to some violation of recognized legal principles, and is a solemn indictment preferred by the commons to the house of lords."

E. Fischel, The English Constitution, book 7, chapter 9.

"By the 33 & 34 Vict. c. 23, forfeiture and attainder for treason or felony have been abolished."

T. P. Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional History, chapter 10 (2d edition, page 393), foot-note.

----------AUSTRIA: Start--------

AUSTRIA: A. D. 1273-1349. The House of Hapsburgh in the earlier period of its fortunes.

"It was just now [1273] that the German monarchy received once more a real king [in the person of Rudolph of Hapsburgh]. It is evident that Ottocar's remarkable rise into power was due essentially to the previous excessive weakness of German kingship. He had acquired Austria and Styria by doubtful right according to German notions, Carinthia and Carniola without any acquiescence at all on the part of the empire. … In the election of Rudolph he was not willing to take part and afterwards he refused him recognition. No wonder that from the very beginning the German princes felt the necessity of driving him from his usurped position. … For the German cause it was the greatest gain that through Ottocar's fall (1278) room was won on the Middle Danube for a national rule: the House of Austria was enabled there to found that power which played so great a part in the world's history. The victory on the marchfeld was a victory of the renewed imperial might over a recalcitrant vassal whose power had extended the due measure of that of a prince of the realm. Looked at in this light the fall of Ottocar reminds one of the fall of Henry the Lion a hundred years before; the gain for Rudolph, however, was still greater and more essential than it had been at that former time for Frederick I. His position was for the first time now actually assured; for if the battle had resulted unfavorably it is doubtful if he could have continued to command obedience. Besides this the possibility presented itself now of using the position of ruler, conferred on him personally, to the lasting advantage of his house; at the same time he could only go to work in the matter very slowly and cautiously. … At his departure from these parts in 1281 he conferred the regency in Austria proper and in the other lands to his own son Albrecht. The latter appears already as a matured man with a certain talent for ruling. He overthrew all those who opposed them but, having done this, he bore no malice and cherished no hostility. No one could be in doubt but that for Albrecht, and for his house altogether, the king thought to found there a separate territorial principality. To begin with, the fiefs which the dukes of Austria had held of the neighboring bishoprics, especially the Bavarian ones, were conferred by Rudolph on his sons, other privileges in compensation being granted to the bishoprics. The consent of the electors, according to the new order of things, was necessary in such a case, and the king next sought to gain them over. … On December 27, 1282, he invested his sons Albrecht and Rudolph in common with Austria, Styria, Carniola and the Windischmark. … {3686} At the request of the Estates of those lands, who wished neither a joint rule nor a separation from each other, Rudolph in 1283 invested his son Albrecht alone with those four provinces. To the younger Rudolph the promise of another appanage or at least of a compensation was held out—a fatal matter! For the son of this Rudolph was John the Parricide. It was an event of the greatest import that in these south-eastern marks of the empire the Babenbergers were replaced by the Hapsburghs. The latter now, in consequence of their all-decisive victory, turned their attention at the same time to Bohemia and Hungary. Although neither in the one land nor the other did they now actually attain their goal, yet their efforts in this direction deserve our close attention as being the first tokens of a policy that was most strongly to affect the world's history. … One sees, even in these unsuccessful attempts, the bold dynastic ambition of King Rudolph; the kingdom of Arles, also, he had had in view for one of his sons. The acquisition of Austria alone, indeed, marks an epoch in itself; all the more so as only through this did he gain the prestige which he needed to enable him to do justice to his task as king of Germany. If this task be regarded as having consisted chiefly in restoring and maintaining the public peace after thirty years of utter confusion, then, indeed, he showed himself completely equal to it. … In short, through valor and steadfastness he strongly, in internal matters, upheld the power of the empire. Rebellions, indeed, were not wanting; now the archbishop of Cologne, now the duke of Savoy revolted; now Bern or Colmar, now the counts in Suabia and Burgundy. He overcame and humbled them all. … He was a very tall, thin man, pale of countenance and with very little hair on his small head; in all things moderate and of a genial nature as was shown by his offering to become the guest of artisans and by his darning his own doublet. … When giving Austria to his son Albrecht who was to try and establish here a dynastic power (Hausmacht), Rudolph had really intended to give the German crown to his younger son, Rudolph, and he might have put this through had not this son died before himself. In May 1291 the king then held a diet at Frankfort for the purpose of inducing the electors now to give their vote to his son Albrecht. This he was unable to bring about and with his hopes unrealized he died on the 15th of July 1291. … After long preliminary negotiations between the separate electors … the election took place on May 5th, 1292. Albrecht had not yet abandoned hope and had appeared in the vicinity. … The electors laid down the principle that it was not right for the son to directly follow the father on the throne of the empire. … They chose again a simple count, Adolphus of Nassau. … The less Adolphus fulfilled the expectations of his electors … the more did he lose his authority. … In short it appears that Adolphus's whole attitude, his league with England, his conception of the rights of the empire, the way he insulted ecclesiastical and secular princes, his policy with regard to the majority of the cities, caused a general ferment. … It was at a great assembly of princes in Prague, where Mainz, Bohemia, Brandenburg and Saxony met together that Albrecht's influence began to gain the upper hand. Albrecht promised, in case he should become king, to give to King Wenzel the conquests made by Adolphus in Meissen. Albrecht and all his friends then girded themselves up to conquer the empire. In April 1298 we find him in Alsace opposing Adolphus who, however, still had the upper hand. The archbishop of Mainz then summoned the electors to Mainz for June 15 to consult about the disturbances in the empire. … They determined now to depose the king whom they had elected. This was done in the Thiergarten near Mainz on June 23, 1298. … The battle for the possession of the empire took place on July 2nd at Göllheim, where a stone cross still marks the spot. … The kings wore the same coat-of-arms—yellow with a black eagle—and bore the same banner. According to one account, for which Albert of Strassburg is voucher, they came into hand to hand conflict with each other. Adolphus cried out: 'Here you will relinquish the Empire!' Albrecht answered 'The decision lies in the hand of God.' The one-eyed Albrecht struck the surer blow, hitting his antagonist directly over the eye. The blood ran down Adolphus s face; he fell and died. Albrecht would never acknowledge that he had been the slayer of the Lord's anointed. Be that as it may he won the crown for himself on the battle-field. … Albrecht is altogether a striking figure in German history. Everywhere, in the lowest plains of Switzerland or in the highest mountains of Switzerland he is busy in founding his dynastic power. Under him the House of Austria made a vigorous beginning in the matter of establishing a great and extensive authority in all parts of the empire. … It was fatal for him that the harsh want of consideration which forms the chief feature of his sway as a statesman should have raised up a murderer against him in his own immediate vicinity—in the person of his own nephew."

L. Ranke, Weltgeschichte (translated from the German), volume 8, pages 566-601.

See, also, AUSTRIA (pages 199-201).

AUSTRIA: A. D. 1648-1715. Relations with Germany and France. See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1648-1715.

AUSTRIA: A. D. 1780-1790. Joseph II., the enthroned Philosopher.

"The prince who best sums up the spirit of the century, is not Frederic [the Great, of Prussia), it is Joseph II. [the emperor]. Frederic was born a master, Joseph II. a disciple, and it is by disciples that we judge schools. The king of Prussia dammed up the waters, directed their flow, made use of the current: the emperor cast himself upon them and permitted himself to be carried. With Frederic the statesman always dominates, it is he who proposes and finally decides; the philosopher is subordinate: he furnishes to the results brought about by policy their abstract cause for existence and their theoretical justification. With Joseph II. rational conception precedes political calculation and governs it. He had breadth of mind, but his mind was superficial; ideas slipped from it. He had a taste for generosity, a passion for grandeur; but there was nothing profound in him but ambition, and it was all counter-stroke and reflection. He wished to surpass Frederic; his entire conduct was but an awkward, imprudent and ill-advised imitation of this prince whom he had made his hero, whom history made his rival and whom he copied while detesting him. {3687} The political genius of Frederic was born of good sense and moderation: there was nothing in Joseph II. but the immoderate. He was a man of systems: he had only great velleities. His education was mediocre, and, as to methods, entirely jesuitical. Into this contracted mould he cast confusedly notions hastily borrowed from the philosophers of France, from the economists especially. He thus formed a very vague ideal of political aspirations and an exaggerated sense of the power at his disposition to realize them. 'Since I ascended the throne and have worn the first crown of the world,' wrote he in 1781, 'I have made Philosophy the lawmaker of my empire. Her logical applications are going to transform Austria.' He undertakes reforms in every direction at once. History is null for him, traditions do not count, nor do facts acquired. There is no race, nor period, nor surrounding circumstances: there is the State which is everything and can do everything. He writes in 1782, to the bishop of Strasbourg: 'In a kingdom governed conformably to my principles, prejudice, fanaticism, bondage of mind must disappear, and each of my subjects must be reinstated in the possession of his natural rights.' He must have unity, and, as a first condition, the rejection of all previous ideas. Chance makes him operate on a soil the most heterogeneous, the most incoherent, the most cut up, parceled out and traversed by barriers, that there is in Europe. Nothing in common among his subjects, neither language, nor traditions, nor interests. It is from this, according to him, that the defect of monarchy arises. 'The German language is the universal language of my empire. I am the emperor of Germany, the states which I possess are provinces which form but one body with the State of which I am the head. If the kingdom of Hungary were the most important of my possessions, I should not hesitate to impose its tongue on the other countries.' So he imposes the German language on the Hungarians, the Croats, the Tchèques, the Poles, on all the Slavs. He suppresses the ancient territorial divisions; they recall the successive agglomerations, the irregular alluvions which had formed the monarchy; he establishes thirteen governments and divides them into circles. The diets disappear; the government passes into the hands of intendants according to the French formula. In the cities the burgomaster appointed by the government becomes a functionary. The nobles lose the part, already much curtailed, that they still had, here and there, in the government. He taxes them, he taxes the ecclesiastics; he meditates establishing a tax proportional to incomes and reaching all classes. He protects the peasants, alleviates serfdom, diminishes the corvées, builds hospitals, schools above all, in which the state will form pupils to obey her. His ideal would be the equality of his subjects under the uniform sway of his government. He unifies the laws; he institutes courts of appeal with a supreme court for the entire empire. He makes regulations for manufactures, binds commerce to the most rigorous protective system. Finally he puts a high hand on the church and decrees tolerance. … This immense revolution was accomplished by means of decrees, in less than five years. If we compare the state of cohesion which the Bourbon government had brought about in France in 1789, with the incoherence of the Austrian monarchy on the death of Maria Theresa in 1780, it will be seen that the revolution which caused the Constituent Assembly was a small matter compared with that which Joseph II. intended to effect."

A. Sorel, L'Europe et la Rêvolution française (translated from the French), part 1, pages 119-122.

----------AUSTRIA: End--------

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, Libraries of.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2013).

AUSTRIAN SCHOOLS.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 709).

AVICENNA AND ARABIAN MEDICAL SCIENCE.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 7-11TH CENTURIES (page 2130).

B.

BÂB, The.

The word Bâb, "meaning, in Arabic, 'a gate,' is the title of a hero of our own days, the founder, if not of a new religion, at least of a new phase of religious belief. His history, with that of his first followers, as told by M. le Comte de Gobineau in his 'Religions et Philosophies dans l'Asie Centrale,' presents a picture of steadfast adherence to truth (as they held it), of self-denial, of joyful constancy in the face of bitterest suffering, torture and death, as vivid and touching as any that are found in the records of the heroic days of old. … Among the crowd of pilgrims who flocked to Mecca in the summer of 1843 was a youth who had then hardly completed his nineteenth year. He had come from the far distant city of Shiraz, where his family held an honourable position, claiming, indeed, to trace their descent from the great Prophet himself. Thoughtful and devout from his childhood, Mirza Ali Mohammed had zealously and regularly practised all religious duties considered binding on an orthodox Mussulman. He had received a liberal education, and while still a mere boy had eagerly examined and weighed every new set of ideas with which he came in contact. Christians, Jews, Fire-worshippers—he conversed with them all, and studied their books. … Up to the time of his visiting the shrine of the Prophet there had been no indication of any departure from the faith of his fathers. But this pilgrimage, instead of confirming his faith in Islam, had a quite contrary effect. While still in the holy city, and still more on the return journey, he had begun to confide to a select few views which attracted and delighted them, not more, perhaps, by their breadth and freedom than by the vague mystery in which they were still wrapped. His decisive breach with the old faith was not far distant. … Arrived at Shiraz, his first overt act was to present to his friends his earliest written works. These were two: a journal of his pilgrimage and a commentary on a part of the Korân. In the latter the readers were amazed and charmed to find meanings and teachings of which they had never dreamed before. From this time he began to teach more publicly; and day by day larger crowds flocked around him. {3688} In public he still spoke with reverence of the Prophet and his laws; while in more private conferences he imparted to his disciples those new ideas which were, perhaps, not yet very clearly defined in his own mind. Very soon he had gathered round him a little band of devoted followers, ardently attached to himself, and ready to sacrifice wealth, life, all, in the cause of truth. And throughout the great empire men began everywhere to hear of the fame of Mirza Ali Mohammed. There was much in the young teacher himself, apart from the subject of his teaching, to account for this rapid success. Of blameless life; simple in his habits; strict and regular in all pious observances, he had already a weight of character to which his extreme youth added a tenfold interest. But in addition to these things, he was gifted with striking beauty of person, and with that subtle, winning sweetness of manner so often possessed by leaders of men, and to which, more than to the most weighty arguments, they have often owed their power. … Ere long, Mirza assumed the title by which he has since been known throughout Persia—the Bâb—that is, the Door, the only one through which men can reach the knowledge of God. It may be well to give here an outline of what the Bâb did teach. He believed in one God, eternal, unchangeable, Creator of all things, and into whom all shall finally be reabsorbed. He taught that God reveals His will to men by a series of messengers, who, while truly men, are not mere men, but also divine; that each of these messengers—Moses, Jesus, Mohammed—is the medium of some new truth, higher than that brought by the one who preceded him; that he himself, the Bâb, though claiming divine honours while he lived, was but the forerunner of one greater than he, the great Revealer—'He whom God shall manifest, who should complete the revelation of all truth, and preside at the final judgment, at which all the good shall be made one with God, and all evil annihilated. One of the most marked and singular characteristics of his system is the prominence given in it to that mysterious and fanciful theory of numbers which had always had so great a charm for him. Taking various forms of the name of God—'ahyy,' meaning 'the giver of life'; 'wahed,' 'the only One'; or that which is a most sacred formula, 'Bismillah elemna elegdous,' 'in the name of God, highest and holiest'—he shows that the letters composing each of those names, taken by their numerical value, make up the number 19. This he therefore concludes is the number which lies at the foundation of all things in heaven and earth, the harmony of the universe, the number which must rule in all earthly arrangements. The year should have 19 months, the month 19 days, the day 19 hours. … There are three points in particular in which the reforms proposed by the Bâb cannot fail, so far as they gain ground, to have a mighty effect on society. In the first place, he abolished polygamy; that is, he so strongly discountenanced it that his followers universally regard it as a prohibition. In close connection—almost as a necessary accompaniment of this—he forbade divorce; that festering sore which corrupts the mass of Persian society to its very heart, and makes pure family life almost impossible. His third revolutionary step was in the same direction. He abolished the veiling of the women. … While the fame and popularity of the young preacher were daily increasing, his bold exposure of the vices of the clergy aroused against him their bitterest enmity." This hostility soon became influential enough to prevail on the king and his ministers to silence the Bâb. Mirza was placed under confinement in his own house; but a chosen band of apostles went forth to do missionary work throughout the empire, and their success was great. Ere long, they began to combine political with religious aims, and one of them, Moulla Houssein, organized a movement which assumed a revolutionary character and spread to formidable proportions. The government became greatly alarmed, and an energetic minister took measures to suppress the Bâbys, which was done with merciless vigor. The Bâb, himself, though he had taken no part in the political doings of his disciples, and had remained a quiet prisoner on parole at Shiraz, was put to death, after being brutally exposed for several hours to the insults of a mob. This was in 1851. The following year witnessed the martyrdom of a large number of the surviving Bâbys of prominence, all of whom died for their faith without shrinking—as exalted in spirit, it would seem, as the early Christian martyrs. But Bâbism was not extinguished. It is said to have spread secretly and continually throughout Persia, and to be of unknown extent at the present day."

_M. F. Wilson, The Story of the Bâb (Contemporary Review, December, 1885)._

BABŒUF, Conspiracy of.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1753-1797 (page 2934).

BABYLONIA: Captivity of the Jews.

See JEWS: B. C. 604-536; and 537 (page 1907).

BABYLONIA: Commerce.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, ANCIENT.

BABYLONIA: Education, ancient.

See EDUCATION, ANCIENT (page 674).

BABYLONIA: Libraries.

See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2000).

BABYLONIA: Medical Science.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE, BABYLONIAN (page 2122).

BABYLONIA: Money and banking.

See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2199).

BACK, Captain, Northern explorations of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1833-1835; and 1836-1837.

BACTERIOLOGY, Development of the science of.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 19TH CENTURY (page 2146).

BALOCHISTAN, BALUCHISTAN.

"Balochistan, in the modern acceptation of the term, may be said, in a general sense, to include all that tract of country which has for its northern and north-eastern boundary the large kingdom of Afghanistan, its eastern frontier being limited by the British province of Sindh, and its western by the Persian State, while the Arabian Sea washes its southern base for a distance of nearly six hundred miles. … In area Balochistan had long been supposed to cover in its entirety quite 160,000 square miles, but the latest estimates do not raise it higher than 140,000 square miles, of which 60,000 are said to belong to what is termed Persian Balochistan, and the remaining 80,000 to Kalāti Balochistan, or that portion which is more or less directly under the rule of the Brāhui Khān of Kalāt. … {3689} Balochistan may be said to be inhabited chiefly by the Baloch tribe, the most numerous in the country, and this name was given to the tract they occupy by the great Persian monarch, Nadir Shah, who, as St. John remarks, after driving the Afghan invaders from Persia, made himself master in his turn of the whole country west of the Indus, and placed a native chief over the new province, formed out of the districts bounded on the north and south by the Halmand valley and the sea, and stretching from Karmān on the west to Sindh on the east. This newly formed province he called Balochistan, or, the country of the Baloch, from the name of the most widely spread and numerous, though not the dominant, tribe. According to Masson, who, it must be admitted, had more ample opportunities of obtaining correct information on this subject than any other European, the Balochis are divided into three great classes, viz., (1) the Brahuis; (2) the Rinds; and (3) the Lumris (or Numris); but this must be taken more in the sense of inhabitants of Balochistan than as divisions of a tribe, since the Brahuis are of a different race and language and call the true Balochis 'Nhāruis,' in contradistinction to themselves as 'Brahuis.' … The origin of the word 'Baloch' is evidently involved in some obscurity, and has given rise to many different interpretations. Professor Rawlinson supposes it to be derived from Belūs, king of Babylon, the Nimrod of Holy Writ, and that from 'Kush,' the father of Nimrod, comes the name of the Kalāti eastern district, 'Kachh.' Pottinger believes the Balochis to be of Turkoman lineage, and this from a similarity in their institutions, habits, religion—in short, in everything but their language, for which latter anomaly, however, he has an explanation to offer. But be this as it may, the very tribe themselves ascribe their origin to the earliest Muhammadan invaders of Persia, and are extremely desirous of being supposed to be of Arab extraction. They reject with scorn all idea of being of the same stock as the Afghan. They may possibly be of Iranian descent, and the affinity of their language, the Balochki, to the Persian, bears out this supposition; but the proper derivation of the word 'Baloch' still remains an open question. … The Brahuis, who, as a race, are very numerous in Balochistan, Pottinger considers to be a nation of Tartar mountaineers, who settled at a very early period in the southern parts of Asia, where they led an ambulatory life in Khels, or societies, headed and governed by their own chiefs and laws for many centuries, till at length they became incorporated and attained their present footing at Kalāt and throughout Balochistan generally. Masson supposes that the word 'Brahui' is a corruption of Ba-roh-i, meaning, literally, of the waste; and that that race entered Balochistan originally from the west. … The country may be considered as divided into two portions—the one, Kalāti Balochistan, or that either really or nominally under the rule of the Khān of Kalāt; and the other as Persian Balochistan, or that part which is more or less directly under the domination of the Shah of Persia. Of the government of this latter territory, it will suffice to say that it is at present administered by the Governor of Bam-Narmashir, a deputy of the Kermān Governor; but the only district that is directly under Persian rule is that of Banpur—the rest of the country, says St. John, is left in charge of the native chiefs, who, in their turn, interfere but little with the heads of villages and tribes. … It would … appear that the supremacy of the Shah over a very large portion of the immense area (60,000 square miles) known as Persian Balochistan is more nominal than real, and that the greater number of the chiefs only pay revenue to their suzerain when compelled to do so. As regards Kalāti Balochistan, the government is, so to speak, vested hereditarily in the Brahui Khān of Kalāt, but his sovereignty in the remote portions of his extensive territory (80,000 square miles), though even in former times more nominal than real, is at the present moment still more so, owing to the almost constant altercations and quarrels which take place between the reigning Khān and his Sardārs, or chiefs. … In … the modern history of Kalāti Balochistan under the present dynasty, extending from about the commencement of the 18th century, when Abdula Khān was ruler, down to the present time, a period of, say, nearly 180 years, there is not much to call for remark. Undoubtedly the Augustan age of Balochistan was the reign of the first Nasir Khān [1755-1795], the Great Nasir, as he is to this day called by the Balochis. Of his predecessors little seems to be known; they were indeed simply successful robbers on a large scale, with but few traces of any enlightened policy to gild over a long succession of deeds of lawlessness, rapine, and bloodshed. … Had his successors been of the same stamp and metal as himself, the Kalāti kingdom of to-day would not perhaps show that anarchy and confusion which are now its most striking characteristics."

A. W. Hughes, The Country of Balochistan, pages 2-48, and 285.

BANKING, History of.

See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2198).

BANKS, Nathaniel P. His election to the Speakership.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1855-1856 (page 3396).

BAPTIST CHURCH, The first in Rhode Island.

See RHODE ISLAND: A. D. 1639 (page 2641).

BAPTISTS.

The name 'Baptist' was not a self-chosen one. In the early Reformation time those who withdrew from the dominant churches because of the failure of these churches to discriminate between the church and the world, between the regenerate and the unregenerate, and who sought to organize churches of believers only, laid much stress on the lack of Scriptural warrant for the baptism of infants and on the incompatibility of infant baptism with regenerate membership. Following what they believed to be apostolic precept and example, they made baptism on a profession of faith a condition of church-fellowship. This rejection of infant baptism and this insistence on believers' baptism were so distinctive of these Christians that they were stigmatized as 'Anabaptists,' 'Catabaptists,' and sometimes as simply 'Baptists'; that is to say, they were declared to be 'rebaptizers,' 'perverters of baptism,' or, as unduly magnifying baptism and making it the occasion of schism, simply 'baptizers.' These party names they earnestly repudiated, preferring to call themselves Brethren, Christians, Disciples of Christ, Believers, etc. … {3690} Baptists have, for the most part, been at one with the Roman Catholic, the Greek Catholic, and most Protestant communions in accepting for substance the so-called Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, not, however, because they are venerable or because of the decisions of ecclesiastical councils, but because, and only in so far as, they have appeared to them to be in accord with Scripture. … As regards the set of doctrines on which Augustin differed from his theological predecessors, and modern Calvinists from Arminians, Baptists have always been divided. … The great majority of the Baptists of today hold to what may be called moderate Calvinism, or Calvinism tempered with the evangelical anti-Augustinianism which came through the Moravian Brethren to Wesley and by him was brought powerfully to bear on all bodies of evangelical Christians. Baptists are at one with the great Congregational body and with most of the minor denominations as regards church government."

A. H. Newman, A. History of the Baptist Churches in the United States, introduction.

"Baptist principles are discoverable in New England from the very earliest colonial settlements. The Puritans of Plymouth had mingled with the Dutch Baptists during the ten years of their sojourn in Holland, and some of them seem to have brought over Baptist tendencies even in the Mayflower. Dutch Baptists had emigrated to England and extended their principles there; and from time to time a persecuted Baptist in England sought refuge in America, and, planted here, brought forth fruit after his kind. But as every offshoot of these principles here was so speedily and vigorously beaten down by persecution, and especially as, after the banishment of Roger Williams, there was an asylum a few miles distant, just over Narraganset Bay, where every persecuted man could find liberty of conscience, Baptist principles made little progress in the New England colonies, except Rhode Island, for the first hundred and twenty years. A little church of Welsh Baptists was founded in Rehoboth, near the Rhode Island line, in 1663, and shortly afterwards was compelled by civil force to remove to Swanzea, where, as it was distant from the centres of settlement, it was suffered to live without very much molestation. It still exists, the oldest Baptist church in the State. In 1665, the First Baptist Church in Boston was organized, and, alone, for almost a century, withstood the fire of persecution,—ever in the flames, yet never quite consumed. In 1693, a second church was constituted in Swanzea, not as a Regular, but as a Six-Principle, Baptist Church. In 1705, a Baptist church was formed in Groton, Connecticut. These four churches, three Regular and one Six-Principle, having in the aggregate probably less than two hundred members, were all the Baptist churches in New England outside of Rhode Island previous to the Great Awakening."

D. Weston. Early Baptists in Massachusetts (The Baptists and the National Centenary), pages 12-18.

"The representative Baptists of London and vicinity, who in 1689 put forth the Confession of Faith which was afterward adopted by the Philadelphia Association, and is therefore known in this country as the Philadelphia Confession, copied the Westminister Confession word for word, wherever their convictions would permit, and declared that they would thus show wherein they were at one with their brethren, and what convictions of truth made impossible a complete union. And wherever Baptists appeared however or by whomsoever they were opposed, the ground of complaint against them was their principles. Some of these principles were sharply antagonistic to those of existing churches, and also to those on which the civil governments were administered. They were widely disseminated, especially in Holland, England, and Wales, and there were separate churches formed. From purely doctrinal causes also came divisions among 'the Baptized churches' themselves. The most notable one was that in England between the General or Arminian Baptists, and the Particular or Calvinistic Baptists. With the latter division do the Regular Baptists of America hold lineal connection. … The churches of Philadelphia and vicinity kept the closest connection with the mother country, and were most affected by it. In New England, in 'the Great Reformation' under the lead of Jonathan Edwards, there was made from within the Congregational churches a most vigorous assault against their own 'half-way Covenant' in the interest of a pure church. Along his lines of thought he started multitudes who could not stop where he himself remained and would fain have detained them. They separated from the Congregational churches, and were hence called Separates. A large proportion of them became Baptists, and formed themselves into Baptist churches. Through the labors of earnest men who went from them to Carolina and Virginia, their principles were widely disseminated in those and the neighboring colonies, and, in consequence, many churches came into existence."

G. D. B. Pepper, Doctrinal History and Position (The same), pages 51-52.

BARDI, The.

See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2206).

BARENTZ, Voyages of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1594-1595; and 1596-1597.

BARNARD COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION (page 743).

BARRE, Colonel Isaac. Speech against the Stamp Act.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765 (page 3186).

BATTLE, Trial by.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1077, and CRIMINAL: A. D. 1818 (pages 1957 and 1985).

BELCHER, Sir Edward, Franklin search expedition of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1852--1854.

BELGIUM: Constitutional revision of 1893.

See (in this Supplement) CONSTITUTION OF BELGIUM.

BELGIUM: King Leopold's legacy of the Congo State.

See (in this Supplement) AFRICA: 1889.

BELGIUM: Libraries.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2013).

BELGIUM: Schools.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 709).

BELL TELEPHONE, The invention of the.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: A. D. 1876-1892 (page 776).

[Transcriber's Note.] T. O'Conor Sloane The Standard Electrical Dictionary, www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26535.

BELLAMY, Edward, and the Nationalist Movement.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1888-1893 (page 2956).

BENTHAM, Jeremy, and reforms in the Law of Evidence.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1851 (page 1979).

{3691}

BERNADOTTE: Election to the throne of Sweden.

See (in this Supplement) SWEDEN: A. D. 1810.

BIBLIOTHÈQUE NATIONALE.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN: FRANCE (page 2010).

BICHAT, and the progress of physiological science.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 18TH CENTURY (page 2142).

BILL OF ATTAINDER.

See (in this Supplement) ATTAINDER

BILLS OF EXCHANGE.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1603 (page 1968).

BIORKO.

See (in this Supplement), COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL.

BISMARCK'S POLICY AND SPEECHES.

See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1862-1890.

BLACK FRIDAY.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1869 (page 2347).

BLAKE, Admiral Robert, Victories of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1652-1654 (page 885).

BLANC, Louis, and his scheme of stateaided co-operation.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1840-1848 (page 2942).

BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT, The.

"Just when or by whom the acts and proceedings of New Haven colony were first stigmatized as Blue Laws, cannot now be ascertained. The presumption, however, is strong that the name had its origin in New York, and that it gained currency in Connecticut, among episcopalian and other dissenters from the established church, between 1720 and 1750. … In the colony of New Haven, before the union with Connecticut, the privileges of voting and of holding civil office were, by the 'fundamental agreement,' restricted to church-members. This peculiarity of her constitution was enough to give color to the assertion that her legislation was, pre-eminently, blue. That her old record-book contained a code of 'blue laws' which were discreditable to puritanism and which testified to the danger of schism—became, among certain classes, an assured belief. To this imaginary code wit and malice made large additions, sometimes by pure invention, sometimes by borrowing absurd or arbitrary laws from the records of other colonies. And so the myth grew—till the last vestige of truth was lost in fable. The earliest mention of the 'New Haven Blue Laws' that I remember to have seen in print, is in a satirical pamphlet published in 1762, entitled; 'The Real Advantages which Ministers and People may enjoy, especially in the Colonies, by conforming to the Church of England,' etc. … From the manner in which this allusion is introduced it is evident that reproach of New Haven for her 'blue laws' was already a familiar weapon of religious controversy. A few years later—in 1767—William Smith, Chief-Justice of New York, had the curiosity to inspect 'the first records of the colony of New Haven, vulgarly called the Blue Laws.' In the continuation of his history of New York, he gives (p. 93) the result of his examination: 'A note ought not to be suppressed concerning these records, to correct a voice of misplaced ridicule. Few there are, who speak of the Blue Laws, … who do not imagine they form a code of rules for future conduct, drawn up by an enthusiastic, precise set of religionists; and if the inventions of wits, humorists, and buffoons were to be credited, they must consist of many volumes. The author had the curiosity to resort to them, when the Commissaries met at New Haven, for adjusting a partition line between New York and the Massachusetts in 1767; and a parchment-covered book of demi-royal paper was handed to him for the laws asked for, as the only volume in the office passing under this odd title. … It contains the memorials of the first establishment of the colony, which consisted of persons who had wandered beyond the limits of the old charter of the Massachusetts Bay, and who, as yet unauthorized by the crown to set up any civil government in due form of law, resolved to conduct themselves by the Bible. As a necessary consequence, the judges they chose took up an authority similar to that which every religious man exercises over his own children and domestics. Hence their attention to the morals of the people, in instances with which the civil magistrate can never intermeddle under a regular well-policied institution; because, to preserve liberty, they are cognizable only by parental authority. … So far is the common idea of the blue laws being a collection of rules from being true, that they are only records of convictions, consonant, in the judgment of the magistrates, to the word of God, and dictates of reason.' … Occasional allusions to the 'Blue Laws' are found in newspapers and pamphlets printed before the Revolution, but no specimens of the laws so stigmatised seem to have been published before 1781, when 'a sketch of some of them' was given to the world by the Rev. Samuel Peters, in 'A General History of Connecticut, from its First Settlement under George Fenwick, Esq.,' etc.: 'By a Gentleman of the Province:' printed in London, 'for the Author.' … As the sole authority for the only 'New Haven Blue Laws' that are now popularly known by the name, he and his book are entitled here to a larger notice. The late Professor J. L. Kingsley, in the notes to his Historical Discourse at New Haven (1838), was at the pains of pointing out 'a few errors'—as he charitably named them—of 'the work which, more than any other, has given currency to various misrepresentations respecting the New Haven colony:' and in this connection he quoted a remark made by the Rev. Dr. Trumbull, the historian, who was a townsman of Peters and had known him from childhood,—that, 'of all men with whom he had ever been acquainted, Dr. Peters, he had thought, from his first knowledge of him, the least to be depended upon as to any matter of fact, especially in story-telling.' The best excuse that can be made for him is, that he was a victim of pseudomania; that his abhorrence of truth was in fact a disease, and that he was not morally responsible for its outbreaks. He could not keep even his name clear of falsification. It passes into history with doubtful initials and fictitious titles. … In 1774, his obstinate and aggressive toryism rendered him very obnoxious to his neighbors and finally provoked the resentment of the Sons of Liberty. A party of two or three hundred men paid him a visit, threatened him (so he averred) with tar and feathers, handled him somewhat roughly when they detected him in falsehood, and drew from him a promise that he would not again meddle in public affairs. … He found his only comfort in the anticipation that, if his plans of vengeance should succeed, Connecticut might be blotted out: 'the bounds of New York may directly extend to Connecticut river, Boston meet them, New Hampshire take the Province of Maine, and Rhode Island be swallowed up as Dathan.' {3692} In October, 1774, he sailed for England, where he remained until 1805. He obtained a small pension from the crown, and some compensation for the property he professed to have lost in Connecticut: and it was perhaps in the hope of eking out a livelihood, as well as of gratifying his resentment, that he employed his pen in abuse of the colony which gave him birth, and the religion of his fathers. He did not, says Mr. Duykinck, 'carry his point of dismembering Connecticut, but he punished the natives almost as effectually by writing a book—his History of the State.'"

_J. H. Trumbull, Introduction to "The True-Blue Laws of Connecticut and New Haven."_

"In this 'History' were collected all the extravagant stories that had been set afloat during the previous fifty years to gratify the stupidity of those among the lower classes in New York who were descended from the Dutch, or the hatred of the most bitter of the British royalists. This 'History' is the first and the only 'authority' for the 'Blue Laws' which were attributed to the early New Haven colonists. … No person in America who knew anything about the history of his country ever seriously quoted Dr. Peters's 'History' as an authority on any subject whatever. The 'Comic History of England,' or the 'Travels of Baron Munchausen,' would be as little likely to be quoted in England for any serious purpose. And yet this falsehood about the 'Blue Laws,' which was thus first concocted for a purpose, has a vitality which, in some of its aspects, is amusing."

W. L. Kingsley, Blackwood's Magazine on the "Blue Laws" (New Englander, April, 1871), pages 296-299.

BODLEIAN LIBRARY, The.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2016).

BOERHAAVE, and humoral pathology.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 17TH CENTURY (page 2136).

BOLOGNA, University of.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL (page 696).

"BOMBA," King.

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849 (page 1862).

BOOTH, Reverend General William, and the Salvation Army.

See (in this Supplement) SALVATION ARMY.

BOROUGH FRANCHISE, English.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1884-1885 (pages 973-978).

BOSTON LATIN SCHOOL.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 727).

BOTHWELL, James Hepburn, Earl of, and Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots. See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1561-1568 (page 2857).

BOWDOIN COLLEGE.

An act of the Legislature of the province of Maine, approved in 1794, incorporated the above-named institution. The management of the college was placed under a board of trustees, with full powers of control. … That the institution might not want for proper support, it was further enacted, 'That the clear rents, issues, and profits of all the estate, real and personal, of which the said corporation shall be seized or possessed, shall be appropriated to the endowment of the said college, in such manner as will most effectually promote virtue, piety, and the knowledge of such of the languages and the useful and liberal arts and sciences as shall hereafter be directed from time to time by said corporation.' Five townships of land, each six miles square, were granted to the college for Its endowment and vested in the trustees, provided that fifteen families be settled in each of the said townships within a period of twelve years, and provided further that three lots containing 320 acres each be reserved, one for the first settled minister, one for the use of the ministry, and one for the support of schools within the township where it is located. These townships were to be laid out and assigned from any of the unappropriated lands belonging to the commonwealth of the district of Maine. The first money endowment was instituted by a general law of Massachusetts, approved February 24, 1814, which reads as follows: 'Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in General Court now assembled, That the tax which the president, directors and company of the Massachusetts Bank are and shall be liable to pay to the commonwealth, shall be and hereby is granted to and appropriated as follows, viz: ten-sixteenths parts thereof to the president and fellows of Harvard College; and three-sixteenths parts thereof to the president and trustees of Williams College; and three-sixteenths thereof to the president and trustees of Bowdoin College.'"

F. W. Blackmar, History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education in the United States (Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1890, number 1), pages 123-124.

The college was named in honor of Governor James Bowdoin, of Massachusetts, whose son made valuable gifts to it.

BRACTON, Henry de, and early English Law.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1216-1272 (page 1961).

BRADFORD PRESS, The.

See PRINTING AND PRESS: A. D. 16815-1693: and 1704-1729 (page 2597).

BRAZIL: A. D. 1891. Adoption of the Constitution.

For text see CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL (page 518).

BRAZIL: A. D. 1893-1894. Triumph of the Peixoto government.

"The civil war In Brazil resulted in the complete triumph of the Peixoto government in the spring. During November [1893] the insurgents held their own in the harbor of Rio Janeiro, and in the following month occupied a number of islands in the bay. On December 1 Admiral Mello, their leader, with two of his ships, ran past the government batteries and out to sea, leaving in command in the harbor Admiral da Gama, who up to that time had remained neutral. The latter shortly after issued a manifesto pointing to a restoration of the monarchy as the ultimate purpose of the rebels. This seems to have tended rather to weaken the insurgent cause, and a month later da Gama tried in another proclamation to explain away the interpretation that had been put upon the first. The government, meanwhile, confined itself to strengthening its positions in the city and along the shore so as to make any attempt to land unsuccessful. Desultory hostilities continued throughout December and January, incidentally to which the American commander on one occasion enforced respect for merchant vessels bearing his flag by firing on an insurgent vessel. On February 12 da Gama made his most elaborate attempt to gain a foothold on the main land at Armacao, but was repulsed with severe losses. {3693} By this time the insurgent cause was clearly on the decline. On the first of March a presidential election was held, which resulted in the choice of Prudente Moraes, a civilian. This removed the leading grievance of the rebels, that Piexoto was perpetuating a regime of pure militarism. On the 11th of March the fleet which the government had been fitting out in the United States and Europe appeared at the entrance to the harbor of Rio, and Peixoto gave notice of an active movement against the rebels. Da Gama promptly offered to surrender on certain conditions, which being refused, he and his officers sought asylum on first a French and later a Portuguese war vessel. Thus deserted, the crews of the insurgent vessels surrendered without resistance when the government batteries opened fire on the 13th. Admiral Mello, meanwhile, had been operating with some success in connection with the insurgents on land in the southern states of Brazil. In the first part of April, however, the government forces totally defeated the rebels in Rio Grande do Sul, and Mello, about the middle of the month, surrendered himself and his command to the Uruguayan authorities, by whom they were disarmed."

_Political Science Quarterly, June, 1894._

BREAKSPEAR, Nicholas. Pope Hadrian IV., 1154-1159.

BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE, Schools of the.

See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE (page 705).

BRISBANE, Albert, and Fourierism in America.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1832-1847, and 1841-1847 (pages 2940 and 2944).

BRITANNIC FEDERATION, Proposed.

See FEDERAL GOVERNMENT (page 1112).

BRITISH MUSEUM LIBRARY, The.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN: ENGLAND (page 2014).

BROCTON COMMUNITY, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1867-1875 (page 2951).

BROOK FARM.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS; A. D. 1841-1847 (page 2943).

BROTHERHOOD OF THE NEW LIFE, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1867-1875 (page 2951).

BROWN UNIVERSITY.

"Brown University, the oldest and best endowed institution of learning connected with the Baptist denomination, dates back for its origin to a period anterior to the American Revolution, when in all the thirteen colonies there were less than 70 Baptist churches, with perhaps 4,000 communicants. It is not surprising that, at the memorable meeting of the Philadelphia Association, held on the 12th of October, 1762, when the members were finally led to regard it, in the words of Backus, as 'practicable and expedient to erect a College in the Colony of Rhode Island, under the chief direction of the Baptists, in which education might be promoted and superior learning obtained, free from any sectarian tests,' the mover in the matter should at first have been laughed at, the thing being looked upon as, under the circumstances, an utter impossibility. But lenders at that time, like Morgan Edwards and Isaac Eaton, Samuel Jones, Abel Morgan, Benjamin Griffith, John Sutton and John Gano, were men of faith. … At the time of which I speak, there was graduated from Princeton, with the second honors of his class, a man of wonderful mental and physical endowments, an early pupil of Isaac Eaton at Hopewell, James Manning, of Elizabethtown, New Jersey. To him the enterprise of the college was by common consent intrusted. … The first commencement of the college, which was held in the then new Baptist meeting-house of the town of Warren, on the 7th of September, 1769, has already been regarded as a Red Letter Day in its history. Five years previous, the General Assembly, begun and holden by adjournment at East Greenwich, on the last Monday in February, 1764; after various difficulties and delays, in consequence of the determined opposition of those who were unfriendly to the movement, had granted a charter for a 'College or University in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, in New England in America.' Such is the language of the act of incorporation. But though Rhode Island had been selected for its home by the original projectors of the institution, and a liberal and ample charter had thus been secured, the college itself was still in embryo. Without funds, without students, and with no present prospect of support, a beginning must be made where the president could be the pastor of a church, and thus obtain an adequate compensation for his services. Warren, then as now, a delightful and flourishing inland town, situated 10 miles from Providence, seemed to meet the requisite requirements and thither, accordingly, Manning removed with his family in the spring of 1764. He at once commenced a Latin School, as the first step preparatory to the work of college instruction. Before the close of the year a church was organized, over which he was duly installed as pastor. The following year, at the second annual meeting of the corporation, held in Newport, Wednesday, September 3d, he was formally elected, in the language of the records, 'President of the College, Professor of Languages and other branches of learning, with full power to act in these capacities at Warren or elsewhere.' On that same day, as appears from a paper now on file in the archives of the Library, the president matriculated his first student, William Rogers, a lad of fourteen, the son of Captain William Rogers, of Newport. Not only was this lad the first student of the college, but he was also the first freshman class. Indeed, for a period of nine months and seventeen days, as appears from the paper already referred to, he constituted the entire body of students. From such feeble beginnings has the university sprung."

R. A. Guild, The First Commencement of Rhode Island College (Rhode Island Historical Society Collections, v. 7), pages 269-271.

Six years after the founding of the University it was removed from Warren to Providence, and its name changed from Rhode Island College to Brown University, in honor of John Brown, of Providence, who was its most liberal benefactor.

G. W. Greene, Short History of Rhode Island, page 196.

Although founded by the Baptist Church, the charter of the University "expressly forbids the use of religious tests. The corporation is divided into two Boards—the Trustees, 36 in number, of whom 22 must be Baptists, 5 Quakers, 5 Episcopalians, and 4 Congregationalists, and the Fellows, 12 in number, of whom 8, including the President, must be Baptists, and the remainder of other denominations. Twelve Trustees and 5 Fellows form a quorum. The college estate, the students, and the members of the faculty, with their families, are exempt from taxation and from serving as jurors."

S. G. Arnold, History of the State of Rhode Island, chapter 18 (volume 2).

{3694}

BRUCHION, Library of the.

See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2003).

BRUNONIAN SYSTEM, The.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 18TH CENTURY (page 2141).

BRYN MAWR COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION (page 743).

BUBBLE ACT, The.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1710 (page 1971).

BULGARIANS, The conversion of the.

See CHRISTIANITY: 9TH CENTURY (page 464).

BUREAU OF EDUCATION, The United States.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 735).

BURKE, Edmund. Speech on Conciliation of the American Colonies.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (pages 3218-3221).

BYNG, Admiral John, Execution of.

See MINORCA: A. D. 1756 (page 2187).

BYZANTINE TRADE.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL.

CABOTS, Voyages of the.

See (in this Supplement) AMERICA.

C.

CALHOUN, John C., The aggressive proslavery policy of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1837-1838, and 1847 (pages 3375 and 3380).

CAMBOJA.

See TONKIN (page 3114).

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY.

See EDUCATION (pages 701, 706 and 710).

CAMPBELLITES, The.

See (in this Supplement) DISCIPLES OF CHRIST.

CANADA: Constitution of the Dominion.

See CONSTITUTION OF CANADA (page 526).

CANADA: Libraries.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN: CANADA (page 2023).

CANADA: The Ontario school system.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 733).

CANALS.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MODERN.

CANULEIAN LAW, The.

See ROME: B. C. 445-400 (page 2667).

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.

See LAW, CRIMINAL: A. D. 1600, and 1660-1820 (pages 1983 and 1984).

CARNATIC, The.

See (in this Supplement) KARNATIC.

CARNOT, President Sadi, The assassination of.

See (in this Supplement) FRANCE: A. D. 1894-1895.

CARTHAGINIAN COMMERCE.

See (In this Supplement) COMMERCE, ANCIENT.

CASHGAR.

See TURKESTAN (page 3130); and YAKOOB BEG (page 3662).

CASIMIR-PERIER, Election to the Presidency of the French Republic, and resignation.

See (in this Supplement) FRANCE: A. D. 1894-1895.

CATHOLIC REACTION IN GERMANY, The.

See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: 16TH CENTURY; also, page 2457.

CAUCASUS, The Races of the.

"One of the most remarkable characteristics of the Caucasus is that, while it has acted as a barrier between the north and the south, stopping and turning aside the movements of population, it has also preserved within its sheltered recesses fragments of the different peoples who from time to time have passed by it, or who have been driven by conquest into it from the lower country. Thus it is a kind of ethnological museum, where specimens may be found of countless races and languages, some of which probably belong to the early ages of the world; races that seem to have little affinity with their present neighbours, and of whose history we know nothing except what comparative philology can reveal. Even before the Christian era it was famous for the variety of its peoples. … No more inappropriate ethnological name was ever propounded than that of Caucasian for a fancied division of the human family, the cream of mankind, from which the civilized peoples of Europe are supposed to have sprung. For the Caucasus is to-day as it was in Strabo's time, full of races differing in religion, language, aspect, manners, character."

J. Bryce, Trans-caucasia and Ararat, chapter 2.

CELESTINES, CELESTINIANS.

A religious order founded by the hermit, Peter of Morone, who afterwards, in 1294, became Pope, and took the name Celestine V. The rules of the order were austere. It became widespread throughout Europe, but was suppressed in France in 1766.

CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS, in England and Germany.

See PRINTING AND PRESS: A. D. 1695 (pages 2597 and 1602).

CENSUS, United States.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1790 (page 3305); 1800 (page 3324), and after.

CHANCELLOR. CHANCERY.

See LAW, EQUITY (page 1988).

CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE.

See GERMANY: A. D. 687-800, 800, and 814-843 (pages 1436-1438); and (in this Supplement) ROME.

CHARLEMAGNE'S PALATINE SCHOOL.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL (page 689).

CHARTERHOUSE SCHOOL.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 712).

CHASE, Judge, Impeachment and trial of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1805 (page 3329).

CHATHAM, John Pitt, Earl of, and the Walcheren expedition.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1809 (page 947).

CHATHAM, William Pitt, Earl of, Speech on the repeal of the Stamp Act.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1766 (page 3201).

CHICAGO UNIVERSITY, The founding of the.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 738).

CHILE.

The account of Chilean affairs given in volume 1 (pages 411-415) ends with the overthrow and suicide of the dictatorial usurper, Balmaceda (September 20, 1891), the triumph of the Congress party, and the election to the Presidency of Admiral Jorge Montt. During the civil war which had this termination, the representative of the United States, Minister Egan, showed marked favor to Balmaceda and his party, which irritated the Chileans and produced among them a hostile feeling towards Americans and the American government. This was increased by the action of Mr. Egan, after the defeat of the Balmacedists, in sheltering a large number of refugees of that party within the walls of the American legation. {3695} The same was done by other foreign representatives, but to no such extent, except in the case of the Spanish legation. A telegram sent by Mr. Egan on the 8th of October to the State Department at Washington stated: "80 persons sought refuge in his legation after the overthrow of the Balmaceda government; about the same number in the Spanish legation, 8 in the Brazilian, 5 in the French, several in the Uruguayan, 2 in the German and 1 in the English. Balmaceda sought refuge in the Argentine. All these have gone out except 15 in his own legation, 1 in the German and 5 in the Spanish." Not venturing to violate the privileges of the American Minister's residence, the Chilean authorities placed it under police surveillance, and arrested a number of persons entering the premises. The Minister complained, and was supported in his complaints at Washington, causing further irritation in Chile. This was again greatly increased by his claiming the right, not only to shelter the refugees in his residence, but to protect them in their departure from the country. In that, too, he was sustained by his government, and the refugees were safely sent away. Meantime a more serious cause of quarrel between the two countries had risen. A party of sailors on shore at Valparaiso, from the United States ship Baltimore, had been assailed by a mob, October 16, and two were killed, while eighteen were wounded. The United States demanded satisfaction, and much angry correspondence ensued, made particularly offensive on the Chilean side by an insulting circular which Señor Matta, the Chilean Foreign Minister, issued December 13, and which he caused to be published in the Chilean newspapers. But Señor Matta disappeared from the Foreign Department soon after and his successor made apologies. "On January 16th the Chilean authorities notified Mr. Egan that they would withdraw any offensive passages in the Matta circular, and had instructed their Minister in Washington to express regret. The apology, thus expressed both in Washington and Santiago, was stiff and ungraceful, perhaps inadequate; but it was made in good faith. On January 20th, evidently feeling that all was now serene, the Chileans ventured, acting on a hint of Mr. Blaine's, to ask for Egan's withdrawal as a 'persona non grata.' What, therefore, must have been the dismay of the Chileans on January 23d, to receive an official notice, which the newspapers dubbed an 'ultimatum,' containing the statement that the United States Government was not satisfied with the result of the judicial investigation at Valparaiso and still asked 'for a suitable apology;' that for the Matta note there must be still another 'suitable apology,' without which the United States would terminate diplomatic relations; and that the request for Mr. Egan's withdrawal could not at that time be considered. It was a bitter draught for any government; but threats of war were resounding through the United States; American naval vessels were hurriedly being made ready; coal and supplies were going into the Pacific. There was power behind the note, and Chile prepared to bend to the storm. The 'ultimatum' appears to have reached the Chileans on Saturday, January 23d. On Monday, January 25th, they sent an answer which could not possibly be read as anything but a complete and abject apology on all the three points." But on the same day on which this answer was being forwarded, the President of the United States sent a warlike message to Congress. "It rehearsed the whole controversy at great length, submitted copious correspondence, and ended with the significant phrase: 'In my opinion I ought not to delay longer to bring these matters to the attention of Congress for such action as may be deemed appropriate.' … It is an unprofitable controversy as to whether the authorities in Washington knew that an answer was on its way: if they had read the correspondence they knew that an answer must come, and that the Chilean Ministry must sent a peaceful answer. It is therefore difficult to understand the purpose of the President's message. … The effect … was to inflict an unnecessary humiliation on Chile. Spanish-Americans have good memories. Mexico still cherishes resentment for the war begun against her forty-five years ago; and forty-five years hence the Chileans are likely to remember the Balmaceda affair as Americans remembered the impressment of American seamen by Great Britain. We have the apology, but with it we have the ill-will."

A. B. Hart, Practical Essays on American Government, essay 5.

CHINA, Education in.

See EDUCATION (pages 675 and 724).

CHINA, Imperial Library of.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN: CHINA (page 2024).

CHINA, Mediæval trade with India and the West.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL.

CHINA, Paper Money, ancient.

See MONEY AND BANKING: CHINA (page 2200}.

CHINA, War with Japan.

See (in this Supplement) COREA.

CHOLERA, Asiatic, The visitations of.

See PLAGUE: 19TH CENTURY (page 2543).

CHRISTIAN BROTHERS, The.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 739).

CHRISTIAN SOCIALISM.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1816-1886 (page 2939).

CID, The.

See (in this Supplement) SPAIN: A. D. 1034-1090.

CIVIL SERVICE REFORM: Progress in the United States.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1895 (page 3586).

CLARK UNIVERSITY, The founding of.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 738).

CLEVELAND, Grover. Message on the Tariff question.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION: A. D. 1884-1888 (page 3083).

Special Message on the National Finances.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1895 (page 3586).

COCHIN-CHINA.

See TONKIN(page 3141).

CODES, New York.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1848-1883, and 1848 (page 1979).

COINAGE.

See MONEY, &c. (page 2198).

COLET, John, and St. Paul's School.

See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE (page 707).

COLLECTIVISM.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: DEFINITION OF TERMS (page 2933).

COLLEGES.

See EDUCATION (page 673) and the same in this Supplement.

COLUMBIA COLLEGE, The founding of.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 730).

COMENIUS, and Educational Reform.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 739).

{3696}

----------COMMERCE: Start--------

COMMERCE: Ancient. The Earliest Records of Trade.

Probably the oldest commercial record that exists was found sculptured on the rocks in the valley of Hammamat, east from Koptos on the Nile. It relates to an expedition which was sent out by the Pharaoh Sankh-ka-ra, to trade in the "land of Punt." Dr. Brugsch fixes the reign of Sankh-ka-ra at about 2500 B. C., which is five or six centuries before the time when Abraham is supposed to have lived. The "land of Punt" he considers to have been the Somali coast of Africa, south of the extremity of the Red Sea, on the Gulf of Aden. Other writers maintain that it was southern Arabia. It was the "Holy Land" of the Egyptians, from which their gods were supposed to have anciently come. The trading expedition of Sankh-ka-ra was commanded by one Hannu (a name which has a Phœnician sound) and it is he who tells the story of it in the inscription at Hammamat. "I was sent," he says, "to conduct ships to the country of Punt, to bring back odoriferous gums." He then describes the army of 3,000 men which accompanied him, and narrates their march from Koptos to the Red Sea, through the desert, at several stations in which they dug reservoirs for water. "I arrived," he continues, "at the port Seba [believed to be the harbor now called Koseir or Quosseir] and I made transport vessels to bring back all kinds of products. I made a great offering of oxen, cows and goats. When I returned from Seba I executed the order of his Majesty; I brought him back all kinds of products which I met with in the ports of the Holy Land. I came back by Uak and Rohan. I brought back precious stones for the statues of the temples. Never was a like thing done since there were kings." It would seem from this that Hannu's expedition opened the first direct trade of the Egyptians with the land of Punt. But it is evident that they already had knowledge of the country and of its products, and it is probable they had formerly been receiving its gums and precious stones through the traders of some other country. Some seven or eight centuries after Hannu's voyage to Punt was made, we obtain in the Bible a most interesting glimpse of the trade then going on between Egypt and surrounding countries. It is found in the story of Joseph. When Joseph's brethren threw him into a pit, intending that he should be left there to die, their plans were changed by seeing a "Company of Ishmaelites from Gilead with their camels bearing spicery and balm and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt." Then Judah said, "let us sell him to the Ishmaelites," and when these "Midianites, merchantmen," as they are called in the next verse, came near, the heartless brothers of Joseph drew him out of the pit and sold him, to be taken as a slave into Egypt. Now this story is found to agree well with other facts that have been learned, and which go to show that some, at least, among the ancient tribes in northern Arabia—the Ishmaelites of the Bible—were great traders between the richer countries that surrounded them. The Midianites and Edomites, who occupied the region near the head of the Red Sea, were especially the masters of that trade. Their poor land, which gave them little to subsist upon, had one gift for its people that went far toward making up for its barren poverty. It gave them the camel—that strange and homely beast, which is better fitted than any other for bearing burdens and for making long journeys without food or drink. At a later day they acquired the horse, from Media or from Mesopotamia, and bred that noble animal to such perfection that Arabia was long supposed to be its native home. But in Joseph's time the horse can hardly have been in use among the Arabs, since it seems to have been unknown in Egypt, which they constantly visited, until a considerably later day. However that may be, the camel was always the Arab's most useful servant—his carrier, his patient burden-bearer, his "ship of the desert," as Eastern poets have fitly named it. By the poverty of their country, by their wandering disposition, by their possession of the camel, and by their geographical situation, intermediate between several of the richest regions of antiquity, these Arabs of the olden time must have naturally been made a trading people, as early as it became possible for trade to exist. To the west of them was Egypt, with its fertile basin of the Nile and its remarkable people, probably first among all races that we know to rise out of barbarism and acquire order and industrial arts. To the east, in the valley of the Euphrates and Tigris, were the fertile plains of Mesopotamia, where the second oldest civilization that Is known was growing up. To the north were Canaan and Gilead, the Scripture "land of promise," full of vineyards, of pastures and of harvest fields, with wide Syria beyond, and with Phœnician merchant cities just rising along the coast of the sea. To the south, in their own peninsula, was Arabia Felix, or Arabia the Blest, a famous land of pleasantness and plenty in ancient days. With their caravans of camels they traveled back and forth, very busily, no doubt, through the desert, which needed no building of bridges or making of roads. In one direction they carried the barley, wheat, millet, flax and woven goods of Egypt; in another, the honey, wine, wax, wool, skins, gums, resins and asphalt of Canaan and Syria; in still another the more costly freight of gold ornaments, precious stones, pearls, ivory, ebony, spices and fragrant gums from the south. In all directions, it is probable, they dragged poor unfortunates like Joseph, whom they bought or kidnapped from home and friends, to sell as slaves.

COMMERCE: Babylonia.

"The industry of the Babylonians quickly attained great skill and wide development. They were famous for their weaving in wool and linen. The nations of the West agree in acknowledging the excellence of the cloths and coloured stuffs of Babylonia. Their pottery was excellent and the manufacture active; the preparation of glass was not unknown; the ointments prepared in Babylon were famous and much sought after, and the stones cut there were highly valued. The products of Babylonian skill and industry were first brought to their kinsmen in Syria, who could offer oil and wine in exchange. In the Hebrew scriptures we find Babylonian cloaks in use in Syria before the immigration of the Hebrews into Canaan. … The rough material required by Babylonian industry was supplied in the first place by the Arabs, who exchanged their animals, skins, and wool for corn and weapons. {3697} Wine, and more especially wood, of which there was none in Babylonia, were brought by the Armenians from their valleys in the north down the Euphrates to Babylon. Before 1500 B. C. the commerce of the Arabs brought the products of South Arabia, the spices of Yemen, and even the products and manufactures of India, especially their silks, which reached the coasts of Southern Arabia, to Babylon. The Babylonians required the perfumes of Arabia and India to prepare their ointments. … When the cities of Phenicia became great centres of trade which carried the wares of Babylonia by sea to the West in order to obtain copper in exchange, the trade between Babylonia and Syria must have become more lively still. It was the ships of the Phenicians which brought the cubic measure, and the weights, and the cubit of Babylonia to the shores of Greece, and caused them to be adopted there."

M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 2, chapter 3 (volume 1).

See, also, MONEY AND BANKING (page 2199).

COMMERCE: Egypt.

"In ancient Egypt agricultural counted for more than manufactures, and manufactures were of more importance than commerce. The trade which existed was brisk enough as far as it went, but it aimed at little more than the satisfaction of local wants by the more or less direct exchange of commodities between producers. The limited development of internal traffic was due to two principal causes: the natural products of different parts of the country were too much alike for much intercourse to be necessary for purposes of exchange, and the conformation of the country, in itself scarcely larger than Belgium, was such as to give the longest possible distance from north to south. … The Nile was the only known highway, so much so that the language scarcely possessed a general word for travelling; going southward was called 'going up stream,' and a journey to the north, even by land into the desert, was described by a term meaning to sail with the current. … While internal traffic was thus brought to a minimum by natural causes, foreign commerce can scarcely be said to have existed, before the establishment of peaceable intercourse with Syria under the new empire. The importation of merchandize from foreign countries was a political rather than a commercial affair. Such foreign wares as entered the country came as tribute, as the spoil of war, or as memorials of peaceful embassies. … The list of the spoil taken by Thothmes III. gives a tolerably exhaustive account of the treasures of the time. It includes, of course, bulls, cows, kids, white goats, mares, foals, oxen, geese, and corn; then follow strange birds, negroes, men and maid-servants, noble prisoners and the children of defeated kings, chariots of copper, plated with gold and silver, iron armour, bows, swords and other accoutrements, leather collars ornamented with brass, gold and silver rings, cups, dishes and other utensils, vessels of iron and copper, statues with heads of gold, ell-measures with heads of ivory, ebony, and cedar inlaid with gold, chairs, tables and footstools of cedar wood and ivory, a plough inlaid with gold, blocks of bluestone, greenstone and lead, 'a golden storm-cap inlaid with bluestone,' jars of balsam, oil, wine and honey, various kinds of precious woods, incense, alabaster, precious stones and colours, iron columns for a tent with precious stones in them, bricks of pure brass, elephants' tusks, natron, and, finally, by way of curiosity, from the land of the kings of Ruthen, three battle-axes of flint."

E. J. Simcox, Primitive Civilizations, book 1, chapter 3, section. 1 (volume 1).

See, also, MONEY AND BANKING (page 2199).

COMMERCE: India.

"It is said in the Rig-Veda that 'merchants desirous of gain crowd the great waters with their ships.' And the activity in trade, thus early noted, has continued ever since to be characteristic of the country. Professor Lassen considers it remarkable that Hindus themselves discovered the rich, luxurious character of India's products. Many of the same beasts, birds, and fragrant oils are produced in other countries, but remain unnoticed until sought for by foreigners; whereas the most ancient of the Hindus had a keen enjoyment in articles of taste or luxury. Rajas and other rich people delighted in sagacious elephants, swift horses, splendid peacocks, golden decorations, exquisite perfumes, pungent peppers, ivory, pearls, gems, &c.; and, consequently, caravans were in constant requisition to carry these, and innumerable other matters, between the north and the south, and the east and the west, of their vast and varied country. These caravans, it is conjectured, were met at border stations, and at out-ports, by western caravans or ships bound to or from Tyre and Egypt, or to or from the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. To the appearance of India goods in Greece, Professor Lassen attributes the Greek invasion of India. … The indirect evidence afforded by the presence of India's products in other ancient countries, coincides with the direct testimony of Sanskrit literature, to establish the fact that ancient Hindus were a commercial people. The code of Manu requires the king to determine the prices of commodities, and also the trustworthiness of the weights and measures used. And that the transactions contemplated were not restricted to local products is evident from reference to the charges for freight for articles in river boats, and the undetermined and larger charges to which sea-borne goods were liable. The account of King Yudhishthira's coronation in the Mahâbhârata affords an instance of precious articles from distant lands brought into India. So also in the Ramayana, we read that when Rama and his brothers were married, the brides were clad in silk from China. … Merchants are constantly being introduced into Sanskrit fiction, and equally often into Buddhist legend. They seem to have been always at hand to give variety and movement to the monotony of daily life."

Mrs. Manning, Ancient and Mediæval India, chapter 40 (volume 2).

COMMERCE: Phœnicians and Carthaginians.

"The Phœnicians for some centuries confined their navigation within the limits of the Mediterranean, the Propontis, and the Euxine, land-locked seas, which are tideless and far less rough than the open ocean. But before the time of Solomon they had passed the pillars of Hercules, and affronted the dangers of the Atlantic. Their frail and small vessels, scarcely bigger than modern fishing-smacks, proceeded southwards along the West African coast, as far as the tract watered by the Gambia and Senegal, while northwards they coasted along Spain, braved the heavy seas of the Bay of Biscay, and passing Cape Finisterre, ventured across the mouth of the English Channel to the Cassiterides. {3698} Similarly, from the West African shore, they boldly steered for the Fortunate Islands (the Canaries), visible from certain elevated points of the coast, though at 170 miles distance. Whether they proceeded further, in the south to the Azores, Madeira, and the Cape de Verde Islands, in the north to the coast of Holland, and across the German Ocean to the Baltic, we regard as uncertain. It is possible that from time to time some of the more adventurous of their traders may have reached thus far; but their regular, settled and established navigation did not, we believe, extend beyond the Scilly Islands and coast of Cornwall to the north-west, and to the south-west Cape Non and the Canaries. The commerce of the Phœnicians was carried on, to a large extent, by land, though principally by sea. It appears from the famous chapter [xxvii] of Ezekiel which describes the 'riches and greatness of Tyre in the 6th century B. C., that almost the whole of Western Asia was penetrated by the Phœnician caravans, and laid under contribution to increase the wealth of the Phœnician traders. … Translating this glorious burst of poetry into prose, we find the following countries mentioned as carrying on an active trade with the Phœnician metropolis:—Northern Syria, Syria of Damascus, Judah and the laud of Israel, Egypt, Arabia, Babylonia, Assyria, Upper Mesopotamia, Armenia, Central Asia Minor, Ionia, Cyprus, Hellas or Greece, and Spain."

G. Rawlinson, History of Phœnicia, chapter 9.

"Though the invincible industry and enterprise of the Phenicians maintained them as a people of importance down to the period of the Roman empire, yet the period of their widest range and greatest efficiency is to be sought much earlier—anterior to 700 B. C. In these remote times they and their colonists [the Carthaginians especially] were the exclusive navigators of the Mediterranean: the rise of the Greek maritime settlements banished their commerce to a great degree from the Ægean Sea, and embarrassed it even in the more westerly waters. Their colonial establishments were formed in Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, the Balearic Isles, and Spain. The greatness as well as the antiquity of Carthage, Utica, and Gades, attest the long-sighted plans of Phenician traders, even in days anterior to the first Olympiad. We trace the wealth and industry of Tyre, and the distant navigation of her vessels through the Red Sea and along the coast of Arabia, back to the days of David and Solomon. And as neither Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, or Indians, addressed themselves to a sea-faring life, so it seems that both the importation and the distribution of the products of India and Arabia into Western Asia and Europe were performed by the Idumæan Arabs between Petra and the Red Sea—by the Arabs of Gerrha on the Persian Gulf, joined as they were in later times by a body of Chaldæan exiles from Babylonia—and by the more enterprising Phenicians of Tyre and Sidon in these two seas as well as in the Mediterranean."

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 18.

"The Commerce of Carthage may be conveniently considered under its two great branches—the trade with Africa, and the trade with Europe. The trade with Africa … was carried on with the barbarous tribes of the inland country that could be reached by caravans, and of the sea-coast. Of both we hear something from Herodotus, the writer who furnishes us with most of our knowledge about these parts of the ancient world. … The goods with which the Carthaginian merchants traded with the African tribes were doubtless such as those which civilized nations have always used in their dealings with savages. Cheap finery, gaudily coloured cloths, and arms of inferior quality, would probably be their staple. Salt, too, would be an important article. … The articles which they would receive in exchange for their goods are easily enumerated. In the first place comes … gold. Carthage seems to have had always at hand an abundant supply of the precious metal for use, whether as money or as plate. Next to gold would come slaves. … Ivory must have been another article of Carthaginian trade, though we hear little about it. The Greeks used it extensively in art. … Precious stones seem to have been another article which the savages gave in exchange for the goods they coveted. … Perhaps we may add dates to the list of articles obtained from the interior. The European trade dealt, of course, partly with the things already mentioned, and partly with other articles for which the Carthaginian merchants acted as carriers, so to speak, from one part of the Mediterranean to another. Lipara, and the other volcanic islands near the southern extremity of Italy, produced resin; Agrigentum, and possibly other cities of Sicily, traded in sulphur brought down from the region of Etna; wine was produced in many of the Mediterranean countries. Wax and honey were the staple goods of Corsica. Corsican slaves, too, were highly valued. The Iron of Elba, the fruit and the cattle of the Balearic islands, and, to go further, the tin and copper of Britain, and even amber from the Baltic, were articles of Carthaginian commerce. Trade was carried on not only with the dwellers on the coast, but with inland tribes. Thus goods were transported across Spain to the interior of Gaul, the jealousy of Massilia (Marseilles) not permitting the Carthaginians to have any trading stations on the southern coast of that country."

A. J. Church and A. Gilman, The Story of Carthage, part 3, chapter 3.

A high authority on questions of intercourse in ancient times throws doubt on the supposed African caravan trade of the Carthaginians—as follows: "There seems no doubt that the existing system of caravan trade dates only from the introduction of Islamism into Africa. It was the Arabs who first introduced the camel into Northern Africa, and without camels any extensive intercourse with the interior was impossible. The Negro races have never shown any disposition to avail themselves of this mode of transport, and at the present day the commerce of the interior is carried on almost entirely by Moorish, that is, by Mohammedan, traders. The spread of Islamism has doubtless led to increased communication from another cause, the necessity for the Mohammedan inhabitants of the outlying and detached regions of the continent to make the pilgrimage to Mecca. Even in the most flourishing times of the Carthaginians they do not appear to have made any use of camels; and as late as the days of Strabo the communications with the tribes of Western Africa who dwelt beyond the Sahara were scanty and irregular. In the time of Herodotus there is certainly no indication that either the Carthaginians or the Greeks of the Cyrenaica had any commercial intercourse with the regions beyond the Great Desert."

E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, chapter 8, note I (volume 1).

See, also, PHŒNICIANS (pages 2530-2534); and CARTHAGE (pages 392-395).

{3699}

COMMERCE: Jews.

Beginning early in his reign, Solomon made great and enlightened efforts to promote the commerce and industries of the people of Israel. "To increase the land traffic, he had small cities built in advantageous localities, in which goods of all sorts in large quantities were kept in suitable storehouses; a practice similar to that which had from ancient times prevailed in Egypt. … They were established chiefly in the most northern districts of Israel, towards the Phœnician boundaries, as well as in the territories of the kingdom of Hamath, which was first conquered by Solomon himself.—The main road for the land traffic between Egypt and the interior of Asia must have been the great highway leading past Gaza and further west of Jerusalem to the Northern Jordan and Damascus. Here it was joined by the road from the Phœnician cities, and continued as far as Thapsacus, on the Euphrates. This was entirely in the dominions of the king; and here, under the peaceful banner of a great and powerful monarchy, commerce could flourish as it had never flourished before. It was clearly for the improvement of this route, which had to traverse the Syrian desert on the north, that Solomon built, in a happily chosen oasis of this wilderness, the city of Thammor, or Tadmor, of which the Greek version is Palmyra. There is not a single indication that this city was of importance before Solomon's time, but from that era it flourished for more than a thousand years. … For any distant navigation, however, Solomon was obliged to rely on the aid of the Phœnicians, inasmuch as they were in that age the only nation which possessed the necessary ability and inclination for it. It is true that the idea of competing with the Phœnicians upon the Mediterranean could hardly have occurred to him, since they had long before that time attracted all the commerce upon it to themselves, and would scarcely have desired or even tolerated such a rival. … But the Red Sea, which had been thrown open to the kings of Israel by the conquest of the Idumeans, offered the finest opportunity for the most distant and lucrative undertakings, the profit of which might perfectly satisfy a nation in the position of Israel in the dawn of maritime activity; and on their part, the Phœnicians could not fail to be most willing helpers in the promotion of undertakings which it lay in the hands of the powerful king of Israel entirely to cut off from them, or at any rate to encumber with great difficulties. In this way the mutual desires and needs of two nations coincided without any injury to the one or the other. … Phœnician sailors were at first, it is true, the teachers of the Israelite. It was they who aided them in constructing and manning the tall ships, which, destined to distant voyages upon uncertain seas, needed to be strongly built; but yet how many new ideas and what varied knowledge the nation would in this way acquire! The ships were built in Ezion-geber, the harbour of the town of Elath (or Eloth), probably on the very spot where Akaba now stands. The cargo brought back each time from the three years' voyage consisted of 420 talents of gold, besides silver, ivory, red sandal-wood, apes, and peacocks, probably also nard and aloe."

H. Ewald, History of Israel, volume 3, page 261-264.

COMMERCE: Greeks.

"When the Greeks had established themselves, not only on the peninsula, but also on the islands and on the east coast of the Ægean Sea, their navigation was greatly extended. That this, even in the first half of the 8th century, was profitable in its results, we see from the instance of Dius of Cyme, the father of Hesiod, who maintained himself in this manner. The works of art in which Lydia and Caria excelled, together with the products and manufactures of the east, which reached the western coasts of Asia, the products of these coasts, and wine and oil from Lesbos and Samos—all these could be shipped from the Greek maritime cities of Asia Minor, and carried to the peninsula. It was through this commerce … that Chalcis and Eretria laid the foundation of their greatness. To what proportions it had attained, even in the course of the 8th century, we find from the mint marks of Phocæa and Cyme, the standards of Chalcis and Eretria, the coins and weights and measures of Phidon of Argos. … From the middle of the 8th century, the Greeks no longer merely practised navigation; they became, in an eminent sense, a maritime nation. At the time when Sinope and Trapezus were founded in the east, Naxos, Catana, and Syracuse in Sicily, and Cyme in Campania, a nautical discovery had already been made, by means of which the Greeks surpassed the Phœnicians, the ancient voyagers of Syria; this was the building of triremes. To what an extent and proficiency must seamanship have attained, what importance naval battles must have assumed, to give rise to the attempt to replace the ancient war vessels by others of a far more powerful kind! When the first triremes were built at Corinth and Samos, about the year 700 B. C., Greek cities already existed on the southern shore of the Black Sea, on the coasts of Thrace, in Corcyra and Sicily; the southern coast of Italy had also been colonised. The products of Greek industry, pottery, implements, and weapons, were advantageously bartered on the coasts of the Thracians, Scythians, Illyrians, Sicilians, and Oscans, for the fruits of the soil, and for the cattle of those regions. The need of the means of exchange must have given great encouragement and impetus to manufactures in the Greek cities of the peninsula, on the coasts of Asia, and in the newly-founded Asiatic settlements themselves. … Navigation and commerce must have become permanent occupations. And the great increase of manufactures must also have given employment to numbers of the country people. Thus there grew up under the very rule of the aristocracy a powerful rival to itself; a nautical, artisan, commercial class, side by side with the land population. If the protecting walls of the chief place of the canton had previously been sought only in time of need, in case of surprises or hostile landings, the new industrial classes were now settled together in the harbours and centres of trade. Handicrafts, navigation, and commerce, could not exist without one another. In the maritime cantons on the east of the peninsula, and in the cantons on the coasts of the Peloponnesus, there sprang up simultaneously with the burgher class a town population."

M. Duncker, History of Greece, book 4, chapter 2 (volume 2).

{3700}

"Between 700 B. C. and 530 B. C., we observe … an immense extension of Grecian maritime activity and commerce—but we at the same time notice the decline of Tyre and Sidon, both in power and traffic. The arms of Nebuchadnezzar reduced the Phenician cities to the same state of dependence as that which the Ionian cities underwent half a century later from Crœsus and Cyrus; while the ships of Miletus, Phokæa and Samos gradually spread over all those waters of the Levant which had once been exclusively Phenician. In the year 704 B. C., the Samians did not yet possess a single trireme: down to the year 630 B. C. not a single Greek vessel had yet visited Libya. But when we reach 550 B. C. we find the Ionic ships predominant in the Ægean, and those of Corinth and Korkyra in force to the west of Peloponnesus—we see the flourishing cities of Kyrene and Barka already rooted in Libya, and the port of Naukratis a busy emporium of Grecian commerce with Egypt. The trade by land—which is all that Egypt had enjoyed prior to Psammetichus, and which was exclusively conducted by Phenicians—is exchanged for a trade by sea, of which the Phenicians have only a share, and seemingly a smaller share than the Greeks. Moreover the conquest by Amasis of the island of Cyprus, half-filled with Phenician settlements and once the tributary dependency of Tyre—affords an additional mark of the comparative decline of that great city. In her commerce with the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf she still remained without a competitor, the schemes of the Egyptian king Nekos having proved abortive. Even in the time of Herodotus, the spices and frankincense of Arabia were still brought and distributed only by the Phenician merchant. But on the whole, both political and industrial development of Tyre are now cramped by impediments, and kept down by rivals, not before in operation. … The 6th century B. C., though a period of decline for Tyre and Sidon, was a period of growth for their African colony Carthage, which appears during this century in considerable traffic with the Tyrrhenian towns on the southern coast of Italy, and as thrusting out the Phokæan settlers from Alalia in Corsica."

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 21.

"It is a remarkable fact in the history of Greek colonies that the exploration of the extreme west of the Mediterranean was not undertaken either by the adventurers who settled at Cyme, or by the powerful cities of Sicily. A century or more elapsed from the foundation of Syracuse before any Greek vessel was seen on the coast of Spain or Liguria, and when the new beginning was made, it was not made by any of the colonies, Chalcidian, Dorian, or Rhodian, which had taken part in the discovery of the West. It was the Phocaeans of Ionia, Herodotus tells us, who first made the Greeks acquainted with the Hadriatic, with Tyrrhenia, Iberia (Spain), and Tartessus (the region round Cadiz). The first impulse to these distant voyages arose from a mere accident. At the time of the foundation of Cyrene, about the year 630 B. C., a Greek of Samos, by name Colaeus, when on his way to Egypt, was carried by contrary winds beyond the pillars of Heracles to Tartessus. There he found a virgin market, from which he returned to realise a profit of 60 talents (£12,000), an amount only surpassed by the gains of Sostratus of Aegina, who was the premier of Greek merchants. But this was the beginning and the end of Samian trade to the West; why they left it to the Phocaeans to enter into the riches which they had discovered, we cannot say, but within thirty years of this date, the enterprising Ionian town sent out a colony to Massilia near the mouth of the Rhone, in the district known as Liguria. … The mouth of the Rhone was the point where all the routes met which traversed France from the English Channel to the Gulf of Genoa. Of these Strabo specifies three. Merchandise was carried by boats up the Rhone and Saône, from which it was transferred to the Seine, and so passed down the river; or it was taken by land from Marseilles (or Narbo) to the Loire; or again carried up the Aude and transported thence to the Garonne. By one or other of these routes, the wares collected by the Gaulish merchants—more especially the tin, which they imported from Britain—was brought into the Greek market, if indeed it was not carried on pack-horses straight across the narrowest part of the country. The importance of these lines of transit at a time when the western Mediterranean was held by the Carthaginians, and the northern Hadriatic by the Tyrrhenians, can hardly be over-estimated. The colonists extended their borders by degrees, though not without severe contests with the Ligurians and Tyrrhenians by sea and land. New cities were founded to serve as outposts against the enemy; Agatha in the direction of the barbarians of the Rhone; Olbia, Antipolis, and Nicaea in the direction of the Salyans and Ligurians of the Alps. They also spread themselves down the coast of Spain."

E. Abbott, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 13.

COMMERCE: Rome.

"Rome, placed like a mightier Mexico in the centre of her mighty lake, was furnished with every luxury and with many of her chief necessaries from beyond the waters; and cities on every coast, nearly similar in latitude and climate, vied in intense rivalry with each other in ministering to her appetite. First in the ranks of commerce was the traffic in corn, which was conducted by large fleets of galleys, sailing from certain havens once a year at stated periods, and pouring their stores into her granaries in their appointed order. Gaul and Spain, Sardinia and Sicily, Africa and Egypt were all wheat-growing countries, and all contributed of their produce, partly as a tax, partly also as an article of commerce, to the sustentation of Rome and Italy. The convoy from Alexandria was looked for with the greatest anxiety, both as the heaviest laden, and as from the length of the voyage the most liable to disaster or detention. The vessels which bore the corn of Egypt were required to hoist their topsails on sighting the promontory of Surrentum, both to distinguish them from others, and to expedite their arrival. These vessels moreover, according to the institution of Augustus, were of more than ordinary size, and they were attended by an escort of war galleys. The importance attached to this convoy was marked by the phrases, 'auspicious' and 'sacred,' applied to it. … A deputation of senators from Rome was directed to await its arrival at the port where it was about to cast anchor, which, from the bad condition of the haven at Ostia, was generally at this period Puteoli in Campania. {3701} As soon as the well-known topsails were seen above the horizon a general holiday was proclaimed, and the population of the country, far and near, streamed with joyous acclamations to the pier, and gazed upon the rich flotilla expanding gaily before them. The vessels engaged in this trade, however numerous, were after all of small burden. The corn-fleets did not indeed form the chief maritime venture of the Alexandrians. The products of India, which had formerly reached Egypt from Arabia, and were supposed indeed in Europe to have come only from the shores of the Erythræan Sea, were now conveyed direct to Cleopatris or Berenice from the mouths of the Indus and the coast of Malabar, and employed an increasing number of vessels, which took advantage of the periodical trade winds both in going and returning. The articles of which they went in quest were for the most part objects of luxury; such as ivory and tortoise shell, fabrics of cotton and silk, both then rare and costly, pearls and diamonds, and more especially gums and spices. The consumption of these latter substances in dress, in cookery, in the service of the temples, and above all at funerals, advanced with the progress of wealth and refinement. The consignments which reached Alexandria from the East were directed to every port on the Mediterranean; but there was no corresponding demand for the produce of the West in India, and these precious freights were for the most part exchanged for gold and silver, of which the drain from Europe to Asia was uninterrupted. The amount of the precious metals thus abstracted from the currency or bullion of the empire, was estimated at 100,000,000 sesterces, or about £800,000 yearly. The reed called papyrus, the growth of which seems to have been almost confined to the banks of the Nile, was in general use as the cheapest and most convenient writing material, and the consumption of it throughout the world, though it never entirely superseded the use of parchment and waxen tablets, must have been immense. It was converted into paper in Egypt, and thence exported in its manufactured state; but this practice was not universal, for we read of a house at Rome which improved on the native process, and produced what Pliny calls an imperial or noble out of a mere plebeian texture. With respect to other articles of general use, it may be remarked that the most important, such as corn, wine, oil, and wool, were the common produce of all the coasts of the Mediterranean, and there was accordingly much less interchange of these staple commodities among the nations of antiquity than with ourselves, whose relations extend through so many zones of temperature. Hence, probably, we hear of none of their great cities becoming the workshops or emporiums of the world for any special article of commerce. The woollens indeed of Miletus and Laodicea, together with other places of Asia Minor, were renowned for their excellence, and may have been transported as articles of luxury to distant parts; but Africa and Spain, Italy and parts of Greece, were also breeders of sheep, and none of these countries depended for this prime necessary on the industry or cupidity of foreigners. The finest qualities of Greek and Asiatic wines were bespoken at Rome, and at every other great seat of luxury. The Chian and Lesbian vintages were among the most celebrated. … Again, while the clothing of the mass of the population was made perhaps mainly from the skins of animals, leather of course could be obtained abundantly in almost every locality. When we remember that the ancients had neither tea, coffee, tobacco, sugar, nor for the most part spirits; that they made little use of glass, and at this period had hardly acquired a taste for fabrics of silk, cotton, or even flax, we shall perceive at a glance how large a portion of the chief articles of our commerce was entirely wanting to theirs. Against this deficiency, however, many objects of great importance are to be set. Though the ruder classes were content with wooden cups and platters fashioned at their own doors, the transport of earthenware of the finer and more precious kinds, and from certain localities, was very considerable. Though the Greeks and Romans generally were without some of our commonest implements of gold and silver, such for instance as watches and forks, it is probable that they indulged even more than we do in personal decoration with rings, seals, and trinkets of a thousand descriptions. … The conveyance of wild animals, chiefly from Africa, for the sports of the amphitheatres of some hundreds of cities throughout the empire, must alone have given occupation to a large fleet of ships and many thousand mariners. Nor were the convoys smaller which were employed to transport marble from the choicest quarries of Greece and Asia to many flourishing cities besides the metropolis. … After due deduction for the more contracted sphere of ancient commerce, and the lesser number of articles, for the extent also to which the necessaries and conveniences of life were manufactured at home in the establishments of wealthy slave owners, we shall still readily believe that the inter-communication of the cities of the Mediterranean, such as Corinth, Rhodes, Ephesus, Cyzicus, Antioch, Tyrus, Alexandria, Cyrene, Athens, Carthage, Tarraco, Narbo and Massilia, Neapolis and Tarentum, Syracuse and Agrigentum, and of all with Rome, must have been a potent instrument in fusing into one family the manifold nations of the empire. … In the eyes of the Orientals and the Greeks, the mistress of lands and continents, the leader of armies, and the builder of roads was regarded as the greatest of all maritime emporiums, and represented in their figurative style as a woman sitting enthroned upon the waves of the Mediterranean. The maritime aspect thus assumed by Rome in the eyes of her subjects beyond the sea, is the more remarkable when we consider how directly her ancient policy and habits were opposed to commercial development. … The landowners of Rome, in the highday of her insolent adolescence, had denounced both commerce and the arts as the business of slaves or freedmen. So late as the year 535 a law had been passed which forbade a senator to possess a vessel of burden, and the traffic which was prohibited to the higher class was degraded in the eyes of the lower. … It was … by following the natural train of circumstances, and by no settled policy of her own, that Rome secured her march across the sea, and joined coast to coast with the indissoluble chain of her dominion. On land, on the contrary, she constructed her military causeways with a fixed and definite purpose. … The population of Gaul crept, we know, slowly up the channel of the rivers, and the native tracks which conveyed their traffic from station to station were guided by these main arteries of their vital system. {3702} But the conquerors struck out at once a complete system of communication for their own purposes, by means of roads cut or built as occasion required, with a settled policy rigidly pursued. These high roads, as we may well call them, for they were raised above the level of the plains and the banks of the rivers, and climbed the loftiest hills, were driven in direct lines from point to point, and were stopped by neither forest nor marsh nor mountain."

C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 39.

COMMERCE: Gaul under the Romans and after the fall of the Empire.

"In the second century of our era, in the time of Trajan and the Antonines, Gaul with its fertile fields, its beautiful meadows, its magnificent forests, was one of the best cultivated countries of the Roman world. It exported into Italy grain from Aquitaine, Celtique and from the country of the Allobroges (Dauphiné), flax from Cadurques (Quercy) and Bituriges (Berry), hemp from Auvergne and the valley of the Rhône, spikenard from Provence (valeriana celtica according to M. Littré) renowned in the Roman pharmacopœia, oak and pine from the immense forests which still covered the Pyrenees, the Cevennes, the Alps, the Jura, the Vosges and nearly all the north of Gaul (forest of Ardennes), horses from Belgium, wool from the Narbonnaise, cheese from the Alps and from Nîmes, hams and salt provisions from Séquanaise (Franche-Comté), and the Pyrenees. The wines of the Narbonnaise and the valley of the Rhône, often adulterated and little relished by the Italians, were notwithstanding one of the principal objects of commerce in the interior of Gaul, in Great Britain and Germany. The oysters of the Mediterranean and even those of the Atlantic and the Channel which the ancients had perhaps found means of keeping in fresh water, figured upon the tables of the gourmets of Rome. We know that long before the conquest, the Gauls took gold from the sands of their rivers and that in certain regions (Upper Pyrenees), territory of the Tarbelles, and Val d'Aoste, territory of the Salasses, they extracted gold from the auriferous rocks by processes quite analogous to those which are now employed by the great Californian companies. These mines which were yet in existence under Augustus were not long in being exhausted, but the iron of Berry, Sénonais, Perigord, Rouergue, the valley of the Rhône and of the Saône, the copper of the Pyrenees (Saint-Etienne-de-Baïgorry), of the Alps (country of the Centrons, now Upper Savoy), of the Cevennes (Cabrieres in Hérault and Chessy in Rhône), the tin of Limousin, the argentiferous lead of the territory of the Rutènes (Rouergue), of the Gabales (Gévaudan), of the Centrons, etc., were mined and wrought with a skill which placed the metallurgy of Gaul in the first rank of the industries of the empire. These mining operations, superintended by the State, although they belonged to the proprietors of the soil, were often directed by companies which combined the working of the metal with its extraction from the ore. One which had its seat at Lyons is known to us by many inscriptions. Textile industries were not less flourishing than metallurgy, the manufacture of sail-cloth was carried on all over Gaul; the bleached linens of Cahors, the carpets of the Narbonnaise, the sagums of mingled bright colors were renowned even in Italy. The progress of commerce had followed that of agriculture and manufacture. The network of Roman roads planned by Agrippa was completed and four roads accessible to carriages or beasts of burden, crossed the Alps by the passes of the Little (Graius Mons) and of the Great Saint-Bernard (Summus Penninus), of Mount Genèvre (Mons Matrona) and of the Argentière: the Corniche road stretched along the Mediterranean from Genoa to Marseilles: those of the pass of Pertus (Summa Pyrenoeco), of the valley of Aran, of the Somport, of Roncevaux, and from Lapurdum (Bayonne) to Pampeluna connected Gaul to Spain. … Notwithstanding the competition of new roads, river navigation had retained all its activity. … We know from inscriptions of a certain number of associations for water transportation which appear to have played a great rôle in the interior commerce of Gaul from the first century of our era. The boatmen of the Rhône, the Saône, the Durance, the Seine, the Loire, the Aar, an affluent of the Rhine, formed corporations recognized by the State, organized on the model of cities, having their regulations, property, elective chiefs, and patronized by great personages who charged themselves with defending their interests against the Roman authorities. The most celebrated, If not the most important of these associations, is that of the Nautæ Parisiaci, the memory of which has been preserved to us by the remains of an altar raised, under Tiberius, at the point of the Isle of the City (the ancient Lutetia) and found in 1711 under the choir of Notre-Dame. … The two great commercial ports of the Mediterranean were Narbonne and Arles, after Marseilles had lost her maritime preponderance and was only a city of science, luxury and pleasure. … Immense labor upon embankments and canalization which had thrown within Narbonne the mass of the river and deepened the maritime channel made of the metropolis of the Narbonnaise one of the safest ports upon the coast of Gaul. It communicated with the Rhône by the navigation of the lakes (étangs) which at that time extended without interruption to the western mouth of the river, with the ocean by the course of the Garonne, navigable from Toulouse (Tolosa). The port of the Garonne was then as now Bordeaux (Burdigala) which already had intercourse with Great Britain and Spain. Aries, connected with the sea by the canal of Marius and perhaps also by the small arm of the Rhône and the navigation of the lakes (étangs), was a maritime port and at the same time the outlet for the navigation of the Rhône which was prolonged by the Saône as far as Chalon (Cabillonum). Upon the banks of the river rose the wealthy cities of Tarascon, Avignon (Avenio), Orange (Arausio), Vienne. Lyons is the commercial and also the political metropolis of Gaul, the seat of the most powerful manufacturing and commercial companies; the boatmen of the Saône and the Rhône, the wine merchants, the mining and smelting company of the valley of the Rhône. Above Chalon, four great commercial routes start from the valley of the Saône. The first ascends the Doubs as far as Besançon (Vesuntio) and terminates at the Rhine near Augst (Augusta Rauracorum), where the river is already navigable. {3703} The second follows the valley of the Saône and descends by the Moselle, navigable above Trèves (Augusta Trevirorum), and by the Meuse, toward the middle and lower valley of the Rhine. … The third route, that from the Saône to the Loire, set out from Chalon, crossed Autun (Augustodunum), and reached the Loire above Orleans (Genabum, later Aurelianum). Goods embarked upon the river arrived, after a voyage of 870 kilometers (2,000 stades), at Nantes (Portus Namnetum) which appears to have been substituted, about the beginning of the first century, for the ancient port of Corbilo and which was also in intercourse with Great Britain. The fourth route, that from the Saône to the Seine, crossed Autun, was there divided into two branches which went by way of Avallon and Alise to meet at Sens (Agedincum) on the Yonne, and descended the Seine to its mouth by Melun (Melodunum), Paris (Lutetia) and Rouen (Rotomagus). This was the shortest route between the new province of Britani and the Mediterranean; but the ancients, notwithstanding the progress in navigation, always distrusted long passages by sea; so the principal emporium of commerce with Britani was not Caracotinum (Harfleur), the port of the Seine, but Gesoriacum, later Bononia (Boulogne), which is distant only 50 kilometers from the English coast. It was there that Caligula erected that gigantic pharos known to the middle-ages under the name of the tower of Odre and which existed until 1645. … When one thinks of Gaul in the second half of the 5th century, after those great streams of invasion which swept it for fifty years, one easily fancies that the flood has carried everything away, that the Roman institutions have disappeared, that private fortunes are swallowed up in a frightful catastrophe, that the barbarians have enslaved the Gallo-Romans, that social life is suspended, manufactures ruined, commerce interrupted. This picture which responds to the idea we form of a barbarian conquest, is necessarily exaggerated, because the Germanic invasion was not a conquest. The Germans who established themselves upon the Roman territory, those even who had employed force to make a place for themselves within it, did not consider themselves conquerors, but subjects and soldiers of the Empire: they dreamed so little of destroying it that they aspired to serve it whether it would or no. Notwithstanding the decadence of manufactures and the inevitable disorders which weakness of the central power brings in its train, commerce appears to have preserved a certain amount of activity. In the 6th century, post stages still existed. Upon the Roman roads, maintained and repaired by the Merovingians, heavy wagons which served for the transportation of goods and travelers circulated with their teams of oxen or horses. Royal decrees commanded the preservation of towing-paths along navigable rivers; the rivers had remained the high-ways of interior commerce, and the boatmen's companies of Roman Gaul had perhaps survived the fall of the imperial domination. The ports of the Atlantic, Bordeaux and Nantes, those of the Channel, Alet (between Saint-Malo and Saint-Servan), Rouen, Quantovic (Etaples or Saint-Josse-sur-Mer?) on the bay of the Canche, Boulogne, were in relations with the Visigoths and the Suevi of Spain, the Irish, the Frisians, and received in exchange for the wines, honey, madder, grains and linens of Gaul, oils and lead from Spain, metals and slaves from Great Britain, coarse cloths from Ireland and finer fabrics which they were beginning to make in Frisia. Marseilles, Arles, Narbonne, the great ports of the Mediterranean, were always the depots for the trade of the Orient, where their vessels went for spices, silks, papyrus from Alexandria, cloths and carpets from Antioch and Laodicea, which their merchants exchanged in part for money, in part for metals, honey, saffron, almonds and linens from southern Gaul, coral brought from Italy, and amber brought overland from the borders of the Baltic. The conquests of the Franks, masters of central and southern Germany, had opened to commerce two new roads: one, by the Danube, stretched away to the frontiers of the Eastern Empire and to Constantinople through the countries occupied by the fierce tribes of the Avars and the Bulgarians; the other arrived by Thuringia in the regions where the Slav tribes, Sorbs (Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, Pomerania) and Wends (Bohemia, Moravia, Austria, Carinthia) dominated. In these uncultivated countries, covered with forests and marshes, in the midst of these warlike peoples, the merchants could risk themselves only in large caravans, sword at the side and lance in hand. These distant and perilous expeditions were attractive to the adventurous spirit of the Frank race. … Faith, as well as ambition, found its account in these journeys to the countries of the pagan. On the way, they distributed religious images to the heathen, they tried to convert them while profiting by them. … This mingling of commerce and religion is one of the characteristic traits of the middle ages, as it is of antiquity. The most ancient fairs of Gaul, that of Troyes which was in existence as early as the 5th century, that of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, that of Saint-Denis, which goes back to the time of Dagobert (629), were at the same time pilgrimages. This latter the most celebrated of all, under the Merovingians, was held outside the walls of Paris, between the churches of Saint-Martin and Saint-Laurent, upon the lands watered by the brook Ménilmontant; it was opened on the festival of Saint-Denis and continued four weeks, in order to permit, says its charter, merchants from Spain, Provence and Lombardy and even those from beyond the sea, to take part in it. … The fair of Saint-Denis was the rendezvous of merchants from all parts of Gaul and Europe. Beside the wines and oils of the South might be seen the honey and wax of Armorica, the linens and madder of Neustria, the metals of Spain and England, the furs of the North, the products of the royal manufactories; but the choicest goods were the spices, pepper, tissues of silk and of cotton, jewels, enamels, goldsmiths' work, which came from the Orient by the Mediterranean ports, more rarely by way of the Danube, and whose guardians were the Syrians or Jews destined to hold so great a place in the commerce of the middle ages. The Syrians,—and under this name the Franks comprehended, without doubt, all merchants native to Egypt or Roman Asia,—formed powerful communities at Marseilles, Narbonne, Bordeaux; at Paris they had sufficient influence to enable one of them, Eusebius, to succeed in purchasing the episcopate, in 591. … As to the Jews, a great number were already established in Gaul before the fall of the Roman Empire, but their prosperity dates only from the epoch of disorganization which followed the barbarian invasion."

_H. Pigeonneau, Histoire du Commerce de la France (translated from the French), tome 1, livre 1._

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COMMERCE: Mediæval. Early trade with China.

"During the Tang Dynasty the intercourse between China and other considerable powers was not only closer but conducted on more nearly equal terms than at any other time. … The neighbouring kingdom of Tibet is first mentioned in the annals for 634 A. D. as sending ambassadors with tribute and being able to raise a large and formidable army. … Appeals from Persia and India for help against the Saracens were addressed to China more than once in the 7th and 8th centuries; and the heir apparent to the Persian throne resided for a time as hostage at the court of China. … But for the physical structure of the continent, which isolates India and China, while freezing Tibet and nomadizing Tartary, the spread of Arab conquest round or across the desert would have reached a point near enough to bring about a collision with China. As it was, a general impetus was given to foreign travel and foreign commerce; and … colonies of traders established themselves in the southern ports, as well as along the continental trade routes. … About the year 700 A. D. a market for strangers was opened at Canton, and an imperial commission appointed to levy duties. In 714 A. D. we hear of a petition of foreign merchants, arriving by way of the southern sea, which is forwarded from the coast in quite modern fashion for the emperor's consideration. It set forth all the precious things which the merchants could bring from the countries of the West, and represented them as only desirous of collecting medicinal drugs and simples. Unfortunately for the traders, they arrived at the beginning of a new reign, when a vigorous attempt had been made to put down the luxury of the court. … It was concluded to take no further notice of the petition. Foreign trade continued to exist on sufferance, but so far as the Chinese were concerned, it was limited by the attitude of the Government to a moderate exportation of staple commodities, paid for in foreign coin or precious metals. What China had to sell was much more important to the Western nations than anything she or her rulers could be prevailed upon to buy; and so long as the trade dealt with surplus manufactures, like silk, or natural products, like musk or rhubarb, and did not endanger the local food supply, it was not interfered with. In 794 A. D. complaints were made that trade was leaving Canton for Cochin China, but the traders' schemes for recovering or pursuing it were discouraged by the Government, which opined that there must have been intolerable extortions used to drive it away, or a want of natural inducements to bring it, and quoted the Shoo: 'Do not prize strange commodities too much, and persons will come from remote parts.' Arab geographers and travellers of the 9th century show what a development had been reached by foreign commerce under this modified freedom. The Jewish merchants described by Ibn Khordadbeh as speaking Persian, Latin, Greek, Arab, Spanish, Slavonic, and Lingua franca, and trading by sea and land to the remotest regions, had their representatives at Canton; and the four trade routes, enumerated by Sir Henry Yule, enabled all the great commercial communities to try their hand at the China trade. The first of these routes led from the Mediterranean over the Isthmus of Suez, and onwards by sea; another reached the Indian sea viâ Antioch, Bagdad and Bussora and the Persian Gulf; a third followed the coast of Africa by land from Tangiers to Egypt and thence by Damascus to Bagdad, while the fourth led south of the Caspian Sea and north of the central Asian desert to the gates of the Great Wall. The Chinese traders either met the Western merchants at Ceylon, or themselves came as far as the mouth of the Euphrates."

E. J. Simcox, Primitive Civilizations, book 4, chapter 12, section 2 (volume 2).

COMMERCE: Mediæval. The Arabs.

The earliest date to which any positive statement of intercourse between the Arabs and the Chinese "appears to refer is the first half of the 5th century of our era. At this time, according to Hamza of Ispahan and Masudi, the Euphrates was navigable as high as Hira, a city lying south-west of ancient Babylon, near Kufa, (now at a long distance from the actual channel of the river), and the ships of India and China were constantly to be seen moored before the houses of the town. Hira was then abounding in wealth, and the country round, now a howling wilderness, was full of that life and prosperity which water bestows in such a climate. A gradual recession took place in the position of the headquarters of Indian and Chinese trade. From Hira it descended to Obolla, the ancient Apologos, from Obolla it was transferred to the neighbouring city of Basra, built by the Khalif Omar on the first conquest of Irak (636), from Basra to Siraf on the northern shore of the gulf, and from Siraf successively to Kish and Hormuz. Chinese Annals of the Thang dynasty of the 7th and 8th centuries, describe the course followed by their junks in voyaging to the Euphrates from Kwangcheu (Canton). … The ships of China, according to some authorities, used to visit Aden as well as the mouths of Indus and Euphrates. I do not think that either Polo or any traveller of his age speaks of them as going further than Malabar, the ports of which appear to have become the entrepôts for commercial exchange between China and the west, nor does it appear what led to this change. Some time in the 15th century again they seem to have ceased to come to Malabar. … The Arabs at an early date of Islam, if not before, had established a factory at Canton, and their numbers at that port were so great by the middle of the 8th century that in 758 they were strong enough to attack and pillage the city, to which they set fire and then fled to their ships. Nor were they confined to this port. … In the 8th century also the Arabs began to know the Chinese not only as Sinæ, but as Seres, i. e. by the northern land route. … Besides … communication by land and sea with Arabia, and with the various states of India, … there existed from an old date other and obscurer streams of intercourse between China and Western Asia, of which we have but fragmentary notices, but which seem to indicate a somewhat fuller mutual knowledge and freer communication than most persons probably have been prepared to recognise. Thus, China appears to have been well known from an early period to the Armenians."

_H. Yule, Cathay and the Way thither, preliminary essay (volume 1), pages lxxvii-lxxxii._

{3705}

After the Arabs began their career as a conquering people, under Mahomet and his successors, and took possession of the great ancient fields of Asiatic and African commerce, with its highways and its capital seats, from Ispahan to Palmyra, Damascus, Baalbec, Tyre, Alexandria, and the old Carthaginian ports, they quickly caught the large ideas of trade that were then opened up to them. They improved the early caravan routes and established new ones in many directions. They dug wells, made cisterns and built caravansaries, or public places of shelter for travelers and traders, along the important desert roads. The pilgrimages which their religion encouraged had a lively traffic connected with them, and by spreading one language and one set of customs and laws over the wide region which they ruled, they helped commerce as the Romans had done. From Bagdad, the new capital city which they built on the Tigris, nearly opposite the deserted ruins of Babylon, on the other side of the Chaldean plain, they carried on direct trade with India, through Afghanistan; with China by three routes through Bokhara, or Tartary; with Siberia and with Russia, to the very center of it, through the agency of the Turkish and Tartar races. This city of Bagdad became a marvel of magnificence under the early Arabian caliphs. Other cities of Asia that acquired importance in manufactures or trade, or both, during the period of Arabian power, were Ispahan, in Persia, the woolens and linens from which were equally noted for their fineness; Damascus, in Syria, which produces cutlery of steel, and especially sword blades, that have never been surpassed, and which gave the name of "damasks" to certain raised patterns in linen that are well known by that term to this day; Herat, in Afghanistan, which was famous for its carpet looms and for its cultivation of saffron and assafœtida; Balkh and Khotan, in Bokhara, the former of which, on the banks of the Oxus, was a populous seat of trade between China, India and the West. From its great antiquity, Balkh was called "the mother of cities." In their native country, the Arabs, during this brilliant period of their history, increased the ancient trade which they had carried on by sea, with India, on one hand, and with the eastern coasts of Africa, on the other. They extended the latter far south of the limits of ancient Ethiopia, and even to the island of Madagascar. There are few settlements now existing on the east African coast, below the straits of Babel-Mandeb, which were not of Arabian origin. The pilgrimages to Mecca, their holy city, where the remains of Mahomet were interred, made that a great market and both industry and commerce were enlivened throughout the Arabian peninsula. As masters of Egypt, the Arabians reorganized with fresh vigor the ancient caravan traffic with central Africa and with the countries on the Upper Nile. Alexandria, it is true, lost much of its former importance. This was owing, in part, to the bitter hostility that existed between the Mahometans and the European Christians, which broke up, for a long period, nearly all open commerce between the two. But Alexandria was also hurt by the rise of new Arabian cities, in Egypt and on the Barbary coast, which drew away some of the trade that had centered almost wholly at Alexandria before. Cairo, the modern capital of Egypt, stood first among these and became a wealthy seat of many manufactures and of much commercial exchange. The interior caravan traffic of Egypt centered principally at Syene, while Temnis and Damietta were busy productive towns. Within the old Carthaginian dominions, west of Egypt, on the Mediterranean, the Arab conquerors revived a traffic quite as extensive, perhaps, as the greatest that ancient Carthage had controlled. Not far from the site of that ancient emporium, and twelve miles from the modern city of Tunis, they built the now forgotten city of Kirwan, which was one of the largest and most magnificent of its time. It was a point from which numerous caravan routes led southward into the heart of the African continent, even beyond the great desert, as well as eastward to Egypt and westward to the Atlantic coasts and Spain. Many flourishing towns surrounded this African metropolis and were the centers of many different activities, such as the cultivation of grain, the making of salt, the rearing of silk-worms and the production of silk. In Mauritania, which embraced the modern empire of Morocco and part of Algiers, the Arabs introduced the same spirit of enterprise. In their hands, the barren country—which has since become almost a desert again—was made fertile, through wide regions, by extensive irrigation, and produced wheat, olives, grapes, dates and other fruits in great abundance, besides feeding flocks and herds of sheep, goats, horses, asses and camels in rich pastures. The people became skilful in several manufactures, including weaving and dyeing, the making of silk and gold thread, the mining and smelting of copper and iron, the preparation of soap and the tanning of leather. From the Atlantic coast of their Mauritanian dominion, the Arabs pushed their traffic far down the western shores of the continent, while they opened caravan routes to the interior quite as widely, perhaps, as they did from Kirwan and from Egypt. The chief city that they founded in Mauritania was Fez, which still bears witness to its former glory in a lingering university, or collection of Mahometan schools; in the remains of many mosques, and in a vast number of caravansaries. The native inhabitants whom the Arabs found in Mauritania derived from their country the name of Moors. They embraced the Mahometan religion and joined their Saracen conquerors in invading Spain, A. D. 712. This led, in Europe, to the applying of the name "Moors" to the whole of the mixed races which took possession of southern Spain, and finally gave that name to all the Mahometans on the western Mediterranean coasts. But the Moors and the Arabs were distinct races of people. The conquest of southern Spain gave the Arabs the finest field in which their energy and genius were shown. They made the most of its mineral treasures, its delightful climate and its fertile soil. On the remains of Roman civilization, which Vandals and Visigoths had not wholly destroyed, they built up, with wonderful quickness, a new culture—of industry, of manners and of taste, of art, of literature, of government and of social life—that was splendidly in contrast with the rude state of Europe at large. The trade of the Spanish Moors was considerably extended among the Christians of Europe, notwithstanding the religious enmities that opposed it. {3706} The products of their skilful workmanship were so eagerly desired, and they controlled so many of the coveted luxuries found in Africa and the East that their Christian neighbors could not be restrained, by war nor by the commands of the church nor by the hatred which both stirred up, from dealings with them. With other parts of the Mahometan dominion, and with the countries in commercial connection with it, the trade of Moorish Spain was active and large. In exchange for the varied products which they received, they gave the fine fabrics of their looms; exquisite work of their goldsmiths and silversmiths; famous leather; iron, quicksilver and silver from the old Spanish mines, which they worked with new knowledge and skill; sugar, the production of which they had learned and introduced from India; olive oil, raw silk, dye-stuffs, sulphur and many commodities of less worth. The career of the Arabs, in the large region of the world which they conquered, was brilliant but not lasting. The energy which carried them for a time far ahead of their slower neighbors in Europe showed signs of decay before two centuries of their career had been run.

COMMERCE: MEDIÆVAL. Byzantine Trade.

"The commerce of Europe centred at Constantinople in the 8th and 9th centuries more completely than it has ever since done in any one city. The principles of the government, which reprobated monopoly, and the moderation of its duties, which repudiated privileges, were favourable to the extension of trade. While Charlemagne ruined the internal trade of his dominions by fixing a maximum of prices, and destroyed foreign commerce under the persuasion that, by discouraging luxury, he could enable his subjects to accumulate treasures which he might afterwards extort or filch into his own treasury, Theophilus prohibited the persons about his court from engaging in mercantile speculations, lest by so doing they should injure the regular channels of commercial intercourse, by diminishing the profits of the individual dealer. … During this period the western nations of Europe drew their supplies of Indian commodities from Constantinople, and the Byzantine empire supplied them with all the gold coin in circulation for several centuries. The Greek navy, both mercantile and warlike, was the most numerous then in existence. Against the merchant-ships of the Greeks, the piratical enterprises of the Egyptian, African, and Spanish Arabs were principally directed. Unfortunately we possess no authentic details of the commercial state of the Byzantine empire, nor of the Greek population during the Iconoclast period, yet we may safely transfer to this time the records that exist proving the extent of Greek commerce under the Basilian dynasty. Indeed, we must remember that, as the ignorance and poverty of western Europe was much greater in the 11th and 12th centuries than in the 8th and 9th, we may conclude that Byzantine commerce was also greater during the earlier period. The influence of the trade of the Arabians with the East Indies on the supply of the markets of western Europe has been overrated, and that of the Greeks generally lost sight of. … The Byzantine markets drew their supplies of Indian and Chinese productions from Central Asia, the trade passing north of the caliph's dominions through the territory of the Khazars to the Black Sea. This route was long frequented by the Christians, to avoid the countries in the possession of the Mohammedans, and was the highway of European commerce for several centuries. Though it appears at present a far more difficult and expensive route than that by the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, it was really safer, more rapid, and more economical, in the 8th, 9th, and 10th centuries. This requires no proof to those who are acquainted with caravan life in the East, and who reflect on the imperfections of ancient navigation, and the dangers and delays to which sailing vessels of any burden are exposed in the Red Sea. When the Venetians and Genoese began to surpass the Greeks in commercial enterprise, they endeavoured to occupy this route; and we have some account of the line it followed, and the manner in which it was carried on, after the East had been thrown into confusion by the conquests of the Crusaders and Tartars, in the travels of Marco Polo. For several centuries the numerous cities of the Byzantine empire supplied the majority of the European consumers with Indian wares, and it was in them alone that the necessary security of property existed to preserve large stores of merchandise. Constantinople was as much superior to every city in the civilised world, in wealth and commerce, as London now is to the other European capitals. And it must also be borne in mind, that the countries of central Asia were not then in the rude and barbarous condition into which they have now sunk, since nomade nations have subdued them. On many parts of the road traversed by the caravans, the merchants found a numerous and wealthy population ready to traffic in many articles sought after both in the East and West; and the single commodity of furs supplied the traders with the means of adding greatly to their profits. Several circumstances contributed to turn the great highway of trade from the dominions of the caliphs to Constantinople. The Mohammedan law, which prohibited all loans at interest, and the arbitrary nature of the administration of justice, rendered all property, and particularly commercial property, insecure. Again, the commercial route of the Eastern trade, by the way of Egypt and the Red Sea, was suddenly rendered both difficult and expensive, about the year 767, by the Caliph Al Mansur, who closed the canal connecting the Nile with the Red Sea. The harvests of Egypt, which had previously filled the coast of Arabia with plenty, could no longer be transported in quantity to the ports of the Red Sea; living became expensive; the population of Arabia declined; and the carrying trade was ruined by the additional expenditure required. The caliph certainly by this measure impoverished and depopulated the rebellious cities of Medina and Mecca to such a degree as to render their military and political power less dangerous to the central authority at Bagdat, but at the same time he ruined the commerce of Egypt with India and the eastern coast of Southern Africa. Since that period, this most important line of communication has never been restored, and the coarser articles of food, of which Egypt can produce inexhaustible stores, are deprived of their natural market in the arid regions of Arabia. {3707} The hostile relations between the caliphs of Bagdat and Spain likewise induced a considerable portion of the Mohammedan population on the shores of the Mediterranean to maintain close commercial relations with Constantinople. A remarkable proof of the great wealth of society at this period is to be found in the immense amount of specie in circulation. … The poverty of Europe at a later period, when the isolation caused by the feudal system had annihilated commerce and prevented the circulation of the precious metals, cannot be used as an argument against the probability of this wealth having existed at the earlier period of which we are treating."

G. Finlay, History of the Byzantine Empire, 716-1057, book 1, chapter 4, section 1.

COMMERCE: MEDIÆVAL. Venice and Genoa.

In the slow revival of commerce which took place in Christian Europe, during the later half of the middle ages, no one city or people can be said to have taken a lead from the beginning. At various points, north and south, on the Mediterranean and the Adriatic, on the Baltic, on the Rhine and other rivers which flow into the North Sea, and on the Danube, the Dnieper and the Don, centers of trade were growing up in a gradual way, out of which it would be hard to name one that ranked much above the rest for many generations. But the 11th century brought a great commercial leader to the front. This was Venice. The circumstances of the founding of Venice, in the 5th century, and the history of the rise of the singular republic, are given elsewhere.

See VENICE (page 8602).

The condition of the unfortunate refugees, who sought shelter from invading savages on a few small mud banks, barely separated from the shore of their Adriatic coast, did not seem to be a promising one. Nor was it so. While the neighboring parts of Italy were being overrun by Huns, Goths and Lombards in succession, and while the settlement of the barbarous new races was going on over all Southern Europe, in the midst of great disorder and constant war, these islanders and their descendants, for generations, were protected as much by their poverty as by the shallow waters that surrounded them. They had nothing to tempt either plunder or conquest. They lived by salt-making, fishing and fish-salting. They began trade in a small way by exchanging their salt and salted fish for other articles. It grew in their hands from year to year, for they were enterprising, industrious and courageous. Procuring timber on the opposite Dalmatian coast of the Adriatic, they became expert ship builders and sailors. The safety of their situation caused increasing numbers of their Italian fellow countrymen to join them. The islands of the Venetian lagune were, in time, all occupied, and bridges between several of them were built. From the selling of salt and fish to their neighbors, the Venetians went on to more extensive commercial business. By slow degrees, they took the occupation of general merchants, buying goods here and there to sell again. They became friendly with the Greeks on the eastern side of the Adriatic, in Dalmatia and Albania, and this led them into important relations, both commercial and political, with the Byzantine Empire and its capital city, Constantinople. By the time they had gained wealth and consequence enough to attract the notice of their rough neighbors and invite attack, they had also gained strength enough to defend themselves. They took part then in the wars of the Byzantines, rendering valuable services in Italy and elsewhere, and they joined the Greeks in destroying the pirates who infested the Adriatic Sea. The early important trade of the Venetians was with Constantinople, where they enjoyed, for a long period, the peculiar favor of the Byzantine rulers. After the Saracens had mastered Syria and Persia, and taken possession of Alexandria (A. D. 640), Constantinople became the emporium of Eastern trade, adding it to a great traffic which the Byzantine capital had always carried on with the Tartar and Russian territories in Asia and Europe. When the Venetians gained a footing there, as political friends and favored merchants, their fortunes were made. While the Greeks were busy in desperate wars with their Mahometan neighbors, these enterprising Italians took into their own hands more and more of the profitable trade which the Greeks had opened to them. They soon had the handling of Byzantine commerce in western Europe almost wholly. From partners they became rivals, and especially in the Russian traffic, which they drew away from Constantinople, to a large extent, by opening direct dealings with the Russian traders, at a market place established on the Dnieper. From the beginning of the Crusades, in the 11th century, the rise of Venetian commerce and Venetian power was very rapid. The Venetians were prepared, as no other people were, at the time, to furnish fleets, both for transportation and for naval war. They enlisted in the crusading enterprises with a zeal which was not, perhaps, purely pious. Their carrying ships were busy conveying men and supplies; their war galleys were in the front of some sea fighting with the Moslems, and more with Christian rivals; their shrewd politicians were alert, at all points and among all parties, looking after the interests of the republic; their merchants were everywhere ready to improve the new opportunities of trade which these times of excitement opened up. In all directions, and throughout the whole of Europe, new activities were awakened, and especially such as led to a busier trade. The crusaders who lived to return, into France, Flanders, Italy, Germany, and England, brought home with them many ideas which they had picked up in the East, and much new knowledge of oriental products and arts, all of which became widely diffused and produced great effects. The result was to stimulate and improve the industries and to increase the commerce which the Europeans carried on among themselves, as well as to greatly enlarge their demand for the products of the Asiatic world. A new era in European commerce was opened, therefore, by the Crusades, and the Venetians, by their enterprise, their energy and their early experience, took the lead in its activities. They organized the traffic between the East and the West, the North and the South, upon a great scale, and centered the larger part of it in their island city. By sea and by land they managed it with equal vigor. Their merchant fleets were under the protection of the state and made voyages, at regular and appointed times, under the convoy of vessels of war. On the landward side, they arranged an extensive trade with the interior of Germany, Hungary and Bohemia, through the Tyrol and Carinthia. {3708} As the first bitterness of hatred between Christians and Mahometans wore away, they grew willing to trade with one an·other, though the Popes still forbade it. The Venetians were among the first in such willingness. Having many quarrels with the Byzantine Greeks, they were eager to reopen the old eastern market at Alexandria, and did so at the earliest opportunity. From that beginning they spread their trade with Arabs, Moors and Turks, along the whole Mahometan line, in Asia and Africa. But, though Venice took the lead in the reviving commerce of the middle ages and held it substantially to the end of that period of history, she had powerful rivals to contend with, and the strongest were among her near neighbors in Italy. The same commercial spirit was alive in several other Italian cities, which had grown up in the midst of those disorderly times and had contrived to acquire more or less of independence and more or less of power to defend themselves. Amalfi, Genoa and Pisa were the earliest of these in growing to importance, and Florence at a somewhat later day rose to high rank. Florence, which did not become a free city until near the end of the 12th century, gained its subsequent wealth more by manufactures and by banking than by trade. Its chief products were woolens, silk and jewelry, and its money-lenders were everywhere in Europe.

See FLORENCE (pages 1130-1143).

The commercial career of Amalfi was cut short in the 12th century by events connected with the Norman conquest of Southern Italy. Pisa, an ancient city, whose history goes back to Etruscan times, was a considerable seat of trade while Venice was little known; but she fell behind both Venice and Genoa, soon after those vigorous republics were fairly entered in the race. The Pisans prospered highly for some time, by going into partnership or alliance with the Venetians, first, and afterwards with the Genoese; but they quarreled with the latter and were ruined in the wars that ensued. After the thirteenth century Pisa had no commercial importance.

See PISA (pages 2537-2539).

The great rival of Venice was Genoa, a city which claims to be, like Pisa, of more than Roman antiquity. In the trade of the Levant—that is, the eastern ports of the Mediterranean Sea—the Genoese pushed themselves into competition with the Venetians at an early day, and they seemed for some time to hold an equal chance of controlling the prize. During the later part of the 12th century, such unfriendly feelings had grown up between the Venetians and the Byzantine court that the latter transferred its commercial favors to the merchants of Genoa, Pisa and Amalfi, and gave them many privileges at Constantinople. The Venetians were thus placed at a disadvantage in the Bosphorus and the Black Sea; but they did not long submit. In 1204 they persuaded one of the crusading expeditions to join them in attacking Constantinople, which was taken, and the dominions of the ancient Empire of the East were divided among the captors, Venice receiving a goodly share.

See CRUSADES (page 631).

This was a golden era for Venice and she improved it to the utmost. For almost sixty years she triumphed over her rivals completely. But in 1261 her merchants were again expelled from Constantinople and the Black Sea. The Greeks had continued to hold a large part of the ancient domain of the Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor, and now, with the help of the Genoese, they succeeded in retaking their old capital city. The Frank Empire, or Latin Empire as it was differently called, which the Crusaders and the Venetians had set up, was extinguished and the Genoese again took the place of the Venetians as masters of the Byzantine trade, including that of the Black Sea and the Asiatic traffic which was carried on from its ports. But by this time the better disposition to deal commercially with one another had grown up between the Christians and the Mahometans. So the Venetians, when they lost their footing at Constantinople, very promptly went over to Alexandria and made excellent arrangements with the Saracens there, for supplying Europe once more with the commodities of the East, by those easier and shorter ancient routes which Christian commerce had not used for several hundred years. This opening of trade with the Mahometan races, at Alexandria, and elsewhere soon afterwards, may easily have repaid the Venetians for what they lost in the Byzantine direction; but they did not give up the latter. A long series of desperate wars between the competitors ensued, with such shiftings of victory that Venice seemed sometimes to be almost in a hopeless strait; but, in the end, she broke the power of her rival completely. The final peace, which was concluded in 1381, left her quite undisputed]y, for a time, the mistress of the Mediterranean and its trade.

See GENOA: A. D. 1261-1299 (page 1419); and VENICE: A. D. 1378-1379, and 1379-1381 (page 3608).

Both the northward and the southward lines of traffic between Asia and Europe, through Alexandria and through Constantinople, were now chiefly in the hands of the Venetians. Between those great courses were important minor currents of commerce, along caravan routes through Asia Minor and Syria, which they mainly controlled. The trade of the rich islands of the Levant and of Moorish Africa was under their management for the most part, and they found on the northern shores of the Black Sea a commerce with the Russian region which the Genoese had increased while they ruled in those waters. For three quarters of a century the Venetians enjoyed this large extent of commerce with the East. Then the Turks came, besieged and captured Constantinople (A. D. 1453) and spread over the country which they now occupy. For the next two centuries the Venetians were at war with the Turks —defending Christendom in the Mediterranean with little help. At the same time they had to encounter an almost fatal attack from Christian princes who had become jealous of their formidable wealth and power and who united against the republic in the League of Cambrai.

See VENICE: A. D. 1508-1509 (page 3611).

They might have recovered from this attack, for they still held the Mediterranean trade; but a great event had occurred, just ten years before the League of Cambrai, which was more fatal than war, not to Venice alone, but to most of her rivals in trade as well. This was the discovery, by Vasco da Gama, of the ocean passage to the Eastern world around the Cape of Good Hope. The toiling traffic of desert caravans, to Alexandria, to Constantinople, to Tyre, Antioch, Ephesus and Erzeroum, was soon reduced to insignificance. The rich trade of the Indies and of all the farther East—the trade of the silk countries and the cotton countries, of the spice islands, of the pearl fisheries, of the lands of ivory, of ebony, of gold, of precious stones, of fragrant gums, of curious things and curious arts—was quickly swept into a different course—into broader seas than the Mediterranean and into new hands.

{3709}

COMMERCE: MEDIÆVAL. Northern Europe. The Baltic Cities. The Hansa.

The earliest commercial seaports of northwestern Europe had their rise, not on the North Sea, but on the Baltic and the straits which enter it. The Northmen of that region were not alone in the traffic which grew up there, for the Wends (a Slavonic people), who occupied most of the southern shores of the Baltic, east of the Elbe, appear to have stoutly rivalled them from the first. Biorko, on an island in Lake Maelar, Sweden (the inlet upon which Stockholm is situated), was one of the first of the seats of commerce at the North. It is supposed to have been destroyed about 1008. But the most famous was the city of Winet, or Vineta, on the island of Usedom, at the mouth of the river Oder. It may not have been quite as rich and magnificent a town as some would infer from accounts given in early chronicles; but no doubt it was remarkable for the age, in that part of the world, and carried on a large trade. The Swedes and Danes were the destroyers of Vineta, before the middle of the 9th century, and the former people are said to have carried away from it great quantities of marble, brass and iron work, with which they gave splendor to their own newer city of Wisby, then just rising on the island of Gothland. The career of Wisby lasted several centuries and it was prominent in commerce throughout the Middle Ages. All that can be said of that most ancient commerce in northern Europe is gathered from sources which are uncertain and obscure. It is not until the 12th century that much of the real history of trade in the Baltic region opens. In 1140 the modern city of Lubeck was founded, on the site of a more ancient town, known as Old Lubeck, which is supposed to have been a thriving port of trade in its day but which had been utterly destroyed by its rivals or enemies. The new Lubeck established close relations with the Genoese and soon took the lead in the commerce of the north, among a large number of enterprising towns which, about that time, came into prominence on the northern coast and on the rivers which run to it. The city of Hamburg, on the Elbe, lying inland and not very distant from Lubeck, was one of the earliest of these. Like Lubeck, it had suffered destruction, in the constant warfare of the earlier time, and had made a new beginning of existence about 1013. Hamburg had access to the North Sea by the Elbe and Lubeck to the Baltic by the Trave. Trading in different directions, therefore, by sea, they carried on an active traffic with one another, across the narrow stretch of land which divides them,—as they still do to this day. But this inland commerce was greatly disturbed by robbers who infested the country, until the two cities, Lubeck and Hamburg, in 1241, agreed to establish and support in common a body of soldiers for the protection of their merchants. That agreement is believed to have been the beginning of a wide-spread union which afterwards took shape among the commercial cities of northern Europe, and which became powerful and famous in the later history of the Middle Ages, under the name of the Hanseatic League.

See HANSA TOWNS: (pages 1624-1626), and (in this Supplement) GERMANY, 13-15th, and 15-17th CENTURIES.

COMMERCE: MEDIÆVAL. Frisians and Flemings. The early Netherlands.

The two peoples who inhabit the region called the Netherlands—a purely Germanic stock in the north (modern Holland) and a mixed but largely Celtic population in the south (modern Belgium)—have had a history so much in common that it cannot well be divided, though they have differed in experiences as widely as in character. The struggle with nature for a foothold in the lowland itself was harder in the north than in the south, and no doubt that is why the Teutonic Frisians led the way in industrial training. It was among them that the arts of weaving and dyeing were cultivated first to a notable excellence. As early as the age of Charlemagne (8-9th centuries), Frisian robes, of white and purple woolen stuffs, are mentioned among the choice gifts which the Emperor sometimes sent to foreign princes, and even to the great caliph, Haroun al Raschid. In the 9th century, Frisian weavers are said to have been persuaded by an enterprising count of Flanders to settle in his dominions, at Ghent, and introduce there a better knowledge of their art. But if the Flemish people borrowed from the Frisians in this matter, they soon outran their teachers and made the loom their own peculiar property. The shuttle, ere long, was in the hands of a very large part of the whole south Netherland or Belgian population, and they became almost a nation of weavers. The same Count Baldwin of Flanders who brought the Frisian weavers into Ghent established annual markets, or fairs, in various towns, which drew merchants from abroad, promoted trade and stimulated manufacturing industries throughout the country. Woolen, linen, and finally silk looms multiplied to a prodigious extent, and the weavers in all these branches acquired remarkable skill. The working of metals was also learned with great aptness, and Flemish cutlery, weapons and armor became very nearly as renowned as those of Milan and Damascus. Tanning was another valuable art which the Flemings and their Netherland neighbors cultivated, and the tilling of the soil was so industriously pursued that flax, hemp, grain and other farm products were raised quite abundantly for sale abroad. In the north Netherlands—the Hollow-land of the sturdy "Free Frisians" and Batavians, who were afterwards called the Dutch—the hard working energy of the people had been pushed in some different directions. The old trade of weaving was still vigorously carried on, in nearly every important town, and Dutch woolens, damask linens, carpets, velvets, etc., were largely produced and widely sought after; but this industry was never so prominent as it became in the Belgian provinces. The fortunes of the Hollanders were founded to a large extent upon their fisheries, and especially the herring fishery, which assumed great importance in their hands after the middle of the 12th century. Before that time, they appear to have been obliged to seek the herring in other waters than their own—along the shores of England, Scotland and Norway. But some change in the movements of those curiously swarming fish, about the time above mentioned, brought great shoals of them to the Dutch coast, and the herring harvest thereafter was a rich source of gain to the Hollanders. {3710} They discovered some secrets of salting or curing the fish which were very much valued, and the Dutch herring were eagerly bought for all parts of Europe. The making of pottery was another industry to which the Dutch applied themselves with success, and particularly at the town of Delft, which gave its name for many centuries to the common earthenware used in western Europe. In dairy farming and skilful horticulture, or gardening, the Hollanders were superior to all other people at an early time. Wherever sea-fisheries are extensive, sailors and ship builders are trained and ocean navigation and commerce are sure, in time, to be prosperously pursued. It was so with the Dutch. Their Frisian ancestors had suffered so much on their coasts from the harassing raids of the Norse pirates, or Vikings, that they did not figure very early in seafaring enterprise. But they fought the free-booters in their stubborn and stout-hearted way and were able at last to make the harbors of their coast tolerably safe. From that time the seaport towns of Holland grew rapidly, and Dutch merchants and merchant ships, trading with the cities of the Baltic, with England and with Flanders and France increased in number. The Hollanders had an advantage in this matter over their Flemish neighbors of the South Netherlands. They were provided with better harbors and they held the outlets of the great rivers in their hands. This latter was the cause of incessant quarrels between the two peoples. The 15th century found the whole Netherlands, both north and south, in a thriving state, so far as industry and trade were concerned, notwithstanding bad government and disorderly times. The people were counted among the richest in Europe. Many great and wealthy cities had grown up, containing large populations and very busy ones. In the north, there were Dordrecht or Dort, Hoorn, Zierikzee, Haarlem, Delft, Leyden, Deventer, Enkhuizen, Middelburg, Nimeguen, Utrecht, Rotterdam, and Amsterdam, which last named city eclipsed them all in the end, though it was one of the latest to rise. In the south there was Ghent, with forty thousand weavers inside its strong walls, who were always as ready to string the bow as to throw the shuttle, and whose hot-tempered revolts against tyranny and wrong are among the most exciting incidents of history. There was Bruges, which became for a time the great emporium of the commerce of northern and southern Europe, but which lost its importance before the 15th century closed. There was Antwerp, which succeeded to the trade of Bruges and rose to unrivalled rank; and there were Lille, Mechlin (or Malines), Courtrai, Ypres, Louvain, and other towns, all centers of flourishing manufactures, chiefly those of the loom.

COMMERCE: MEDIÆVAL. Trade Routes, west and north from the Mediterranean.

"The connection between the two great divisions of European commerce, the northern including the Hansa and the Flemish towns, and the southern the Italian republics and Mediterranean ports, was effected by two chief routes. One was by sea from the Mediterranean through the Straits of Gibraltar, up the coasts of Spain and France to Flanders. This route was used more by the southern, and especially by Venetian, merchants than by the northern traders, for … Venice sent every year a large fleet to Flanders and the English Channel, which fleet would meet at Bruges, the great Hansa depot, the most important merchants of North Europe and the Hansa traders. Bruges was indeed for a long time the central mart in the north for the commercial world, till 1482, when the canal connecting it with the port of Sluys was blocked up. But at Bruges also the maritime trade just mentioned met the overland trade through central Europe, a trade that was very important, and which enriched many a city upon the Rhine and farther south, from Augsburg to Cologne. We must consider this overland route more carefully. The great centre from which it started, or to which it tended, was Venice, where as we know were collected most of the products of the East, coming both via Egypt and via the lands round the Black Sea. … Starting … from Venice, the merchants used to cross the Alps by the Brenner or Julier Passes, and then would make for the Upper Danube or one of its tributaries, and thence get on to the stream of the Rhine. Their object was generally to utilise a natural waterway wherever possible, rather in contrast to the old Roman traders, who preferred the roads. But the roads of the Middle Ages were far inferior to the old Roman highways. One of the first great cities which the mediæval trader passed on this route, coming from Venice, was Augsburg. … Thence he might go down the stream to Regensburg (Ratisbon) and Vienna; or he might go up to Ulm and then make a short land journey till he reached the Rhine, and so right away down that convenient stream. This was perhaps the main route from north to south. But many others converged from central Europe to Italy, and many important cities owed their wealth to the stream of trade. In Karl the Great's time the cities on the great waterway to the East along the Danube became very flourishing; Regensburg, Passau, and Vienna being the most important. From Regensburg there ran north and west two great commercial highways into the interior of Germany, one by way of Nürnberg and Erfurt and the other past Nürnberg to the Rhine. Another route from Regensburg, by river, to Trentschin on the river Waag took its merchants through Galicia into Russia, whither they went as far as Kief, the centre of Russian trade. Along this great waterway of the Danube and its tributaries came the products of the East from Constantinople and the Black Sea. … Another important route was that from the cities of the Rhine, such as Coblenz and Basle, up that river and on to Chur and then by the Julier Pass and the Engadine and the Etschthal to Venice; or again, after passing Chur, through the Septimer Pass and the Bergeller Thal to Genoa. These Rhine cities were very flourishing, from Basle to Cologne. … Like most trading towns in the Middle Ages, the Rhine cities were compelled to form themselves into a confederacy to resist the robbery and extortions of feudal nobles, whose only idea of trade seems to have been that it providentially existed as a source of plunder to themselves. But besides this Confederacy of the Rhine there was another great Confederacy of the Swabian cities, arising from the same causes. … That of the Rhine included ninety cities, and existed in a fully organised form in 1255. {3711} The Swabian Confederacy was formed a little later, about 1300 or 1350, under the leadership of Augsburg, Ulm, and Nürnberg, and was in close political and commercial relations both with Venice and Genoa. … If now we turn from trade routes in Europe itself to those which led to Europe from the East, we find that at the time of which we are now speaking there were three main streams of commerce. In the 12th century the caravan trade in Central Asia had passed along several different paths; but after the Crusades, and the decline of the Eastern empire by the capture of Constantinople (1204), the various tribes of Central Asia, rendered more fanatical and warlike than ever by these military and religious events, caused caravan trading to become very unsafe. The first of the three routes which now remained in the 13th century was from India and the western coasts of Asia, past Basra on the Persian Gulf to Bagdad by water. From Bagdad merchants went, still by water, along the Tigris to the point on that river nearest to Seleucia and Antioch, and so to Orontes, and then to the coast of the Levant. The second route followed the same course as the first till the point of leaving the Tigris, and then proceeded over the Highlands of Asia Minor and Armenia to the port of Trebizond on the Black Sea, where Venetian vessels used to meet Asiatic traders. For both these routes Bagdad formed a very important centre. … The third route from the far East was from India by sea to Aden, then by land across the desert to Chus on the Nile, which took nine days, and then again by water down the Nile to Cairo, a journey of thirteen days. From Cairo there was a canal, 200 miles long, to Alexandria, where again Venetian and Genoese merchants were ready to receive the rich spices, sugar, perfumes, precious stones, gum, oil, cotton, and silk brought from the East."

H. de B. Gibbins, History of Commerce in Europe, book 2, chapter 5.

COMMERCE: MEDIÆVAL: The English.

"Whilst the Italians were vigorously pursuing their trade in India and Europe, and Spain was renowned for her manufactures; whilst the Hanse merchants were extending their factories, and Portuguese navigators were bent upon maritime discoveries; whilst the Dutch were struggling for independence, and France was planting the seeds of her industries; England was only known as possessing a few articles of commerce of great value. Her wools and her metals were eagerly sought by foreign traders, but she had no ships of her own to carry them abroad. She had many raw materials, but she produced no manufactures for exportation. Nor was her policy respecting foreign trade the most wise. The chief concern of the legislature in those days seemed to be to prevent foreign nations doing with English produce what, after all, the English could not do themselves. Again and again the export of wool was prohibited, or was hindered by prohibitory duties. … The people regarded the introduction of foreigners with the utmost jealousy. They resented their competition, they grudged their profits and their advantages. The guilds would not admit them as members, and it was hard for the poor strangers to establish a footing in England, even although Magna Charta had long before declared that all merchants shall have safety in coming to or going out of England, and in remaining and travelling through it, by land or water, for buying or selling, free from any grievous imposition. Anyhow, whatever the opposition of cities and corporations, the nation was benefited by the foreign merchants. Thankful, indeed, might England have been for the Lombards, who brought hither money and merchandise, banking and insurance; for the Flemings, who, driven by intestine dissension, found refuge on British soil, and became the founders of the woollen manufacture; and for the Huguenots, who brought with them the silk manufacture. … But a new era advanced. The discovery of the American continent by Columbus, and of a maritime route to India by Vasco da Gama, altered the course and character of commerce. Till then trade was essentially inland, thenceforth its most conspicuous triumphs were to be on the ocean. Till then, the Mediterranean was the centre of international trading. From thenceforth the tendency of trade was towards the countries bordering on the Atlantic. … It was not long … before England followed the lead of Spain and Portugal. John Cabot and his sons went in quest of land to North America; Drake went to circumnavigate the globe; Chancellor sailed up the White Sea to Russia; Willoughby went on his ill-fated voyage in search of a north-eastern passage to India; Sir Walter Raleigh explored Virginia; the Merchant Adventurers pushed their adventures to Spain and Portugal; and English ships began to be seen in the Levant. Meanwhile, English trade enlarged its sphere, English bravery at sea became most conspicuous, and English industry advanced apace."

_L. Levi, History of British Commerce, 2d edition, introduction._

"In the 14th century the whole of the external, and much of the internal, trade of the country had been in the hands of foreigners; in the 15th our merchants began to push their way from point to point in the Mediterranean and the Baltic; in the 16th they followed slowly in the wake of other adventurers, or tried to establish themselves in unkindly regions which had attracted no one else. When Elizabeth ascended the throne England appears to have been behind other nations of Western Europe in the very industrial arts and commercial enterprise on which her present reputation is chiefly based."

W. Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and Commerce, volume 2, page 2.

COMMERCE: MEDIÆVAL: Trade and Piracy.

"It would be wrong to infer from the prevalence of piracy at this period [the 15th century] that commerce must have declined. On the contrary, it was probably the increase of commerce, unaccompanied by the growth of adequate means for its defence, which made the pirate's calling so profitable. Nor was the evil confined to the professional pirate class, if we may use the expression. Even recognised associations of merchants frequently indulged in practices which can only be characterised as piracy. Commerce, in fact, was deeply imbued with the spirit of lawlessness, and in these circumstances it is probable that the depredations of pirates did not excite the same alarm nor discourage trade in the same degree as would be the case in more law-abiding times. In the 15th century the profession of Christianity and extreme respectability were not incompatible with a life of violence and outrage, and it is to be feared that in some cases the Governments which should have repressed pirates by the severest measures, encouraged their depredations. {3712} Certainly they have never enjoyed such immunity from the strong arm of the law as in the 15th century. Outrage and robbery went on unchecked along the coasts and in the track of merchant vessels. No trader was safe even in the rivers and ports of his own country. The pirates burnt and sacked towns as important as Sandwich and Southampton; they carried off not only the goods they could lay their hands on, but men and women, and even children, whom they held to ransom. Unable to look to the Government for protection of life and property while they were engaged in trade, the merchants were thrown upon their own resources to provide security. The best method of grappling with the pirates, and that which was most frequently adopted, was for merchant vessels to sail together in such numbers that they could repel attack; and these voluntary efforts were sometimes aided by the Government. In 1406 Henry IV. granted the merchants 3s. on every cask of wine imported, and certain payments on Staple exports for purposes of defence. Two Admirals were appointed, one for the north and the other for the south, with full jurisdiction in maritime affairs and power to organise naval forces. But this scheme was unsuccessful. A similar expedient was tried in 1453, but abandoned two years afterwards. The only satisfactory remedy would have been a strong navy, but the conditions necessary for this had not yet been realised. The country could not have supported the charge of maintaining a strong naval force. … That merchants were beginning to realise the importance of the subject, and were becoming wealthy enough to build vessels of a considerable size, is evident from the operations of John Taverner, of Kingston-upon-Hull, and the famous William Cannynges of Bristol, the latter of whom is said to have possessed 2,470 tons of shipping and some vessels of 900 tons burthen."

W. A. S. Hewins, Industry and Commerce (in "Social England," edited by H. D. Traill, chapter 7, volume 2).

COMMERCE: MEDIÆVAL: The Portuguese, and the finding of the Ocean Way to the Indies.

It was not by accident that the Portuguese rose all at once, in the closing years of the 15th century and the early years of the 16th, to a position in which they controlled and directed the main current of trade between Europe and the Eastern world. The discovery by Vasco da Gama of an ocean route to the Indies, and all the results (hereafter described), which it yielded to his countrymen for the time, were a reward of enterprise which the Portuguese had fully earned. They had worked for it, patiently and resolutely, through almost a hundred years. The undertaking was begun, at about the commencement of the 15th century, by a Portuguese prince who ought to enjoy greater fame than if he had conquered an empire; because his ambition was nobler and the fruits were of higher worth to the world. He was known as "Prince Henry the Navigator," and he was the third son of the Portuguese King John I. who was called the Great, on account of his success in wars with the Castillians and the Moors. But this young son, Prince Henry, was much the greater man of the two. He could not endure the ignorance of his time with regard to the mysterious ocean that stretched westward and southward from the shores of the little country which his father ruled. He was bent on knowing more about it; and he was specially bent on having the Portuguese sailors make their way down the shores of the African continent, to learn where it ended and what track to the farther side might be found. Beyond Cape Nun, at the southern extremity of the modern empire of Morocco, nothing was known of the western coast of Africa when Prince Henry began his work. The Phœnicians and Carthaginians, two thousand years earlier, had probably known more about it; but their knowledge was lost. Prince Henry studied everything that could give him light and became well convinced that round the continent of Africa there was a way to the Indies for bold sailors to find. Then he applied himself, with a zeal which never flagged, to the working out of that achievement. He was a young man when he began, and during more than forty years of his life he devoted his time and his means almost wholly to the fitting out and directing of exploring ships and he fixed his residence upon the most southerly promontory of Portugal, to watch their going and coming. But the art of navigation was so little understood and the navigators were so timid, that slow progress was made. Each explorer only ventured a little farther than the one before him; and so they went feeling their way, league by league, down the African coast. The forty-three years of Prince Henry's endeavors were consumed in reaching what is now the settlement of Sierra Leone, near the head of the gulf of Guinea. But even this added more than a thousand miles of the western coast of Africa to the maps of the 15th century and was a greater advance in geographical knowledge than had been made since Carthage fell. Before he died (A. D. 1460), Prince Henry secured from the Pope (who was supposed to have the giving of all heathen countries) a grant to Portugal of all these discoveries, both island and mainland, and of all which the Portuguese explorers might make in the future, between Europe and India. So he died well content, let us hope, with the work which he had done for his country and for mankind. The enthusiasm for exploration which Prince Henry had awakened in Portugal did not die with him, though his efforts had met with unending opposition and excited very much discontent. Repeated expeditions were still sent down the African coast, and they crept farther and farther toward the goal of desire. At last, in 1486, Bartholomew Diaz, with three ships, actually rounded the Cape of Good Hope without knowing it, and only learned the fact when he turned backward from his voyage, discouraged by storms. Eleven years later, Vasco da Gama set out, fired with fresh determination, by the great discovery of a new world which Columbus had so lately made for Spain, and this time there was no failure. He passed the Cape, sailed up the eastern shores of the African continent to Melinda, in Zanguebar, and thence across the Indian Ocean to Calicut in Hindostan. The ocean route to India was now fully proved; the new era was opened and its grand prize plucked by the Portuguese—thanks to Prince Henry the Navigator.

See, also, PORTUGAL: A. D. 1415-1460 and 1463-1498 (pages 2571-2573).

{3713}

COMMERCE: MODERN: New Routes and New Marts.

There is nothing at all imaginary in the line which is drawn in history across the later years of the 15th and the early years of the 16th century, to mark the beginning of a new era in human affairs. It is a line very real and very distinct, dividing one state of things, known as the mediæval, from another state of things, known as the modern. It was fixed by the occurrence of a series of extraordinary events, which came quickly, one after the other, and which brought about, either singly or together, the most tremendous changes, in many ways, that ever happened to the world in the same space of time. The first of these was the invention of printing, which dates as a practical art from about 1454. The second was the discovery of the new world by Columbus, A. D. 1492. The third was the passage around the Cape of Good Hope by the Portuguese navigator, Vasco da Gama, A. D. 1497. The fourth was the religious reformation set in motion by Martin Luther, at Wittenberg, A. D. 1517. The combined effect of these great events was to make really a new starting point in almost every particular of human history, and to do so very quickly. The commercial changes which resulted are among the most remarkable. No sooner had the route by sea to southern and eastern Asia and the islands of the Indian ocean been found, than almost the whole traffic of Europe with that rich eastern world abandoned its ancient channels and ran into the new one. There were several strong reasons for this. In the first place, it cost less to bring goods by ship from India, Ceylon or China direct to European ports, than to carry them over long distances by land to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean and there ship them to the West. In the second place, by taking its new route, this commerce escaped the Moorish pirates in the Mediterranean, who had long been very troublesome. And, lastly, but not least in importance, the European merchants gained a great advantage in becoming able to deal directly with the East Indians and the Chinese, instead of trading at second hand with them, through Arabs and Mahometan Turks, who controlled the Asiatic and African routes. So the commerce of the Indies, as it was generally called, fled suddenly away from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic; fled away from the Venetians, the Genoese, the Marseillaise, and the Barcelonians; from Constantinople, lately conquered by the Turks; from Antioch and Alexandria; and from many cities of the Hansa League in the north, which had learned the old ways of traffic and were slow to learn anything new. Soon many of the great marts which had been busiest, grew silent and deserted and fell into slow decay. The most enriching commerce of the world was passing to different hands and bringing younger races into the front of history.

COMMERCE: MODERN: The Portuguese in the lead.

Having found the way to India by sea, the Portuguese were prompt in taking measures to make themselves strong in that part of the world and to control the trade with it. They were helped in this effort by the grant of imagined rights which Prince Henry had obtained from the Pope, long before. But they strengthened the rights which the Pope gave them, by the older fashioned methods of conquest and possession. They began at once to plant themselves firmly at important points in the eastern seas and on the Indian coast. They sent out one of their ablest military men, Francesco d'Almeida, with a strong force of ships and volunteers, and appointed him Viceroy of India. He took possession of several parts of the Malabar coast (the western coast of the southern extremity of Hindostan) and built forts in which garrisons were placed. He similarly established the Portuguese power in Ceylon, took possession of the Maldive Islands and founded trading settlements in Sumatra. The Venetians, who saw that their ancient trade with the East was doomed unless this new rivalry could be crushed, now joined their Mahometan allies of Egypt in a great effort to drive the Portuguese back. A formidable fleet was fitted out on the Red Sea and sent against Almeida. He was unfortunate in his first encounter with these allied enemies and lost the squadron that opposed them. But the resolute viceroy was undaunted. Recalled from his command, he refused to give it up until he had equipped and led another fleet against the navy of the Egyptians and completely destroyed it. The successor of Almeida, as viceroy of India, was a remarkable personage who is known in the annals of his time as "the great Afonso D'Albuquerque." The chronicle of his exploits in Africa and India, compiled by his son from his own letters and records, and entitled "The commentaries of the great Afonso D'Albuquerque," has been translated into English and published by the Hakluyt Society. He was a remarkably energetic commander, and very honest in his way, according to the notions of his time; but he did the work of subjugation and conquest which he was sent to do in a cruel and rapacious style. He was not rapacious on his own account; but he saw no wrong in anything done for the profit of his country. In the course of seven years he spread the Portuguese power so widely and fixed it so firmly on the East Indian coasts and in the neighboring seas that there was hardly an attempt for many years to disturb it. None but Portuguese ships dared enter the Indian ocean without special permits, and the few which received admission were forbidden to trade in spices—the most precious merchandise of the region. From the Indies the Portuguese made their way to the coasts of China and put themselves on friendly terms with its people. They were permitted to occupy the port of Macao and have possessed it ever since. Some years later they discovered the islands of Japan and opened the earliest European commerce with that singular country. So they held for a time the complete mastery of eastern trade and enlarged it to greater bounds than it had ever reached before. But they were satisfied with keeping the sources of the supply of eastern goods to Europe in their own hands. The first handling of the commodities was all that they tried to control. They brought to Lisbon the spices, silks, cotton, pearls, ivory, sugar, aromatic drugs and the like, which their ships and merchants gathered up, and there sold them to other traders, Dutch, English and German for the most part, who found the final markets for them and who enjoyed a good half of the profits of the trade. These latter derived great advantages from the arrangements—much more than they had gained in their trading with Genoa and Venice—and the commerce of Holland and England grew rapidly as the result. {3714} But the glory and prosperity of the Portuguese, as masters of the rich traffic of the eastern world, were not of long duration. Before the 16th century closed, they had lost the footholds of their power and were slipping into the background very fast. By misfortunes and by folly combined, all the fruits of the patient wisdom of Prince Henry, the persevering courage of Vasco da Gama, the bold energy of Almeida, and the restless enterprise of Albuquerque, were torn out of their hands. Almost from the first, a greedy and jealous court had done all that could be done to destroy the grand opportunities in trade which the country had gained. Private enterprise was discouraged; the crown claimed exclusive rights over large parts of the commerce opened up, and these rights were sold, given to favorites and dealt with in many ways that are ruinous to successful trade. Royal jealousy sent three viceroys to divide among them the government of the Portuguese possessions in the East, when there should have been but one, and the same jealousy kept these vice-royalties ever changing. Of course, there was nowhere good government nor thrifty management of trade. In the midst of this bad state of things, the royal family of Portugal died out, in 1580, and Philip II. of Spain set up claims to the crown which he was strong enough to make good. Portugal thus became joined to Spain, for the next sixty years, and was dragged into Philip's wicked war with the Netherlands. Her Spanish masters did what they could to draw her trade away from Lisbon to Cadiz and Seville. The Dutch and English, her former customers and friends, made enemies now by Philip of Spain, pushed their way into the eastern seas, defying the mandates of the Pope, and broke down her supremacy there. When the Portuguese, in 1640, threw off the Spanish yoke and asserted their independence again, calling a prince of the house of Braganza to the throne, there was not much left of their former power or their former trade. They still held Goa, on the western coast of Hindostan, and the Chinese port of Macao—as they do to the present day; and they retained, as they still do, considerable possessions in Africa. But their brief importance in navigation, in colonization and trade, was quite gone and they dropped back to a humble position in the history of the world. Even the management of their home trade with other countries fell mostly, after a time, into the hands of the English, who became their special allies and friends.

COMMERCE: MODERN: The Spaniards.

While the Portuguese were pursuing glory and gain in the track of Vasco da Gama, which led them south and east, the Spaniards were doing the same in the wake of the three little ships which Columbus, with a bolder hand, had steered westward, to strange shores which he never dreamed of finding. These newly opened regions of the globe, in the Atlantic and on both sides of it, were divided between the two nations by the Pope, and it was a bold matter in those days to dispute his right. He gave to the Spaniards all islands and countries found west of a meridian line drawn 27½° west of the island of Ferro, in the Canary group. This nearly corresponds with the meridian 45½° west of Greenwich. To the Portuguese he assigned all discoveries east of it. So they both went on their appointed ways, with pious hearts and untroubled consciences, busily hunting for heathen lands to seize and despoil. But the eastern field, in which the Portuguese did most of their work, was one where commerce was old and where something of Europe and its people was already known. They were forced to look upon trade as the chief object of their pursuit. With the Spaniards the case was different. They found their way to a quarter of the world which Europe had never heard of and came upon people who never saw the faces of white men until then. These strange races of the new world were some of them quite as civilized, in certain respects, as the Spaniards who invaded them, and even more so, it would seem, in their notions of truth and in the refinement of their manners and modes of life. But they were simple and unsuspecting; they were not warlike in disposition and they were rudely and poorly armed. So the mail-clad cavaliers of Spain crushed them into helpless slavery with perfect ease. From the islands of the West Indies, which they discovered and occupied first, the Spaniards had soon made their way to the shores of the two continents of America, North and South. They found cities and nations which astonished them by their splendor and wealth and set them wild with greedy desires. Europe looked poor in comparison with the shining wealth of Mexico and Peru. The Spaniards went mad with the lust of gold. They lost human feeling and common sense in their greediness to grasp the metal treasures of the new world. They were indifferent to the more precious and abounding products that it offered, and neglected to build up the great commerce which might have filled their hands with lasting riches. They made the old fable of the goose which laid golden eggs a piece of real history. They killed the goose; they destroyed their source of wealth in Peru and Mexico by their eager extortions. Of true commerce between the old world and the new there was little while the Spaniards controlled it. They did, in the course of time, ship considerable quantities of sugar, tobacco, hides, logwood, indigo, cochineal, cocoa, cinchona, or Peruvian bark (from which quinine is extracted) and other American products, from their various colonies; but to no such extent as a wise and enterprising people would have done, having the same opportunities. Once a year, or once in two years, a fleet of ships was sent from Seville, at first, and afterwards from Cadiz, to Vera Cruz, for freights from Mexico, and another to Porto Bello, on the Isthmus of Panama, for the South American freights. The ships which made the latter voyage were distinguished from the Mexican fleet by being called the galleons. For a long time, twelve galleons in the one squadron and fifteen ships in the other, making their voyage once a year, and sometimes only every other year, conveyed all the trade that passed between Spain and America; which shows how little the Spaniards drew from their great possessions, except the enormous treasure of silver and gold which a few ships could transport. This glittering treasure formed, in fact, the main cargo of the Peruvian galleons and the Mexican fleet. Before the close of the reign of Philip II. the number of galleons was increased to about forty and that of the fleet to fifty or sixty. {3715} It is quite certain that no country had ever before received such a quantity of gold and silver as came into Spain during the 16th century. Instead of enriching, it ruined the nation. Neither rulers nor people had sense enough to see what a treacherous and delusive kind of wealth it formed, if trusted to alone. They vainly fancied that, with such a store of precious metals to draw upon, they could afford to despise the homely labors by which other people lived. With such mad notions as these, the honest industries of Spain were treated with neglect or worse. Her trade with neighboring countries was looked upon as a business too insignificant for Spaniards to care for or trouble themselves about. It was mostly given over to the Dutch and Flemings, while they remained under Spanish rule, and it was afterwards kept up in great part by smugglers, Dutch and English. Agriculture decayed, and its destruction was helped by the formation of a great aristocratic company of sheep-farmers, called the Mesta, to which such tyrannical rights and privileges were given by the crown that the most fertile parts of Spain were finally turned into sheep-pasture, under its control. The best artisans and the most enterprising merchants of the kingdom were driven out, because they were Moors and Jews, or they were burned for Christian beliefs which the Church did not approve. The Inquisition was so busy, with its racks and its fires, that no other business could thrive. Every kind of production dwindled, and for the supplying of all descriptions of wants the Spaniards were soon driven to look to other countries. The few who laid hands upon the riches coming in from the plunder of America spent it recklessly, in extravagant ways, while costly foreign wars which had no success, and plots in France and England which came to nothing, drained the coffers of the king. And thus the great stream of gold and silver which flowed into Spain from the new world ran out of it quite as fast, until nearly every other country in Europe held more of it than Spain herself. The strong hand with which the Spaniards were able at first, and for some time, to hold the vast domain of sea and land which the Pope had given them and which their own sailors and soldiers had explored and seized, grew weak before the end of a hundred years after the memorable voyage of Columbus was made. The hardy Dutch, driven to revolt and enmity by tyrannical government and by cruel religious persecutions, attacked them everywhere, in the eastern and western world. The English, just beginning to grow ambitious and bold on the ocean, and constantly threatened by the armadas of Spain, did the same. But these were not the only enemies who harassed the Spanish colonies and fleets. In a general way, the whole world went to war with the insolent nation which claimed the lordship of the earth. There came into existence, in the 17th century, a powerful organization of pirates or freebooters, made up of daring men of all nations, who carried on for many years a villainous warfare of their own against the Spaniards at sea and against their American settlements. These Buccaneers, as they were called, gained strongholds in several islands of the West Indies, from which the Spaniards were not able to dislodge them. Under the attacks of all these enemies, combined with her own misgovernment and her contempt and abuse of thrifty industries and fair trade—which no people can neglect without ruin—Spain steadily and rapidly sank.

COMMERCE: MODERN: The Flemings and the Dutch.

In the first half of the 16th century, the people of the Netherlands were the tolerably contented subjects of that famous monarch, the Emperor Charles V., who ruled in Spain, in Naples, in Germany (the old Empire), and in Burgundy, as well as in the Lowland principalities, Flanders, Holland, and the rest. They were already very prosperous, working hard at many callings, trading shrewdly and busily with the rest of the world, and diligently picking up all kinds of knowledge everywhere. In the southern provinces (which we may call the Belgian, because they are mostly now embraced in the modern kingdom of Belgium) the chief industries were those of the loom, in all branches of weaving; and in skilful workmanship of every kind the people were tasteful and apt. These provinces were the seat of a much greater and more general activity in manufactures than appeared in the states to the north of them (which we will call the Dutch states, without distinction, because they are now included in the kingdom of Holland). The latter were more extensively employed in fisheries, in navigation and in ship building, although most kinds of industry, manufacturing and agricultural, were thriftily and successfully carried on. At the time when Charles V. ruled the Netherlands, the city of Antwerp, in the Belgian circle of provinces, was the great metropolis of Netherland trade. It was much more than that. It was the foremost commercial capital of the world. The traffic which slipped away from Venice and Genoa, had fixed its central seat in this younger town on the Scheldt. It was sure to plant its new emporium somewhere in the Netherlands, because there was nowhere else in Europe so much energy, so much enterprise, so much industry, so much commercial wisdom, so much activity of domestic trade. Spain and Portugal held the wealth of the Indies and the Americas in their hands, but we have seen how incapable they were of using the commercial advantage it gave them. Lisbon, Cadiz and Seville were only depots for the transfer of merchandise; it was impossible to make them real capitals of trade, because they could not and would not furnish either the spirit, or the genius, or the organized agencies that it demands. The Netherlands, with their long schooling in commerce upon a smaller scale, were ready to meet every requirement when the new era opened and gave them their greater chance. There was no other mercantile organization so well prepared. The league of the Hansa Towns was breaking and failing; the English were just beginning to show their aptitude for manufactures and trade. Some one of the Netherland cities was sure to win the sovereignty in commercial affairs which Venice gave up, and Antwerp proved the winner, for a time. During most of the 16th century, it was the business center of Europe. It was the gathering-place of the merchants and the seat of the money-changers and bankers. Two and three thousand ships were often crowded in its harbor, at one time. It distributed the merchandise of the East and West Indies, which it took from Portugal and Spain, and the manifold wares of the many manufacturing towns of Flanders, Brabant, southern Germany, to a great extent, and northern France. {3716} At the same time, its own looms, anvils, tanneries, glass-works, dyeing-vats and mechanic shops of various kinds were numerous and busy. Its thriving population was rapidly increased, for it welcomed all who came with skill or knowledge or money or strong hands to take part in its work. Such was Antwerp during the reign of Charles V., and at the time (A. D. 1555-1556) when that weary monarch gave up his many crowns to his evil son, Philip II. of Spain, and went away to a Spanish monastery to seek for rest. The government of Charles in the Netherlands had been hard and heavy, but the people were left free enough to prosper and to grow intelligent and strong. Under Philip the prospect changed. The story of his malignant persecutions and oppressions, of the revolt to which they drove the Netherland provinces, of the long, merciless war in which he strove to ruin or subdue them, of the independence which the Dutch provinces achieved and the prosperous career on which they entered, is told in another place.

See NETHERLANDS (page 2256, and after).

Antwerp, the great capital of trade, stood foremost in the struggle, as became its greatness, and it suffered correspondingly. The death-blow to its fortunes was given in 1585, when, after a siege that is almost unexampled, it was taken by the Spaniards under Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, and given up to pillage and slaughter. Its surviving inhabitants fled in large numbers, the greater part of them to Holland, some to England, and some to other countries. Commerce abandoned the port. The chief merchants who had made it the center of their undertakings chose Amsterdam for their future seat of business, and that city rose at once to the commercial rank of which Antwerp had been stripped by the stupid malice of its Spanish sovereign. While the Belgian Netherlands fell hopelessly under the fatal despotism of Spain, the Dutch Netherlands fought their way slowly to independence, which Spain was forced to acknowledge in 1648. But long before that time the Dutch Republic had become a power in Europe—much greater in every way than Spain. Its foundations had been laid by the union of the seven provinces of Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Utrecht, Groningen, Overyssel and Gelderland. It had grown firmer and stronger year by year, and the people, after a time, had not only found themselves able to thrive generally in the midst of their desperate war with Spain, but the war itself opened their way to wealth and power. They learned, early, as we have seen, that they could attack their enemy to the best advantage at sea. In pursuing this ocean warfare they were led on to the East and West Indies, and soon broke, in both regions, the exclusive power which the Spanish and Portuguese had held. When Portugal was dragged into a fatal union with Spain, under Philip II., it had to suffer the consequences of Philip's wars, and it bore more than its share of the suffering. The Dutch and the English forced their way pretty nearly together into the eastern seas, and, between them, the Portuguese were mostly driven out. They divided the rich commerce of that great Asiatic and Oceanic region, and, for a time, the most lucrative part of it was gained by the Dutch. While the English got their footing on the coasts of Hindostan and were laying the foundations of their future empire in India, the Dutch gained control of the spice-growing islands, which, in that day, were the richer commercial prize. The first Dutch fleet that rounded the Cape of Good Hope and made its way into East Indian waters, sailed under the command of one Cornelius Houtmann, who had been in the service of the Portuguese and learned the route. He started in 1595 with four ships and returned, after a voyage of eighteen months, with only two. He had lost more than half his men, and he brought back very little cargo to pay for the adventurous undertaking. But the Dutch were well satisfied with the experiment; they knew that more experience would lead to better success. Another fleet of eight ships was sent out in 1598 and when four of them returned the next year with a precious cargo of spices and other merchandise from Java, which they had procured very cheaply in exchange for the cloths, the metal wares and the trinkets that they took out, the delight of the nation can hardly be described. Part of the fleet had remained in the East to hold and strengthen the position they had gained, and other ships were sent speedily to join them. Very soon the armed merchantmen of the Dutch were thickly swarming in that part of the world, ready for fight or for trade, as the case might be. So many companies of merchants became engaged in the business that too lively competition between them occurred and they threatened to ruin one another. But that danger was overcome in 1602 by joining the rival interests together in one strong association, to which the government gave exclusive rights of trade in the East. Thus the Dutch East India Company was formed, in which the merchants of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Delft and other cities of the republic put their capital together. By its charter, this great company held powers of war as well as of commerce and it used them both with prodigious energy. At first, the chief trading stations of the Dutch in the East were at Bantam, in Java, and Amboyna, one of the group of the Moluccas or Spice Islands; but the city of Batavia, which they founded in Java in 1619, became afterwards their principal seat of trade and the capital of their surrounding possessions. The chief aim of the Dutch was to gather into their hands the profitable commerce of the island world of the Eastern Archipelago, but they did not fail to pursue their Spanish and Portuguese enemies in other quarters, where the chances of traffic looked inviting. They seized positions on the Guinea coast of western Africa and took their full share of the trade with its savage natives, who gave gold dust, ivory, ebony, gums, wax, ginger, pepper, palm oil, various choice kinds of wood, and slaves (for the West Indies and America, when the plantations there began to want labor), in exchange for trinkets and cheap goods. They also occupied and colonized the Cape of Good Hope, which the Portuguese had neglected, and made it, in time, a very prosperous and valuable possession. That they should carry their war with Spain into the West Indies and to the American coasts, was a matter of course. In 1623 a Dutch West India Company was chartered, to organize these operations in the western world, as the East India Company had organized undertakings in the East. {3717} But the West India Company was much less commercial and much more warlike in its aims than the corporation of the orient. Its first object was to take spoils from the enemy, and it found the prizes of war so rich that not much else was thought of. On the North American continent, a most important lodgment was made, as early as 1614, at the mouth of the Hudson River, where the colony of New Netherland was founded. In this quarter, as everywhere, the Dutch and English were rivals, and before many years they came to open war. In the series of wars which followed (1652, 1665, 1672), and in the long contest with Louis XIV. of France which they shared with England, the Dutch expended more of their energies than they could afford. The English, with their well protected island, rich in soil and in minerals, had heavy advantages on their side, when once they had acquired the knowledge of commerce and the ability in labor which enabled them to compete with the Dutch. To the latter nature had always been wholly unfriendly. They had fought against circumstances at every step in their history, and had won their wealth, their knowledge, their high importance and influence in the world, by sheer hard work, tireless patience and indomitable will. But the natural advantages against which they struggled were sure to overcome them in the end. It must be said, too, that they did not grow in character as their fortunes rose. It is not difficult, therefore, to account for the fact that the Dutch nation slowly slipped back, during the 18th century, from the high and leading position in civilization to which it had climbed, and lost by degrees its commercial supremacy, while the English nation came to the front.

COMMERCE: MODERN: The English: 16-17th Centuries. Commercial progress. The East India Company.

As English commerce slowly freed itself from foreign hands, it fell under the control of monopolies at home. The merchants of the Middle Ages, in England and elsewhere, had formed themselves into societies, or guilds, just as the artisans and mechanics in different trades had done. Such associations had originally grown out of the disorderly state of the times, when government and law were weak, and when men who had common interests were forced to unite to protect themselves, and to establish customs and rules for regulating their business affairs. But the guilds almost always became, in time, oppressive monopolies, each acquiring, in its own department of business, such exclusive rights and privileges as practically shut out from that business all persons not admitted to its membership. This occurred among the merchants, as it did elsewhere, and English commerce grew up under the control of various societies of "Merchant Adventurers," as they were called.

See MERCHANT ADVENTURERS (page 2153).

The disputes and contests of these companies, at home and abroad, and their suppression of individual enterprise, appear to have hindered the growth of English commerce for a long period. But it did grow steadily, notwithstanding, and through the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, the number of English ships set afloat and of English merchants trading abroad, was rapidly multiplied. Meantime the English people gained skill in weaving, dyeing and other arts, and were fast extending the manufacture at home of their own famous Wool. This, in turn, made the sheep farming more profitable, and so much land was taken for that purpose that other products were diminished and most articles of food rose in price. That occurrence caused grave anxiety, and the meddling statesmen of the time, who thought that nothing could go well if their wisdom did not regulate it by law (as too many meddling statesmen think yet) began to frame acts of Parliament which directed how farming lands should be managed and how many sheep a single farmer should be permitted to own. The same kind of statesmanship took alarm at the spread of weaving, in a small way, among industrious villagers and country people, who set up looms and made and sold cloth, outside of the guilds of the town weavers. So the complaints of the latter were listened to, and Parliament forbade weaving to be done outside of certain towns, except for home use in the family of the weaver. There was much of that sort of legislation during Tudor times, and the industry and enterprise of the country had to struggle long and hard for freedom to fairly exercise themselves. But in spite of meddling statesmen and tyrannical monopolies, the people went all from year to year, learning more, doing more, producing more, wanting more, buying and selling more, and living in a better way. After about 1511, there appears to have been a considerable direct trade growing up between England and the countries of the eastern Mediterranean (the Levant), and consuls, to look after the rights and interests of English merchants, began to be appointed, at Candia, and elsewhere, as early as 1530. The voyage from London to the Levant and return then occupied from eleven months to a year. About 1535 the English made their appearance as traders on the Guinea coast of West Africa, disputing the exclusive rights which the Portuguese claimed there, and in 1537 they opened trade with the Moors of the Barbary coast, in northern Africa. In 1553 a chartered company of London merchants was formed with the object of exploring for a northeastern passage to China, around Europe, through the Arctic seas, as a means of dividing the trade of the East with the Portuguese, who controlled the southern route, around Africa. This is believed to have been the first joint stock corporation of shareholders that was organized in England. Sebastian Cabot, then "Grand Pilot of England," was at the head of it. The northwestern passage was not found, but the company opened a trade with Russia which proved to be exceedingly valuable. Accepting this, in lieu of the China trade which it could not reach, it became, as the Russia Company, a rich and powerful corporation. The success of the Russia Company stimulated the adventurous disposition of the English people and set other enterprises in motion. But still more energy was roused by the hostility of national feeling toward Spain. The destruction of the Armada broke the Spanish naval power and made the English bold. They began to navigate the sea from that time with intent to become its masters, though the Dutch were still superior to them in maritime strength and experience. During the reign of Elizabeth there rose a new race of Vikings, very much like the old Norse heroes of the sea, and pursuing a very similar career. {3718} The most daring and most famous among them, such as Grenville, Drake and Hawkins, were more than half pirates, and their voyages were chiefly expeditions for plunder, directed against the Spaniards and Portuguese. The trade which they first gave attention to was the trade in negro slaves. But those piratical adventurers of the 16th century made England the "mistress of the seas." They trained for her a body of sailors who were able in time to more than cope with the Dutch, and they opened the newly known regions of the world for her merchants and colonists to spread over them. Before the end of the 17th century, the English had become the foremost power in the western world and were making the most of its opportunities for production and trade. Meantime they were pushing their way with equal energy in the East. On the last day of the year 1600 the "Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies," which became afterwards so great and famous as the "East India Company" of England, was chartered by the Queen. The Company sent out its first fleet of five vessels in 1601. The expedition returned, after an absence of two years and seven months, richly laden, in part with pepper from Sumatra and in part with the spoils of a Portuguese ship which it had captured in the straits of Malacca. It had settled a trading agency, or factory, at Bantam—and that was the beginning of the vast empire which England now rules in the East.

See INDIA: A. D. 1600-1702 (page 1709).

COMMERCE: MODERN: The English: 17-18th Centuries. The Colonial or Sole Market Commercial System.

"The doctrine that the commercial prosperity of a country depends on the creation, maintenance, and extension of a sole market for its products and for its supplies, was prevalent from the discovery of the New World and the Cape Passage down to the war of American Independence. This was the principal object of Borgia's Bulls. This was what animated the Dutch, in their successful, in the end too successful, struggle, after a monopoly of the Spice islands. This was the motive which led to the charters of the Russian Company, the Levant Company, the East India Company, the Turkey Company, the Hudson's Bay Company, in England. The theory was organized in the colonial system, which Adam Smith examined, attacked, and as far as argument could go, demolished in his great work. But the dream of a sole market is still possessing the Germans and the French. … The early wars of Europe were wars of conquest. … After them came the wars of religion, from the outbreak of the Insurrection in the Low Countries, and the civil wars in France, down to the Peace of Westphalia in the middle of the 17th century. From that day to our own, European wars have been waged on behalf of the balance of power, the principal mischief-maker in the contest being France. The English, the French, and the Dutch were the competitors in the wars for a sole market. But Holland was practically ruined at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, and France was stripped … of her colonies at the peace of Paris, and England became not only the principal maritime, but the principal manufacturing and mercantile country in the world. As regards English trade, however, though India was an outlet to some extent for English goods, its trade was in the hands of a chartered company, whom the Seven Years' War had left in serious straits. The most important sole market which Great Britain had acquired by her wars was the seaboard of North America. To support the finances of the chartered company, the British Parliament determined on taxing the inhabitants of her sole market, and the result as you know was the war of American Independence. … The colonial or sole-market system was based on a strict reciprocity. The English Government admitted colonial produce into the English markets at differential duties, or prohibited the produce of foreign nations and foreign colonies altogether. The Colonies were not only the customers of English manufacturers only, to the absolute exclusion of foreign manufactures, but were prohibited from undertaking those manufactures themselves. The English Government adopted with their colonies the policy which they adopted with Irish manufactures, which they also prohibited, but with this difference, that they disabled the Irish from having any trade whatever with England, with the Colonies, and with foreign countries. They wished to extinguish, with one exception, every Irish product, and to constitute themselves the sole manufacturers and shopkeepers for the Irish. They allowed only the linen manufacture of Ulster. The Irish were to be, with this exception, agriculturists only, but they were to be disabled from selling their agricultural produce in England, or elsewhere. They were practically denied the right of trade. … It was the doctrine of the sole market in its most exaggerated form. … The colonial system, under which advantages were secured to the colonial producer by giving him a preferred market in Great Britain, while the colonist was debarred from engaging in manufactures, was a selfish one on the part of the English merchants and manufacturers. It gave the colonist a sole market, it is true. But it does not follow that a sole market is a high market. On the contrary, it is probable that the offer of a sole market is intended to secure a low market. The Virginian planter sent the whole of his tobacco to England. The English trader re-exported it to other countries, say Holland or Germany. It may be presumed that he made a profit on the original consignment, and on the re-exportation, or he would not have undertaken the business. … The colonial system did not preclude the plantations from sending, under the strict conditions of the Navigation Act, certain kinds of produce to other countries than England. These were called non-enumerated commodities, the principal being corn, timber, salted provisions, fish, sugar, and rum. There was a reason for this, which was to be found in the fiscal system of England. We did not want colonial corn, for there were duties on corn, levied in the interest of the landlords, nor colonial timber, salted meat and salted fish, for the home produce of these articles were similarly assisted. Sugar and rum were allowed to be exported, for the owners of the plantations in the Leeward isles were chiefly absentee English proprietors, who had already a monopoly of English supply, and were powerful enough in Parliament to get an extended market elsewhere. But in 1769, just before the troubles broke out with the American plantations, an Act was passed, disabling the colonists from sending even the non-enumerated commodities to any country north of Cape Finisterre, in Northern Spain. … The enumerated goods, and there was a long list of them, could be exported to Great Britain only. They consisted, as Adam Smith says, of what could not be produced in this country, and what could be produced in great quantity in the Colonies."

J. E. T. Rogers, The Economic Interpretation of History, lecture 15.

{3719}

COMMERCE: MODERN: The Americans: Colonial Trade.

"We are a nation of land-traffickers, but our ancestors in the colonies traded and traveled almost entirely by water. There were but twelve miles of land-carriage in all the province of New York; beyond Albany the Indian trade was carried on by 'three-' or 'four-handed batteaus,' sharp at both ends, like the Adirondack boat of to-day. Yachts, with bottoms of black oak and sides of red cedar, brought wheat in bulk and peltries down the Hudson; other craft carried on the domestic trade of New York town with the shores of Long Island, Staten Island, and the little ports beyond the Kill von Kull. … The first regular wagon-carriage from the Connecticut River to Boston did not begin until 1697; Massachusetts had then been settled seventy years. The flat-bottomed boat, which has since played so important a part in the trade of the Ohio and the Mississippi, and whose form was probably suggested by that of the 'west country barges' of England, appears to have been used for floating produce down the Delaware before 1685. In the Chesapeake colonies, until late in the provincial period, there were almost no roads but the numerous bays and water-courses, and almost no vehicles but canoes, row-boats, pinnaces and barks. Places of resort for worship or business were usually near the waterside. … But of all means of travel or trade the Indian canoe was the chief. … Roads in the colonies were hardly ever laid out, but were left where Indian trail or chance cart-track in the woods had marked them. … From England, along with bad roads, the colonists brought the pack-horse which, in Devon and Cornwall, at the close of the last century, still did the carrying, even of building-stones and cord-wood. Most of the inland traffic of the colonial period was done by packing. … The Germans, whose ancestors had four-wheeled vehicles in the days of Julius Cæsar, made good roads wherever they planted themselves. While their English neighbors were content to travel on horseback and to ford and swim streams, the Salzburgers in Georgia began by opening a wagon-road twelve miles long, with seven bridges, 'which surprised the English mightily.' Pennsylvania, the home of the Germans, alone of the colonies built good straight roads; and the facility which these afforded to ten thousand freight-wagons was the main advantage that gave Philadelphia the final preeminence among the colonial sea-ports, and made Lancaster the only considerable inland mart In North America. … Proximity to the wampum-making savages at one end of Hudson River navigation and to the beaver-catchers at the other made New York the chief seat of the fur trade. Wagon-roads, soil, climate, and an industrious people made Philadelphia the principal center of the traffic in bread and meat. The never-ending line of convenient shore that bordered the peninsulas of Maryland and Virginia, and gave a good landing-place at every man's door, with a tobacco currency, rendered it difficult to build towns or develop trade among the easy-going planters of the Chesapeake and Albemarle regions. A different coast-line, and rivers less convenient, made Charleston the rich and urbane commercial and social center of southern Carolina. Until about 1750 Boston was the leading sea-port, and its long wharf, 2,000 feet in length with warehouses on one side of it, was the New World wonder of travelers. Five or six hundred vessels annually cleared out of Boston in the middle of the 18th century for the foreign trade alone, and the city contained between twenty and thirty thousand people at the outbreak of the Revolution. But Newport, with its thirty distilleries to make rum of the molasses brought from the islands, and its seventeen sperm-oil and candle factories to work up the results of the whaling industry, had nearly half as many ships in foreign trade as Boston, and three or four hundred craft of all sorts in the coast-wise carrying trade. He was thought a bold prophet who said then that 'New York might one day equal Newport'; for about 1750 New York sent forth fewer ships than Newport, and not half so many as Boston. … But Philadelphia—planted late in the 17th century—outstripped all rivals, and for the last twenty years of the colonial period was the chief port of North America. … The imports and exports of the two tobacco colonies together were far larger than those of Philadelphia, but their profits were far less."

_E. Eggleston, Commerce in the Colonies (Century, June, 1884)._

COMMERCE: MODERN: The English: 18-19th Centuries. Rising prosperity and commercial supremacy. Successful War, Free Trade and Steam Power.

"If we look at the state of the European powers after the conclusion of the Seven Years' War in 1763, we shall see how favourable our position then was. In the first place, England had seriously crippled her commercial rival, France, both in her Indian and American possessions, and thereby had gained extensive colonial territories which afforded a ready market for British goods. Spain, which had been allied with France, had lost at the same time her position as the commercial rival of England in trade with the New World. Germany had for some time ceased to be a formidable competitor, and was now being ravaged by internal conflicts between the reigning houses of Austria and Prussia. Holland, which had once been England's most serious rival—especially in foreign commerce—was at this time in a similar condition, and had greatly declined from the prosperity of the 16th and 17th centuries. Hence England alone had the chance of 'the universal empire of the sole market.' The supply of this market was in the hands of English manufacturers and English workmen, so that the great inventions which came into operation after 1763 were thus at once called into active employment, and our mills and mines were able to produce wealth as fast as they could work, without fear of foreign competition. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that in the ten years, from 1782 to 1792, our entire foreign trade was nearly doubled, the exact figures being: 1782, imports £10,341,628, exports £13,009,458; 1792, Imports £19,659,358, exports £24,905,200. And this remarkable progress was still kept up even during the great continental wars which were caused by the French Revolution, and which lasted for almost a quarter of a century. … {3720} In spite of the almost entire loss of our trade in some directions, English commerce improved in others; and, in fact, any loss was more than counterbalanced by an increase in regard to the (now independent) United States, Russia, Venice, Germany, and Northern Europe, as well as with the West and East Indian colonies, both British and foreign. In fact, many of the countries whom France had compelled to become our enemies found themselves unable to do without British manufactures, especially as their own industries were suffering from the warfare that was going on on the Continent, and therefore had to find means to procure our goods. … The close of the 25 years of continental war (1815) is sometimes taken as being the date when the modern system of commerce may be said to have had its beginning. Up to that time, although great changes and advances had been made, the spirit of monopoly and the general restrictive policy which characterised previous centuries, were still, to some extent, in force. But not very long after the peace that was won by the battle of Waterloo, a remarkable change was made in the commercial policy of England. … We now come to the beginnings of freedom of trade."

H. de B. Gibbins, British Commerce and Colonies, pages 91-102.

"When the wars of the French Revolution began, the foundations of a great empire had already been broadly laid; and when it ended, England stood out as a power which had grown greater in the struggle. … Dutchman, Dane, and Spaniard, Frenchman and Venetian, all ancient competitors of England, fell before her; and, when the sword was sheathed in 1815, it was no exaggerated boast to call her mistress of the seas. These facts should never be lost sight of in any consideration of the causes which have led us to where we now are. Without these preparatory steps, both in domestic industries and in foreign wars and conquests, England would not, with all her material advantages, have been so entirely the gainer by the progress of the last fifty years as she has so far proved to be. … There is the more need to remember this because the time immediately following the war was one of severe domestic suffering, and of much retrograde legislation, conceived with a view to, if possible, lessen that suffering. … The worst of all the laws which then restricted trade were those relating to the exports and imports of corn, which the younger men of to-day have well-nigh forgotten. … It was not till after long years of agitation by John Bright, Richard Cobden, and other leaders of the Anti-Corn Law League, that the landed party gave way sullenly, and assented, amid the most gloomy predictions of impending ruin, to the repeal of the sliding scale altogether, and the virtual abolition of all corn laws by the substitution of a fixed duty of 1 s. per quarter. Thus recently was one of the most oppressive pieces of fiscal legislation that man could have conceived withdrawn; and not until 1849, when that law came into force, could the industries of the country be said to be anything like unfettered. Yet twenty years more passed before this shilling duty—the last rag of protection—was itself flung aside, and the import of corn became perfectly free. … But many other changes had in the meantime taken place, all tending more and more to throw off the shackles of trade. … As late as 1840 our customs tariff was described in the report of a committee of the House of Commons as 'presenting neither congruity nor unity of purpose;' as 'often aiming at incompatible ends,' seeking both to produce revenue and to protect interests in ways incompatible with each other. There were no fewer than 1,150 different rates of duty chargeable on imported articles, … and the committee gave a list of 862 of such articles which were subject to duty, seventeen of which then produced 94 per cent. of a revenue amounting to £23,000,000. … The present customs tariff contains less than two dozen articles all told, and including those on which duty is imposed to countervail the excise charges on internal products. The ordinary import articles on which duty is charged number only seven. … But there is yet another hindrance the removal of which has to be noticed, and which, till removed, cramped England very seriously, viz. the navigation laws and the great trade monopoly of the East India Company. … It took longer time … to accomplish the complete deliverance of our mercantile marine from the baneful influence of 'protective' jealousy than to accomplish any other great free-trade reform. A tentative effort to lessen the consequences of confining the carrying trade of England to English ships was made in 1825 by Mr. Huskisson; but it was not till 1854 that complete free trade on the sea was granted by the abolition of any restriction as to the nationality of vessels engaged in the coasting trade of the kingdom. … Here, then, we have noted briefly the various steps and leading characteristics of the commercial reforms which, in this country, either paved the way for or secured the benefit of the great outburst of enterprise and influx of wealth which began in the second quarter of the present century. These various reforms constitute, so to say, the negative side of the modern commercial prosperity which this country built upon the foundations of her world-wide empire; and, in order to get a complete outline of the position which we at present occupy, we must now revert briefly to the positive side of the subject; we must find out where the great modern wealth has come from, and on what it has been based. Freedom of trade no doubt did much to call wealth and enterprise into being; but in what did this wealth consist? Happily the leading features are not difficult to trace. Although the foundations of the great manufacturing industries of this country lie far back in the past, their development, like the growth of free-trade principles, is quite modern, and dates in reality from the day when George Stephenson won the competition at Liverpool with his locomotive 'the Rocket,' settling thereby the question of railroad travelling by steam beyond dispute. The mere stimulus to all kinds of mining and manufacturing industries which this victory and the subsequent railway operations gave, was itself enough to cause the trade of this country to press forward by 'leaps and bounds.' Since November 1830, it may be said to have done so; and the mere fact that England was the originator of the railway systems of the world, and that she contained within herself almost boundless materials wherewith to supply those systems, would itself suffice to explain the pre-eminence which from that day to this has been unquestionably hers. {3721} The great natural resources of the country were first employed in supplying the materials for home development, and then gradually the wealth thus acquired by digging in the bowels of the earth was utilised in tempting or leading other nations into a career of 'progress' similar to our own. In spite of the many losses which individuals suffered in the early days of this progress, the nation grew steadily richer and its stores of realised wealth increased with every new enterprise almost that it took up. … Each year the realised wealth of the one before told, as it were, in swelling the working power of the nation, and in enlarging the business capacities and scope of its credit. … Side by side with the increased produce of the country, the increased manufactures, and the increasing wealth, there were growing up facilities for intercommunication with all parts of the world, and with that an increasing tendency to emigration. The home hives were constantly throwing off young swarms, which, settling now in America, now in Australia, now in Africa, became so many new centres of demand, so many links in the trade chain that we had bound round the world."

A. J. Wilson, British Trade (Fraser's Magazine, September, 1876), pages 271-277.

"The almost unlimited expansion which becomes marked about 1850 and culminates in 1873, has been pointed to by many different people as proof of the great effect of different measures or inventions; as a matter of fact, it was due to no one cause, but was rather the result of multitudinous discoveries and events, acting and reacting on each other. Perhaps the following list of dates shows this most clearly;—

Opening of first English railway, 1830; Wheatstone's telegraph, 1837; first ocean steamer, 1838; settlement in New Zealand, 1840; reduction of duties on raw materials, 1842; repeal of Corn Laws, 1846; commercial treaty with France, 1860.

Here are seven events of widely different natures, each of which must have had its effect in the period under consideration, and it would be useless, even if it were possible, to weigh the separate result of each. We cannot estimate, we can obtain no criterion of the vast effects of the adoption of Free Trade. Three things, however, are clear;— First, that till the suffocating restrictions were removed, trade could not expand; when exports were prohibited, imports could not be plentiful; when imports were taxed, the demand at enhanced prices could not be great. Secondly, if every restriction was removed from every branch of trade, there would be no increase without natural causes of manufacture and demand, no increased demand without a cheapening or improvement of supply; that, in fact, Free Trade is the method, not the source, of commerce, and that the claim of this increase as the direct result of freedom and a proof of its expediency is an inaccurate exaggeration. Thirdly, that the date of the marked commencement of the expansion coincides exactly with the reductions and abolitions of duties, pointing to the fact, borne out by all concurrent events, that the adoption of Free Trade was the opening of the valve which allowed the forces of commerce full play. … It was in the trades of comparatively recent establishment, in England especially, that there were immense outputs (of cotton goods and machinery, for instance), in great excess of the home demand; and this could only pay if the foreign demand grew in proportion to the growing efficiency; that is to say, our newer industries became the most important, and were marked as our division of international labour. The foreign demand, indeed, for our manufactures and our machines was extraordinary. Now, every country is trying to rival our goods, and each to produce for herself the manufactures she requires; then, rivalry was out of the question. … On every side new markets were opened; old trades were increased, new developed. The railways built with our materials opened up districts hitherto inaccessible; this acted as a fresh stimulus to our manufacturers—more capital was forthcoming, and more railways were built. Not only were countries, with which we had already established some trade, brought nearer and in closer relation, but new countries were discovered. Australia and New Zealand were ready to take our surplus population, and were not behindhand in the new system of development. Our older colonies also increased. With each emigration the number of our customers abroad was multiplied. In 1850 and 1852 this process was accelerated by the news of the gold discoveries in California and Australia. So great was the emigration and the consequent demand for ships that all freights were increased, and, with a short lull, this continued till 1856. … The last great impetus was given by the Suez Canal, by which the journey to India and the East was quickened by one-half, and, at the same time, rendered more secure."

A. L. Bowley, England's Foreign Trade in the Nineteenth Century. chapter 4.

See, also, TARIFF LEGISLATION (pages 3073-3077).

COMMERCE: MODERN: The Americans: A. D, 1856-1895. Decay of American shipping interests.

"Down to the year 1856, the United States had rapidly advanced in commercial greatness, and had overcome all the obstacles which had clustered about their path. At that time we were close upon the heels of England, and everything pointed to our speedily passing her in the race for commercial supremacy. Since then our commerce has steadily declined,—a misfortune usually attributed to the civil war, and subsequently to the competition of more profitable forms of investment. These circumstances no doubt hastened the loss of our commerce; but, as Lieutenant Kelley points out, they are not the true causes of its decline, inasmuch as that began before the civil war. The origin of our difficulties lay in the abandonment of our old policy, which, from the beginning of the century, consisted in surpassing all the world in the quality and speed of our ships and in our naval architecture. With the substitution of iron for wood we began to drop behind, until, with a population of 55,000,000, we have a tonnage but little greater than we had when half as numerous. Moreover, our percentage of wrecks is larger than that of any other seafaring people, and our ships and steamers are shorter-lived.

_The Question of Ships (Atlantic Monthly, June, 1884, pages 859-861)._

{3722}

"The first symptoms of the decadence appeared in 1856, in the falling-off in the sales of American tonnage to foreigners; the reduction being from 65,000 in 1855 to 42,000 in 1856, to 26,000 in 1858, and to 17,000 in 1860. During the war, however, the transfers of American tonnage to foreign flags again increased very largely, and, for the years 1862 to 1865 inclusive, amounted to the large aggregate of 824,652 tons, or to more than one-fourth of all the registered tonnage (the tonnage engaged in foreign trade) of the United States in 1860. But these transfers, it is well understood, were not in the nature of ordinary business, but for the sake of obtaining a more complete immunity from destruction upon the high seas than the United States at that time was able to afford. The year 1856 also marks the time when the growth of our foreign steam-shipping was arrested, and a retrograde movement inaugurated; so that … our aggregate tonnage in this department was 1,000 tons less in 1862 than it was in 1855. The total tonnage of every description built in the United States also declined from 583,450 tons in 1855 (the largest amount ever built in any one year) to 469,393 in 1856, 378,804 in 1857, and 212,892 in 1860, a reduction of 68 per cent in five years. During the year 1855, American vessels carried 75.6 per cent of the value of the exports and imports of the United States. After 1855 this proportion steadily declined to 75.2 per cent in 1856, 70.5 in 1857, 66.9 in 1859, and 65.2 in 1861, the year of the outbreak of the war. … Of the enormous increase in the foreign commerce of the United States since 1860, as above noted, every maritime nation of any note, with the exception of the United States, has taken a share. American tonnage alone exhibits a decrease. Thus, comparing 1880 with 1856, the foreign tonnage entering the seaports of the United States increased nearly 11,000,000 of tons; whereas the American tonnage entered during the same period exhibits a decrease of over 65,000 tons. British tonnage increased its proportion from 935,000 tons in 1856 to 7,903,000 in 1880; Germany, during the same time, from 166,000 to 1,089,000; and Sweden and Norway from 20,662 to 1,234,000. Austria, limited to almost a single seaport, jumped up from 1,477 tons in 1856 to 206,000 tons in 1880, and had, in 1879, 179 large-class sailing-vessels engaged in the American trade. Sleepy Portugal increased during the same period from 4,727 tons to 24,449 tons. … How is it, that the United States, formerly a maritime power of the first class, has now no ships or steamers that can profitably compete for the carrying of even its own exports; not merely with the ships of our great commercial rival, England, but also with those of Italy, Sweden, Norway, Germany, Holland, Austria, and Portugal? … The facts already presented fully demonstrate that the war was not the cause, and did not mark the commencement, of the decadence of American shipping; although the contrary is often and perhaps generally assumed by those who have undertaken to discuss this subject. The war simply hastened a decay which had already commenced. … The primary cause was what may be termed a natural one, the result of the progress of the age and a higher degree of civilization; namely, the substitution of steam in place of wind as an agent for ship-propulsion, and the substitution of iron in the place of wood as a material for ship-construction. … The means and appliances for the construction of iron vessels did not then [in 1855] exist in the United States; while Great Britain, commencing even as far back as 1837 (when John Laird constructed his first iron steamers of any magnitude for steam navigation), and with eighteen years of experience, had become thoroughly equipped in 1855 for the prosecution of this great industry. The facilities for the construction of steam machinery adapted to the most economical propulsion of ocean vessels, furthermore, were also inferior in the United States to those existing in Great Britain; and, by reason of statute provisions, citizens of the United States interested in ocean commerce were absolutely prevented and forbidden from availing themselves of the results of British skill and superiority in the construction of vessels when such a recourse was the only policy which could have enabled them at the time to hold their position in the ocean carrying trade in competition with their foreign rivals. … The inability of the ships of the United States to do the work which trade and commerce required that they should do as well and cheaply as the ships of other nations having been demonstrated by experience, the decadence of American shipping commenced and was inevitable from the very hour when this fact was first recognized, which was about the year 1856. Here, then, we have the primary cause of the decay of the business of ship-building in the United States and of our commercial marine. … The question which next naturally presents itself in the order of this inquiry and discussion is, Why is it that the people of the United States have not been permitted to enjoy the privileges accorded to other maritime nations, of adjusting their shipping interests to the spirit and wants of the age? Why have they alone been debarred from using the best tools in an important department of commerce, when the using meant business retained, labor employed, and capital rewarded, and the non-using equally meant decay, paralysis, and impoverishment? The answer is, Because of our so-called navigation laws."

D. A. Wells, Our Merchant Marine, chapters 2-3.

"Somewhat curtailed, the navigation laws may be summarized as follows: No American is allowed to import a foreign-built vessel in the sense of purchasing, acquiring a registry, or using her as his property; the only other imports, equally and forcibly prohibited, being counterfeit money and obscene goods. An American vessel ceases to be such if owned in the smallest degree by a naturalized citizen, who may, after acquiring the purchase, reside for more than one year in his native country, or for more than two years in any other foreign state. An American ship owned in part or in full by an American citizen who, without the expectation of relinquishing his citizenship, resides in any foreign country except as United States Consul, or as agent or partner in an exclusively American mercantile house, loses its register and its right to protection. A citizen obtaining a register for an American vessel must make oath that no foreigner is directly or indirectly interested in the profits thereof, whether as commander, officer, or owner. Foreign capital may build our railroads, work our mines, insure our property, and buy our bonds, but a single dollar invested in American ships so taints as to render it unworthy of the benefit of our laws. No foreign-built vessel can, under penalty of confiscation, enter our ports and then sail to another domestic port with any new cargo, or with any part of an original cargo, which has once been unladen previously, without touching at some port of some foreign country. {3723} This law is construed to include all direct traffic between the Atlantic and Pacific ports of the United States via Cape Horn, the Cape of Good Hope, or the Isthmus of Panama; and being a coasting trade, foreigners cannot compete. An American vessel once sold or transferred to a foreigner, can never again become American property, even if the transaction has been the result of capture and condemnation by a foreign power in time of war. Vessels under 30 tons cannot be used to import anything at any seaboard town. Cargoes from the eastward of the Cape of Good Hope are subject to a duty of 10 per cent. in addition to the direct importation duties. American vessels repaired in foreign ports must pay a duty on the repairs equal to one-half the cost of the foreign work or material, or pay 50 per cent. ad valorem, the master or owner making entry of such repairs as imports. This liberal provision, which dates from 1866, is made to include boats obtained at sea, from a passing foreign vessel, in order to assure the safety of our own seamen. … All other nations have the power of buying ships for foreign trade in the cheapest market, and the effort to protect our shipbuilders by the denial of this right forbids the return of commercial prosperity."

J. D. J. Kelley, The Question of Ships, chapters 4-5.

COMMERCE: MODERN: The recent revolution in Commerce.

"All economists who have specially studied this matter are substantially agreed that, within the period named [1860-1885], man in general has attained to such a greater control over the forces of Nature, and has so compassed their use, that he has been able to do far more work in a given time, produce far more product, measured by quantity in ratio to a given amount of labor, and reduce the effort necessary to insure a comfortable subsistence in a far greater measure than it was possible for him to accomplish 20 or 30 years anterior to the time of the present writing (1889). In the absence of sufficiently complete data, it is not easy, and perhaps not possible, to estimate accurately, and specifically state the average saving in time and labor in the world's work of production and distribution that has been thus achieved. In a few departments of industrial effort the saving in both of these factors has certainly amounted to 70 or 80 per cent; in not a few to more than 50 per cent. … Out of such results as are definitely known and accepted have come tremendous industrial and social disturbances, the extent and effect of which—and more especially of the disturbances which have culminated, as it were, in later years—it is not easy to appreciate without the presentation and consideration of certain typical and specific examples. … Let us go back, in the first instance, to the year 1869, when an event occurred which was probably productive of more immediate and serious economic changes—industrial, commercial, and financial—than any other event of this century, a period of extensive war excepted. That was the opening of the Suez Canal. … The old transportation had been performed by ships, mainly sailing-vessels, fitted to go round the Cape, and as such ships were not adapted to the Suez Canal, an amount of tonnage, estimated by some authorities as high as two million tons, and representing an immense amount of wealth, was virtually destroyed. The voyage, in place of occupying from six to eight months, has been so greatly reduced that steamers adapted to the canal now make the voyage from London to Calcutta, or vice versa, in less than 30 days. The notable destruction or great impairment in the value of ships consequent upon the construction of the canal did not, furthermore, terminate with its immediate opening and use; for improvements in marine engines, diminishing the consumption of coal, and so enabling vessels to be not only sailed at less cost, but to carry also more cargo, were, in consequence of demand for quick and cheap service so rapidly effected, that the numerous and expensive steamer constructions of 1870-1873, being unable to compete with the constructions of the next two years, were nearly all displaced in 1875-1876, and sold for half, or less than half, of their original cost. And within another decade these same improved steamers of 1875-1876 have, in turn, been discarded and sold at small prices. … Again, with telegraphic communication between India and China, and the markets of the Western world, permitting the dealers and consumers of the latter to adjust to a nicety their supplies of commodities to varying demands, and with the reduction of the time of the voyage to 30 days or less, there was no longer any necessity of laying up great stores of Eastern commodities in Europe; and with the termination of this necessity, the India warehouse and distribution system of England, with all the labor and all the capital and banking incident to it, substantially passed away. Europe, and to some extent the United States, ceased to go to England for its supplies. … Importations of East Indian produce are also no longer confined in England and other countries to a special class of merchants; and so generally has this former large and special department of trade been broken up and dispersed, that extensive retail grocers in the larger cities of Europe and the United States are now reported as drawing their supplies direct from native dealers in both China and India. … In short, the construction of the Suez Canal completely revolutionized one of the greatest departments of the world's commerce and business; absolutely destroying an immense amount of what had previously been wealth, and displacing or changing the employment of millions of capital and thousands of men. … The deductions from the most recent tonnage statistics of Great Britain come properly next in order for consideration. During the ten years from 1870 to 1880, inclusive, the British mercantile marine increased its movement, in the matter of foreign entries and clearances alone, to the extent of 22,000,000 tons; or, to put it more simply, the British mercantile marine exclusively engaged in foreign trade did so much more work within the period named; and yet the number of men who were employed in effecting this great movement had decreased in 1880, as compared with 1870, to the extent of about 3,000 (2,990 exactly). What did it? The introduction of steam hoisting-machines and grain-elevators upon the wharves and docks, and the employment of steam-power upon the vessels for steering, raising the sails and anchors, pumping, and discharging the cargo; or, in other words, the ability, through the increased use of steam and improved machinery, to carry larger cargoes in a shorter time, with no increase—or, rather, an actual decrease—of the number of men employed in sailing or managing the vessels. … {3724} Prior to about the year 1875 ocean-steamships had not been formidable as freight-carriers. The marine engine was too heavy, occupied too much space, consumed too much coal. … The result of the construction and use of compound engines in economizing coal has been illustrated by Sir Lyon Playfair, by the statement that 'a small cake of coal, which would pass through a ring the size of a shilling, when burned in the compound engine of a modern steamboat would drive a ton of food and its proportion of the ship two miles on its way from a foreign port.' … Is it, therefore, to be wondered at, that the sailing-vessel is fast disappearing from the ocean? … Great, however, as has been the revolution in respect to economy and efficiency in the carrying-trade upon the ocean, the revolution in the carrying-trade upon land during the same period has been even greater and more remarkable. Taking the American railroads in general as representative of the railroad system of the world, the average charge for moving one ton of freight per mile has been reduced from about 2.5 cents in 1869 to 1.06 in 1887; or, taking the results on one of the standard roads of the United States the (New York Central), from 1.95 in 1869 to 0.68 in 1885. … One marked effect of the present railroad and steamship system of transportation has been to compel a uniformity of prices for all commodities that are essential to life. … For grain henceforth, therefore, the railroad and the steamship have decided that there shall be but one market—the world."

D. A. Wells, Recent Economic Changes, pages. 27-47.

A recent English writer says: "Formerly we [the English] were the great manufacturers of the world; the great distributors and the great warehousemen of the world. Our country was the point on which the great passenger traffic impinged from America and from our Colonies, and from which passengers distributed themselves over the continent of Europe. The products of the world as a general rule came to English ports, and from English ports were distributed to their various markets. All this has much changed. Probably the alteration is more marked in our distributing trade than in that of our manufacturing trade or in any other direction. About twenty years ago all the silk that was manufactured or consumed in Europe was brought to England from the East, mostly in a raw state, and was thence distributed to continental mills. Notwithstanding the increased consumption in Europe, silk now coming to England for distribution is only about one-eighth of the quantity that came here some twelve years ago. This is one single example of an Oriental product. The same diversion of our distributing trade can be traced in almost every other commodity. Many people believe that the opening of the Suez Canal has caused this diminution of our distributing trade, and it cannot be denied that the Suez Canal has done much to divert Oriental trade from this country, and to send goods direct through the Canal to the continental ports, where they are consumed, or where they can be placed on railways and be forwarded without break of bulk to their destinations. But whatever the Suez Canal may have done to divert trade in Oriental goods such as tea or silk, it cannot account for the diversion of the trade coming from America. Yet we find the same diversion of American products which formerly came to England for distribution. With cotton the same result is found, and with coffee from the Brazil. Nor does the diversion of these articles merely demonstrate that our distributing trade is being lost to us: it also shows that the manufacturers of England now permit the raw material of their industries to be sent straight to the factories of their competitors on the Continent. It shows that the great manufactures of the world are being transferred from England to Belgium, France, Germany, and even to Portugal and Spain. In the train of these manufactures are rapidly following all the complex and complicated businesses which are the hand-maidens of commerce. For instance, the financial business which used to centre in London is being transferred to Paris, Antwerp, and Germany, mainly because the goods to which this business relates are now consigned to continental countries instead of as formerly being brought to England to be distributed therefrom. … The loss of our distributing trade is to my mind in a great measure due to the fact that goods consigned to continental ports can be there put upon railways and sent straight to their destination; while goods sent to English ports must be put upon a railway, taken to our coast, there taken out of the railway, put on board a vessel, taken across to the Continent, there unloaded, then put on the railway and sent off to their ultimate destination. These transhipments from railway to vessel and from vessel to railway are always costly, always involve time, and in the case of some perishable articles render the transaction almost prohibitive. To get over this difficulty and to retain our distributing trade, there appears to me to be only one course open, and that is in some way to obtain direct railway-communication from Liverpool, from London, from Bristol, from Hull, from Glasgow, and from Dundee, to the continental markets where the goods landed at those ports are consumed."

_H. M. Hozier, England's Real Peril (Macmillan's Magazine, July, 1888)._

COMMERCE: MODERN: Waterways and Railways in modern inland commerce.

"There are three great epochs in the modern history of canal navigation, each marked by characteristics peculiar to itself, and sufficiently unlike those of either of the others to enable it to be readily differentiated. They may be thus described:

1. The era of waterways, designed at once to facilitate the transport of heavy traffic from inland centres to the seaboard, and to supersede the then existing systems of locomotion—the wagon and the pack-horse. This era commenced with the construction of the Bridgewater Canal between 1766 and 1770, and terminated with the installation of the railway system in 1830.

2. The era of interoceanic canals, which was inaugurated by the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, and is still in progress.

3. The era of ship-canals intended to afford to cities and towns remote from the sea, all the advantages of a seaboard, and especially that of removing and dispatching merchandise without the necessity of breaking bulk.

{3725}

The second great stage in the development of canal transport is of comparatively recent origin. It may, in fact, be said to date only from the time when the construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Suez was proved to be not only practicable as an engineering project, but likewise highly successful as a commercial enterprise. Not that this was by any means the first canal of its kind. On the contrary, … the ancients had many schemes of a similar kind in view across the same isthmus. The canal of Languedoc, constructed in the reign of Louis XIV., was for that day as considerable an undertaking. It was designed for the purpose of affording a safe and speedy means of communication between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean; it has a total length of 148 miles, is in its highest part 600 ft. above the level of the sea, and has in all 114 locks and sluices. In Russia, canals had been constructed in the time of Peter the Great, for the purpose of affording a means of communication between the different inland seas that are characteristic of that country. The junction of the North and Caspian Seas, of the Baltic and the Caspian, and the union of the Black and the Caspian Seas, had all been assisted by the construction of a series of canals which were perhaps without parallel for their completeness a century ago. In Prussia a vast system of inland navigation had been completed during the last century, whereby Hamburg was connected with Dantzic, and the products of the country could be exported either by the Black Sea or by the Baltic. In Scotland the Forth and Clyde Canal, and the Caledonian Canal, were notable examples of artificial navigation designed to connect two seas, or two firths that had all the characteristics of independent oceans; and the Erie Canal, in the United States, completed a chain of communication between inland seas of much the same order. But, although a great deal had been done in the direction of facilitating navigation between different waters by getting rid of the 'hyphen' by which they were separated anterior to the date of the Suez Canal, this grand enterprise undoubtedly marked a notable advance in the progress of the world from this point of view. The work was at once more original and more gigantic than any that had preceded it. … The Suez Canal once completed and successful, other ship canal schemes came 'thick as autumnal leaves in Vallombrosa.' Several of these were eminently practical, as well as practicable. The Hellenic Parliament determined on cutting through the tongue of land which is situated between the Gulfs of Athens and Lepantus, known as the Isthmus of Corinth. This isthmus divides the Adriatic and the Archipelago, and compels all vessels passing from the one sea to the other to round Cape Matapan, thus materially lengthening the voyages of vessels bound from the western parts of Europe to the Levant, Asia Minor and Smyrna. The canal is now an accomplished fact. Another proposal was that of cutting a canal from Bordeaux to Marseilles, across the South of France, a distance of some 120 miles, whereby these two great ports would be brought 1,678 miles nearer to each other, and a further reduction, estimated at 800 miles, effected in the distance between England and India. The Panama Canal (projected in 1871, and actually commenced in 1880) is, however, the greatest enterprise of all, and in many respects the most gigantic and difficult undertaking of which there is any record. The proposed national canal from sea to sea, proposed by Mr. Samuel Lloyd and others for Great Britain, the proposed Sheffield Ship Canal, the proposed Irish Sea and Birkenhead Ship Canal, and the proposed ship canal to connect the Forth and the Clyde, are but a few of many notable examples of the restlessness of our times in this direction. … There are not a few people who regard the canal system almost as they might regard the Dodo and the Megatherium. It is to them an effete relic of a time when civilisation was as yet but imperfectly developed. … Canals do, indeed, belong to the past. … That canals also belong to the present, Egypt, the American isthmus, Manchester, Corinth, and other places, fully prove, and, unless we greatly err, they are no less the heritage of the future."

J. S. Jeans, Waterways and Water Transport, section 1, chapter 1.

"'The sea girt British Isles have upwards of 2,500 miles of canals, in addition to the Manchester Ship Canal, which is thirty-five and one-half miles, and is said to be one of the most remarkable undertakings of modern times.' … In 1878, Germany had in operation 1,289 miles of canals, and had ordered the construction of 1,045 miles of new canals. Belgium has forty-five canals. Italy, Hungary, Sweden, Holland and Russia have their respective systems of canals. France has expended a larger amount of money than any other European nation, to provide for canal navigation, and in 1887 the total length of its canals was 2,998 miles. About forty-eight per cent of the tonnage of that Republic was transported on its waterways. The average capacity of boats used therefor was 300 tons. The total length of the canals in operation in the United States in 1890 was upwards of 2,926 miles."

_H. W. Hill, Speech on Canals in New York Constitutional Convention of 1894._

"In most of the leading countries of the world, a time arrived when the canal system and the railway system came into strong competition, and when it seemed doubtful on which side the victory would lie. This contest was necessarily more marked in England than in any other country. England had not, indeed, been the first in the field with canals, as she had been with railways. … But England having once started on a career of canal development, followed it up with greater energy and on a more comprehensive scale than any other country. For more than half a century canals had had it all their own way. … But the railway system, first put forward as a tentative experiment, and without the slightest knowledge on the part of its promoters of the results that were before long to be realised, was making encroachments, and proving its capabilities. This was a slow process, as the way had to be felt. The first railway Acts did not contemplate the use of locomotives, nor the transport of passenger traffic. The Stockton and Darlington Railway, constructed in 1825, was the first on which locomotives were employed.

See Steam Locomotion (page 3029).

Even at this date, there were many who doubted the expediency of having a railroad instead of a canal, and in the county of Durham … there was a fierce fight, carried on for more than twenty years. In the United States, the supremacy of waterways was maintained until a much later date. … {3726} A keen and embittered struggle was kept up between the canal and the railroad companies until 1857; and even in the latter year the Legislature of the State of New York, finding that railway competition was making serious inroads upon their canal traffic, were considering whether they should not either entirely prohibit the railways from carrying freight, or impose such tolls upon railway tonnage as would cripple the companies in their competition with canals. … The agitation, however, came to nothing. It had no solid bottom. It was an agitation similar in kind to that which had disturbed Europe when Arkwright's spinning machine and Compton's mule were taking the place of hand labour. The clamour suddenly collapsed, and was never heard of afterwards. Meanwhile the railway system proceeded apace. The records of human progress contain no more remarkable chapter than that which tells of the growth of American railroads. … In the annals of transportation, there is no more interesting chapter than that which deals with the contest that has been carried on for nearly half a century between the railways and the lakes and canals for the grain traffic between Chicago and New York. This contest is interesting, not only to Americans, as the people who are engaged in it, and whom it more directly concerns; but also to the people of Europe, and of Great Britain in particular, the cost of whose food supplies is affected thereby. … The circumstances of the Erie Canal are, however, exceptional. Seldom, indeed, do railway freights run so low as they do on the 950 miles of rail way that separate Chicago from New York. Over this distance, the great trunk lines have recently been carrying freight at the rate of 15 cents, or 7½ d. per 100 lbs. This is equivalent to about 14 s. per ton, or exactly 0.174 d. per ton per mile. There is probably no such low rates for railway transport in the world. But this low rate is due entirely to the competition of the lakes, rivers, and canals."

J. S. Jeans, Waterways and Water Transport, chapters 26-27.

"The early railroad engineers overestimated the speed which could be readily attained. Fifty years ago it was generally expected that passenger trains would soon run at rates of from seventy-five to one hundred miles an hour—a prediction which has as yet remained unfulfilled. On the other hand, they underestimated the railroad's capacity for doing work cheaply. It was not supposed that railroads would ever be able to compete with water-routes in the carriage of freight, except where speedy delivery was of the first importance. Nor was it at that time desired that they should do so. The first English railroad charter contained provisions expressly intended to prevent such competition. A generation later, in the State of New York itself, there was a loud popular cry that the New York Central must be prohibited from carrying freight in competition with the Erie Canal. The main field of usefulness of railroads, and the means by which that field was to be developed, were not merely ignored, they were positively shunned. This period of railroad infancy ended about the year 1850. The crisis of 1847 marked its close in England. The Revolution of 1848-51 was the dividing line on the continent of Europe. The land grants of 1850, and the formation of three trunk lines from the seaboard to the interior may be taken as the beginning of the new era in the United States. It began to be seen and felt that a steam railroad was something more than an exaggerated turnpike or horse railroad, and that it had functions and laws of its own. The changes were: first, the consolidation of old roads; second, the construction of new ones in a great variety of conditions; third, and most important, the development of traffic by cheap rates and new methods. … Under all these influences the railroad mileage of the world increased from 20,000 in 1850 to 66,000 in 1860, 137,000 in 1870, 225,000 in 1880, and [406,416 in 1893.—'Archiv für Eisenbahnwesen']. … Rapid as has been the growth of the railroad mileage, traffic has kept pace with it. It is estimated that the total number of tons moved in 1875 was about 800,000,000. At present [1885] it is about 1,200,000,000 annually, while the passenger movement has increased from 1,400,000,000 to 2,400,000,000. If we could take distance as well as quantity into account, the change (for freight at any rate) would be still greater. To a certain extent this increased intensity of use of railroads is due to improvements in engineering; to a much greater extent it is the result of improved business methods. … Between 1850 and 1880 rates were reduced on an average to about one half their former figures, in spite of the advance in price of labor and of many articles of consumption. A variety of means were made to contribute to this result. The inventions of Bessemer and others, by which it became possible to substitute steel rails for iron, made it profitable for the railroads to carry larger loads at a reduction in rates. Improvements in management increased the effective use of the rolling stock, while the consumption of fuel and the cost of handling were diminished. By other changes in railroad economy it became possible to compete for business of every kind, with the best canals or with natural water-courses. The railroad rates of to-day are but a small fraction of the canal charges of two generations ago; while in volume of business, speed, and variety of use there is an inestimable advance."

A. T. Hadley, Railroad Transportation, chapter 1.

"The railway mileage in the United States on June 30, 1893, was 176,461.07 miles. This shows an increase during the year of 4,897.55 miles, being an increase of 2.80 per cent. The previous report showed an increase during the year ending June 30, 1892, of 3,160.78, being an increase of 1.88 per cent over the mileage of the year 1891. The rate of increase from 1886 to 1887 was 9.08 per cent; from 1887 to 1888, 6.05 per cent; from 1888 to 1889, 3.22 per cent; from 18139 to 1890, 4.78 per cent; and from 1890 to 1891, 2.94 per cent. … The total number [of men] in the service of railways in the United States on June 30, 1893, was 873,602, being an increase of 52,187 over the number employed the previous year."

Interstate Commerce Commission, Statistics of Railways, 1883 pages 11 and 31.

----------COMMERCE: End--------

COMMON LAW, History of.

See LAW (page 1956).

COMMUNISM.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS (page 2932).

COMPURGATION, Disappearance of.

See LAW, CRIMINAL: A. D. 1166 (page 1981).

CONGO STATE, The.

See (in this Supplement) AFRICA.

{3727}

CONNECTICUT, Early provision for education in.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 729).

CONNECTICUT BLUE LAWS.

See (in this Supplement) BLUE LAWS.

CONSTANTINOPLE: LIBRARIES.

See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2006).

Mediæval Commerce.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL.

----------CONSTITUTION OF BELGIUM: Start--------

On page 2304 of this work, under NETHERLANDS (BELGIUM): A. D. 1892-1893, there is given some account of the revision of the constitution of the kingdom, in 1893, and the peculiar new features introduced in its provisions, relative to the elective franchise. The following is a translation of the text of the revised constitution:

Title I. Of the Territory and of its Divisions.

Article 1. Belgium is divided into provinces, these provinces are: Antwerp, Brabant, Western Flanders, Eastern Flanders, Hainaut, Liège, Limburg, Luxemburg, Namur. It is the prerogative of law, if there is any reason, to divide the territory into a larger number of provinces. Colonies, possessions beyond the seas or protectorates which Belgium may acquire, are governed by particular laws. The Belgian forces appointed for their defense can only be recruited by voluntary enlistment.

Article 2. The subdivisions of the provinces can be established only by law.

Article 3. The boundaries of the State, of the provinces and of the communes can be changed or rectified only by a law.

Title II. Of the Belgians and their Rights.

Article 4. The title Belgian is acquired, preserved and lost according to the regulations determined by civil law. The present Constitution, and other laws relating to political rights, determine what are, in addition to such title, the conditions necessary for the exercise of these rights.

Article 5. Naturalization is granted by the legislative power. The great naturalization, alone, assimilates the foreigner to the Belgian for the exercise of political rights.

Article 6. There is no distinction of orders in the State. Belgians are equal before the law; they alone are admissible to civil and military offices, with such exceptions as may be established by law in particular cases.

Article 7. Individual liberty is guaranteed. No person can be prosecuted except in the cases provided for by law and in the form which the law prescribes. Except in the case of flagrant misdemeanor, no person can be arrested without the order of a judge, which must be served at the time of the arrest, or, at the latest, within twenty-four hours.

Article 8. No person can be deprived, against his will, of the judge assigned to him by law.

Article 9. No punishment can be established or applied except by provision of law.

Article 10. The domicile is inviolable; no domiciliary visit can be made otherwise than in the cases provided for by law and in the form which it prescribes.

Article 11. No person can be deprived of his property except for public use, in the cases and in the manner established by law, and with prior indemnity.

Article 12. The penalty of confiscation of goods cannot be imposed.

Article 13. Civil death is abolished; it cannot be revived.

Article 14. Religious liberty, public worship, and freedom of expressed opinion in all matters are guaranteed, with a reserve for the repression of offenses committed in the exercise of these liberties.

Article 15. No person can be compelled to join, in any manner whatsoever, in the acts and ceremonies of any worship, nor to observe its days of rest.

Article 16. The State has no right to interfere in the appointment nor in the installation of the ministers of any religion, nor to forbid them to correspond with their superiors and to publish their acts under the ordinary responsibility of publication. Civil marriage shall always precede the nuptial benediction, with the exceptions to be prescribed by law in case of need.

Article 17. Teaching is free; all preventive measures are forbidden; the repression of offenses is regulated only by law. Public instruction given at the expense of the State is also regulated by law.

Article 18. The press is free; censorship can never be re-established; caution-money from writers, editors or printers cannot be required. When the author is known and is a resident of Belgium, the editor, the printer or the distributor cannot be prosecuted.

Article 19. Belgians have the right to meet peaceably and without arms, in conformity with such laws as may regulate the use of their right but without the requirement of a previous authorization. This stipulation does not apply to open air meetings, which remain entirely subject to police regulations.

Article 20. Belgians have the right of association; this right cannot be subject to any preventive measure.

Article 21. It is the right of every person to address to the public authorities petitions signed by one or several. The constituted authorities alone have the right to address petitions in a collective name.

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