Cooley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades..., Sixth Edition, Volume I (part 8 of 10)

3. (Wynn.) Sulphate of iron (calcined dark), 1 part; a mixture of 6 parts of ‘flux’ (No. 5), and 1 of colcothar, 3 parts. Dark red.

4. (Wynn.) Red sulphate of iron, 2 parts; ‘flux’ (No. 1), 6 parts; white lead, 3 parts. Light red.

=Enamel, Rose-col′oured.= Prep. Purple enamel (or its elements), 3 parts; ‘flux,’ 90 parts; mix, and add silver leaf or oxide of silver, 1 part, or less.

=Enamel, Transpa′′rent.= The ‘frit’ or ‘flux’ described above.

=Enamel, Vi′olet.= Prop. 1. Purple enamel, 2 parts; red enamel (No. 2), 3 parts; ‘frit,’ 6 parts.

2. Saline or alkaline ‘frit’ or ‘flux,’ any quantity; peroxide of manganese, q. s. to colour. As the tint depends on the metal being at the maximum of oxidation, contact with oily or carbonaceous substances should be particularly avoided.

=Enamel, White.= Prep. 1. ‘Calcine’ (from 2 parts of tin and 1 part of lead), 1 part; fine crystal glass or ‘frit,’ 2 parts; manganese, a few grains; powder, mix, melt, and pour the fused mass into clean water; again powder, and fuse, and repeat the whole process 3 or 4 times, avoiding contamination with smoke, dirt, or oxide of iron. A fine dead white.

2. Washed diaphoretic antimony, 1 part; fine glass (free from lead), 3 parts; mix, and proceed as before. Very fine.

3. Lead, 30 parts; tin, 33 parts; calcine as before, then fuse 50 parts of this ‘calcine’ with an equal weight of flints, in powder, and 100 parts of salt of tartar. A fine dead white enamel.

Obs. For white enamel, the articles must be perfectly free from foreign admixture, as this would impart a colour. When well managed, either of the above forms will produce a paste that will rival the OPAL.

=Enamel, Yellow.= Superior yellow enamels are less easily produced than those of most other colours; they require very little flux, and that mostly of a metallic nature. The following come highly recommended by experienced artists:——

Prep. 1. From ‘frit’ or ‘flux,’ fused with oxide of lead, and a little red oxide of iron.

2. Lead, tin, ashes, litharge, antimony, and sand, of each 1 oz.; nitre, 4 oz.; mix, fuse, and powder; and add the product to ‘flux’ or ‘frit,’ q. s.

3. White oxide of antimony, alum, and sal-ammoniac, of each 1 part; pure carbonate of lead, 1 to 3 parts, or q. s. (all in powder); mix, and expose them to a heat sufficiently high to decompose the sal-ammoniac. Used as the last. Very bright coloured.

4. (Wynn.) Red lead, 8 oz.; oxide of antimony, and tin, calcined together, of each 1 oz; mix, and add of ‘flux’ (No. 5), 15 oz.; mix well and fuse.

5. Pure oxide of silver added to the metallic ‘fluxes.’ The salts of silver are also used, but are more difficult to manage. If a thin film of oxide of silver be spread over the surface of the enamel to be coloured, exposed to a moderate heat, then withdrawn, and the film of reduced silver on the surface removed, the part under will be found tinged of a fine yellow. (Clouet.)

=Enamelling of Cast-Iron.= Wagner in his ‘Chemical Technology’ gives the following account of this process:——The surface of the cast-iron to be enamelled is first carefully cleaned by scouring with sand and dilute sulphuric acid, next a somewhat thickish magma, made of pulverised quartz, borax, feldspar, kaolin and water is brushed over the clean metallic surface as evenly as possible, and immediately after a finely powdered mixture of feldspar, soda, borax, and oxide of tin, is dusted over, after which the enamel is burnt in by the heat of a muffle. In France an enamel is applied which consists of 130 parts of flint glass, 20-1/2 parts of carbonate of soda, and 12 parts of boric acid fused together, and afterwards ground to a fine powder.

It would appear, however, from the statements contained in a paper read by Mr Tatlock, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., that the enamel used for iron vessels is frequently of a less harmless kind than that described by Wagner. Mr Tatlock states that in some instances the milk-white porcelainous enamel, with which cast-iron cooking vessels are now so commonly prepared, has a composition such as to render it highly objectionable, on account of the facility with which it is acted upon by acid, fruits, common salt, and other ordinary dietetic substances, by which means lead, and even arsenic, are dissolved out in large quantity during cooking processes.

Mr Tatlock gives the analysis of three samples of enamel from the interior of three cast-iron pots obtained from different manufacturers. These iron vessels were all employed for cooking:——

No. 1. No. 2. No 3. per cent. per cent. per cent.

Silica 61·00 42·40 42·00 Alumina 8·00 2·88 6·06 Oxide of iron 1·10 2·04 4·04 Lime 3·02 0·16 0·78 Magnesia 0·28 0·10 0·21 Oxide of lead absent 25·89 18·48 Potash 5·61 7·99 6·46 Soda 20·67 14·67 19·25 Phosphoric acid trace trace trace Arsenious acid 0·02 0·42 1·02 Carbonic acid 0·30 absent absent Borax absent 3·45 1·70 ——————— ——————— ——————— 100·00 100·00 100·00 ——————— ——————— ——————— Total bases 38·58 53·73 55·28

The author showed that it was not so much on account of the presence of large proportions of lead and arsenic that the enamels are so dangerous, but because they are so highly basic in character, that they are acted upon with facility by feebly acid solutions, the lead and arsenic being thereby easily dissolved out.

He demonstrated that the ratio of the bases to the silica in No. 1 was 1 to 1·58; in the No. 2, as 1 to 0·79; and in the No. 3, as 1 to 0·76. A one per cent. solution of citric acid boiled in the No. 1 did not affect it in the slightest, while in the case of the No. 3, the glassy surface of the enamel was at once roughened and destroyed, and lead dissolved out to such an extent as to give immediately a dense black precipitate with sulphuretted hydrogen. He thought that no enamel was fit to be used unless it were totally unaffected by boiling with a one per cent. solution of citric acid, which was a very moderate test, and gave it as his opinion that either the use of such poisonous ingredients as lead and arsenic in large quantity should be entirely abandoned, or that the composition otherwise of the enamel should be of such a character as to ensure that none of the poisonous substances could be dissolved out, in the circumstances under which the enamelled vessels are used.

=ENCAU′STIC.= See PAINTING (Encaustic).

=ENDEMIC.= Indigenous. Peculiar to a district. Those are called endemic diseases, which are produced by causes more or less local. The word is often confounded with epidemic.

=ENE′MA.= Syn. CLYSTER; EN′EMA (pl. ENEM′ATA), L. A medicine, usually liquid (sometimes gaseous), thrown into the rectum or lower bowels.

Clysters usually consist of some weak glutinous or mucilaginous fluid, to which the active ingredients are added; or a decoction or infusion is made of the medicaments, which is then used, either alone, or after the addition of a little gum, starch, or sugar. The proper vehicle for astringent vegetable matter, metallic salts, and the mineral acids, is pure water. Oleaginous and resinous substances are made into emulsions before being employed for enemas. In all cases the fluid is administered warm. The quantity of fluid forming a clyster, for an adult, may vary from 1/2 to 3/4 pint; that for an infant within a month old, should be about 1 fl. oz.; for a child of one year, about 2-1/2 fl. oz.; from one to seven years, from 3 or 4 fl. oz.; and from seven to twelve or fourteen, 6 or 7 fl. oz.; after that age to puberty, 1/2 pint may be employed.

The quantity or dose of the active ingredients in a clyster should be 4 or 5 times as great as that of the same medicines when taken by the mouth; as it is generally regarded that the susceptibility of the rectum is only 1/5th that of the stomach, and that to exert a like absorbent action it occupies 5 times as long as the latter viscus. The dose, and the interval between its repetition, should, therefore, be proportionately increased. Narcotics, as opium, tobacco, &c., should, however, be given in only twice or thrice the quantity that would be exhibited in the usual manner.

Enemata are usually administered by means of a syringe, bladder, or elastic bag, furnished with a rectum tube; but many ingenious and elegant pieces of mechanism, adapted for self-administration, are made by the instrument makers. Great care should be taken to avoid injuring the coats of the rectum by the use of a rough or improperly shaped pipe, or one that is too long. The extremity of the pipe or tube should also be perfectly smooth and well rounded (rather spherical than pointed), and in using it no force should be employed. A neglect of this point often produces very serious consequences, especially in young children.

Tobacco smoke may be administered by means of a double pair of bellows, supplied with air from a small funnel under which the herb is burning,——and gaseous matter, by connecting the rectum tube with a small gasometer, exerting a trifling pressure on the confined gas.

The number of substances employed in the preparation of enemata is very great. The following are some of them, arranged according to their effects:——

1. (Anodyne and Narcotic.) Opium, henbane, &c., are employed to allay spasms of the bowels, stomach, uterus, bladder, &c.

2. (Aperient or Cathartic.) Aloes, colocynth, senna, various purging salts, gruel, decoction of marshmallows, decoction of linseed, warm water, &c., are commonly employed to promote the peristaltic action of the bowels, or to destroy worms.

3. (Demulcent and Emollient.) Decoction of starch, gum, isinglass, glue, &c., either alone or combined with opium, are used to protect the coats of the intestines, and to allay irritation; and also to restrain diarrhœa, especially when combined with astringents, as logwood, catechu, or oak bark.

4. (Nutrient.) Animal jelly, soups, broths, milks, &c., are frequently used as injections to convey nourishment to the body.

5. (Sedative.) Tobacco infusion or smoke, and tartar emetic (in solution), are employed to relax the powers of the body, to remove spasms, depress the circulation, and to produce syncope.

Enemata or clysters are now very frequently employed in our large towns, especially among the higher classes; but a great prejudice exists among many persons against their use, arising from a fastidious and mistaken delicacy. The introduction of improved apparatus of late years, by which the administration of these remedies is attended with less difficulty and exposure than formerly, has removed much of the repugnance which previously existed.

Clysters are invaluable when it is necessary to evacuate the bowels as speedily as possible, and when the stomach will not bear the administration of a purgative by the mouth, as well as in cases requiring a direct medication of the lower bowels, as in dysentery, colic, &c. As a mere laxative, an injection of tepid water, milk-and-water, or water gruel, will generally be found sufficient. By the addition of 1 or 2 table-spoonfuls of common salt, Epsom salts, salad oil, or molasses, to this laxative enema, it will form an excellent purgative one, which will, in most cases, induce a full discharge. In all cases, the patient should be directed to retain the injection for as long a time as possible, and not to attempt to empty his bowels immediately after the reception of the medicine. “In irritation of the bladder, rectum, or uterus, an anodyne injection or enema often affords much relief. In diseases of the lower bowels, clysters are also of almost indispensable utility, as also in the dislodgment of ascarides seated in the rectum; nor are they less beneficial in those cases of sudden sinking of the powers of life where deglutition is impossible, and yet a prompt stimulating impression is requisite to save the patient; under such circumstances, clysters of some of the diffusible stimuli have proved of the greatest benefit.”

The injection of large quantities of liquid matter into the bowels, as well as the constant use of clysters (even of warm water only), is deemed by the highest medical authorities to be injurious, and occasionally dangerous. The practice should not, therefore, be allowed to grow into a habit. The bowels continually accustomed to a stimulant cease to act without one. The same remarks apply to aperients taken by the mouth.

The following formulæ embrace the whole of the enemas (ENEMATA) of the ‘British Pharmacopœia,’ as well as a few others in common use:——

=Enema of Albu′men.= Syn. ENEMA ALBUMINIS, L. Prep. (Ricord) Infusion of linseed, 12 oz.; whites of 2 or 3 eggs; mix. In chronic diarrhœa, and as a nutritient clyster in debility from stomach diseases. The reason for rejecting the yolks of the eggs is not very obvious, as the preparation is much more effective with them.

=Enema of Al′oes.= Syn. ENEMA ALOËS (B. P.), L. Prep. From aloes, 2 scrup.; carbonate of potassa, 15 gr.; mucilage of starch, 1/2 pint. In ascarides, atonic amenorrhœa, &c. It should not be employed when irritability of the rectum, bladder, or genitals, exists; nor in piles, or when there is a tendency to prolapsus ani or prolapsus uteri.

=Enema, An′odyne.= See ENEMA OF OPIUM.

=Enema, Antispasmod′ic.= Syn. ENEMA ANTISPASMODICUM, L. Prep. From tincture of assafœtida, 3 fl. dr.; laudanum, 30 to 60 drops; water gruel or barley water, 1/2 pint. In spasmodic affections of the bowels. (See below.)

=Enema of Assafœt′ida.= Syn. FETID CLYSTER, ANTISPASMODIC C.; ENEMA ASSAFŒTIDA (B. P.), E. FŒTIDUM (Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Assafœtida, 30 gr.; water, 4 oz.; rub together until mixed.

2. (Ph. E.) To cathartic enema (Ph. E.), add of tincture of assafœtida, 2 fl. dr.

3. (Ph. D.) Warm water, 12 fl. oz.; tincture of assafœtida, 2 fl. dr.

4. (St. B. Hosp.) Assafœtida, 2 dr.; yolk of an egg; barley water, 7 fl. oz. Stimulant, antispasmodic, and carminative. An excellent remedy in hysteria, flatulent colic, hooping-cough, infantile convulsions, worms in the lower bowels, &c. See ENEMA HOOPING-COUGH.

=Enema, Astrin′′gent.= Syn. ENEMA ASTRINGENS, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of catechu, 1 fl. oz.; barley water, 9 fl. oz.

2. Extract of rhatany, 2 dr.; syrup, or made starch, 2 oz.; water, 7 fl. oz.

3. Decoction of galls, oak-bark, pomegranate, or other like astringent substance, 3 or 4 fl. oz.; water or barley water, 6 or 7 fl. oz.

4. (Hosp. F.) Electuary of catechu, 2 dr.; water and lime water, of each 4-1/2 fl. oz. In diarrhœa, &c., arising from a relaxed condition of the coats of the lower bowels; and in fissures of the anus, &c.

=Enema of Bark.= Syn. ENEMA CINCHONÆ. Decoction of bark is used.

=Enema of Belladonna.= Syn. ENEMA BELLADONNÆ (Ratier.) Prep. Belladonna, 10 gr.; water, 6 oz.; infuse.

=Enema of Cam′phor.= Syn. ENEMA CAMPHORÆ, L. Prep. 1. Camphor liniment, 4 fl. dr.; yolks of 2 eggs; water gruel, 7 fl. oz.

2. Camphor, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 dr.; triturate till dissolved, then add, gradually, of simple syrup, 1 oz.; when thoroughly incorporated, further add of thin gruel, 7 fl. oz. Anodyne, antispasmodic, and diuretic. In difficult or obstructed micturition.

=Enema of Cas′tor Oil.= Syn. ENEMA OLEI RICINI, L. Prep. 1. (Hosp. F.) Castor oil and mucilage, of each, 1 oz.; gruel, 1/2 pint.

2. Castor oil, 1 oz.; liquor potassa, 2 fl. dr.; triturate, and add of honey, 1 oz.; when mixed, further add of hot gruel, 1/2 pint; and agitate until cool enough to be administered.

=Enema, Cathar′tic.= Syn. PURGATIVE CLYSTER; ENEMA CATHARTICUM (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), E. LAXATIVUM, E. PURGATIVUM, L. These have been already alluded to. By increasing the quantity of the active ingredients, a mild laxative or aperient clyster is converted into an active purgative or cathartic one.

Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Senna, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 16 fl. oz.; infuse an hour, then add of Epsom salts, 1/2 oz.; sugar, 1 oz.; when dissolved, further add of olive oil, 1 oz.; and mix them by agitation.

2. (Ph. D.) Epsom salts, 1 oz.; olive oil, 1 fl. oz.; mucilage of barley. 16 fl. oz. Same as enema of sulphate of magnesia, B. P., except that in the latter mucilage of starch is substituted for mucilage of barley.

3. (Ph. D. 1826.) Manna, 1 oz.; compound decoction of chamomile, 1/2 pint; dissolve, and add, of olive oil, 1 oz.; Epsom salts, 1/2 oz.

4. Compound decoction of mallows, 1/2 pint; Epsom salts, 3/4 oz.; sweet oil, 2 fl. oz.; mix, as above.

Obs. The above are employed in all ordinary cases where the use of an immediate cathartic is indicated.

=Enema of Cevidina.= Syn. ENEMA CEVIDINÆ (Soubeiran.) Cevadilla, 2 dr.; water, 10 oz.; boil to 7 oz.; strain and add milk, 8 oz. To destroy ascarides.

=Enema of Chlo′′ride of Lime.= Syn. ENEMA CHLORIDI CALCIS, E. ANTIPUTRESCENS, L. Prep. 1. Chloride of lime, 10 gr.; tepid water, 1 fl. oz.; triturate, then add of barley water, or plain tepid water, 7 fl. oz.

2. (Pereira.) Chloride of lime, 10 to 15 gr., added to a common enema. As a deodoriser, when the alvine evacuations are unusually fetid.

=Enema of Chloride of Soda.= Syn. ENEMA SODÆ CHLORINATÆ. Prep. Labarraque’s solution, 24 drops; decoction of mallows, 16 oz.

=Enema of Chloride of Sodium.= Syn. ENEMA SODII CHLORIDI. Prep. Common salt, 1 oz.; barley water, 1/2 pint; olive oil, 1 oz.

=Enema for Col′ic.= Syn. ENEMA ANTICOLICUM, L. Prep. From oil of cajeput or peppermint, 15 drops; dissolved in sweet spirit of nitre, 60 drops; laudanum, 35 drops; infusion of chamomile, 1/2 pint.

=Enema of Col′ocynth.= Syn. ENEMA COLOCYNTHIDIS (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Extract of colocynth, 1/2 dr.; soft soap, 1 oz.; triturate, and add of water, 1 pint.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) As the last, but using compound extract of colocynth.

3. (Guy’s Hosp.) Colocynth pulp, 1 dr.; water, 3/4 pint; boil so as to strain 1/2 pint; and add of common salt, 1/2 oz.; syrup of buckthorn, 1 fl. oz. An efficient enema in colic and obstinate constipation, in the absence of spasms and inflammatory symptoms.

=Enema, Com′mon.= Syn. ENEMA COMMUNE, L. Gruel or barley water, either with or without the addition of a little common salt or oil, are generally so called. The first are simply laxative; the latter, purgative. Decoction of mallows, linseed tea, or water gruel, are also commonly used as the vehicle.

Prep. 1. (St. Bar. Hosp.) Barley water, 1 pint; common salt, 1 oz.; dissolve.

2. (Guy’s Hosp.) Water gruel, 10 to 15 fl. oz.; common salt, 1 oz.

3. (U. C. Hosp.) Water gruel, 8 to 12 fl. oz.; salt, 1 oz.; linseed oil, 2 fl. oz.

=Enema of Copai′ba.= Syn. ENEMA COPAIBÆ, L. Prep. 1. From balsam of copaiba, 2 dr.; liquor opii sedativus, 15 drops; yolk of egg, q. s.; barley water, 7-1/2 fl. oz.

2. (Collier.) To the last add, of extract of opium, 1 gr.; oil of turpentine, 4 fl. dr.

3. (Velpeau.) Copaiba, 2 dr.; laudanum, 20 drops; yolk of 1 egg; water gruel, 8 fl. oz. In ascarides, gonorrhœa, and some affections of the lower bowels and bladder, when the stomach rejects the balsam.

=Enema of Creosote.= Syn. ENEMA CREOSOTI. (Dr Wilmot.) Creasote, 1 dr.; decoction of starch, 12 oz. In epidemic dysentery.

=Enema of Croton Oil.= Syn. ENEMA OLEI CROTONIS. (Sundelin.) Prep. Croton oil, 2 to 4 drops; linseed oil, 2 oz.; gruel, 4 oz.

=Enema of Cubebs.= Syn. ENEMA CUBEBÆ. (Velpeau.) Prep. Decoction of mallow, 10 oz.; powdered cubebs, 6 dr.

=Enema, Domes′tic.= Syn. ENEMA DOMESTICUM, L. This name has been applied to an enema of warm water, either with or without the addition of a little sugar, honey, or milk. The effect is laxative.

=Enema, Emoll′ient.= Syn. ENEMA EMOLLIENS, E. DEMULCENS, L. Prep. From decoction of linseed, barley, or starch, 1 pint; linseed or olive oil, 1 oz. Soothing and laxative; in excoriations of the lower bowels. 20 to 40 drops of laudanum may be added when there is much pain or looseness.

=Enema of Ergot.= Syn. ENEMA ERGOTÆ. (Boudin.) Prep. Infuse 1 dr. of ergot in 8 oz. of hot water and strain.

=Enema, Feb′rifuge.= Syn. ENEMA FEBRIFUGUM, L. Prep. 1. (Collier.) Water gruel, 12 fl. oz.; sugar, 1 fl. oz. In low fevers.

2. (Brande.) Vinegar, 2 fl. oz.; infusion of chamomile, 5 or 6 fl. oz. In typhus.

=Enema, Fe′tid.= See ENEMA OF ASSAFŒTIDA.

=Enema of Galls and Opium.= Syn. ENEMA GALLÆ ET OPII. (Dr Ryan.) Prep. Decoction of galls, 8 oz.; tincture of opium, 1/2 dr.

=Enema for Hoo′ping-cough.= Syn. ENEMA PERTUSSICULAIRE, L. Prep. 1. See ENEMA ASSAFŒTIDA.

2. (M. Reiken). Assafœtida, 8 gr.; yolk of 1 egg; water, 1/2 pint.

Obs. This quantity is sufficient for 10 or 12 clysters for children under 1 year; 5 or 6 for those under 3 years; and 2 or 3 for those under 7. Two clysters are prescribed daily in hooping-cough. According to M. Reiken, this is more successful in removing hooping-cough than any other remedy. To ensure success, it should not be administered until the feverish symptoms have passed. M. Reiken sometimes uses an ointment of assafœtida as well as the clyster.

=Enema of Ipecacuanha.= Syn. ENEMA IPECACUANHÆ. (U. C. Hosp.) Ipecacuanha root (bruised), 1 dr.; boiling water, 8 oz. Macerate for an hour and strain.

=Enema, Lax′ative.= See ENEMAS (Cathartic, Common, &c.).

=Enema of Lead.= Syn. ENEMA PLUMBI, L. Prep. (Dr Newbold.) Acetate of lead, 6 gr.; tepid distilled water, 6 fl. oz. In strangulated hernia; repeated in two or three hours.

=Enema of Morphia.= Syn. ENEMA MORPHIÆ. (Beera.) Prep. Morphia, 1 gr.; oil of almonds, 1 oz. Triturate and add infusion or decoction of linseed, q. s.

=Enema, Nitrate of Silver.= Syn. ENEMA ARGENTI NITRATIS. (Boudin.) Prep. Nitrate of silver, 1 to 3 gr.; distilled water, 5 oz.

=Enema, Nu′trient.= Syn. FEEDING CLYSTER; ENEMA NUTRIENS, L. Prep. 1. Strong beef tea, 12 fl. oz.; thickened a little with arrow-root or hartshorn shavings.

2. (M. Nasse). Strong meat soup, 3/4 pint; dilute hydrochloric acid, 1/2 fl. dr.

3. Yolks of 2 eggs; brown sugar and salad oil, of each 1 oz.; mutton broth, 12 fl. oz. To nourish the body, when aliments cannot be taken or retained by the stomach.

=Enema, Oi′′ly.= See ENEMA (Emollient).

=Enema of O′pium.= Syn. ENEMA OPIATUM, E. OPII (B. P. and Ph. L.), E. OPII vel ANODYNUM (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Mucilage of starch, 2 fl. oz.; tincture of opium, 1/2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Starch, 1/2 dr.; water (boiling), 2 fl. oz.; mix, and when cool enough add of tincture of opium, 1/2 to 1 fl. dr.

3. (Ph. D. 1826.) Laudanum, 1 dr.; warm water, 6 fl. oz.

Obs. The above are the orders of the colleges, but in practice the quantity of laudanum is frequently doubled; this should, however, be done with great care. Opium clysters are used in dysentery, colic, cholera, and various painful affections of the intestines, bladder, &c. The bowels should be emptied before their administration, and in inflammatory complaints they should not be used for the first 48 hours. Clysters containing opium, even in small quantities, are dangerous remedies for young children; yet there are cases in which they sometimes succeed when every other remedy has failed. This is particularly so in the low chronic diarrhœa of infancy and early childhood. A case of this kind occurred in the family of the writer. The family medical attendant, as well as the physician he consulted, abandoned the little sufferer to apparently inevitable death, as beyond the reach of further assistance. A small opium clyster was given, and the child recovered.

=Enema of Ox-gall.= Syn. ENEMA FELLIS, E. F. BOVIS, L. Prep. (Dr Allnatt.) Fresh ox-gall, 2 fl. oz.; water gruel, 8 fl. oz.

2. (Dr Clay.) Ox-gall, 2 fl. oz.; water, 4 or 5 fl. oz. To soften indurated fæces, and in costiveness arising from deficiency of bile.

=Enema of Percyanide of Iron.= Syn. ENEMA FERRI PERCYANIDI. Prep. Triturate 5 gr. of Prussian blue, with 2 oz. of water; to be used daily, increasing the dose if necessary. An American remedy for ascarides.

=Enema of Pop′pies.= Syn. ENEMA PAPAVERIS, L. Prep. 1. DECOCTION OF POPPIES.

2. Poppy-heads (with the seeds), 5 dr.; water, 3/4 pint; boil to 12 fl. oz., and strain. Anodyne; as a substitute for opium clyster.

=Enema, Pur′gative.= See ENEMA CATHARTIC.

=Enema of Quinine.= Syn. ENEMA QUINIÆ. Sulphate of quinine, 5 to 15 gr.; decoction of starch, 6 oz.

=Enema of Rue.= Syn. ENEMA RUTÆ. Prep. Confection of rue, 20 to 60 gr; thin gruel, 6 oz. to 8 oz.

=Enema, Sim′ple.= Barley water, rice water, thin-made starch, and decoction of mallows, are frequently so called, from being used either for simple laxative enemas, or as the vehicle for more active substances.

=Enema of Soap.= Syn. ENEMA SAPONIS, L. Prep. (St. B. Hosp.) Soft soap, 6 dr.; hot water, 1 pint; dissolve. To soften indurated fæces, &c.; and as a detergent in certain ulcerations of the rectum.

=Enema of Soot.= Syn. ENEMA FULIGINIS. Wood soot, 4 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pints; boil to a pint.

=Enema of Starch.= Syn. ENEMA AMYLI, L. See ENEMA SIMPLE (above).

=Enema, Stim′ulant.= Syn. ENEMA STIMULANS, L. The ordinary cathartic clysters are often so called. The following belong to a different class:——

Prep. 1. Tincture of capsicum, 1 fl. oz.; barley water or thin arrow-root, 1/2 pint; mix. In cholera, especially the cold stages.

2. To the last add, of ether, 2 fl. dr.; laudanum, 30 drops.

3. Decoction of poppies, 1/2 pint; tincture of capsicum, 3 fl. dr.; oil of nutmeg, 10 drops. In diarrhœa.

=Enema of Tobac′co.= Syn. ENEMA TABACI (Ph. L. E. & D.), INFUSUM TABACI (Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Tobacco leaf, 20 gr.; boiling water, 8 oz.; infuse half an hour, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) Tobacco, 15 to 30 gr.; boiling water, 8 fl. oz.; as last.

3. (Ph. D.) Tobacco, 1 scrup.; boiling water, 8 fl. oz.

4. (Ph. L. 1836.) Tobacco, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint.

Obs. Tobacco clyster is used in strangulated hernia, obstinate constipation, retention of urine, &c. It is violently depressing and relaxing; producing fainting, and even death, when improperly or injudiciously administered. “It is not to be forgotten that 2 dr., 1 dr., and even 1/2 dr., of tobacco, infused in water, have proved fatal.” “The cautious practitioner, therefore, will not use more than 15 or 20 gr.” (Pereira.) Three parts of Virginia tobacco are equal to seven parts of any other kind. (Davy.)

=Enema of Tur′pentine.= Syn. TURPENTINE CLYSTER; ENEMA TEREBINTHINÆ (Ph. L.), E. OLEI T., L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Oil of turpentine, 1 oz.; mucilage of starch, 15 oz.

2. (Ph. L.) Oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz.; yolk of 1 egg; triturate together, then add of decoction of barley, 19 fl. oz.

3. (Ph. E.) As the last, but using simple water instead of barley water.

4. (Ph. D.) Oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz.; mucilage of barley, 16 fl. oz.

5. (Dr Neligan.) Oil of turpentine, 1/2 fl. oz.; syrup of garlic, 1 fl. oz.; barley water, 6 or 7 fl. oz. In ascarides, and as an antispasmodic and purgative in colic, obstinate constipation, calculus, peritonitis, tympanitis (DRUM-BELLY), &c.

=Enema, Ver′mifuge.= Syn. ENEMA ANTHELMINTICUM, E. VERMIFUGUM, L. Prep. 1. Castor oil, 1 oz.; mucilage, 3/4 oz.; decoction of the root of male fern, 7 fl. oz. In worms, especially tape-worm.

2. (Collier.) Oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz.; olive oil (warm), 1/2 pint. In ascarides.

3. (Dr Darwall.) Tincture of sesquichloride of iron, 1 dr.; water, 7 or 8 fl. oz. In ascarides, especially when occurring in childhood; the quantity used being proportionately lessened. See ENEMAS of ALOES, ASSAFŒTIDA, TURPENTINE, &c.

=Enema of Vinegar.= Syn. ENEMA ACETICI. (Brande.) Prep. Vinegar, 2 oz.; infusion of chamomile, 4 oz. In typhus fever.

=Enema of Wine.= Syn. ENEMA VINOSUM, L. Prep. From sherry wine and hot water, of each 7 fl. oz. In suspended animation. Sometimes a wine-glassful of brandy is added.

=ENERGY, relative values of Food as sources of.= Chemists and physiologists, although they agree that muscular power is derived from the action of the oxygen supplied during respiration upon the digested portions of the food, differ in their conclusions as to whether the nitrogenous or non-nitrogenous principles of the food, form the chief source of this power or not. The opinion of Liebig, Playfair, Ranke, and others, that the oxidation and metamorphosis of the nitrogenous tissue is the fountain of muscular force has of late years been contested, and on the opposite view adduced, viz. that it is principally to the oxidation of the carbonaceous or non-nitrogenous constituents of the food, that animal dynamic power is due.

This latter view has received support from the experiments of Frankland, Lawes, and Gilbert (from their observations on the feeding of cattle), Edward Smith, Meyer, Pettenkofer, Voit, Wislicenus, Fick, Parkes, and others.

The data upon which it is based are those derived from the observation of the amount of heat generated by the combustion of a definite quantity of food out of the body; which, it is affirmed with certain deductions, represents the quantity of heat evolved by the oxidation of the same food within the body; and as heat is the equivalent of muscular force or energy, that aliment which, in burning, gives off the most heat, must, it is supposed, necessarily be the richest in the production of animal motive power. Of course these conditions will, amongst others, be very considerably modified by the extent to which the processes of the animal economy, such as digestion, assimilation, &c., can liberate the elements of the food so as to become available as sources of this energy.

Were these processes perfect, all the carbon of the carbonaceous, as well as that of the nitrogenous constituents of the diet, after deducting the carbon which passes off as urea (one part of dry nitrogenous matter yielding about a third of its weight of urea) would be utilised and converted into heat-producing power. But even under these circumstances a considerable portion of this thermotic power would be expended in sustaining the internal movements of the body, such as respiration and the heart’s action, which it has been computed are daily maintained by a force capable of raising 600,000 pounds a foot high.

No wonder if, with such varying factors introduced into the problem, physiologists and physicists should differ so widely in their calculations; and that, whilst one inquirer believes that food practically yields only about half the force which, according to theory, it actually contains; another estimates it at only one fifth.

The following table by Dr Frankland shows the amount of force which different foods yield when burned. The results agree very closely with those theoretically given by Playfair and others.

Energy developed by one gramme, or one ounce of the following substances, when oxidised in the body.

-------------------+-----------+--------------+--------------- | | | 1 ounce will | | | equal foot-tons | Per | 1 gramme | of energy, or Name of Substance | cent. of | will equal | in other words, | Water | kil.-metres | would raise the | | of energy.| under-given | | | number of tons, | | | 1 foot high.[276] -------------------+-----------+--------------+----------------- Beef (lean) | 70·5 | 604 | 55·0 Veal (lean) | 70·9 | 496 | 45·3 Ham (lean, | | | boiled) | 54·4 | 711 | 64·9 Bread crumb | 44·0 | 910 | 83·0 Flour | ... | 1627 | 148·5 Ground rice | ... | 1591 | 145·3 Oatmeal | ... | 1665 | 152·0 Pea meal | ... | 1598 | 146·0 Potatoes | 73·0 | 422 | 38·5 Carrots | 86·0 | 220 | 20·0 Cabbage | 88·5 | 178 | 16·2 Butter | ... | 3077 | 280·9 Egg (white of) | 86·3 | 244 | 22·3 Egg (yolk) | 47·0 | 1400 | 127·0 Cheshire cheese | 24·0 | 1846 | 168·5 Arrowroot | ... | 1656 | 151·3 Milk | 87·0 | 266 | 24·3 Sugar (lump) | ... | 1418 | 129·5 Ale (Bass’ bottled)| 88·4 | 328 | 30·0 Porter (Guinness’ | | | stout) | 88·4 | 455 | 41·5 ----------------------------------------------------------------

[Footnote 276: The amount of work done is generally estimated in this country as so many lbs. or tons lifted 1 foot. In France it is expressed as so many kilogrammes lifted 1 metre,——and called ‘the kilogrammemetre,’ as above.]

“A table of this kind,” says Dr Parkes, “is useful in showing what can be obtained from our food, but it must not be supposed that the value of food is in exact relation to the energy which it can furnish. In order that the force shall be obtained, the food must not only be digested and taken into the body properly prepared, but its energy must be developed in the place and in the manner proper for nutrition. The mere expression of potential energy cannot fix dietetic value, which may be dependent on conditions in the body unknown to us. For example, it is quite certain, from observation, that gelatin cannot take the place of albumen, though its potential energy is little inferior, and it is easily oxidised in the body. But, owing to some circumstances yet unknown, gelatin is chiefly destroyed in the blood and gland-cells, and its energy, therefore, has a different direction from that of albumen. So also of the potential energy, it is quite possible that all is not usefully employed. The tables of energy give broad indications, and can be used in a general statement of the value of a diet; but at present they do not throw light upon the intricacies of nutrition.”

=ENFLURAGE.= See POMMADE.

=ENGRA′′VING.= The art of producing designs or figures on metal, wood, &c., by incision or corrosion, usually for the purpose of being subsequently printed on paper, calico, or other materials. The mechanical operations of the engraver do not come within the province of this work. Several of the materials which he employs in his trade will, however, be found noticed under their respective heads.

There is this important difference between engraving on metal plates and wood-engraving: in the former all the lines and dots that are to print black are hollowed out with a graving-tool, or ‘bitten in’ by acid; in the latter all the parts that are to appear white in the impression are cut away, and the lines which produce the imprint are left on the face of the block.

Casts of wood-blocks, or ‘stereos.’ are often used instead of the original blocks when a great number of impressions is required. To produce them stucco moulds are prepared, and from these the casts in type metal are taken. The casts are usually about 1/8 in. thick, and have to be screwed upon wooden blocks to bring them to the height of the types which are printed with them. As soon as one cast is worn out another may be taken, and the original block is thus preserved in the state in which it left the engraver’s hands.

For the reproduction of engraved metallic plates the ELECTROTYPE PROCESS is commonly employed. Woodcuts are also copied, though less frequently, by this process. The mode by which the postage-stamp plates are multiplied is as follows:——240 ‘queen’s heads’ or stamps (a pound’s worth) are engraved on one steel plate. This plate is then hardened, and an impression of it taken on a softened steel roller. This roller, in its turn, is also hardened, and softened steel plates being passed under it, an impression precisely like that of the original plate is produced on each of them. These plates are then hardened and employed for printing the penny postage stamps for sale. They last a long time; and when they are worn out they are destroyed, and their place is supplied by fresh ones, which are produced by the cylinder before referred to, which continues ready to supply any number that may be required. Bank-note plates are reproduced in the same manner. See ELECTROTYPE, ETCHING, &c.

=Engravings, to Clean.= Place the engraving on a smooth board, and cover it thinly with finely powdered and very clean common salt. Next squeeze lemon-juice upon the salt so as to dissolve a considerable portion of it. Now elevate one end of the board so that it may form an angle of about forty-five or fifty degrees. Next pour on the engraving boiling water from a tea-kettle until all the salt and lemon-juice are washed off. The engraving will then be found to be perfectly clean and free from stains. Care must be taken to dry it on the board or on some smooth surface very gradually. It will acquire a yellow tint if dried by the sun or before a fire.

=Engravings, to Mount.= Strain thin calico on a frame, then carefully paste on it the engraving, so as to be free from creases; afterwards, and when dry, give the engraving two coats of thin size (made by putting a piece of glue the size of a small nut into a small cupful of hot water); finally, when this dries, varnish the engraving with a varnish known as ‘white hard.’

=ENTERI′TIS.= See INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS.

=ENTOZO′A.= Parasitic animals which infest the bodies of other animals. See WORMS.

=ENTRY, Powers of.= The Public Health Act thus defines the power of any local authority to enter into premises whereon a nuisance is supposed to exist; and the conditions under which this power is to be exercised.

“The local authority or their officer shall be admitted to any premises for the purpose of examining as to the existence of a nuisance thereon, or of enforcing the provisions of any Act in force within the district requiring fireplaces and furnaces to consume their own smoke at any time between the hours of nine in the forenoon and six in the afternoon, or in the case of a nuisance arising in respect of any business, then at any hour when such business is in progress or is usually carried on.

“Where under the Public Health Act a nuisance has been ascertained to exist, or an order of abatement or of prohibition has been made, the local authority or their officer shall be admitted from time to time into the premises between the hours aforesaid until the nuisance is abated or the works ordered to be done are completed, as the case may be.

“Where an order of abatement or prohibition has not been complied with or has been infringed, the local authority or their officer shall be admitted from time to time at all reasonable hours or at all hours during which business is in progress or is usually carried on into the premises where the nuisance exists, in order to abate or remove the same.

“If admission to premises for any of the purposes of this section is refused, any justice on complaint thereof on oath by any officer of the local authority (made after reasonable notice in writing of the intention to make the same has been given to the person having custody of the premises) may, by order under his hand, require the person having custody of the premises to admit the local authority or their officer into the premises during the hours aforesaid; and if no person having custody of the premises can be found, the justice shall, on oath made before him of that fact, by order under his hand, authorise the local authority or their officer to enter such premises during the hours aforesaid.

“Any order made by a justice for admission of the local authority or their officer on premises shall continue in force until the nuisance has been abated, or the work for which the entry was necessary has been done.

“Any person refusing to obey a justices’ order for admission of the local authority or their officers is liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds. Power of entry at reasonable times is given to the medical officers of health and inspector of nuisances to inspect food, &c. Penalty for obstruction, five pounds and under.”

=ENURE′SIS.= See URINE.

=EPHESTIA ELETELLA——The Chocolate Moth.= The larvæ of this moth frequently cause serious damage to cocoa, flour, or biscuits when these are stored. Professor Huxley proposes to guard against the ravages of the insect by the adoption of the following precautions——

1. Have no cocoa stored in any place in which biscuits are manufactured.

2. Lead up all biscuit puncheons as soon as they are full of the freshly-baked biscuit.

3. Coat puncheons with tar after they are leaded up, or at least work lime-wash well into the joints and crevices.

4. Line the bread-rooms of the ships with tin, so that if the Ephestia has got into a puncheon it may not infest the rest of the ship.

5. If other means fail, expose the woodwork of puncheons to a heat of 200° F. for two hours, or they might be destroyed by driving into the puncheon a stream of carbonic oxide, and afterwards exposing it well to the air. Weevils in biscuit have frequently been exterminated by this method, and there appears to be no reason why this treatment should not be equally efficacious for getting rid of the larvæ of the Ephestia Eletella.

=EPHIAL′TES.= See NIGHTMARE.

=EPIDEM′IC.= Common to many people. In pathology, an epidemic disease (EPIDEMIC; EPIDEMY) is one which seizes a number of people at the same time and in the same place, but which is not dependent on any local cause, but on some extraordinary condition of the air. When a disease is peculiar to a people or nation, and appears to depend on local causes, it is said to be ‘ENDEMIC’ or ‘ENCHORIAL,’ Thus, Asiatic cholera may be taken as an example of the first, and the agues of low countries, and the goitre of the Alps, as examples of the other.

Epidemics may be divided into indigenous and exotic. Amongst the former may be included scarlet fever, measles, hooping-cough, influenza, typhoid; whilst the latter embrace such as are imported, viz. Asiatic cholera, plague, &c.

No year passes without the prevalence of an epidemic of one kind or the other in this country.

The following enactments for the prevention of epidemic diseases are now in force:——

“Whenever any part of England appears to be threatened with, or is affected by, any formidable epidemic, endemic, or infectious disease, the Local Government Board may make, and from time to time alter and revoke, regulations for all or any of the following purposes, viz.:——

“(1) For the speedy interment of the dead; and——

“(2) For house-to-house visitation; and——

“(3) For the provision of medical aid and accommodation, for the promotion of cleansing, ventilation, and disinfection, and for guarding against the spread of the disease;——

“and may by order declare all or any of the regulations so made to be in force within the whole or any part or parts of the district of any local authority, and to apply to any vessels as well as arms or parts of the sea within the jurisdiction of the Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom, or the Commissioners for executing the office of the Lord High Admiral for the time being, for the period in such order mentioned, and may by any subsequent order abridge or extend such period.” (P. H., s. 134.)

“All such regulations, &c., made by the Local Government Board are to be published in the ‘London Gazette,’ and such publication is to be held as conclusive evidence.” (P. H., s. 135.)

“The local authority of any district within which, or part of which, regulations so issued by the Local Government Board are declared to be in force, shall superintend and see to the execution thereof, and shall appoint and pay such medical or other officers or persons, and do and provide all such acts, matters, and things as may be necessary for mitigating any such disease, or for superintending or aiding in the execution of such regulations, or for executing the same, as the case may require. Moreover, the local authority may from time to time direct any prosecution or legal proceedings for or in respect of the wilful violation or neglect of any such regulation.” (P. H., s. 136.)

“The local authority and their officers shall have power of entry on any premises or vessel for the purpose of executing or superintending the execution of any regulations so issued by the Local Government Board as aforesaid.” (P. H., s. 137.)

“Whenever, in compliance with any regulation so issued by the Local Government Board as aforesaid, any poor-law medical officer performs any medical service on board any vessel, he shall be entitled to charge extra for such service, at the general rate of his allowance for services for the union or place for which he is appointed, and such charges shall be payable by the captain of such vessel on behalf of the owners thereof, together with any reasonable expenses for the treatment of the sick.

“Where such services are rendered by any medical practitioner who is not a poor-law medical officer, he shall be entitled to charges for any service rendered on board, with extra remuneration on account of distance, at the same rate as those which he is in the habit of receiving from private patients of the class of those attended and treated on shipboard, to be paid as aforesaid. In case of dispute in respect of such charges, such dispute may, where the charges do not exceed twenty pounds, be determined by a court of summary jurisdiction; and such court shall determine summarily the amount which is reasonable, according to the accustomed rate of charge within the place where the dispute arises for attendance on patients of the like class as those in respect of whom the charge is made.” (P. H., s. 138.)

“The Local Government Board may, if they think fit, by order authorise or require any two or more local authorities to act together for the purposes of the provisions of this Act relating to prevention of epidemic diseases, and may prescribe the mode of such joint action, and of defraying the costs thereof.” (P. H., s. 139.)

“Any person who——

“(1.) Wilfully violates any regulation so issued by the Local Government Board, as aforesaid; or,

“(2.) Wilfully obstructs any person acting under the authority or in the execution of any such regulation shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds.” (P. H., s. 140.)

=EPIGAS′TRIC.= In anatomy, pertaining to the EPIGAS′TRIUM, or the part of the abdomen over the stomach.

=EPILEP′SY.= Syn. FALLING SICKNESS; EPILEPSIA, MORBUS CADUCUS, L. The popular name of this disease arises from the patient, when attacked by it, suddenly falling to the ground. The other leading symptoms consist of convulsions, stupor, and, generally, frothing at the mouth. It comes on by fits, which after a time go off, leaving a certain amount of lassitude and drowsiness behind. Sometimes certain peculiar symptoms precede the attack. Among these, a sensation of coldness or of a current of cold air from the extremities of the body towards the head (AURA EPILEPTICA), palpitation, flatulency, stupor, and an indescribable cloud or depression, are the most common. The occurrence of these symptoms are not, however, uniform, even in the same patient; but it generally happens that the party falls down suddenly, and without the slightest warning.

Epilepsy is often symptomatic of other affections, as excessive irritation of the primæ viæ from worms, indigestible or noxious food, or poison; or it depends on local injuries, particularly those of the head, accompanied with lodgments of water on the brain, tumours, pressure, &c. Violent affections of the nervous system, sudden frights or fits of passion, violent mental emotions, the sudden suppression of old evacuations, and, in childhood, difficult teething, are also common causes of sympathetic epilepsy. Occasionally it arises from mobility of the sensorium, induced by plethora, or by excessive debility. In such cases the treatment must be energetically directed to the removal of the exciting cause.

When epilepsy occurs as an idiopathic or primary affection, or when it cannot be referred to any apparent cause, more especially when the attack commences about the age of puberty, and the fits are frequent, it is generally hereditary, and there is great danger of its terminating either in apoplexy, or lunacy, or imbecility.

The treatment of idiopathic epilepsy is principally directed to the improvement of the general health, and the diminution of nervous irritability by sedatives and tonics. Among the first, camphor, ether, henbane, hemlock, musk, oil of cajeput, opium, and morphia, and, more recently, hydrocyanic acid, have been principally relied on. Among the second, bark, cascarilla, quinine, strychnia, valerian, the sulphate of iron, zinc, and copper, arsenious acid, and nitrate of silver, have each their zealous advocates. The objection against the last preparation is the danger of its disfiguring the patient, by tinging the skin of a permanent dull, leaden hue. In cases accompanied with plethora, a low diet, daily out-of-door exercise, and the frequent use of aperients, with occasional blistering, cupping, and other depletive measures, are indicated; whilst in those marked by inanition and debility, an entirely opposite course must be adopted. When the disease is complicated with syphilis, a mild course of mercury may be given; and when with scrofula, iodine, iodide of potassium, or cod-liver oil, assisted by sea-bathing, will be proper.

Among other methods of treatment may be mentioned the administration of an active emetic or purgative, twice weekly, in the morning, when the stomach is empty. The first has now few supporters; but the second is said to be often productive of great benefit.

During a fit of epilepsy the only thing that can be done for the patient is to prevent the sufferer injuring himself, and to loosen every part of his dress that presses on his head, neck, or chest. When premonitory symptoms occur, a brisk emetic, a large dose of laudanum and ether, a cold plunge or shower bath (when not contra-indicated), or anything else which gives a sudden shock to the system or raises its tone, frequently prevents the accession of the fit.

Epilepsy more commonly attacks children than adults, and boys than girls. “Its returns are frequently periodical, and its paroxysms commence more frequently in the night than in the day, being somewhat connected with sleep. It is sometimes counterfeited by street impostors in order to excite the charity of the passers-by.

For Animals. All animals are subject to attacks of epilepsy, more particularly dogs and pigs. The animal seized with the fit loses the senses of sight and hearing, and falling down exhibits the same symptoms as those which accompany the disease in human beings. Cattle, although they bellow greatly during an attack, rarely die from it; but it not infrequently suffocates dogs, and is in them a not unusual cause of sudden death. The fit, which lasts from ten to fifty minutes, when it passes off, leaves the animal dull, and is apt to return. Epileptic fits are a frequent accompaniment of distemper in dogs. They are often induced in cattle by tough and indigestible food, and in these as well as in dogs, by intestinal worms. Hot weather and excitement, especially in dogs, are a frequent cause of an epileptic fit. By energetic treatment after the first attack the further course of the malady may often be arrested. The best treatment is to give, when the fit is over, a brisk purge, with an ounce of oil of turpentine in horses or cattle, and twenty to forty drops in dogs. If the disease is caused by worms give the medicines ordered in such cases.

=EPISPAS′TICS.= See BLISTER and VESICANT.

=EP′ITHEM.= Syn. EPITHEMA, L. Any external liquid medicine for local application; as an embrocation or lotion. Some writers confine the term to those preparations which are intended to be applied by means of a cloth dipped into them. See LINIMENT, LOTION, &c.

=Epithem, Astrin′′gent.= Syn. EPITHEMA ASTRINGENS, L. Prep. 1. Powdered ice, 7 dr.; powdered catechu, 1 dr.; mix.

2. (Brera.) Powdered bole and rhatany, of each 1 oz.; vinegar of roses, q. s. to form a paste. Both are applied to the nostrils and forehead to stop bleeding at the nose.

=Epithem, Gly′′cerin.= Syn. EPITHEMA GLYCERINÆ, L. Prep. (Mr Startin.) Glycerin, 1 oz.; rose water and lime water, of each 3 or 4 fl. oz.; powdered gum tragacanth, q. s. to form a thin mucilage. In scalds, burns, and excoriations.

=Epithem, Vermifuge.= Syn. EPITHEMA VERMIFUGUM, L. (Hoffmann). Wormwood and centaury, beaten up with aloes and colocynth, and applied over the belly.

=Epithem, Vesica′ting.= Syn. EPITHEMA VESICATORIUM, L. Prep. 1. (Alibert.) Rye or barley meal, made into a paste with vinegar, and 30 to 40 gr. or more of powdered Spanish flies sprinkled over the surface.

2. (Ph. L. 1746.) Spanish flies (in fine powder) and wheat flour, equal parts, made into paste with vinegar, q. s. As a blister.

=Epithem, Vol′atile.= Syn. EPITHEMA VOLATILE, E. AMMONIÆ, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1764.) Common turpentine and water of ammonia, equal parts. An excellent counter-irritant; either with or without the addition of a little olive oil.

=EPIZOOTIC DISEASES.= These are diseases which attack different species of domestic animals in the same manner that epidemics do man. These maladies ravage large tracts of country, frequently causing great mortality amongst the various animals inhabiting the localities visited by them; different animals being assailed by different forms of epizootic disease.

For instance, there is the rinderpest, or plague peculiar to cattle, the typhoid or gastric fever which prevailed so largely amongst horses in this country in 1854, and 1861 and 1862; the smallpox of sheep; the diphtheria affecting oxen, sheep, goats, and pigs; the influenza of horses, and the charbon of pigs. Dogs, cats, tame and wild birds, fish,[277] silkworms and bees, each suffers from a special variety of epizootic disease.

[Footnote 277: Great mortality has prevailed amongst the salmon during the present year, owing to the attacks of a peculiar white fungus, called the Saprolegnia ferox, a parasite that multiplies so rapidly as speedily to envelope any fish it attacks.]

Epizootic diseases are met with in most European countries. They are very common in Russia, where they commit great devastation amongst the horned cattle, 400,000 of which are said to die annually from their ravages. Of epizootics, Mr Finlay Dun says:——“They extend at the same time over large tracts of country, attack in a similar manner great numbers of animals, tend to assume a typhoid form, and withstand badly all depletive treatment. They depend upon some general causes as yet unknown, but which it has usually been thought sufficient to term “atmospheric;” but are always most common and fatal amongst animals breathing impure air, densely crowded, badly fed, or exposed to cold winds; and are generally prevented or robbed of their virulence by guarding against such debilitating causes, and maintaining a high standard of health.”

=EQUISE′TIC ACID.= In chemistry, a substance identical with ACONITIC ACID (which see).

=EQUIV′ALENT.= (EQUIVALENCY.) In modern chemistry, the equivalent of a body is that weight of it which will exactly replace in a compound 1 atom of hydrogen or 1 atom of either of the other monivalent elements (see Table, below).

Monivalent elements are those which replace one atom of hydrogen in chemical combinations in the ratios of their atomic weights.

One atom of a divalent, trivalent, tetrivalent, pentivalent, and hexivalent element replaces respectively, or is equivalent to, two, three, four, five, or six atoms of hydrogen or of any other monivalent element. (For further information on this subject consult the works on chemistry by Fownes, Miller, Kay-Shuttleworth, &c.)

Table of the Elements, arranged according to their Equivalency.

=ERB′IUM.= According to Prof. Mosander, the substance usually called yttria is a mixture of the oxides of three metals——yttrium, erbium, and terbium, which differ in the character of their salts, and in some other important particulars. The first is a powerful base; the others, very weak ones. The latter are separated with extreme difficulty, and possess no practical importance.

=ERDMAN’S FLOAT.= This useful little instrument, invented as its name implies, by Erdman, is used to ensure accuracy in the readings of Mohr’s burette.

It is in the form of an elongated glass bulb, loaded with a globule of mercury at the bottom, the same as a hydrometer, and with a glass hook at the top, by means of which it can be placed in or removed from the liquid in the burette at pleasure. The float has a circular mark scratched by a diamond, running round the middle, which, when the instrument is placed in the fluid in the burette, should correspond with the graduation or degree on the burette at which the fluid stands. The actual height of the fluid in the burette is of no consequence, since, if the operation be commenced with the line on the float opposite the 0 gradation on the burette, the same proportional division is always maintained. It is most essential that, when the fluid is being drawn off, the float should accompany it in its descent without wavering, and that the circular mark upon it should always be parallel to the graduations of the burette. Another condition is, that when the float has been pressed down in the fluid of the closed burette it should slowly rise again. A correspondent in Liebig’s ‘Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie’ for April, 1875, states that Erdman’s floats generally become lined internally with a green or yellow layer, from the oxidation of the mercury, and are thus rendered opaque and consequently useless. He proposes to place the mercury in a distinct cell, hermetically sealed from the upper part of the float which carries the circular mark. He has had floats of this construction in use for years.[278] See BURETTE.

[Footnote 278: ‘Chemical News.’]

=EREMACAU′SIS.= Slow burning; decay. This expression was applied by Liebig to the peculiar decomposition which moist organic matter undergoes, when freely exposed to the air, by the oxygen of which it is gradually burned or destroyed, without any sensible elevation of temperature. See PUTREFACTION.

=ER′GOT.= Syn. ERGOT OF RYE, SPURRED RYE, HORNED R., COCKSPUR R., OBSTETRICAL R. ERGOTA (B. P.), L. The diseased seeds of Secale cereale (Linn.), or common rye.

Ergot of rye deteriorates greatly by age, being subject to the attacks of a description of acarus resembling the cheese mite, but much smaller, which destroys the whole of the internal portion of the grain, leaving nothing but the shell, and a considerable quantity of excrementitious matter. To prevent this the ergot should be well dried, and then placed in bottles or tin canisters, and closely preserved from the air. The addition of a few cloves, or drops of the oil of cloves, or strong acetic acid, or a little camphor, or camphorated spirit of wine, will preserve this substance for years in close vessels. M. Martin proposes to steep the dry ergot in strong mucilage, and then to dry it on a sheet of white iron. This operation he repeats once or oftener, and finally preserves the prepared and thoroughly dried ergot in a well-corked glass flask. (‘Jour. de Chimie Méd.’) The wholesale druggists generally keep it in well-covered tin canisters or tin boxes.

H. Ducros (‘Zeitschr. des Oesterr. Apoth. Ver.,’ 1876-8), on the strength of many years’ experience, recommends powdered wood-charcoal for the preservation of ergot of rye.

The ergot is placed in a wide-mouth stoppered bottle, and covered with a thick layer of the powdered charcoal. Whenever it is required for use some of the ergot is transferred to a piece of paper, and freed from the adhering charcoal by blowing and rubbing. What is not required is returned to the bottle.

N. B. Gionovié (‘Zeitschr. des Oesterr. Apoth. Ver.,’ 1876, 126) states he has used the following process with the best success. A small quantity of ether is dropped on the ergot contained in a bottle, and the latter closed with a well-fitting stopper. The addition of ether is repeated every time the bottle is opened.

Ergot of rye is much used to restrain uterine hæmorrhage, and to accelerate the contraction of the uterus in protracted labour. It is also much used as an emmenagogue.——Dose. To facilitate labour, 20 to 30 gr., either in powder or made into an infusion; repeated at intervals of 20 or 30 minutes until 3 or 4 scruples have been taken. In other cases (leucorrhœa, hæmorrhages, &c.) the dose is 5 to 12 gr., three times daily, for a period not longer than a week or ten days at a time.

M. Tancret states that he has succeeded in obtaining an alkaloid from ergot of rye, which he names ergotinine. The isolation of ergotinine is said to be attended with great difficulty, owing to its great tendency to undergo spontaneous changes, a short contact with the air being sufficient to decompose it; a circumstance which may perhaps help to explain the rapid change that the powder ergot experiences. Professor Dragendorff, however, refuses to admit that ergotinine is the active principle of ergot, or that it is a distinct chemical substance. He ascribes the therapeutic power of the drug mainly to sclerotic acid, which body, after various unsuccessful attempts, he has obtained from ergot, with certain other determinate compounds, by the following process:——“Very finely powdered ergot is exhausted with distilled water, the solution concentrated in vacuo, and the residuary liquid mixed with an equal volume of 95 per cent. alcohol. This causes the precipitation of a peculiarly shiny substance (scleromucin), together with a portion of the salts, and the greater part of the suspended fatty matter. The mixture having been allowed to stand on ice for twenty-four to forty-eight hours, it is filtered, and the filtrate mixed with a further quantity of 95 per cent. alcohol, sufficient to precipitate all the sclerotic acid in combination with the bases (chiefly as calcium sclerotate). The separation of the precipitate is promoted as before, by placing the mixture on ice for some days. This causes the deposited mass, which has a brownish colour, to adhere firmly to the walls of the vessel, so as to permit the supernatant liquid to be easily poured off. The precipitate is kneaded with alcohol of 80 per cent., and immediately thereafter dissolved in a sufficient quantity of 40 per cent. alcohol, when the remainder of the scleromucin and another large portion of the foreign salts are left behind. The filtered liquid is now mixed with absolute alcohol, whereby sclerotic acid is precipitated in conjunction with certain bases and other substances. The impure product, when carefully dried over sulphuric acid, was found on analysis to contain 8·5 per cent. of potassium, about 0·36 per cent. of calcium, 4·3 per cent. of sodium, 2·74 per cent. of phosphoric acid, or altogether 12·9 per cent. of ash.

“The greater part of these admixtures may be removed, and the sclerotic acid obtained free, by adding before the final precipitation with absolute alcohol a considerable quantity of hydrochloric acid (for every 100 c. c. of solution 5-6 gm. of the acid, sp. gr. 1·100), allowing to stand at ordinary temperature for a few hours, and then proceeding to precipitate. In this manner the amount of ash may be brought down to 3 per cent., and by repeated solution, addition of acid, and precipitation, it may further be reduced to less than 2 per cent. or 3 per cent. A more complete purification is difficult and hazardous, because every addition of hydrochloric acid causes the decomposition of a small quantity of sclerotic acid, while at the same time a portion of the latter is lost by remaining in solution.

“The resulting product, although not chemically pure, is nevertheless physiologically pure, as it always produces constant and identical results, no matter from what sample of (good) ergot it was obtained.

“Good ergot contains about 4 to 4·5 per cent. of the acid, although samples are met with which contain scarcely 1·5 to 2 per cent.”[279]

[Footnote 279: From ‘New Remedies.’]

Frogs are stated to have been thrown into a state of palsy by the hypodermic injection of 0·02 to 0·04 gram of sclerotic acid.

See DECOCTION, EXTRACT, INFUSION, OIL, TINCTURE, &c.

=ER′GOTIN.= Syn. ERGOTINA, L. Prep. 1. (Bonjean’s.) Powdered ergot is exhausted with cold water, by displacement, and the resulting solution is heated in a water bath to about 200° Fahr., and filtered; the filtered liquor is then evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, and when cold, is treated with rectified spirit, in considerable excess, to precipitate its gummy matter; after repose, the clear portion is decanted, by the heat of a water bath, to the consistence of a soft extract. Prod. 15%. According to M. Bonjean, this preparation possesses all the ‘hæmostatic’ without any of the ‘poisonous’ qualities of ergot. It has a reddish-brown colour, a bitter taste, and an odour somewhat resembling that of roasted meat. Its aqueous solution is red, limpid, and transparent.——Dose, 4 to 10 gr., either made into a pill or dissolved in water.

2. (Wigger’s.) Powdered ergot is first digested in ether, to remove the fatty matter, and then in boiling alcohol; the alcoholic tincture is evaporated, and the resulting extract treated with water; the undissolved portion, dissolved in hot alcohol and filtered, yields pure ergotine by gentle evaporation.——Prod. 1-1/4%. It has a brownish-red colour; is resinous, acrid, bitter, insoluble in water and ether, soluble in alcohol, and poisonous. It evolves a peculiar odour when warmed. Its therapeutical action has not been determined. See EXTRACT.

=ER′RHINES.= Syn. ERRHINA, L. Substances applied to the pituitary membrane of the nose, for the purpose of producing an increased discharge of nasal mucus. When they are given to excite sneezing, they are called STERNUTATORIES or PTARMICS. Asarabacca, euphorbium, several of the labiatæ (herbæ vel flores), sal-ammoniac, powdered sugar, subsulphate of mercury, tobacco, and white hellebore, are the principal substances of this class.

Errhines act as local irritants, and are occasionally employed in chronic affections of the eyes, face, ears, and brain; as in amaurosis, ophthalmia, deafness, weak sight, headache, &c.

=Errhine, Al′um.= Syn. ERRHINUM ALUMINIS, L. Prep. (Radius.) Alum and Armenian bole, of each, 1 dr.; kino, 1/2 dr.; red oxide of iron, 2 dr. (all in powder); mix and triturate. In bleeding at the nose. A little is snuffed up the nostrils.

=Errhine, Hæmostat′ic.= Syn. ERRHINUM HÆMOSTATICUS, L. Prep. From powdered catechu, 1 dr.; opium, 5 gr.; sugar, 2 dr. As the last.

=ERUPTIONS (of the Skin).= For brevity and convenience, these cutaneous affections may be divided into 5 classes:——

=Eruptions, Animal′cular.= These are due to the presence of minute parasites (ACARI), which burrow and breed in the scarf-skin, and occasion much local irritation. See ITCH.

=Eruptions, Pap′ular.= Syn. DRY PIMPLES. In these the surface is raised into little elevations or pimples, which sometimes show themselves on the surface, and at others are only appreciable by the touch. They are usually accompanied with a greater or less degree of cutaneous irritation and troublesome itching, in attempting to relieve which they are frequently converted into disagreeable and painful sores and excoriations, which are often difficult to heal.

Treat. In simple cases, where there is not much disarrangement of the general health, these eruptions commonly yield to the occasional use of mild saline aperients, and warm or tepid bathing, or frequent ablution with warm soap and water. Sea-bathing is also a powerful remedy. Stimulants of all kinds should be avoided, and ripe fruit and vegetables should form a prominent part of the diet. Lemonade, made by squeezing a lemon into a tumbler of water, and sweetening the mixture with a little sugar, is one of the best beverages on these occasions. To relieve the itching, brisk friction with a soft flesh-brush may be had recourse to, followed by the use of a lotion formed by adding the juice of a lemon or a wine-glassful of distilled vinegar, to 3/4 of a pint or a pint of water, either with or without the addition of a table-spoonful of glycerin. Occasional single pimples, depending on local causes, generally require no particular treatment. See LICHEN, PRURIGO, RED GUM, and TOOTHRASH.

=Eruptions, Pus′tular.= Syn. MATTERY PIMPLES. These are distinguished by the pimples (pustules) containing an opaque yellow fluid or matter (pus, lymph). “They are generally developed on a ground of inflamed skin; and the degree of this inflammation of the skin is the basis of their division into two groups, termed technically ‘IMPETIGO’ and ‘ECTHYMA,’ The former presents the slighter degree of inflammation, and, sometimes, there is scarcely any redness of the skin; the latter is always accompanied by considerable inflammation and redness.” “The little bubbles attain their full size in the course of two or three days, and either dry up without breaking, or more frequently burst and then dry, forming a hard crust, which offers considerable variety of colour, being sometimes yellowish, sometimes brownish, and sometimes almost black.” The latter form is popularly known as ‘crusted tetter.’ In ecthyma the pustules “are generally of the size of a split pea, and surrounded at their base by a broad halo of redness. They are usually separate, not clustered like impetigo, scattered over various parts of the body, and followed either by a hard black crust or by a sore.”

Treat. The inflammation and pain may be generally alleviated by the application of a lotion formed of rectified spirit of wine, 1 part; and water, 5 or 6 parts; to which a table-spoonful of distilled vinegar is often added. The crusts or scabs, when they become hard or troublesome, may be removed by a warm fomentation or an emollient poultice; a little simple cerate being afterwards applied to allay irritation. When the constitution is full and inflammatory (as it usually is in impetigo), a depletive treatment may be adopted, when it is low and debilitated (as it usually is in ecthyma), tonics and a more liberal diet, with the free use of lemon juice diluted with water, as a beverage, should be had recourse to. Sea-bathing is also highly useful. See TETTERS.

=Eruptions, Sca′ly.= Syn. DRY TETTER. This is a form of inflammatory condition of the true skin (DERMA), which commonly makes its appearance as a small dull red, salmon-red, or liver-coloured spot, slightly raised above the level of the surrounding skin, constituting a broad, flat, pimple-like prominence, about the size of a split pea. Upon the surface of this prominence the scarf-skin becomes slightly roughened, and after a little while a very distinct but circular scale is produced, which increases in thickness by the addition of fresh layers, and after assuming various colours in different varieties of the disease, ultimately separates and falls off, either leaving a permanently bare surface, or being followed by crops of other like scales, which also fall off, and are replaced in rapid succession. This class of eruptions is more obstinate than any of the other varieties, and often defies medical skill. Each particular form generally requires special treatment. In all, however, endeavours should be made to restore the general health of the body in the manner which existing circumstances may indicate. The red meats, ripe fruit, and antiscorbutic vegetables should form a large portion of the diet; and sea-bathing, or shower, sulphuretted, or ioduretted baths, should be taken daily, if possible. Dry friction with a flesh-brush, and daily exercise to perspiration, are also highly recommended. See LEPROSY, PSORIASIS, TETTERS, &c.

=Eruptions, Vesic′ular.= Syn. WATERY PIMPLES. These consist of little vesicles or bladders, filled with a small quantity of a transparent and colourless liquid. They result from a similar action to that which produces ordinary blisters. Inflammation is excited in the sensitive skin by an inward or outward cause, and the inflamed vessels pour out the watery part of the blood, and so raise the scarf-skin from off the sensitive layer, in the form of a small dome, which in some situations is conical, in others a segment of a sphere. They present great variety in point of number and size; some are so minute as to be scarcely discernible without close inspection, whilst others increase to the magnitude of a hen’s egg. They are numerous in the inverse ratio of their size; the smaller ones being very abundant, and the larger ones scanty and few.

Treat. This consists chiefly in the due attention to the general principles of health——cleanliness, exercise, food, and raiment, as already pointed out, assisted by such special remedies as the particular case or circumstances may demand. Antiphlogistics or tonics must be had recourse to, according to the condition of the system, and local irritation allayed by the usual means. Simple cases frequently yield to a dose or two of some saline aperient and a change of diet. See ACNE, ERYSIPELAS, PEMPHIGUS, RUPIA, TETTERS, and SKIN.

=ERVALEN′TA.= The meal of lentil (Ervum lens,——Linn.), variously doctored with other substances. In some cases the article sold under the name does not contain a particle of lentil meal.

Prep. 1. (Paris Ervalenta.) Indian-corn meal (fine), and bean flour, of each 14 lbs.; salt and sugar, of each 1 lb.; mix, and pass the compound through a sieve.

2. (Warton’s.) Lentil powder, 1 part; durra or Turkey millet flour (Sorghum vulgare), 2 parts. Some persons assert that it contains a large quantity of the flour of Indian corn. See REVALENTA and LENTILS.

=ERYN′′GO.= Syn. ERYNGIUM, L. The root of the Eryngium campestre, a plant common in middle and southern Europe. It is sweet, aromatic, and tonic, and formerly enjoyed much repute in gonorrhœa, suppressed menstruation, and visceral obstructions generally, especially those of the gall-bladder, liver, and uterus. Candied eryngo (ERYNGIUM CONDITUM, ERYNGII RADIX CONDITA), according to Lindley, “has the credit of being a decided aphrodisiac,” and has a considerable sale. Eryngium aquaticum (bitter snake-weed) and E. maritimum (sea eryngo, sea holly) furnish the eryngo of the Ph. U. S. See CANDYING.

=ERYSIP′ELAS.= Syn. ST. ANTHONY’S FIRE, THE ROSE. A peculiar form of inflammation, which chiefly attacks the skin, and is generally accompanied or followed by an eruption of a very red colour, sometimes vesicular, and by tumefaction. It commonly attacks the head and face, and is at its height from the third to the sixth day, but the duration and progress of the symptoms are variable. From the eighth to the twelfth day the eruption usually scabs or scales off. Sometimes suppuration occurs, especially of the eyelids and scalp, and during the latter stages of the disease there is, in general, a tendency to debility. In many cases erysipelas is attended by typhoid symptoms, and is then a dangerous and often fatal disease.

Treat. Aperients and diaphoretics, assisted by a cooling diet. When the inflammatory symptoms run high, blistering and cupping are frequently had recourse to. Local irritation may be subdued by milk-and-water, or cooling or evaporating lotions, or by sprinkling starch, hair-powder, or arrow-root, on the part. The tendency to debility in the latter stages should be combated with bark, quinine, or other like tonics. When shiverings, sickness, and delirium, attend the height of the disorder, wine, bark, ammonia, and other stimulants, are usually prescribed, and depletion must be avoided. The same treatment is also adopted in the gangrenous forms of the disease, to which doses of opium and calomel are also commonly added. When suppuration and sloughing of the cellular membrane have taken place, it is usual to make incisions to give exit to the discharge, and relieve the tension of the limb. These may be about 1-1/2 inch in length, and from 2 to 4 inches apart, and should be made in the direction of the long dimensions of the limb. Mr Higginbottom, of Nottingham, applies (freely) lunar caustic to the inflamed skin, and also to the healthy skin, to the extent of an inch or more beyond it. The result, in many cases, is a complete change of action in the part, and a resolution of the disease. Iodine paint is often successfully used in the same way.

Wherever practicable medical assistance should be called in on the first appearance of this dangerous disease.

Erysipelas is generally symptomatic of a debilitated or bad constitution. It is also a common sequel of surgical operations in crowded and ill-ventilated hospitals, where it often appears to be contagious. In these cases cleanliness, ventilation, and change of air, are the only remedies. We need scarcely add, that this disease should never be tampered with, but the best medical advice sought, whenever it can be procured.

For animals. The bowels should be kept gently open, by small doses of medicine, and laxative glysters. If there be any feverish symptoms, saline diuretics should be administered; and as a lowering treatment is objectionable, tonics and stimulants should be had recourse to at an early stage of the disease. The affected parts should be kept constantly moist with a lotion composed of one part of Goulard’s extract to thirty parts of distilled or freshly boiled water. Nutritious food, fresh air and general comfort must not be neglected. Cold applications are hurtful. Horses are seldom attacked by erysipelas.

=ERYTHORE′TIN.= Syn. RED RESIN OF RHUBARB. A yellow or reddish-yellow substance, forming one of the three resins found by Schlösberger and Dœpping in rhubarb. It is very soluble in alcohol; less so in ether; with ammonia and potassa it forms soluble compounds of a rich purple colour. See RHUBARB.

=ERYTH′RIC ACID.= Prep. The lichen Roccella tinctoria (Canary or herb-archil) is boiled with milk of lime, and the filtered solution precipitated with hydrochloric acid; the dried precipitate is dissolved in warm alcohol, and filtered; as the solution cools, crystals of erythric acid are deposited.

Prep., &c. Feebly acid; colourless; inodorous; scarcely soluble in water; soluble in alcohol and ether; chloride of lime turns its solutions of a blood-red colour.

=ERYTH′RINE=, AMARYTHRINE, ERYTHRILINE, PSEUDO-ERYTHRINE, and TELERYTHRINE. Substances obtained by Kane and Heeren from Roccella tinctoria, Parmelia roccella, Leconara Tartarea, &c. They are of little practical importance.

=ESCHAROT′ICS.= Syn. ESCHAROTICA, L. Substances that destroy the texture of living organic bodies, with the production of an ‘eschar’ or ‘scab.’ Escharotics have been divided into two classes——mechanical and chemical. Among the former are actual cauteries, as a heated iron, moxas, &c.; among the latter are all those substances commonly known as caustics. Some writers have subdivided chemical escharotics into ERODING ESCHAROTICS, as blue vitriol, red precipitate, burnt alum, &c.; and into CAUSTIC ESCHAROTICS, as lunar caustic, pure potassa, strong sulphuric acid, nitric acid, &c.; but these distinctions possess little practical value. “In cauterising with a heated iron, this should be at a white heat, as, at this temperature, it occasions less pain to the patient, from its causing an immediate death of the parts to which it is applied.” “The surrounding surface should be protected by some non-conductor of heat, but not by wet paper or cloth, as the sudden extrication of steam will produce a blistered surface around the burn, and will much increase the pain.” (Dr R. E. Griffith.) See CAUSTIC, SOLUTION, &c.

=ES′CULENTS.= Substances used for food. The more important esculents are noticed under their respective heads.

=ESCU′LIC ACID.= A peculiar acid found by M. Bussy in the bark of the horse-chestnut. It is but little known, and has not been applied to any use.

=ESERINE.= Powder of Calabar bean, 100 parts; tartaric acid, 1 part; potassium bicarbonate in powder, q. s.; alcohol (90°) q. s.; rectified and washed ether q. s. Exhaust the bean mixed with tartaric acid by several digestions in alcohol at the heat of a water-bath, alcohol equal to about three times the weight of the powder being used for each maceration. Distil the combined liquors and filter; heat the residue in a water-bath exposed to the air until it contains no more alcohol. After cooling suspend the extract in a small quantity of distilled water, and filter through paper to separate the insoluble resin.

Agitate the filtrate with rectified and washed ether, until the ether is no longer sensibly coloured; two or three treatments are usually sufficient. Treat the aqueous liquor which contains the eserine in the state of acid tartrate, with a slight excess of potassium bicarbonate, until the reaction is alkaline. Shake this liquor several times with ether, which removes the liberated eserine, and deposits it upon evaporation. The product is purified by fresh crystallisations from ether.

Pure eserine is colourless or slightly rose coloured; it crystallises in thin laminæ having a rhomboid form. Most frequently it occurs in commerce under the form of yellowish spangles, or amorphous masses more or less coloured by the action of the air.

It is slightly soluble in water, but dissolves freely in alcohol, ether, and chloroform. When a one per cent. solution of it is treated with potash or soda it rapidly acquires a characteristic rose colour. Heated in a flask with a water-bath in contact with excess of ammonia, it gives upon evaporation of the liquor in the open air, a magnificent blue colour, very soluble in the water. This solution treated with acids, produces a very fine dichroic liquor, violet and transparent by transmission, and carmine red and turbid by refraction. Eserine has the property of contracting energetically the pupil of the eye.

A kilogram of Calabar beans yields on the average one gram of eserine (from ‘Formulæ for new Medicaments, adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society.’) See CALABAR BEAN.

=Eserine, Neutral Hydrobromate of.= This body is prepared with colourless hydrobromic acid in the same manner as the sulphate. The solution evaporated to a syrupy consistence, crystallises in the course of a few days in fibrous masses, rarely colourless and non-deliquescent.

The neutral hydrobromate of eserine is employed like the sulphate and in the same doses, although it contains a little less eserine. (From ‘Formulæ for New Medicaments,’ adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society.) See CALABAR BEAN.

=Eserine, Neutral Sulphate of.= This salt is obtained by saturating directly and exactly a known quantity of eserine with dilute sulphuric acid (1 in 10); or better still, by shaking a solution of the eserine with a titrated solution of sulphuric acid so as not to exceed the point of saturation. The filtered solution of sulphate of eserine is evaporated rapidly to dryness by the aid of a gentle heat.

Sulphate of eserine can be crystallised in long prismatic needles, combined in radiating groups, but it is very difficult. It is preferable to preserve it in the amorphous state, and in well-stoppered bottles, as it is very deliquescent.

Sulphate of eserine is employed like eserine, internally under the form of granules containing up to one milligram. It is employed also for the eyes as a solution, containing two to five centigrams of the salt to ten grams of distilled water.

Solutions containing eserine, pure or combined, alter rapidly in contact with the air, becoming red; they should only be prepared in small quantities as required. (From ‘Formulæ for New Medicaments,’ adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society.) See CALABAR BEAN.

=ESPRIT.= [Fr.] SPIRIT. This term is commonly applied to alcoholic solutions of the essential oils, and to various odorous and aromatic essences sold by the perfumers and druggists as articles of the toilet. See ESSENCE, SPIRIT, &c.

=ES′SENCE.= Syn. ESSENTIA, L. The active and characteristic portion of a substance, or that on which its most remarkable properties depend. The term has been very loosely applied to various preparations presumed to contain these essential principles or qualities, disencumbered of grosser matter. Modern systematic writers generally restrict its application to the volatile oils obtained from vegetable substances by distillation, or to a strong solution of them in alcohol. In pharmacy and perfumery, the word ‘essence’ is applied to concentrated preparations that differ vastly from each other. Thus, concentrated effusions, decoctions, liquors, solutions, and tinctures, are frequently called ‘essences’ by those who vend them; but the term ‘fluid extracts’ would be more appropriate, if those already mentioned are not deemed sufficiently showy and attractive. We shall here confine ourselves to a brief notice of the principal compound essences, or those that undergo some preparation beyond being merely extracted from vegetables by distillation along with water. The latter will be considered under the article OIL.

The concentrated preparations of the pharmaceutist, termed ‘essences,’ are mostly prepared by digesting the active ingredient or ingredients in rectified spirit of wine, either with or without the addition of a certain portion of water; or they are extemporaneously formed by dissolving a portion of the essential oil of such substances in the spirit. In this way are made the essences of lavender, musk, ginger, &c. When it is desired only to obtain the aromatic and volatile portion of the ingredients, the latter are usually digested in the spirit for a few days, and then submitted to distillation, when the alcohol comes over loaded with aromatic essential oil, or other volatile matter. In this way are prepared most of the fragrant essences of the perfumer and druggist, when simple solution of the essential oils in alcohol is not resorted to. In many cases the active principles of the ingredients are partly volatile and partly fixed, or at least do not readily volatilise at the temperature at which alcohol distils over. This is the case, for instance, with the active portion of ergot and Jamaica ginger. In such cases digestion alone should be adopted. When the principles of organic substances, of which it is desired to obtain a concentrated solution, are resinous or oily, or little soluble in weak spirit (which is mostly the case), the strongest rectified spirit of wine should alone be employed. In the preparation of essences without distillation, the method by percolation or displacement is preferable to that of simple maceration and expression, when the nature of the ingredients and other circumstances render it applicable, as it is not only more economical, but a more concentrated solution may thereby be obtained. At the same time, however, the reader should remember, that this mode of operating requires much greater experience and skill to ensure success than the former method. This clumsiness of manipulation is the common cause of the failures which are so frequently met with in the preparation of these articles.

The ingredients for the preparation of essences must undergo the same operations of bruising, powdering, or slicing, as directed under ‘TINCTURE,’ previous to digestion in the spirit, or other menstruum; and the length of time they should be allowed to infuse, when this method alone is adopted, should not be less than ten days; but this time may be advantageously extended to a fortnight, or even longer. During the whole of this period frequent agitation should be employed, and when the ingredients are so bulky as to absorb the whole of the fluid, the vessel which contains them should be securely fastened by a bung or stopper covered with bladder, and inverted every alternate day. By this means every portion of the ingredients will be equally exposed to the action of the menstruum. In all such cases the method of displacement, or percolation, is preferable. For the essences used as perfumes and for flavouring, not only must the spirit be perfectly tasteless and scentless, but it must be also quite devoid of colour.

The following formulæ embrace most of the essences met with in the shops. Those not found among them may be readily prepared by applying the general directions given above, or by employing the formula given for the preparation of the essence of some similar substance, merely varying the characteristic ingredient. Thus, were it desired to form an essence of ambergris or of myrrh, and no formulæ could be found for these preparations, the tyro would consider in what menstruum the active principles of these substances were most soluble. This, he would immediately see by reference to their properties, is rectified spirit of wine. He would next have to decide on the proper strength of his essence. In this he must be guided, either by the strength of the like preparations of other makers, or by his own judgment of what would be useful, novel, or convenient. Suppose he decided that his essence should represent 1-10th of its weight of the solid ingredient. He would then take 2 oz. of ambergris or myrrh, and 20 oz. of rectified spirit, which he would digest together for 10 days or a fortnight in the manner described above. Had the required preparation been an essence of senna (for example), he would probably recollect, or might easily ascertain by reference, that the active properties of senna are soluble in both water and weak spirit. Then, to make an essence 4 times as strong as the tincture of the pharmacopœia, 7 oz. of senna, and 1 pint of proof spirit, should be employed, with due digestion, as before.[280] The same applies to other preparations. See CONCENTRATION, DECOCTION, INFUSION, LIQUOR, SPIRIT, TINCTURE, &c.

[Footnote 280: See directions given under TINCTURE.]

=Essence of Ac′onite.= Syn. ESSENTIA ACONITI, L. Prep. From aconite (herb, dried, and powdered), 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 16 oz.; macerate for 4 days at a temperature of 68° Fahr., press, and strain; the marc or residuum is again macerated with (a little) spirit, and pressed as before, so that the weight of the mixed tinctures may amount to double that of the herb.——Dose, 3 to 6 drops. See TINCTURE.

=Essence of All′spice.= Syn. ESSENCE OF PIMENTO; ESSENTIA PIMENTÆ, L. Prep. From essential oil of pimento or allspice, 1 fl. oz.; strongest rectified spirit of wine, 1 pint; agitate until perfectly united, and the next day decant the clear portion, if there is any sediment. Used to make pimento water, and by cooks and confectioners as a ‘flavouring.’

=Essence of Al′monds.= Syn. ESSENCE OF BITTER ALMONDS, E. OF PEACH KERNELS, E. OF RATAFIA, E. OF NOYEAU, QUINTESSENCE OF N., ALMOND FLAVOUR; ESSENTIA AMYGDALÆ, E. A. AMARÆ, L. Prep. 1. From essential oil of almonds, as the last.

2. (Pereira.) Essential oil of almonds, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 7 fl. oz.

Uses, &c. It is added to wine, cordials, perfumery, pastry, &c., to impart an agreeable nutty flavour or aroma. It is also employed to prepare cherry-laurel, peach-kernel, and bitter-almond water. A large quantity is consumed by the confectioners, and by wine merchants to ‘improve’ their sherries, and to give Cape wine a sherry flavour. It should be used in very small quantities, as it is very powerful, and, in quantity, poisonous. A few drops are sufficient for several pounds of pastry. The first formula is that used in trade. The second is sometimes used by the druggists, and is occasionally vended under the name of ‘CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF BITTER ALMONDS,’ &c. The directions for purifying the almond oil from hydrocyanic acid before dissolving it in the spirit, given in more than one recent book of receipts, are absurd, as in this way the oil loses much of its characteristic odour and flavour, and by keeping gradually becomes nearly destitute of both. See ESSENTIAL OIL.

=Essence of Am′bergris.= Syn. ESSENTIA AMBRÆ GRISEÆ, E. A. SIMPLEX, TINCTURA A. CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1. Ambergris (cut very small), 5 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; place them in a strong bottle or tin can, secure the mouth very firmly, and expose it to the heat of the sun, or in an equally warm situation, for 1 or 2 months, frequently shaking it during the time; lastly, decant, and filter through paper.

2. (Guibourt.) Ambergris, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 3 oz.; digest 10 or 12 days.

3. (Redwood.) Ambergris, 2-1/2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; macerate for 14 days. Chiefly used as an element in other perfumes. The first is the formula employed by the London houses.

=Essence of Ambergris and Musk.= Syn. CONCENTRATED TINCTURE OF A. AND M.; E. AMBRÆ GRISEÆ (ODORATA), E. A. ET MOSCHI, E. REGIA, L.; ESSENCE ROYALE, Fr. Prep. 1. Ambergris (cut small), 3/4 oz.; 1 or 2 fresh-emptied musk-pods (or musk, 12 gr.); rectified spirit, 1 pint; proceed as in No. 1 (above).

2. Ambergris, 2-1/2 oz.; bladder musk, 1/2 oz.; spirit of ambrette (purple sweet sultan), 1 gal.; as last.

3. Ambergris, 2-1/2 oz.; bladder musk, 1 oz.; spirit of ambrette, 1 gal.; as before. The fragrance of the above, especially of the last two, is very powerful, and is much esteemed.

4. Ambergris, 1/2 oz.; musk and lump sugar, of each 1/4 oz.; triturate together in a wedgwood-ware mortar, adding oil of cloves, 20 drops; true balsam of Peru, 30 drops, and enough essence of jasmine or tuberose to convert it into a perfectly smooth paste; then put it into a strong bottle with rectified spirit, 1 quart; observing, before adding the whole of the last, to rinse the mortar out well with it, that nothing may be lost; lastly digest for 6 or 8 weeks, as directed in No. 1 (above).

5. Ambergris, 4 dr.; musk, 1-1/2 dr.; sand, 3 oz.; triturate, then add, of oil of cinnamon, 1 dr.; oil of rhodium, 1/2 dr.; essence of roses and eau fleurs d’orange, of each 1/4 pint; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint; digest as before (or not less than 14 days), and decant and filter. The last two are very fine, though inferior to Nos. 2 and 3.

6. To the last (No. 5), add civet, 1 dr.; salt of tartar, 3 dr.; and an additional pint of rectified spirit. Inferior to the above, but cheaper.

Obs. Essence of ambergris is used as a perfume, and is added in small quantities to sweet-scented spirits and wines, to improve their flavour and aroma. A very small quantity of any one of them added to lavender water, eau de Cologne, tooth-powder, hair-powder, wash-balls, or a hogshead of claret, communicates a delicious fragrance. See AMBERGRIS and ESSENCE ROYALE (below).

=Essence d’Ambrette.= [Fr.] Syn. ESSENCE OF MUSK SEED, SPIRIT OF M. S.; ESPRIT D’AMBRETTE, Fr. Prep. 1. Musk seed (ground in a clean pepper-mill), 1-1/4 lb.; rectified spirit, 3 pints; digest for 3 or 4 weeks in a warm place, and filter.

2. Musk seed, 4 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gal.; digest 10 days, add water, 2 quarts, and distil over 1 gal. Very fine.

=Essence of Ammoni′acum.= Syn. CONCENTRATED TINCTURE OF AMMONIACUM; ESSENTIA AMMONIACI, TINCTURA A. CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1. Ammoniacum (in tears), 1 lb., is bruised in a very cold marble mortar with half its weight of coarse and well-washed siliceous sand or powdered glass, and rectified spirit, 1/2 pint, gradually added; the trituration is continued until the whole is reduced to a smooth paste, and is then placed in a wide-mouthed bottle, and spirit of wine, 1-1/2 pint, further added; the whole is then digested together for a week with constant agitation, and after sufficient repose to settle, the supernatant transparent liquid is decanted into another bottle for use.

2. Gum ammoniacum, 1 lb., is reduced to a cream with boiling water, 3/4 pint; as soon as the mixture has cooled a little, it is placed in a strong bottle, and rectified spirit of wine, 1-1/4 pint, is cautiously added; the mixture is then corked down close, and the whole macerated for a few days; the bottle is next placed in a moderately warm situation, that the sediment may subside, after which the clearer portion is poured off through flannel into another bottle.

Obs. This preparation is used as a substitute for the gum in substance, for extemporaneously preparing emulsion of ammoniacum, mixture of a., &c. It is represented to possess fully the same amount of medicinal virtue as an equal weight of the solid gum, on which account it has a considerable sale. The product of the first formula, when well managed, is a beautiful pale brownish-coloured, transparent tincture; that of the second is milky and less sightly. The preparation generally sold under the name of ‘CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF AMMONIACUM’ (ESSENTIA AMMONIACI CONCENTRATA, L.), and represented as twice as strong as the gum in substance, is generally prepared by the first formula given above for ESSENCE OF AMMONIACUM. A stronger article may be prepared by a similar process, by using 1 lb. of ammoniacum to a pint of the strongest rectified spirit. As, however, a clear liquid at this strength is somewhat difficult to produce, it is very seldom attempted by the druggists; they therefore generally content themselves with sending out the liquid at half the professed strength, leaving the label to confer the additional concentration. See AMMONIACUM.

=Essence of Anchov′ies.= Syn. ESSENTIA CLUPEÆ, L. Prep. 1. Anchovies, 1 lb., are ‘boned,’ reduced to a pulp in a wedgwood-ware or marble mortar, and passed through a clean hair or brass-wire sieve: meanwhile the bones and other portion that will not pass through the sieve are boiled with water, 1 pint, for 15 minutes, and strained; to the strained liquor, salt, and flour, of each, 2-1/2 oz., together with the pulped anchovies are added, and the whole simmered for 3 or 4 minutes, when the vessel is removed from the fire, and as soon as the mixture has cooled a little, strong pickling vinegar, 1/2 pint, is mixed in; it is then bottled, and the corks tied over with bladder, and either ‘waxed’ or ‘capsuled.’ Product, 3 lbs. (nearly).

2. Anchovies, 7 lbs.; water, 9 pints; salt and flour, of each, 1 lb. Product, 20 lbs.

3. To the last add of Cayenne pepper, 1/4 oz.; the peel of a lemon (grated), and mushroom catsup, 4 oz. Very savoury.

4. From British anchovies (pickled sprats) or young pilchards, along with herring liquor, or the drainings of anchovy barrels.

Use, &c. As a sauce and condiment; when well prepared, it has a fine flavour. That of the shops is usually coloured with Venetian red or Armenian bole. An infusion of cochineal, or a little annotta, would form a more appropriate colouring, and would be perfectly harmless. See ANCHOVY and SAUCE.

=Essence of Angel′ica.= Syn. ESSENTIA ANGELICÆ, L. Prep. (Van Mons.) Angelica root (bruised), 1 part; rectified spirit, 8 parts; water, 16 parts; digest, and distil over 6 parts; Stomachic, carminative, and alexipharmic.——Dose, 1 to 2 spoonfuls.

=Essence of Ani′seed.= Syn. ESSENTIA ANISI (B. P.), L.; ESPRIT D’ANISE, Fr. Oil of anise, 1 part; rectified spirit, 4 parts; mix (B. P.). Stimulant, aromatic, and carminative.——Dose, 10 to 20 minims. Used also to flavour liqueurs, and to make aniseed water. See SPIRIT.

=Essence of An′odyne.= Syn. ESSENTIA ANODYNA, L. Prep. 1. Hard aqueous extract of opium (in powder), 1 dr.; powdered cinnamon, 1/2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz.; digest a week.——Dose, 5 to 20 drops.

2. Extract of henbane (recent), 5 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.; as last.——Dose, 10 to 30 drops. Narcotic, sedative, and antispasmodic. Both are excellent preparations.

=Essence, Antihyster′ic.= Syn. ESSENTIA ANTIHYSTERICA, L. Prep. 1. Cyanuret of potassium, 3 gr.; powdered sugar, 1 dr.; rectified spirit and eau d’orange, of each 4 fl. dr.; agitate together until dissolved.——Dose, 10 to 20 drops, in pure water; in hysteria, gastrodynia, &c. See DRAUGHT (Antihysteric).

2. (P. Cod.) Resembles FETID SPIRIT OF AMMONIA (which see).

=Essence of Ap′ple.= Syn. SOLUTION OF VALERIANATE OF AMYL; ESSENTIA POMI ODORATA, L. Prep. From apple oil (valerianate of oxide of amyl), as ESSENCE OF ALMONDS. Used to flavour liqueurs and confectionery.

=Essence of Ar′nica.= Syn. ESSENTIA ARNICÆ, E. A. FLORUM, TINCTURA A. E. CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. (Ph. Baden, 1841.) From arnica flowers, ESSENCE OF ACONITE. It represents half its weight of herb.

=Essence, Aromat′ic.= Syn. ESSENTIA AROMATICA, L. Prep. From hay saffron, dr.; and rectified spirit, 6 fl. dr.; digested together; to the filtered tincture is added oil of cinnamon and powdered white sugar, of each 1 dr.; ether (rect.), 2 fl. dr.; oil of nutmeg and essence of ginger, of each 1/2 dr.; after agitation and a few days’ repose, the clear portion is decanted into a stoppered phial.——Dose, 5 to 15 drops, on sugar or in a glass of wine or weak spirit; in cholera, diarrhœa, spasms, &c.

=Essence of Bark.= Syn. ESSENTIA CINCHONÆ, E. CORTICIS C., L. Prep. 1. Resinous extract of yellow bark, 4 dr.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; tincture of orange peel, 1/2 fl. oz.; acetic acid (Ph. L.), 1 fl. dr.; digest a week.

2. Disulphate of quinine, 1/2 dr.; resinous extract of bark, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.; as before.——Dose, 12 drops to a teaspoonful; as a febrifuge and tonic.

=Essence of Beef.= Syn. ESSENCE OF RED MEATS, &c. Prep. 1. From lean beef (chopped small), 1 lb.; water, 1/2 pint; place them in a bottle, which they will only half fill, and agitate them violently for half an hour; then throw the whole on a sieve, and receive the liquid in a jug; next boil the undissolved portion in water, 1 pint, for 20 minutes; strain, mix the decoction with the cold infusion, evaporate the liquid to the consistence of a thin syrup, adding spice, salt, &c., to taste, and pour the essence, whilst boiling hot, into bottles, jars, or (still better) tin cans, which must then be at once hermetically corked, sealed, or soldered up, and stowed away in a cold place. In this state it will keep a long time. (Brande’s.)

2. (Ellis.) Take of lean beef (sliced), a sufficient quantity to fill the body of a porter bottle; cork it up loosely, and place it in a pot of cold water, attaching the neck, by means of a string, to the handle of the pot; boil for 1-1/2 to 2 hours, then decant the liquid and skim it. Spices, salt, wine, brandy, &c., may be added as before. Highly nutritious and sustaining.

=Essence of Ber′gamot.= See OIL (Volatile).

=Essence, Bit′ter.= Syn. ESSENTIA AMARA, L. Prep. (Ph. Den.) Wormwood, 4 parts; gentian root, bitter orange peel, and blessed thistle, of each 1 part; rectified spirit, 45 parts; digest a week. Tonic and stomachic.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 2 dr.

=Essence of Calum′ba.= Syn. ESSENTIA CALUMBÆ, L. See INFUSION OF CALUMBA.

=Essence of Cam′phor.= Syn. CAMPHOR DROPS, LIQUOR OF CAMPHOR, CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF C., CONCENTRATED SOLUTION OF C., CONC. CAMPHOR JULEP; ESSENTIA CAMPHORÆ, LIQUOR C., L. C. CONCENTRATUS, L. Prep. 1. Camphor (clean), 4-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve. This forms the ‘ESSENCE OF CAMPHOR’ and ‘LIQUOR CAMPHORÆ’ of the wholesale houses. About 1/2 fl. dr., added to 7-1/2 fl. dr. of cold distilled water, forms (by agitation) a transparent aqueous solution of camphor, fully equal in strength to the filtered ‘MISTURA CAMPHORÆ’ (camphor julep) of the Ph. L. The above made with weaker spirit forms the ‘spirit of wine and camphor’ of the shops.

2. Camphor, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 10 oz. (by weight); dissolve. This forms the ‘CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF CAMPHOR’ of the wholesale druggists. 10 or 12 drops, added to 1 fl. oz. of pure cold water, make a transparent camphor julep, as before. There is a large quantity of these solutions of camphor sold by the London houses, who charge a considerable price for them. They are very convenient for preparing extemporaneous camphor julep or camphor mixture in dispensing.

3. (Fordred.) Tincture of camphor, 13 fl. dr.; tincture of myrrh, 1/2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 18-1/2 fl. dr.; mix. 1 fl. dr., added to 4 fl. oz. of water, forms camphor julep. It has been proposed to bleach the tincture of myrrh with animal charcoal, but this interferes with its proper action.

4. (Homœopathic.) See CHOLERA REMEDIES, Nos. 6 and 7.

5. (Houlton.) Spirit of camphor (Ph. L.), 1 fl. oz.; proof spirit, 7 fl. oz.; 1 fl. dr. to 3 fl. oz. of water; forms ‘CAMPHOR JULEP,’

6. (Redwood.) Camphor, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 2-1/2 oz.; dissolve, and add of water, 1/2 oz.

7. (Swediaur.) Powdered camphor, 1 dr.; water saturated with carbonic acid gas, 12 fl. oz.; dissolve. 1 part of this solution, added to 4 parts of water, forms ‘CAMPHOR MIXTURE,’ See CAMPHOR.

=Essence of Cap′sicum.= See ESSENCE OF CAYENNE.

=Essence of Car′away.= Syn. ESSENTIA CARUI, L. Prep. From oil of caraway, as ESSENCE OF ALMONDS. Its applications and uses are similar. An inferior kind is prepared by macerating the seeds in proof spirit.

=Essence of Car′damoms.= Syn. ESSENTIA CARDAMOMI, E. C. CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. From lesser cardamom seeds (ground in a pepper mill), 5-1/2 lbs.; rectified spirit of wine, 1 gall.; digest for a fortnight, press, and filter.

Obs. This preparation is very convenient for flavouring cordials, pastry, &c., and is very powerful. In the laboratory it is frequently substituted for powdered cardamoms in making compound extract of colocynth, and has the advantage of adding no inert matter to the preparation, whilst it imparts the characteristic odour of the seeds in a remarkable degree. When used in this way it is not added to the extract until it is nearly cold and about to be taken from the pan. The testæ or shells of the seed should be separated from the kernels, as the former are quite inert, and if used occasion a loss of spirit for no purpose.

=Essence of Cascaril′la.= Syn. ESSENTIA CASCARILLÆ, L. Prep. 1. Cascarilla (bruised), 12 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; proceed either by digestion or percolation. The product is 8 times the strength of the infusion of cascarilla. (Ph. L.)

2. See INFUSION (Concentrated).

=Essence of Cas′sia.= Syn. ESSENTIA CASSIÆ, L. Prep. From oil of cassia, as essence of allspice or almonds.

=Essence of Cayenne′.= Syn. ESSENCE OF CAYENNE PEPPER, E. OF CAPSICUM, CONCENTRATED E. OF C.; ESSENTIA CAPSICI, TINCTURA CAPSICI CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1. Capsicum (recent dried pods, bruised), 3 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; digest 14 days, press, and filter. Some persons prepare it by the method of displacement.

2. Capsicum, 1/4 lb.; proof spirit, 1 pint; digest as before. Weaker than No. 1.

3. (Kitchener’s.) Cayenne pepper, 1 oz.; brandy, 1 pint; digest, &c., as before.

Obs. The product of the first formula is a transparent, dark-coloured liquid, having an intensely burning taste. One drop is sufficient to deprive a person of the power of speech for several seconds; and a few drops will impart the rich pungency of cayenne to a large quantity of soup, sauce, or any other article. It forms the ‘ESSENCE OF CAYENNE’ and the ‘CONC. ESS. OF CAYENNE PEPPER’ of the London houses. It is principally used as a flavouring, and to make SOLUBLE CAYENNE PEPPER; also in dispensing. It is fully eight times as strong as the ‘TINCTURA CAPSICI’ (Ph. L.). The product of the third formula is used exclusively for culinary purposes. The pods or fruit of Capsicum annuum (capsicum chilly), C. baccatum (bird pepper), and C. fructescens (Guinea pods, red pepper), are indiscriminately used for this preparation, but the first are those preferred for medicinal purposes; the others have similar properties, but are more pungent and acrimonious; hence the preference given to them in the preparation of cayenne pepper. See PEPPER.

=Essence of Ce′drat.= See OIL (Volatile).

=Essence of Cel′ery.= Syn. ESSENCE OF CELERY SEED; ESSENTIA APII, ESS. A. SEMINIS, L. Prep. 1. From celery seed (bruised or ground), 4-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; digest a fortnight, and strain.

2. (Concentrated.) Celery seed, 7 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest as before. Very fine. Both are used for flavouring.

=Essence, Cephalic.= See ESSENCE FOR HEADACHE.

=Essence of Cham′omile.= Syn. CHAMOMILE DROPS; ESSENTIA ANTHEMIDIS, E. CHAMÆMELI, E. C. ALBA, L. Prep. 1. From essential oil of chamomile, as essence of allspice. Stomachic and stimulant.——Dose, 5 to 30 drops; 1/2 fl. oz., shaken with about 1 pint of pure water, forms an excellent extemporaneous chamomile water.

2. Gentian root (sliced or bruised), 1 lb.; dried orange peel, 1/4 lb.; proof spirit, 1 gal.; essential oil of chamomile, 3-1/2 fl. oz.; macerate a week. Slightly coloured. Some persons use 1/2 lb. of quassia wood, instead of the gentian and orange peel. Both the above are stomachic and tonic, and are favourite remedies in loss of appetite, dyspepsia, &c.——Dose. As the last, on sugar, or in a wine-glassful of wine or beer.

=Essence of Chiret′ta.= See INFUSION (Concentrated).

=Essence of Cin′namon.= Syn. ESSENTIA CINNAMOMI, SPIRITUS C. CONCENTRATUS, L. Prep. 1. From oil of cinnamon, as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE or ALMONDS.

2. Cinnamon, 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 3/4 pint; water, 1/4 pint; digest a week, and strain. Inferior to the last. Essence of cassia is commonly sold for it.

=Essence of Civ′et.= Syn. ESSENTIA ZIBETHI, L. Prep. 1. Civet (cut small), 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; as ESSENCE OF MUSK.

2. Instead of rectified spirit use spirit of ambrette. Both are used in perfumery; chiefly in combination with other substances.

=Essence of Cloves.= Syn. ESSENTIA CARYOPHILLI, L. Prep. 1. (White.) From oil of cloves, as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE. Used as a ‘flavouring.’

2. (Coloured.) Cloves (bruised), 3-1/2 oz. proof spirit, 3/4 pint; water, 1/4 pint; digest a week, and strain. Inferior to the last. It is 8 times as strong as INFUSION OF CLOVES (Ph. L.). Chiefly used in dispensing.

=Essence of Cof′fee.= See COFFEE.

=Essence of Co′gnac.= (kōne′-yăk). Syn. BRANDY ESSENCE. Prep. From brandy oil, 2 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 18 fl. oz. For flavouring malt spirit to imitate brandy. See OIL.

=Essence of Cologne.= Syn. CONCENTRATED EAU DE COLOGNE; ESSENTIA COLONIENSIS, AQUA C. CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1. By taking 8 times the quantity of the ingredients ordered for COLOGNE WATER, and using the strongest rectified spirit.

2. Oils of lemon and cedrat, of each, 2 dr.; oil of rosemary, 1 dr.; oil of bergamotte, 1 oz.; spirit of neroli, 2 fl. oz.; purest rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz. Used as a condensed perfume.

=Essence of Colts′foot.= Prep. 1. (Ryan.) Balsam of tolu, 1 oz.; rectified spirit and compound tincture of benzoin, of each 3 oz.; dissolve, and in a few days decant the clear portion.

2. (Paris.) Equal parts of balsam of tolu and compound tincture of benzoin, with double the quantity of rectified spirit.

3. Tincture of tolu, 5 fl. oz.; compound tincture of benzoin, 3 fl. oz.; powdered sugar (quite dry), 1 oz.; hay saffron, 1 dr.; digest a week, with frequent agitation.

Obs. Pectoral and stimulant. A quack remedy for consumption and most other diseases of the lungs, but unless assisted by occasional aperients, and in the absence of fever, it is more likely to kill than cure in these complaints. The last is the best formula.

=Essence of Cu′bebs.= Syn. CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF CUBEBS; ESSENTIA CUBEBÆ, E. C. CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1. Cubebs (bruised, or preferably ground in a pepper mill), 1/2 lb.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest 14 days, press, and filter.

2. (Wholesale.) Cubebs, 4-1/4 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall. This essence has a very large sale, and if carefully prepared from a good sample of the drug, is a most excellent preparation. Every fl. oz. represents 2-1/2 dr. of cubebs.——Dose, 1 to 3 dr.

=Essence of Cubebs (Oleo-resinous).= Prep. (Dublanc.) Oleo-resinous extract of cubebs, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 3 oz.; dissolve. A very active and concentrated form of administering cubebs, which must not be confounded with the preceding preparation, which is the one always meant when ‘Essence of Cubebs’ is ordered.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.

=Essence of Dill.= Syn. DILL DROPS; ESSENTIA ANETHI, L. Prep. 1. From oil of dill, as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE.

2. Oil of dill, extract of dill, and salt of tartar, of each 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest, and strain. Both the above are aromatic and anti-flatulent. The first is commonly used as an adjunct to other medicines, especially to purgatives for children. The second is a popular tonic and stomachic in the flatulent colic, dyspepsia, &c., of women and children.——Dose. A few drops, on sugar.

=Essence of Er′got.= See LIQUOR or ERGOT OF RYE.

=Essence of Ergot (Ethereal).= Syn. ESSENTIA ERGOTÆ ETHEREA, E. SECALIS CORNUTI E., L. Prep. 1. (Mr Lever.) Ergot (powdered), 2 oz.; rectified sulphuric ether, 2 fl. oz.; digest a week, express the tincture, filter, and abandon the liquid to spontaneous evaporation; lastly, dissolve the residuum in ether, 1 fl. oz. This is an expensive and troublesome formula. The following modification of it is both simpler and less expensive.

2. Ergot (ground), 8 oz.; ether, 16 fl. oz.; prepare a tincture as before, and by a gentle heat distil off the ether in a retort connected with a well-cooled refrigerator, until 15 fl. oz. shall have passed over; continue the evaporation at a reduced heat until the remainder of the ether has passed off; lastly, dissolve the residuum, as soon as cold, in ether, 4 fl. oz.

Obs. Each fl. oz. represents 2 oz. of ergot.——Dose, 10 to 30 drops as a parturifacient, taken on sugar; 3 to 5 drops as a hæmostatic and emmenagogue, in hæmorrhages, floodings, &c. It possesses all the acrid, narcotic principle of the ergot, but less of the hæmostatic principle than the ordinary essence, whilst it is much more costly.

=Essence of Fen′nel.= Syn. ESSENCE OF SWEET FENNEL; ESSENTIA FŒNICULI, L. Prep. From oil of fennel (Fœniculum dulce), as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE.

=Essence of Gen′tian.= See INFUSION OF GENTIAN (Concentrated).

=Essence of Gin′ger.= Syn. CONCENTRATED TINCTURE OF GINGER, ESSENTIA ZINGIBERIS, TINCTURA Z. CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1. Unbleached Jamaica ginger (bruised), 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest a fortnight, press, and filter.

2. (Oxley’s ‘CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF JAMAICA GINGER,’ The same as the preceding, with the addition of a very small quantity of essence of cayenne. The above possess only about 4 times the strength of tincture of ginger (Ph. L.); and though vended in the shops as essence of ginger, scarcely deserves the name.

3. As No. 1 (next article, below), but using double the quantity of spirit. Very fine.

4. (Kitchener’s.) Ginger (grated), 3 oz.; yellow peel of lemon (fresh), 2 oz.; brandy, 1-1/2 pint; digest 10 days. For culinary purposes, &c. See below.

=Essence of Ginger (Concentrated).= Syn. ESSENTIA ZINGIBERIS CONCENTRATA. Prep. 1. Jamaica ginger (best unbleached, in coarse powder) and siliceous sand, equal parts, are sprinkled with rectified spirit of wine, q. s. to perfectly moisten them, and after 24 hours the mass is placed in a ‘percolator,’ and after returning the first runnings 2 or 3 times, the receiver is changed, and more rectified spirit poured on gradually, and at intervals, as required, until as much essence is obtained as there has been ginger employed.

Obs. The quality of the product of the above formula is excellent, but the process is somewhat difficult to manage. The mass remaining in the percolator is treated with fresh spirit until exhausted, and the tincture so obtained is employed, instead of spirit, for making more essence with fresh ginger. The last portion of spirit in the waste mass may be obtained by adding a little water. Coarsely powdered charcoal is frequently used instead of sand, in which case the product has less colour; at the same time, however, a little of the flavour is lost.

2. (Wholesale.)——a. Best unbleached Jamaica ginger (as last), 12 lbs.; rectified spirit, 2-1/2 galls., are digested together for 14 days, and the expressed and strained tincture reduced by distillation, in a steam or water bath, to exactly 1 gall.; it is next cooled, and transferred as quickly as possible into stoppered bottles, and the next day filtered.

Obs. The product of the last formula is a most beautiful article, of immense strength, and the richest flavour. The assertion made by a recent writer on pharmacy, that ‘the product is very strong, but has lost some of the flavour of the ginger,’ is evidently made in ignorance of the preparation. “We were the first to introduce and publish this formula, and have employed it for years on the most extensive scale, and can conscientiously assert that, for inexpensiveness, and the quality of the essence produced by it, it is unequalled by any other. The process, though apparently complicated is, in reality, easily performed. The spirit distilled over contains none of the fragrant or aromatic principles of the ginger; on the contrary, the little flavour it has received (apparently from a species of ethereal oil) is rather disagreeable than otherwise, and is better got rid of than retained in the essence. The spirit is used with advantage for preparing the common tincture of ginger, and several other articles. The cause of failure when this process is adopted is careless or awkward manipulation. When possible, hydraulic pressure should be employed to express the tincture, 2 oz. of this essence are regarded as equivalent to 3 oz. of the finest ginger, being fully twenty times as strong as the ‘TINCTURE OF GINGER’ (Ph. L.). A single drop, swallowed, will almost produce suffocation.” Cooley.

b. From ginger (as last), 24 lbs.; rectified spirit, 6 gall.; make a tincture, as before, and reduce it by distillation to 1 gall.; then cool as quickly as possible out of contact with the air and add, of the strongest rectified spirit of wine, 1 gall.; lastly, filter, if required. Quality resembles No. 2, a (nearly). “We are in the habit of applying the method developed in the last two formulæ to the preparation of the essences of several other substances, the active principles of which are not volatile at a low temperature.” Cooley.

=Essence of Grape.= Prep. From grape oil, as ESSENCE OF ALMONDS. It is used to flavour brandy and wines. See OIL (Volatile).

=Essence of Guaiac′um.= Syn. FLUID EXTRACT OF GUAIACUM; ESSENTIA GUAIACI, EXTRACTUM GUAIACI FLUIDUM, L. Prep. Recent guaiacum shavings, from which the dust has been sifted, 3 cwt., are exhausted by coction in water, as in the preparation of an extract, using as little of that fluid as is absolutely necessary; the decoction is evaporated to exactly 1-3/4 gall.; it is next stirred until cold, to prevent the deposit of resinous matter, when it is put into a bottle, and spirit of wine, 5 pints, is added; the whole is then repeatedly agitated for a week, after which it is allowed to settle for 7 or 8 days, and the clear portion is decanted into another bottle.

Obs. This preparation is frequently substituted for guaiacum shavings in the preparation of compound decoction of sarsaparilla. 1 pint of this essence is considered equivalent to 19 lbs. of guaiacum in substance. See DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA (Comp.).

=Essence for the Handkerchief.= See ESSENTIA ODORATA, &c.

=Essence for the Headache.= Syn. CEPHALIC ESSENCE, EMBROCATION OF AMMONIA, DR HAWKINS’ EMBROCATION, WARD’S E., WARD’S ESSENCE FOR THE HEADACHE; EMBROCATIO AMMONIÆ, LINIMENTUM A., ESSENTIA CEPHALICA, L. Prep. 1. Oil of lavender (Mitcham), 1 dr.; camphor, 1 oz.; liquor of ammonia, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; dissolve. Very fragrant and powerful.

2. (Beasley.) Spirit of camphor, 2 lbs.; strong water of ammonia, 4 oz.; essence of lemon, 1/2 oz.

3. (Redwood.) Camphor and liquor of ammonia, of each 2 oz.; oil of lavender, 4 dr.; rectified spirit, 14 oz. Very fragrant. Stimulant and rubefacient. Used as a counter-irritant lotion in local pains, as headache, earache, colic, &c. Compound camphor liniment is usually sold for it. See LINIMENT.

=Essence of Henbane.= Syn. ESSENTIA HYOSCAMI, L. See ESSENCE (Anodyne), No. 2.

=Essence of Hop.= Syn. ESSENTIA LUPULI, E. HUMULI, TINCTURA LUPULI CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1. New hops (rubbed small), 26-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest 24 hours, then distil over (quickly) 1 pint, and set the distillate (spiritus lupuli) aside in a corked bottle; to the residuum add water, 1 pint; boil 15 minutes, cool, express the liquor, strain, and evaporate it as quickly as possible to dryness by the heat of a water bath, powder the residuum, and add it to the distilled spirit; digest a week, and filter.

2. Lupulinic grains (yellow powder or lupulin of the strobiles), 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest 10 days; express, and filter. Both the above are powerfully bitter, and loaded with the aroma of the hop. They are fully 8 times as strong as the ‘TINCTURA LUPULI’ of the Ph. L. A few drops added to a glassful of ale or beer render it agreeably bitter and stomachic.

3. (BREWER’S E. OF HOPS.) Several noxious preparations under the name of extract of hops are sold by the brewer’s druggist. They are mostly semi-fluid extracts of quassia, gentian, and like powerful bitters. Of three of these articles which we have examined, one (for PALE ALE) consisted of the mixed extracts of quassia and chamomile; another was a preparation of picric acid; whilst a third (‘strongly recommended for PORTER’) consisted of about equal parts of the extracts of bitter aloes, cocculus indicus, and wormwood. A few years ago one of these vile compounds was publicly advertised, and ‘warranted’ as being equal to 100 times its weight in hops (1 oz. to 5-1/2 lbs.).

=Essence of Jargonelle’ Pear.= Syn. PEAR ESSENCE, ESPRIT DE JARGONELLE, &c. Prep. From pear oil (acetate of oxide of amyl), as ESSENCE OF ALMONDS. This is now largely employed to flavour confectionery and liqueurs. See AMYL and OIL (Volatile).

=Essence of Jas′mine.= See SPIRIT and OIL (Volatile).

=Essence of Jes′samine.= See SPIRIT and OIL.

=Essence of Jon′quil.= See SPIRIT and OIL.

=Essence of Lav′ender.= Syn. ESSENTIA LAVANDULÆ (ODORATA), L. Prep. 1. Oil of lavender (Mitcham), 2 oz.; rectified spirit (strongest), 1 pint.

2. As the strongest Eau de lavende. See SPIRIT.

=Essence of Lavender (Red).= See SPIRIT and TINCTURE.

=Essence of Lem′on.= Syn. ESSENTIA LIMONIS, L. Prep. 1. See OIL (Volatile).

2. (W. Procter.) Fresh oil of lemons, 1 fl. oz.; deodorised alcohol (strongest flavourless rectified), 8 fl. oz.; exterior yellow rind of lemons (fresh), 1/2 oz.; digest 48 hours, and filter. Used for flavouring mixtures, pastry, &c.

3. From oil of lemons, as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE. Used as the last.

=Essence of Lemon Peel.= Syn. ESSENCE OF LEMON RIND, QUINTESCENCE OF L. P.; ESSENTIA CORTICIS LIMONIS, L. Prep. 1. Yellow peel of fresh lemons, 1/2 lb.; spirit of wine, 1 pint; digest for a week, press, and filter. Very fragrant.

2. Yellow peel of fresh lemons, 1 lb.; boiling water, 1/2 gall.; infuse 1 hour, express the liquor, boil down to 1/2 pint, cool, and add oil of lemon, 1/4 oz., dissolved in spirit of wine, 1-1/2 pint; mix, and filter. Used as the preceding.

=Essence of Lov′age.= Syn. ESSENTIA LEVISTICI, L. Prep. (Ph. Wurt.) Lovage root (levisticum officinale), 2 oz.; lovage seeds, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 10 oz.; digest a week, and filter. Aromatic, stomachic, and diaphoretic.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.; in dyspepsia, dropsies, &c.

=Essence, Madden’s.= Concentrated infusion of roses.

=Essence of Malt.= See COLOURING.

=Essence of Mint.= Syn. ESSENCE OF SPEARMINT; ESSENTIA MENTHÆ, E. M. SPICATÆ, E. M. VIRIDIS, L. Prep. As ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT.

=Essence of Moss-Rose= (from the ‘Chemist and Druggist’). Otto of rose, 1-1/2 dr.; essence of ambergris, 2-1/2 oz.; essence of musk, 1 oz.; alcohol, 15 oz.; concentrated rose water, 10 oz. Mix, and shake frequently for a week.

=Essence of Musk.= Syn. ESSENTIA MOSCHI, TINCTURA M. CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1. Grain musk, 2 oz., and boiling water, 1 pint, are digested together in a close vessel until cold, when rectified spirit of wine, 7 pints, is added; the vessel (preferably a tin bottle) being corked close, and tied over with bladder, the whole is digested, with frequent agitation, for 2 months, in the sunshine (in summer), or in an equally warm situation in winter. At the end of the time the essence is decanted and filtered.

2. Grain musk, 1/4 oz.; rectified spirit of wine, 2 pints; essence of ambergris, 1 fl. oz.; digest as before.

3. Musk (from the bladder, rubbed very small), 5 oz.; civet, 1 oz.; essence of ambergris, 1 pint; spirit of ambrette, 1 gall.; as before.

Obs. All the preceding formulæ yield superior essences, but the product of the last is of the very finest quality, and such as is seldom sold, except by the most celebrated houses, when it fetches a very high price. It is powerfully and deliciously odorous, and has received the approval of royalty itself, both in these kingdoms and on the Continent. The second formula also produces a very fine article, but less choice than just referred to. The digestion should be long continued, and on no account less than 3 weeks, as otherwise much fragrant matter is left undissolved. The addition of 1 fl. dr. of either liquor of ammonia or liquor of potassia (the first is best) to each pint of the essence, vastly increases its fragrance. The essence of musk of the wholesale London druggists is generally made by merely digesting the freshly emptied musk pods in rectified spirit. Sometimes a little (a very little) grain musk is added. See ESSENCE ROYALE and ESSENCE OF AMBERGRIS.

4. (Guibourt.) Musk, 1 part; proof spirit, 12 parts; digest a fortnight, or longer. Used in dispensing, &c.

=Essence of Musk Seed.= See ESSENCE D’AMBRETTE.

=Essence of Mus′tard.= Syn. ESSENTIA SINAPIS, L. Prep. (Whitehead’s.) Black mustard seed (bruised), and camphor, of each 2 oz.; oil of rosemary, 3 dr.; balsam of tolu, 1 dr.; annatto, 1/2 dr.; digest a week, and filter.

=Essence of Myr′tle.= Syn. ESSENCE OF MYRTLE BLOSSOMS; ESSENCE DE MYRTE, ESPRIT DE M., Fr. Prep. Myrtle tops (in blossom), 2-1/2 lbs.; proof spirit, 9 pints; digest 3 days, then distil 1 gall. A pleasant perfume. See OIL (Volatile).

=Essence of Nero′li.= Syn. ESSENCE DE FLEURS D’ORANGES, ESPRIT DE F. D’O., Fr. Prep. 1. Neroli, 3 dr.; rectified spirit of wine, 1 pint; mix. A delicious perfume.

2. Oil of orange, 2 dr.; orris root (bruised), 1/2 oz.; ambergris, 10 gr.; neroli, 35 drops; spirits of wine, 1 pint; digest 14 days, and filter. Very fragrant, but less ‘chaste’ than the last.

=Essence of Nut′meg.= Syn. ESSENTIA MYRISTICÆ, E. M. MOSCHATÆ, E. NUCIS M., L. Prep. From essential oil of nutmeg, as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE. Used as a flavouring or zest by cooks, liqueuristes, and confectioners.

=Essence, Odontal′gic.= See ESSENCE, TOOTHACHE.

=Essence d’Œillets.= [Fr.] Prep. From cinnamon, 3 oz.; cloves, 1-1/4 oz. (both well bruised); rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest for a week. Oil of cloves and spirit of cloves also bear this name in some places.

=Essence of O′pium.= See ESSENCE ANODYNE, No. 1. BLACK DROP and ROUSSEAU’S LAUDANUM have also been sometimes so called.

=Essence of O′range.= Syn. ESSENTIA AURANTII, L. Prep. As ESSENCE OF LEMON.

=Essence of Orange Peel.= Syn. ESSENTIA CORTICIS AURANTII, L. Prep. 1. (Golden.) Fresh yellow rind of orange, 4 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each 1/2 pint; digest for a week, press, filter, and add of sherry wine, 1 quart. A pleasant liqueur.

2. (Saccharated.) See OLEO-SACCHARUM.

=Essence d’Orient.= [Fr.] A pearly-looking substance, found at the base of the scales of the blay or bleak, a small fish of the genus cyprinus.

Prep. The scales are scraped from the fish into a tub containing water, and after agitation and repose the fluid is poured off, and its place supplied with fresh water, and this in its turn, after agitation and repose, is also poured off. This part of the operation is repeated till the ‘essence’ and scales are perfectly freed from impurities, when the whole is thrown on a sieve, which retains the latter, but allows the former to flow through. After repose for a short time, the essence is obtained as a deposit at the bottom of the vessel.

Obs. Essence d’Orient has a bluish-white and pearly aspect, and is employed to cover the interior of glass bubbles and beads, in imitation of pearls and mother-of-pearl. Its tendency to putrefaction, while in the moist state, may be obviated by the addition of a little liquor of ammonia.

=Essence of Patch′ouli.= Syn. ESSENCE DE PATCHOULIE, ESPRIT DE POUCHÂ PÂT [Fr.]. Prep. 1. Indian patchouli (leaves or foliaceous tops), 2-1/2 lb.; rectified spirit, 9 pints; digest for a week; add of water, 1 gall.; oil of lavender (Mitcham), 3 dr.; common salt, 2 lbs.; agitate well together, distil over (rapidly) 1 gallon, and add of essence of musk, 3-1/2 fl. dr. A very fashionable perfume. Essence of patchouli, thus prepared, has been largely used, both at court and by the nobility generally.

2. Patchouli, 3 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest a week, press, and filter. A still commoner kind is made with proof spirit.

=Essence of Pear.= Syn. ESSENCE OF JARGONELLE.

=Essence of Pen′nyroyal.= See ESSENTIA PULEGII, E. MENTHÆ P., L. Prep. From pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium), as ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT. Stimulant, carminative, and emmenagogue. Used in dispensing, especially to make extemporaneous pennyroyal water.

=Essence of Pep′permint.= Syn. ESSENTIA MENTHÆ PIPERITÆ (B. P.) L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Oil of peppermint, 1 part; rectified spirit, 4 parts. Mix.——Dose, 10 to 20 minims.

2. To the last add of herb peppermint, parsley leaves, or spinach leaves (preferably one of the first two), 1/2 oz., and digest for a week, or until sufficiently coloured. Sap green (10 or 12 gr., rubbed up with a teaspoonful of hot water) is also used for the same purpose. A delicate light green.

3. (Ph. U. S.) Oil of peppermint, 2 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.

Obs. Essence of peppermint is not conceived to be good by the ignorant unless it has a pale-greenish tint, which they take as a proof of its being genuine. The most harmless way of tinging it is that indicated above. A little green mint or parsley will, indeed, be found to improve the flavour. These additions are quite harmless. The practice of using cupreous salts, adopted by some lazy and unprincipled makers, is unpardonable, and admits of no excuse, even a lame one, as not the least advantage, either of convenience, cost, or appearance, results from such a practice, while the colouring matter, though small in quantity, is nevertheless sufficient to impart a noxious quality to the liquid. This fraud may be detected by the addition of liquor of ammonia in excess, which will strike a bluish or greenish-blue colour when copper is present.

Essence of peppermint (like that of most of the other aromatic oils) is cordial, stimulant, and stomachic. A few drops (10 to 30) on sugar, or mixed with a little water or wine, is an excellent remedy in flatulence, colic, nausea, sickness, &c. It is also extensively used as a flavouring ingredient by cooks, confectioners, and druggists. A few drops, well agitated with half a pint of cold water, form an excellent extemporaneous peppermint water.

The formulæ 1 and 2, generally the latter, are those employed by the respectable portion of the London trade. The various published receipts for this and similar essences, ordering the essential oil in a larger proportion than that directed above, are never adopted in practice, and their products (often impossible combinations) exist only in the imaginations of the writers.

=Essence of Pimen′to.= See ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE.

=Essence of Pine-apple.= From pine-apple oil (butyric ether, butyrate of ethyl), as ESSENCE OF ALMONDS. It forms a delicious flavouring for liqueurs, confectionery, rum, &c. See ETHER and OIL (Volatile).

=Essence of Quas′sia.= Syn. ESSENTIA QUASSIÆ, L. Prep. 1. From quassia (sliced), 1-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; digest 10 days, and filter; 1/2 fl. dr. added to 7-1/2 fl. dr. of water, forms the infusion of quassia, of the Ph. L.——Dose, 1/2 dr. in water or wine, an hour before a meal, as a stomachic tonic, in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, &c., particularly when complicated with gout; 1 to 2 dr., three or four times daily, as a febrifuge, and antiseptic, in intermittents, putrid fevers, &c.

2. (Brewer’s).——a. From powdered quassia (sprinkled with a little rum) and “foots” (coarse moist sugar or sugar bottoms), equal parts, reduced to the consistence of a semi-fluid extract by the addition of a few spoonfuls of water. For ale.

b. From powdered quassia, 1 part; burnt sugar colouring, 2 parts; well stirred together. For porter and stout. Both are used by fraudulent brewers as substitutes for hops.

=Essence of Quin′ine.= Syn. ESSENTIA QUINÆ, L. Prep. From disulphate of quinine, 1-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1/2 pint; digest with warmth, gradually dropping in a little dilute sulphuric acid (avoiding excess), and employing constant agitation until the whole is dissolved. 1 fl. dr., added to 7 dr. of proof spirit, forms the ‘TINCTURE OF QUININE’ (Ph. L.). Every fl. dr. contains 8 gr. of disulphate of quinine, or about 10 gr. of the neutral sulphate. If more sulphuric acid is added than is sufficient to dissolve the salt (i. e. convert it into a neutral sulphate), the solution is apt to deposit part of it on keeping, owing to the gradual formation of ether, by the action of the excess of acid on the alcohol.

=Essence of Rat′afia.= The same as Essence of Almonds. So called from being used to flavour ratafias, noyeau, and other liqueurs.

=Essence of Rhu′barb.= Syn. ESSENTIA RHEI, L. Prep. From rhubarb (in powder) and siliceous sand, of each 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; by the method of displacement. Every fl. oz. represents the active virtues of 2 dr. of rhubarb.

=Essence of Rondele′tia.= Prep. 1. Essence (oil) of bergamotte, essence (oil) of lemon, and oil of cloves, of each 1 dr.; otto of roses, 10 drops; rectified spirit, 1 pint.

2. To the last add, of oil of lavender, 1 dr.; neroli, 15 drops. A very fashionable and agreeable perfume.

=Essence of Rose′mary.= Syn. ESSENTIA ROSEMARINI, L. Prep. From oil of rosemary, as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE. Used as a perfume; also to make extemporaneous rosemary water.

=Essence of Ro′ses.= Syn. ESSENTIA ROSÆ (ODORATA), L. Prep. 1. Attar of roses (genuine), 2 dr.; alcohol, 1 pint; agitate frequently until they unite.

2. Attar of roses, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; mix in a close vessel, and assist the solution by placing it in a bath of hot water. (See ESSENCE OF MUSK.) As soon as the spirit gets warm, take it from the water and shake it till quite cold; the next day filter.——Obs. Unless the spirit of wine is of more than the common strength, it will not retain the whole of the otto in solution in very cold weather.

3. To each pint of either of the preceding, add, of oil of bergamotte, 30 drops; neroli and essence of musk, of each 20 drops.

4. Petals of roses, 3 lbs., digest in spirit of wine, 5 quarts, for 24 hours; distil to dryness in a water bath; digest the distilled spirit on 2 lbs. of fresh rose petals, as before, and repeat the whole process of maceration and distillation, a third, fourth, fifth, and sixth time, or oftener, the last time only drawing over 1 gall., which is the essence. Each of the above is very superior. The last has a peculiar delicacy of flavour, when the spirit used to make it is pure.

=Essence of Roses (Red).= Syn. ESSENTIA ROSÆ (RUBRA), TINCTURA E. CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. From rose leaves, 1 lb.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; digest for 14 days, press, strain, add concentrated acetic acid, 2-1/2 fl. dr.; mix well, and the next day filter. Used to make extemporaneous SYRUP and HONEY OF ROSES, &c. Smells, colours, and tastes strongly of the flower. CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF ROSES is sold under the same name.

=Essence Royale.= [Fr.] Prep. 1. (Soubeiran.) Ambergris, 40 gr.; musk, 20 gr.; civet and carbonate of potassa, of each 10 gr.; oil of cinnamon, 6 drops; oil of rhodium and otto of roses, of each 4 drops; rectified spirit of wine, 4 fl. oz. (say 1/4 pint); macerate for 10 days or longer. Antispasmodic and aphrodisiac. A few drops on sugar, or in syrup of capillaire.

2. See ESSENCE OF AMBERGRIS.

=Essence of Sarsaparil′la.= Syn. CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF SARSAPARILLA; ESSENTIA SARSÆ; E. SARSAPARILLÆ; L. Prep. 1. Sarsaparilla root (best red Jamaica), 2-3/4 lbs., is carefully decorticated, the bark reduced to coarse powder, and digested for a week or 10 days in sherry, 3/4 pint, and rectified spirit, 1/4 pint, with frequent agitation; after which the essence is expressed, and in a week the clear portion is decanted from the sediment. A very elegant preparation. 1/2 fl. dr. added to 7 fl. dr. of water forms 1 fl. oz. of a solution of equal strength to decoction of sarsaparilla of the Ph. L. Every fl. oz. represents the active principles of 2 oz. (= 2 oz. 85 gr. avoir.) of sarsaparilla root. In other words, it is twice as strong as the root, and 16 times as strong as the decoction.

2. Alcoholic extract of sarsaparilla, 7 oz.; sherry, 3/4 pint; rectified spirit, 1/4 pint; dissolve and filter. Strength as the last.

3. (Beral.) Alcohol extract, 4 oz.; sherry wine, 1 pint; dissolve and filter. About 3 fl. dr., added to water, 1 pint, form an extemporaneous decoction.

4. (Guibourt.) Alcoholic extract, 4 oz.; white wine, 1 lb. Strength the same as Nos. 1 and 2 (nearly).

5. (Hening.) Sarsaparilla (bruised), 10 oz.; distilled water, 6 pints; macerate at a temperature of 120° Fahr. for six hours and strain; repeat with the same quantity of fresh water; mix the liquors, and evaporate in china vessels at 160° Fahr. If reduced to 10 fl. oz. (or to 9 fl. oz., with 1 fl. oz. of rectified spirit added), 1 fl. dr., mixed with 7 fl. dr. of water, will be equal to the decoction of the usual strength. If reduced to 5 fl. oz. 1 fl. dr. will be equal to 2 fl. oz. of the decoction.

6. The bark separated from sarsaparilla root, 2-3/4 lbs., is exhausted with water as last; the liquid is evaporated as quickly as possible, in a water bath, to 16 fl. oz., and when cold, mixed with rectified spirit, 4 fl. oz. Strength same as No. 1.

7. The infusion in No. 6 is evaporated to 10-1/2 fl. oz., and when cold mixed with sherry, 1/2 pint; in a week the clear portion is decanted from the sediment. Strength same as No. 1.

Obs. The formulæ Nos. 1, 2, 6, and 7 have each in turn been extensively employed by us in the laboratory with the most satisfactory results. See LIQUOR OF SARSAPARILLA.

=Essence of Sarsaparilla (Compound).= Syn. ESSENTIA SARSAPARILLÆ COMPOSITA, E. SARSÆ C., L. Prep. 1. One pint of No. 1, 2, 6, or 7 (above), is triturated with the extract prepared from mezereon bark, 3-1/4 oz., and extract of liquorice, 4 oz.; when mixed it is returned to the bottle, and essence of guaiacum, 1-1/2 fl. dr., and oil of sassafras, 20 drops, are added, the whole is then well agitated for at least 15 minutes, and after a week’s repose the clear portion is decanted as before. 1/2 fl. dr., with 7-1/2 fl. dr. of water, forms extemporaneous compound decoction of sarsaparilla.

2. (Cadet.) Sarsaparilla (bruised), 8 oz.; hot water, q. s.; exhaust the root by successive macerations; unite the liquors, and evaporate to 10 fl. oz.; strain, and add, when cold, of alcohol (·842) and tinctures of guaiacum and mezereon, of each 4 fl. dr.; white wine, 1 fl. oz.; oil of sassafras, 12 drops; extract of liquorice, 2 dr.; agitate, and after repose decant as before. This is nearly 8 times as strong as ‘DEC. SARSÆ CO.’——Ph. L. The first is the best formula. See LIQUOR OF SARSAPARILLA (Compound).

=Essence of Sa′′vory Spices.= Prep. 1. Black pepper, 4 oz.; powdered turmeric, 3 dr.; coriander seeds, 1-1/2 dr. (all ground and genuine); oil of pimento, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; oils of nutmeg, cloves, cassia and caraway, of each 1/2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest, with agitation, for a fortnight. Very fine.

2. Black pepper, 3 oz.; allspice, 1-1/4 oz.; nutmegs and burnt sugar, of each 1/2 oz.; cloves, cassia, coriander, and caraway seeds, of each 1 dr. (all bruised or ground); rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest with agitation, as before, for 14 days, press, and filter. Used as a flavouring. When made with proof spirit or brandy, and only 1/2 the above weight of spice, it is called ‘TINCTURE OF SAVORY SPICES,’

=Essence of Sen′na.= See LIQUOR and INFUSION (Concentrated).

=Essence of Smoke.= See ESSENCE, WESTPHALIAN.

=Essence of Soap.= Syn. SPIRIT OF SOAP, SHAVING FLUID; ESPRIT DE SAVON, ESSENCE DE SAVON, ESSENCE ROYALE POUR FAIRE LA BARBE, Fr.; ESSENTIA SAPONIS, TINCTURA SAPONIS CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1. Castile soap (in shavings), 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; dissolve, and add a little perfume.

2. Venetian soap, 3/4 lb.; salt of tartar, 1 oz.; benzoin, 1/2 oz.; spirit of wine, 1 gall.

3. Best soft soap, 1/4 lb.; boiling water, 1 pint; dissolve, cool, and add, oils of cinnamon (cassia), verbena, and neroli, of each 6 drops; dissolved in rectified spirit, 1 pint; mix well, and if not perfectly transparent, add a little more strong spirit, or filter through blotting paper.

Obs. This alcoholic solution of soap is chiefly used for shaving, and is very convenient in travelling, as a good lather may be instantly produced without the trouble of employing a soap-box. Instead of the above perfumes, 15 drops of essence of musk or ambergris, or 30 drops of any of the perfumed spirits, or 3 drops of attar of roses, or 6 drops of any of the aromatic essential oils, may be added, when a corresponding name is given to the preparation, as esprit de savon, de la rose, &c.

4. (P. Cod.) White soap, 3 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 12 oz.; dissolve. Used medicinally. They are all used as frictions, &c.

5. (CAMPHORATED,——Guibourt.) White soap, 3 parts; camphor, 1 part; spirit of rosemary, 16 parts; dissolve. A variety of opodeldoc. Used as an embrocation in rheumatic pains, sore throat, &c.

=Essence of Soup Herbs.= Syn. SPIRIT OF SOUP HERBS, CONC. TINCTURE OF S. H., &c. Prep. (Kitchener’s.) Lemon thyme, winter savory, sweet marjoram, and sweet bazil, of each 1 oz.; lemon peel (grated), and eschalots, of each 1/2 oz.; bruised celery seed, 1/4 oz.; proof spirit or brandy, 1 pint; digest for 10 days or a fortnight. A superior flavouring essence for soups, gravies, &c. See ESSENCE OF SAVOURY SPICES.

=Essence of Spear′mint.= See ESSENCE OF MINT.

=Essence of Sprats.= Syn. ESSENCE OF BRITISH ANCHOVIES. From pickled sprats (British anchovies), as ESSENCE OF ANCHOVIES, for which it is commonly sold.

=Essence of Spruce.= Syn. FLUID EXTRACT OF SPRUCE; ESSENTIA ABIETIS, EXTRACTUM A. FLUIDUM, L. Prep. A decoction of the young tops of the black spruce-fir Abies nigra, evaporated to the consistence of a thick syrup. Used to make spruce beer, &c.

=Essence, Toothache.= Syn. ESSENTIA ODONTALGIA, L. Prep. 1. Acetate of morphia, 1/2 dr.; tincture of pellitory of Spain (made with rectified spirit), 2 fl. oz.; acetic acid (glacial), 4 fl. dr.; dissolve, and add of oil of cloves, 6 fl. dr.

2. (Redwood.) Pellitory, 1/2 lb.; extract of belladonna, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest 14 days, strain, and add, of hyponitrous ether, 1 oz.; oil of wine, 1/2 oz.; oil of cloves, 2 dr. See DROPS (Odontalgic).

=Essence of Tu′′berose.= Prep. The flowers are stratified with sheep’s or cotton wool, impregnated with the purest oil of ben or of olives, in an earthen vessel, closely covered, and kept for 12 hours in a water bath; the flowers are then removed, and fresh ones substituted, and this is repeated until the oil (HUILE AU TUBEROSE) is sufficiently scented. The wool or cotton is then mixed with the purest spirit of wine, and distilled in a water bath; or it is first digested in a warm situation, and in a well-closed vessel, for several days, during the whole of which time frequent agitation is had recourse to. A similar plan is followed for the preparation of essences of jasmine, violets, and other like flowers. See SPIRIT.

=Essence of Turtle.= Syn. ESSENCE OF GREEN TURTLE. Prep. From essence of anchovies and shallot wine, of each 3 oz.; basil wine, 1/2 pint; mushroom ketchup, 1/4 pint; the juice of 2 lemons; the yellow peel of 1 lemon; curry powder, 1/4 oz.; digest for a week. Used to impart the flavour of turtle to soups and gravies.

=Essence of Tyre.= See HAIR DYE.

=Essence of Vanil′la.= Syn. ESSENTIA VANILLÆ, TINCTURE V. CONCENTRATA, L. Prep. 1. Vanilla (cut small), 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint, digest a fortnight.

2. (Wholesale.) Vanilla, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; proceed as for ESSENCE OF MUSK. Very superior.

3. Vanilla (best), 3/4 lb.; spirit of ambrette, 1 quart; cloves, 30 gr.; grain musk, 7 gr.; as last. Much esteemed. It is chiefly used as a perfume and for flavouring.

=Essence of Verbe′na.= Syn. ESSENCE OF LEMON-GRASS, E. OF CITRONELLE; ESSENTIA VERBENÆ, L. Prep. 1. From oil of lemon-grass or verbena (Andropogon citratum), as ESSENCE OF ALLSPICE.

2. To the last add, of essences of ambergris and bergamotte (oil), of each 1 fl. dr.; neroli, 1/2 fl. dr.

3. To No. 1. add, of oils of lavender and bergamotte, of each 1/2 dr.; essence of vanilla, 2 fl. dr. A powerful and refreshing perfume.

=Essence of Vio′let.= Syn. ESSENTIA VIOLÆ, L.; ESSENCES DES VIOLETTES, Fr. See ESSENCE OF TUBEROSE and SPIRIT.

=Essence of Vittie Vayr.= Syn. ESSENCE OF VETIVER; ESSENCE DE VITTIE VAYR DOUBLE, Fr. Prep. 1. Vittie vayr or cuscus (the root of Andropogon muricatus, cut small and bruised), 3 lbs.; proof spirit, 9 pints; digest a week, add of water, 5 pints, and the next day distil over 1 gall. of essence.

2. To the last, before distillation, add, of otto of roses, 1/2 dr.; eau de melisse (spirit of balm), 1/2 pint; and proceed as before. Used as a perfume. In 1831 it was much employed in Paris as a prophylactic of cholera.

=Essence, Volatile (Acetic).= Syn. PUNGENT ACETIC ESSENCE; ESSENTIA VOLATILIS ACETICA, L. Aromatic vinegar.

=Essence, Volatile (Ammoniacal).= Syn. PUNGENT AMMONIACAL ESSENCE, AROMATIC AMMONIACAL E.; ESSENTIA VOLATILIS, E. V. AMMONIACALIS, E. V. AROMATICA, &c., L. Prep. 1. Oil of cinnamon, 6 drops; otto of roses, 12 drops; oil of cloves, 1 fl. dr.; essence of bergamotte, 2 fl. dr.; oil of lavender (Mitcham), 4 fl. dr.; essence of musk, 5 fl. dr.; liquor of ammonia (strongest), 1 pint; mix in a cold place, and shake the bottle until the whole is combined.

2. Essence of violets and oil of cinnamon, of each 12 drops; neroli, essence of jasmine, and otto of roses, of each 1/2 dr.; oil of lavender, 1 dr.; essence royale and essence (oil) of bergamotte, of each 2-1/2 dr.; liquor of ammonia (strongest), 1 pint; as the last.

3. Oils of lemon and bergamotte, of each 5 fl. dr.; oil of lavender, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; otto of roses, 1 fl. dr.; oils of cassia, neroli, cloves, and cedrat, of each 1/2 fl. dr.; oil of sandal wood, 15 drops; liquor of ammonia (strongest), 1 pint.

4. Essence of bergamotte, 6 fl. dr.; oil of lavender, 4 fl. dr.; oil of cloves, 3 fl. dr.; oil of cassia, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; oil of verbena (lemon-grass), 1 fl. dr.; otto of roses, 30 drops; liquor of ammonia, 18 fl. oz.

5. (Redwood.) Oil of bergamotte, 3 oz.; essence of lemons, 2 oz.; oil of lavender, 6 dr.; essence of jasmine, 4 dr.; oil of sassafras, 3 dr.; oil of neroli, 2 dr.; otto of roses, 1-1/2 dr.; oil of origanum and essence of ambergris, of each 1 dr.; musk, 20 gr.; macerate for a week, and decant the clear portion. It is added to the strongest liquor of ammonia in proportion of 1-1/2 oz. to the pint.

Obs. The above are used to fill smelling-bottles. They are all very fragrant and refreshing.

=Essence, Ward’s.= See ESSENCE HEADACHE.

=Essence of Water-fen′nel.= Syn. ESSENTIA PHELLANDRI AQUATICI, E. FŒNICULIS A., L. Prep. (Cottereau.) Water-fennel seeds (fine-leaved water-hemlock, bruised), 1 oz.; proof spirit, 4 fl. oz.; digest. Narcotic and pectoral.——Dose, 5 to 25 drops, combined with bark; in phthisis, &c.

=Essence, Westphalian.= ESSENCE OF SMOKE, E. OF WOOD-SMOKE, CAMBRIAN ESSENCE, SMOKING FLUID; ESSENTIA FULIGINIS, &c., L. Prep. 1. Crude or empyreumatic pyroligneous acid, 1 pint; sugar colouring, 2 oz.; dissolve, and in a week decant the clear portion.

2. Tar, 3 dr.; sugar colouring, 2 oz.; hot crude pyroligneous acid, 1 pint; agitate constantly for 1 hour, and after repose decant the clear portion.

3. Acetic acid (Ph. L.), 1 pint; creasote, 5 dr.; mix. White.

4. Barbadoes tar, 1/4 oz.; burnt sugar and common salt, of each 1 oz.; strong pickling vinegar, 3/4 pint; port or elder wine, 1/4 pint; digest as before. Inferior to the preceding. Used to impart a smoky flavour to meat, fish, &c., by brushing it over them, or adding a little to the brine in which they are pickled.

=Essence of Worm′wood.= Syn. ESSENTIA AMARA, E. ABSINTHII, L. Prep. 1. Extract of wormwood, 4 oz.; oil of wormwood, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest a week and filter. Tonic, stomachic, and vermifuge.——Dose, 10 drops to a teaspoonful.

2. (Van Mons.) Tincture of wormwood, 1 pint; salt of wormwood, 5 dr.; extract of wormwood, 1 dr.; digest as before.——Dose, 1/2 to 1-1/2 fl. dr.

=Essences, Fla′′vouring.= Syn. CULINARY ESSENCES, SPICE E., ESSENCES FOR THE TABLE, &c. Those used by cooks, confectioners, liqueurists, &c., are all made by either dissolving 1 fl. oz. of the essential oil of the particular substance in 1 pint of rectified spirit, or by digesting 4 to 6 oz. of the bruised spice, or 5 to 10 oz. of the dried herb, in a like quantity (1 pint) of spirit. The first method is preferable, from being the least troublesome, and yielding the finest product. They are commonly labelled ‘CONCENTRATED ESSENCE OF ————.’ An inferior article, vended under the names of ‘ESSENCES OF CULINARY HERBS,’ ‘CULINARY TINCTURES,’ ‘TINCTURES FOR KITCHEN USE,’ &c., are prepared from half the above quantity of oil or spice, infused in a pint of proof spirit or British brandy. The principal compounds of this class are the essences of allspice, caraway, cardamoms, cassia, cayenne, celery seed, cinnamon, cloves, coriander seed, fennel, garlic, ginger, lemon peel, mace, marjoram, nutmegs, orange peel, peppermint, spearmint, sweet basil, and the like. The whole of these are employed to flavour soups, gravies, sweetmeats, pastry, wines, mulled wines, liqueurs, &c.

=Essences, Flower.= Those for which separate formulæ are not given in this work may most of them be made from the essential oil of the flowers and rectified spirit, as the last; or by digesting the flowers (crushed or bruised), 3 to 5 lbs., in proof spirit, 2 galls., for a few days, and then drawing over, by distillation, 1 gall. For the essences of those flowers which are not strongly odorous, the spirit thus obtained is distilled from a like quantity of flowers, a second, and a third time, or even oftener. The essences of other organic substances, whose fragrant principles are volatile, may be prepared in the same manner. A small quantity of some other odorous essence is frequently added to the product, to enrich or modify the fragrance. See FLOWERS and ESSENCES BY INFUSION.

=Essences, Fra′grant.= See FLOWER ESSENCES (above), ESSENTIA ODORATA, PERFUMERY, &c.

=Essences, Fruit.= See ESSENCES OF APPLE, PINE-APPLE, JARGONELLE, &c.

=Essences by Infu′sion.= This term, among perfumers, is commonly applied to those essences, eaux, and esprits, which are prepared by digesting the ingredients in the spirit used as the vehicle for the aroma, in opposition to those obtained by ‘distillation,’ or by ‘contact,’ or ‘pressure.’ Thus, the ESSENCES OF AMBERGRIS, MUSK, and VANILLA, are of this class.

=Essences, Vi′nous.= Syn. ESSENTIA VINOSA, L. These are prepared in a similar way to the wines (VINA) of the pharmacopœia, by using 8 times the usual quantity of ingredients, and the very strongest sherry wine. 1 fl. dr., added to 7 fl. dr. of wine or water (properly the first only), forms an extemporaneous imitation of the officinal VINA MEDICATA. Some of the above are largely used in dispensing, and by travellers. See LIQUOR and WINE.

=ESSENTIA BI′NA.= See COLOURING.

=Essentia, Odora′ta.= Prep. 1. Oil of lavender, 1 dr.; oils of cloves, cassia, and bergamot, of each 1/2 dr.; neroli, 20 drops; essence royale, 2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 1/2 pint; mix.

2. (Redwood.) English oil of lavender, 48 drops; oil of cloves, 32 drops; oil of orange peel, 16 drops; oil of bergamotte and sweet spirit of nitre, of each 8 drops; oil of yellow sandal-wood, neroli, and otto of roses, of each 2 drops; oil of cinnamon, 1 drop; rectified spirit, and essence of ambergris and musk, of each 1 oz.; honey water, 8 oz.; mix. Used as a perfume for the handkerchief, &c. The last form seems unnecessarily complicated and minute.

=Essentia Odorif′era.= Prep. 1. Grain musk and balsam of Peru, of each 10 gr.; civet, 4 gr.; oil of cloves, 5 drops; oil of rhodium, 3 drops; salt of tartar (dried by a dull-red heat and cooled), 1/2 dr.; rectified spirit (strongest), 2-1/2 fl. oz.; macerate for 14 days, and pour off the clear.

2. Oil of rhodium and balsam of Peru, of each 1/2 dr.; oil of cloves, 1 dr.; spirit of ammonia, 2 fl. dr.; essence of civet and vanilla, of each 2 fl. oz.; essence of musk, 5 fl. oz.; neroli, oils of lavender, verbena, and cassia, of each 6 drops. As last. Both are very pleasant, durable, and powerful perfumes for personal use.

=ESSENTIAL OIL.= See OIL (Volatile).

=ESSENTIAL SALT OF BARK.= See BARK and =Extract=.

=ESSENTIAL SALT OF LEMONS.= Syn. SALT OF LEMONS; SAL LIMONUM, L. The preparation sold under this name is made by mixing cream of tartar (bitartrate of potassa) with twice its weight of salt of sorrel (quadroxalate of potassa), both in fine powder. It is used to remove fruit stains, &c., from linen, by rubbing a little of it on the part moistened with warm water. It is poisonous, if swallowed in quantity.

=ETCH′ING.= A species of engraving, in which the design is formed on the plate by the action of an acid, or some other fluid, instead of being cut out by the graver.

Proc. In the ORDINARY PROCESS OF ETCHING the plate is covered with ‘etching ground’ (an acid-resisting varnish), and the design is scratched on the metal through the ground, by means of a pointed tool of steel called the ‘etching needle’ or ‘point.’ A border of wax is then placed round the plate, and the ‘biting’ fluid poured on, and allowed to remain till the ‘lights’ or finest portions of the design are sufficiently ‘bitten in,’ The etching fluid is then poured off, the plate washed, and the light parts ‘stopped out’ with Brunswick black or other varnish; the solvent is again poured on, and allowed to remain until the finest portion of the exposed lines are sufficiently deep, when the acid is again poured off, and the whole process is repeated till the very darkest lines or shadows are sufficiently ‘bitten in,’ The plate is then cleaned, and is ready to be printed from. Occasionally the etched design receives a few finishing touches with the ‘graver.’

There are several varieties of etching, of which the following are the principal:——ETCHING WITH A SOFT GROUND, when a coating of lard or tallow is employed, and the design is drawn on a piece of paper, laid evenly on the ground, by which means the fatty matter adheres to the paper, on the parts pressed on by the point or pencil, and the copper beneath becomes exposed, and is then acted on by the acid. The effect resembles that of chalk or pencil drawings.——STIPPLING, or executing the design in dots instead of lines.——AQUATINTA or AQUATINT, a mode of etching on copper for producing an effect resembling a drawing in Indian ink. It is performed by sifting powdered asphaltum or lac resin on the plate, previously slightly greased, and, after shaking off the loose powder, gently heating it over a chafing dish; on cooling, the lights are covered with turpentine varnish coloured with lampblack, by means of a hair pencil, and a rim of wax being placed round the plate, a mixture of ‘aquafortis’ and water is poured on it, and allowed to remain for 5 or 6 minutes, when it is poured off, the plate dried, and recourse had to the pencil as before. The process of ‘stopping’ and ‘etching’ is repeated again and again, until the darkest shades are produced. Sometimes, instead of using asphaltum, an alcoholic solution of shell-lac or gum mastic is poured over the plate, placed in a slanting direction; this varnish forms a film, which, on drying, leaves innumerable cracks or minute fissures through which the acid acts on the plate. The fineness or coarseness of the grain depends entirely upon the condition of the powdered asphaltum, or on the quantity of matter dissolved in the spirit employed to form the ground.

The fluids employed for ‘biting in’ the designs vary considerably, almost every artist having his own receipt. Aquafortis, more or less diluted, is, however, generally employed for COPPER, and this, with the addition of pyroligneous acid, for etching on STEEL; but any fluid that rapidly dissolves the metal may be used for the purpose. The ‘etching ground’ may be formed of any substance capable of resisting the action of the etching fluid, and which is, at the same time, sufficiently soft to allow of the free use of the needle or point, and sufficiently solid to prevent an injury to the design during the ‘scratching in,’

In ETCHING ON GLASS, the ground is laid on, and the design ‘scratched in’ in the usual way, when liquid hydrofluoric acid is applied, or the glass is exposed to the action of hydrofluoric acid gas. The former renders the surface of the etching transparent, the latter opaque. A simple modification of the process is to wet the design with sulphuric acid, and then to sprinkle on some finely pulverised fluor spar (fluoride of calcium), by which means hydrofluoric acid is set free and attacks the glass. This method may be very easily applied to the graduation of glass vessels, thermometer tubes, &c.

ETCHING ON GLASS BY ELECTRICITY. Planté (‘Ann. Chem. Phys.’ [5], xiii, 143-144). The author had previously drawn attention to the fact that when an electric current is passed through saline solutions in glass vessels, platinum wire serving as electrodes, the glass is immediately attacked, and he therefore proposes the following method for etching on glass:

The surface of the glass to be engraved is coated with a concentrated solution of potassium nitrate, and beneath the layer of liquid a platinum wire, connected with one of the poles of a battery, is stretched across the plate. With the other pole is connected another platinum wire, the whole of which, except the point, is insulated; with this the designs are drawn on the glass, which is engraved wherever the wire comes in contact with it, flashes of light being emitted at the same time.

The depth of engraving depends on the rate at which the platinum wire moves; the slower the rate the deeper the line.

A RAPID METHOD OF ETCHING ON IRON OR STEEL, capable of very general application, is as follows:——“The metal is warmed until it is capable of melting a piece of beeswax, or ‘etching ground,’ which is then carefully rubbed over it, so as to form a thin and even coating; when cold, the design is ‘scratched in’ in the common way; a little powdered iodine is then sprinkled on the exposed parts, and at the same time a few drops of water are added, and the two worked into a liquid paste with a camel-hair pencil. The paste is then moved about over the intended etching, for a period varying from one to five minutes, according to the depth of the lines required to be produced. Afterwards the whole is removed, and reapplied, &c., as with the usual etching fluids. The same etching-paste, by being kept for a few days, again acquires the property of dissolving iron, and may be used again and again; but independently of this, the iodide of iron formed during the process, if rapidly evaporated to dryness in a clean iron vessel by a moderate heat, and placed in stoppered bottles, will sell for more than the original cost of the iodine. To travellers and amateurs who amuse themselves with the delightful art of etching, iodine, from its portability and convenience, will, doubtless, prove invaluable. We have adopted it with considerable success, and have found it especially useful in marking surgical instruments, razors, and other edge tools. We published this method many years ago. Several parties have since availed themselves of our suggestions and formulæ, but without the slightest acknowledgment of the source from which they obtained them.” (A. J. Cooley.)

=Etching, Electro-.= This mode of etching, which is in many respects superior to the ordinary mode, is based upon the destructive action of certain ‘anions’ during ‘electrolysis.’[281] If two plates of copper be connected with the opposite ends of a voltaic battery, and placed in a vessel containing very dilute sulphuric acid, the plate connected with the copper of the battery will be attacked by the anion oxygen which is released during the decomposition of the acid. This destructive action can be localised at pleasure by covering certain parts of the plate with a protecting stratum of varnish, ordinary ‘etching ground’ for instance. In the practice of electro-etching, the drawing is ‘scratched in’ in the usual way through an ordinary ground; a stout wire is then soldered to the plate, and this, as well as the back of the plate, is coated with sealing-wax varnish. Thus prepared, the plate is placed in a suitable ‘decomposition cell’ opposite a plate of somewhat similar size, and the two are connected respectively with the copper and zinc of a ‘Daniell’s cell,’ or the silver and zinc of a ‘Smee’s cell.’[282] After about ten minutes the plate is removed, washed, and dried; and when the ‘fine work’ has been stopped out with Brunswick black, it is returned for another space of ten minutes. By alternately exposing the plate to the action of the decomposing fluid, and ‘stopping out’ parts of the work, the required gradation in tints is obtained. The exact duration of the various exposures, as well as their number, must, of course, be regulated by circumstances. See ETCHING FLUIDS (below).

[Footnote 281: See ELECTROLYSIS and ELECTROTYPE, pages 428 and 429.]

[Footnote 282: See VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.]

=Etching Fluids.= 1. (For COPPER.)——a. From ‘aquafortis,’ 2-1/2 fl. oz.; water, 5 fl. oz.; mix.

b. To the last add of verdigris, 1 oz.; water, 2-1/2 fl. oz.; dissolve. For light touches.

c. (EAU FORTE,——Callot and Piranesi.) Alum, sal-ammoniac, sea salt, and verdigris, of each 4 oz.; vinegar (pyroligneous acid), 8 fl. oz.; water, 16 fl. oz.; mix, dissolve, boil for 1 or 2 minutes in a glazed or stoneware vessel, cool, and decant the clear portion. Used as the last.

d. Water acidulated with sulphuric acid. Used in the process of electro-etching.

2. (For STEEL.)——a. From iodine, 1 oz.; iron filings or wire, 1/2 dr.; water, 4 fl. oz. It must be kept in a stoppered bottle, until required for use.

b. From iodine, 3 dr.; iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 1 fl. oz.; water, 2 fl. oz. As the last.

c. (Mr Turrel.) Pyroligneous acid, 4 fl. oz.; alcohol (rectified spirit), 1 fl. oz.; mix, and add of nitric acid or double aquafortis (sp. gr. 1·28), 1 fl. oz.

d. From hydrochloric acid, 5 parts; water, 95 parts; mix, and add the liquid to a solution of chlorate of potassa, 1 part, in water, 50 parts.

e. A solution of common salt. Used in the process of electro-etching.

=Etching Ground.= Syn. ETCHING VARNISH. Prep. 1. Beeswax, 5 parts; linseed oil, 1 part; melted together.

2. (Callot’s HARD VARNISH, FLORENTINE V., FLORENCE V.) From linseed oil and mastic, equal parts, melted together.

3. (Callot’s SOFT VARNISH.) From linseed oil, 4 oz.; gum benzoin and white wax, of each 1/2 oz.; boil to two thirds.

4. (Lawrence.) White wax, 2 oz.; black pitch and Burgundy pitch, of each 1/2 oz.; melt, add by degrees, of powdered asphaltum, 2 oz.; and boil together, until a piece, when thoroughly cold, will break by being bent double 2 or 3 times between the fingers; next pour it into warm water, make it into small balls, and place each of them in a piece of taffety for use.

Obs. The preceding compositions are applied to the surface of the plates, previously made sufficiently warm to melt them easily, their even diffusion being promoted by dabbing them with a wad of cotton. Those that are white are then generally blackened on the surface by skilfully passing them over the smoky flame of one or more candles, by which the marks of the etching point on the bright metal are rendered the more visible.

=E′THER.= Syn. OXIDE OF ETHYL. Described under ETHYL, OXIDE OF. Several substances are known under the name of ethers besides the true ethers or salts of ethyl, and are given below.

=Ether of Canthar′ides.= Syn. ÆTHER CANTHARIDALIS, L. Prep. (Œttinger.) From powdered cantharides, 1 part; ether, 2 parts; digested together for 3 or 4 days, and the tincture expressed. Used as a vesicant, &c.

=Ether, Chlo′′ric.= This name was applied by Dr T. Thomson to the CHLORIDE OF OLEFIANT GAS, or ‘DUTCH LIQUID,’ and afterwards, by Guthrie and Silliman, to CHLOROFORM, which they took for an alcoholic solution of chloride of olefiant gas. It now forms one of the synonyms of chloroform. The medicinal ‘CHLORIC ETHER’ of the shops is a solution of chloroform, 1 part, in rectified spirit 8 parts; of which the dose is 20 or 30 drops in water, as an antispasmodic and anodyne. See CHLOROFORM.

=Ether, Chlorinet′ted.= Formed by the action of dry chlorine on pure ether. When the action is long continued, a heavy, oily product (BICHLORINETTED ETHER), smelling like fennel, is formed. By the still further action of chlorine, aided by sunlight, a white, crystalline substance (PENTACHLORINETTED ETHER), a compound resembling sesquichloride of carbon, is obtained.

=Ether, Cu′′preous.= Syn. TINCTURA CUPRI CHLORIDI ÆTHEREA, L. Prep. (Van Mons.) Sulphate of copper, 6 parts, and chloride of barium, 5 parts, are triturated together, and the mixture digested in ether, 3 or 4 parts, until all the chloride of copper is dissolved.——Dose, 2 to 5 drops; in epilepsy, &c.

=Ether, Methy′lic.= Syn. OXIDE OF METHYL, WOOD-ETHER, METHYL-ETHER; ÆTHER METHYLICUS, L. Prep. From wood spirit, 1 part; concentrated sulphuric acid, 4 parts; mix in a retort, apply heat, pass the evolved gas (methylic ether) through a little strong solution of potassa, and then collect it over mercury. See METHYL.

=Ether, Spirits of Nitrous.= See SPIRITS.

=Ether, Washed.= Syn. ÆTHER LOTUS, L. Ordinary ether, agitated first with 2 or 3 times its volume of distilled water, and a few grains of carbonate of potassa, or a few drops of milk of lime; and after decantation, again agitated with a like quantity of water only. Used for inhalations. For other purposes the washed ether is afterwards digested on chloride of calcium, to deprive it of retained water.

=E′THERIN.= Syn. CAMPHOR OF OIL OF WINE. A volatile, white, crystalline substance, deposited by light oil of wine when left in a cold situation for some time. It is isomeric with etherole, and received its name from the assumption of its being the base of the ethereal compounds. According to this hypothesis, ether is a hydrate of etherin. Etherin forms brilliant prisms and plates; is tasteless; soluble in alcohol and ether; fuses at 230° Fahr., and boils at 500° Fahr.; and is a little lighter than water. The crystals are purified by pressure between the folds of bibulous paper, solution in ether, and evaporation.

=E′THEROLE.= The yellowish, oily liquid, forming the residual portion of light oil of wine, after it has deposited its etherin. It is lighter than water; is freely soluble in both alcohol and ether; and has a rather high boiling-point. See ETHERIN and OIL OF WINE.

=ETHION′IC AC′ID.= Prep. An alcoholic solution of the crystals of sulphate of carbyle is diluted with water, the whole neutralised with carbonate of baryta, the filtered liquid evaporated by a very gentle heat to a small bulk, and a large quantity of alcohol added; the precipitate (ethionate of baryta) is treated (cautiously) with dilute sulphuric acid (avoiding excess), by which the baryta is withdrawn, and ethionic acid left in solution.

Prop., &c. Ethionic acid closely resembles sulphovinic acid. It is decomposed by heat. Its salts (ethionates), however, differ completely from the sulphovinates. They are all soluble in water, and are said to be anhydrous. The ethionates of ammonia, potassa, and soda crystallise readily; those of lead, baryta, lime, and the other earths are uncrystallisable. See ISETHIONIC ACID, and below.

=ETHION′IC ANHY′DRIDE.= Prep. Pure and dry olefiant gas is passed over anhydrous sulphuric acid (‘sulphuric anhydride’) contained in a U-shaped tube.

Prop., &c. When thus produced, it is in white, milky crystals, which speedily deliquesce in the air, giving rise to ethionic acid. It is similar in appearance, and probably identical with, ‘sulphate of carbyle,’ which results from the absorption of the vapour of anhydrous sulphuric acid by absolute alcohol.

=E′THIOPS.= Syn. ÆTHIOPS, L. A name given by the older chemists to several black powders on account of their colour, and still occasionally employed in medical works.

=Ethiops, Graphi′tic.= Syn. ETHIOPS OF PLUMBAGO; ÆTHIOPS GRAPHITICUS, L. From plumbago, 2 parts; quicksilver, 1 part; triturated together until the globules disappear.——Dose, 5 to 10 gr.; in herpes, and some other obstinate skin diseases.

=Ethiops, Martial.= Black oxide of iron, prepared by keeping iron filings under water, and occasionally shaking them. It is washed with water, dried as quickly as possible, and preserved from the air, to prevent further oxidation. Formerly much esteemed as a tonic.

=Ethiops, Min′eral.= Syn. ETHIOPS MINERAL; ÆTHIOPS MINERALIS, HYDRARGYRI SULPHURETUM CUM SULPHURE, L. Black sulphuret of mercury, with excess of sulphur.

(Tyson’s.) Oxide of mercury (prepared by decomposing calomel with an equivalent proportion of liquor of potassa to which a little liquor of ammonia has been added) and flowers of sulphur, equal parts, triturated together. This is recommended as an efficient substitute for the old and uncertain preparation commonly sold under the name of Ethiops mineral. It is, however, of more than double the usual strength, and should therefore be taken in proportionate doses. See MERCURY (Sulphide).

=Ethiops, Veg′etable.= Syn. ÆTHIOPS VEGETABILIS, PULVUS QUERCÛS MARINÆ, L. Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus), burned in a close vessel till it becomes black and friable. Used in bronchocele, scrofula, &c. Like burnt sponge, it owes its virtues to the presence of a very minute quantity of iodine.——Dose, 20 gr. to 1 dr., or more, made into an electuary with honey or sugar.

=E′THYL.= C_{2}H_{5}. Syn. ETHYLE. The hydrocarbon assumed to be the radical of the ether-compounds (ethyl-series). A body containing carbon and hydrogen in the proportions indicated by the formula of ethyl, 2(C_{2}H_{5}), has been obtained by exposing dry iodide of ethyl in sealed tubes for several hours to the action of finely divided zinc, at a temperature of from 320° to 338° Fahr. In this reaction the iodine of the iodide of ethyl combines with the zinc, and the hydrocarbon supposed to be ethyl is set free. On opening the sealed tubes and allowing the gas (which is a mixture of the ‘ethyl’ and certain secondary products) to pass into a freezing mixture, the temperature of which is kept below -9° Fahr., the ‘ethyl’ condenses to a colourless, mobile liquid. Hitherto no compound ether has been produced from the ‘ethyl’ thus prepared.

According to the beautiful theory of Liebig, ethyl is a ‘salt-basyle,’ forming ‘haloid salts’ with chlorine, iodine, and bromine; its oxide is ether, and the hydrate of this oxide alcohol. The compound ethers may be compared with ordinary salts in which the metal is replaced by the radical ethyl.

=Ethyl, Oxide of.= (C_{2}H_{5})_{2}O. Syn. ETHER, SULPHURIC ETHER, ÆTHER (B. P.), ÆTHER SULPHURICUS (PH. E. D. & U. S.), Æ. RECTIFICATUS, Æ. VITRIOLICUS, Æ. SPIRITUS VITRIOLI DULOIS, L. A colourless, highly volatile, fragrant, inflammable liquid, obtained by distilling a mixture of sulphuric acid and alcohol. It was not known before the 13th century.

Prep. There are two methods employed for the preparation of ether. The one is by mixing the whole of the ingredients at once, and immediately subjecting them to distillation at a proper temperature; the other is by adding the alcohol in a slender streamlet to the acid, previously heated to the etherifying point. The former, though less economical, is the one more generally employed.

1. Rectified spirit, 3 lbs.; sulphuric acid, 2 lbs.; carbonate of potassa (previously ignited), 1 oz.; pour 2 lbs. of the spirit into a glass retort, add the acid, and place the vessel on a sand bath, so that the liquor may boil as quickly as possible, and the ether, as it forms, pass over into a well-cooled receiver; continue the distillation until a heavier fluid begins to pass over, then lower the heat, add the remainder of the spirit, and distil as before; mix the distilled liquors together, pour off the supernatant portion, add the carbonate of potassa, and agitate occasionally for one hour; finally, distil the ether from a large retort, and keep it in a well-stoppered bottle. Sp. gr. ·750.

2. The strongest oil of vitriol, 3 parts, are mixed with alcohol, q. s. (about 2 parts at ·830) to reduce its sp. gr. to 1·780; an object which may be easily obtained by distilling off some of the ether if required. The still or retort is then connected with a vessel full of alcohol, of at least 90%, by means of a small syphon tube, furnished with a stop-cock; the longer limb of which should be of glass, and so arranged that it just dips into the mixture of acid and alcohol. Heat is next applied, and the contents of the still raised to the boiling-point as rapidly as possible, and as soon as full ebullition commences the stop-cock of the syphon is cautiously turned, so as to allow the alcohol to flow down in such a manner as to keep the boiling liquid exactly at the same level; or, in other words, to supply a quantity of alcohol exactly equal to that of the liquid which distils over. By careful manipulation the whole of the alcohol which enters the retort passes over as ether and water, and this decomposition proceeds for some time, and would continue for an unlimited period did not the sulphuric acid ultimately become too weak to form ether, from the gradual absorption of the superfluous water contained in the alcohol. Were it convenient or practicable to use absolute alcohol, a given weight of sulphuric acid of the proper strength, would maintain the power of producing ether for an indefinite period. In practice, the quantity of alcohol that may thus be etherified is twice or thrice as much as by the common process, while neither sulphurous acid, sulphovinic acid, nor sweet oil of wine is generated, and the residual liquid of the distillation continues limpid, and has only a pale-brown colour. This is termed the ‘continuous,’ or ‘Boullay’s’ method. (This process is similar to that given in the B. P.)

3. Alcohol of 90%, five parts are mixed with oil of vitriol, 9 parts, in a vessel of copper or iron immersed in cold water; the mixture is next introduced into a still or retort, and raised to a state of ebullition as rapidly as possible, as before. A fresh quantity of alcohol, equal in bulk to the liquid distilled over, is then added to the liquid in the still, and distillation again had recourse to. As much concentrated alcoholic solution of potassa as will give it a perceptible alkaline reaction is next added to distilled liquor, which is then rectified by the heat of a water bath, as long as the ether which distils over has the sp. gr. ·720 to ·725 at 80° Fahr. Instead of the potassa, a little milk of lime may be used, along with its own bulk of water. By allowing the product to stand for some days over chloride of calcium or quicklime, and again rectifying it along with one of these substances, perfectly pure ether may be obtained.

Obs. The mixture of alcohol with sulphuric acid requires some caution. It is best done by introducing the alcohol into a suitable vessel, and imparting to it a rapid whirling motion, by which a considerable conical cavity is formed in the centre, and into which the acid may be gradually poured with perfect safety. The mixed fluids should be brought to a state of rapid ebullition, as quickly as possible, as without this precaution much of the alcohol distils over before the liquor acquires the proper temperature for etherification. On the small scale, a tubulated retort, connected with a Liebig’s condensing tube, and two globular receivers surrounded with a freezing mixture, or ice-cold water, may be employed as the distillatory apparatus. The second receiver should be connected with the first one by means of a bent glass tube, reaching nearly to the bottom of the former; and the whole of the joints should be securely luted, as soon as the expanded air has been allowed to escape. We have employed the following convenient little apparatus for the preparation of small quantities of ether, and it will be found very suitable for the distillation of most other highly volatile liquids, and particularly for boiling mixtures of alcohol and organic acids. By connecting the neck of a flask or digester containing volatile fluids with the lower instead of the upper end of the refrigerator, ebullition may be carried on without loss, as the vapour will be condensed, and run back into the vessel from which it has distilled.

For the rectification of ether, a water bath is employed along with the above simple refrigerator, and the receivers surrounded by ice or a freezing mixture.

Chem. comp., &c. Ether is generally regarded as the oxide of ethyl, and alcohol as the hydrate of this base. This view is borne out by analysis, which proves that ether differs from alcohol by the elements of water. Recent experiments have also shown that the relation existing between the two compounds is——if alcohol be expressed by the formula C_{2}H_{6}O, the true formula of ether will be (C_{2}H_{5})_{2}O. We cannot describe these experiments here, but we may remark that ether cannot be made to combine with water directly, nor can alcohol be converted into ether by the abstraction of water, pure and simple, without the aid of other substances.

The compound ethers may be compared to ordinary salts in which the metal is replaced by a radical termed ethyl, having the formula C_{2}H_{5}. This view is, of course, in accordance with the theory which regards ether as the oxide of ethyl.

According to theory, 1 equivalent, or 46 parts of absolute alcohol, should produce 1 eq., or 37 parts, of pure ether; but in practice, the greatest product obtained by operating according to Boullay’s method, which produces more ether than any other, does not exceed 33-1/2 parts for the preceding quantity of alcohol, or 71·5%. A mixture of 9 parts of oil of vitriol, and 5 parts of alcohol of 90%, ceases to produce ether after 31 parts of such alcohol have been added.

The most economical method of etherification is that known as the continuous ether process, or the process of Boullay. When this is adopted, the retort or flask should be fitted with a sound cork, perforated by an aperture to receive a thermometer, and the application of the heat, and the flow of alcohol, should be so managed, that a temperature of 300° Fahr. and a state of rapid and violent ebullition (points of essential importance) are maintained.

Prop., Uses, &c. Pure ether is a colourless, transparent, and very limpid fluid, having a penetrating and agreeable smell, and a burning, sweetish taste; its evaporation produces the sensation of extreme cold; when prevented, a sensation of heat is experienced. Its specific gravity varies between ·712 and ·724. If it contains water it begins to crystallise in brilliant white plates when cooled to -24° Fahr., and become a white crystalline mass at -46° or -47° Fahr.; but if absolutely pure, ether cannot be solidified by any degree of cold that can be produced, it remaining fluid when placed in contact with solid carbonic acid, at a temperature of about -148° Fahr. Boils at 96° or 97° Fahr.; is very combustible; is soluble in about 10 parts of distilled water, and mixes with alcohol in all proportions. It abstracts corrosive sublimate, terchloride of gold, sesquichloride of iron, and many of the alkaloids, from their watery solutions, and is hence invaluable in analysis and pharmacy. It readily dissolves the volatile and fixed oils, and most fatty matters, as well as sulphur and phosphorus in small quantities. By exposure to light and air it absorbs oxygen, and water and acetic acid are gradually formed. It is decomposed by exposure to a high temperature. Its evaporation occasions intense cold. The greatest degree of cold yet produced (-166° Fahr.) has resulted from the admixture of ether with solid carbonic acid. Ether is powerfully stimulant, narcotic, and antispasmodic, and externally refrigerant, if allowed to evaporate, or stimulant and counter-irritant if its evaporation is prevented, and is used in various diseases. Applied to the forehead by means of the fingers or a strip of linen, it generally relieves simple cases of nervous headache. In pharmacy it is largely employed in the preparations of tinctures alkaloids, spirits, &c.; and in chemistry is invaluable in organic analyses. Its principal commercial application is as a solvent for pyroxyline, in the manufacture of collodion. It is also employed as a solvent of resins, india rubber, &c., in the preparation of varnishes, and for several other useful purposes.——Dose, 20 drops to 2 fl. dr.; in water or wine. Excessive doses of ether produce intoxication resembling that from alcohol, and require similar antidotes. Sulphuric ether is said to be taken largely in the north of Ireland as a stimulant, particularly in Antrim. Shortly before the discovery of chloroform, it was found that when the vapour of ether was inhaled it gradually produced insensibility to pain. It was therefore employed as an anæsthetic in surgical operations. Having been found less efficient than chloroform, and more troublesome to administer, its use for this purpose has been abandoned.

Tests. Ether may be recognised by its volatility, odour, taste, sparing solubility in water, admixture with alcohol in all proportions, great inflammability (burning with a yellowish-white flame), and its power of dissolving fats and resins. Its further identification can only be effected by ultimate analysis.

Pur. The ether of the shops generally contains alcohol, water, or acetic acid, and sometimes all of them. Its usual specific gravity fluctuates between ·733 and ·765. Exposed to the air, it volatises entirely. It turns litmus paper red; sometimes very slightly, and occasionally even not at all. 1/2 fl. oz. mixes completely with 1/2 pint of water. Pure ether should, however, be neutral to test-paper, although seldom so. When shaken in a minim measure with half its volume of concentrated solution of chloride of calcium, its volume should not lessen. 10 fluid ounces of water should only dissolve 1 fluid ounce of ether, and remain transparent.

Preserv. Ether rapidly evaporates at common temperatures when kept in corked bottles, and even in bottles secured with ground-glass stoppers and tightly tied over with bladder and leather; it also becomes sour by age. To prevent this waste, the stoppers should fit accurately, and the bottles should be placed in as cool a situation as possible. Bottles furnished with ground-glass caps, as well as stoppers, are frequently employed. (See engr.) Dewar’s ‘ether phial’ is formed on a similar principle. We have seen bottles of ether accurately stoppered, tied over with bladder, and thickly coated with wax, which have yet become quite empty by a voyage to the tropics, though they still appeared to be as closely secured as when they were first filled.

Caution. The vapour of ether is very inflammable, and when mixed with atmospheric air, it forms a violently explosive mixture. The density of this vapour is 2·586, that of air being 1; hence it rapidly sinks, and frequently accumulates in the lower parts of buildings, especially cellars which are badly ventilated, in the same way as water does. The only remedy is thorough ventilation. Many serious accidents have arisen from this cause, for no sooner is a light carried into an apartment where such vapour is present than an explosion takes place.

=Ethyl, Acetate of.= C_{2}H_{5}C_{2}H_{3}O_{2} Syn. ACETATE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL, ACETIC ETHER, PYROLIGNEOUS ETHER; ÆTHER ACETICUS, L. A compound discovered by the Count de Lauraguais in 1759.

Prep. 1. Acetate of potassa, 3 parts (or an equiv. quant. of acetate of soda), alcohol (85%), 3 parts, oil of vitriol (strongest), 2 parts, are mixed together and distilled, by the heat of a sand bath, from a glass or earthenware retort into a well-cooled receiver; the distillate is agitated with a little water to remove undecomposed alcohol, and then digested first with a little chalk to remove acidity, and afterwards with fused chloride of calcium, to absorb water; it is, lastly, rectified by a gentle heat.

2. Rectified spirit (sp. gr. ·84), 50 parts, acetic acid (sp. gr. 1·075), 33 parts, are mixed together, and oil of vitriol (strongest), 10 parts, added; the distillation is continued until 65 parts have passed over, and the distillate, after digestion for some hours on a little dry carbonate of potassium, is rectified as before, the first 50 parts only being kept for use.

Prop., &c. Acetic ether is colourless, and bears a considerable resemblance to ordinary ether, but it has a much more agreeable and refreshing odour. It boils at 165° Fahr.; has a sp. gr. of ·89 at 60° Fahr., dissolves in about 7 parts of water; and mixes in all proportions with alcohol and ether. It is decomposed by alkalies and the strong acids.

Acetic ether is diaphoretic, stimulant, antispasmodic, and narcotic.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.; in similar cases to those in which sulphuric ether is employed, and especially in nervous and putrid fevers, spasmodic vomitings, and diseases of the bowels and stomach, arising from debility, and not of an inflammatory character. Its principal consumption is in the manufacture of British brandy.

=Ethyl, Benzoate of.= C_{2}H_{5}C_{7}H_{5}O_{2}. Syn. BENZOIC ETHER, BENZOATE OF ETHER, B. OF OXIDE OF ETHYL; ÆTHER BENZOICUS, L. Prep. Alcohol (sp. gr. ·830), 4 parts; benzoic acid (cryst.), 2 parts; concentrated hydrochloric acid, 1 part, are distilled together; as soon as the product turns milky when mixed with water, the receiver is changed, and the liquid that distills over collected; to this liquid water is added, and the supernatant ether is decanted, and boiled with water, and a little oxide of lead (to separate benzoic acid); it is, lastly, freed from water by allowing it to stand over chloride of calcium.

Prop., &c. A colourless oily liquid, slightly heavier than water, and possessing an aromatic odour and taste. It boils at 410° Fahr., and is miscible with alcohol and ether.

=Ethyl, Bromide of.= C_{2}H_{5}Br. Syn. ÆTHER HYDROBROMICUS, L. A volatile, ethereal liquid, discovered by Serullas.

Prep. Bromine, 8 parts; alcohol, 32 parts; dissolve, place the mixture in a retort, add of phosphorus, 1 part, and distil by a gentle heat as soon as the liquid becomes cold. The ether is separated from the distillate by the addition of water.

Prop., &c. A very volatile liquid, with a penetrating taste and smell; boiling at 105° Fahr., and heavier than water.

=Ethyl, Bu′tyrate of.= C_{2}H_{5}C_{4}H_{7}O_{2}. Syn. BUTYRIC ETHER, PINE-APPLE OIL; ÆTHER BUTYRICUS, L. Prep. By passing hydrochloric acid gas into an alcoholic solution of butyric acid, and purifying the product from free acid.

Commercially, from crude butyric acid saponified with caustic potassa or baryta, and the resulting soap distilled along with alcohol and oil of vitriol.

Uses. Crude butyric ether forms the ‘pine-apple oil’ of commerce, and when largely diluted with rectified spirit, the ‘pine-apple essence’ so much employed as a flavouring substance by confectioners, liqueuristes, &c. It imparts a delicious flavour to sweetmeats, rum, arrack, punch, &c. The Germans add it to common rum, to form the flavouring for their ‘pine-apple ale.’

=Ethyl, Carbonate of.= (C_{2}H_{5}){2}CO{3}. Syn. CARBONIC ETHER, CARBONATE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL; ÆTHER CARBONICUS, L. Prep. Fragments of potassium are added to oxalic ether, gently warmed, as long as bubbles of gas are formed; the excess of metal is removed from the semi-solid mass, some water added, and the whole distilled. The carbonic ether floats on the surface of the liquid in the receiver, and is collected, dried by contact with chloride of calcium, and rectified along with some potassium or sodium, till it ceases to yield acetate of potassa when acted on by caustic potassa.

Prop., &c. Colourless, limpid, and aromatic; tastes pungent and burning; boils at 259° to 260° Fahr. It greatly resembles oxalic ether. It is decomposed by alkalies.

=Ethyl, Chlo′ride of.= C_{2}H_{5}Cl. Syn. LIGHT HYDROCHLORIC E., CHLORIDE OF ETHYL; ÆTHER HYDROCHLORICUS, L. A highly volatile compound, formed of ethyl and chlorine.

Prep. Rectified spirit of wine is saturated with dry hydrochloric acid gas in the cold, and the product is distilled in a retort connected with a Wolfe’s apparatus, the first bottle of which should be two thirds filled with tepid water (70° to 75° Fahr.), and the remainder surrounded with a mixture of ice and salt. To render it perfectly anhydrous, it must be digested on a few fragments of fused chloride of calcium.

A mixture of oil of vitriol, 3 parts, and alcohol, 2 parts, is poured upon common salt (dried), 4 parts; and the whole distilled as before.

Prop., &c. This ether has a sweetish taste; is soluble in about 15 parts of water, and miscible in all proportions with alcohol; boils at 54° Fahr.; burns with a flame edged with green; is neutral to test paper; and does not affect a solution of nitrate of silver. Sp. gr. ·921, at 32° Fahr.——Dose, 10 to 30 drops, as an antispasmodic and a powerful diffusible stimulant. Owing to its extreme volatility it can only be taken dissolved in spirit.

=Ethyl, Cy′anide of.= C_{2}H_{5}CN. Syn. ÆTHER HYDROCYANICUS. L. Prep. Cyanide of potassium and sulphovinate of baryta, equal parts, are mixed and distilled in a glass retort by a moderate heat. The product separates into two strata; the lighter one is impure hydrocyanic ether; this is decanted and agitated with 4 or 5 times its bulk of water at 120° to 140° Fahr., and the operation is repeated with about 2 parts of water; the ether is again decanted, and placed in contact with chloride of calcium for 24 hours, and then rectified.

Prop., &c. It boils at 190° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·788. In its therapeutical effects it resembles hydrocyanic acid, but is less active. Its odour is, however, more penetrating and offensive.——Dose, 2 to 6 drops, in mucilage or emulsion; in obstinate or convulsive coughs, gastrodynia, hysterical affections, &c.

=Ethyl, Cy′anate of.= C_{2}H_{5}CNO Syn. CYANIC ETHER, CYANATE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL. Prep. By distilling a dry mixture of cyanate of potassa and sulphovinate of potassa in nearly equivalent proportions. A mixture of cyanic and cyanuric ethers passes over into the receiver. By distilling this mixture the two are readily separated; that which passes over by the heat of a water bath being the first, and the residuum in the retort the second.

Prop., &c. An ethereal, very mobile liquid, boiling at 140° Fahr.

=Ethyl, Cyan′urate of.= (C_{2}H_{5}){3}C{3}N_{3}O_{3}. Syn. CYANURATE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL. Prep. See CYANIC ETHER.

Prop., &c. Tasteless, inodorous, colourless, transparent, needles and prisms; fusing at 185° Fahr.

=Ethyl, I′odide of.= C_{2}H_{5}I. Syn. ÆTHER HYDRIODICUS, L. Prep. Phosphorous, 4 parts, alcohol (sp. gr. ·84), 70 parts, and iodine, 100 parts, are gradually and cautiously mixed together, and distilled.

Prop., &c. A colourless liquid, possessing a strong ethereal odour, and boiling at 158° Fahr.; sp. gr. 1·92. It is reddened and decomposed by exposure to air and light.

=Ether, Methy′lic.= Syn. OXIDE OF METHYL, WOOD-ETHER, METHYL-ETHYL. See METHYL.

=Ether, Muriatic (Heavy).= Syn. ÆTHER MURIATICUS PONDEROSUS, L. Prep. Alcohol, of 80 to 85%, is saturated, in the cold, with chlorine gas, water is next added, and the oily fluid that separates collected and washed with water, as long as any of it is dissolved.

Prop., &c. Heavy muriatic ether is a volatile, oily, colourless liquid, boiling at about 245° Fahr., and heavier than water. Its precise constitution is undetermined. This ether enters into the composition of the SPIRITUS MURIATICO-ETHEREUS, a remedy occasionally used on the Continent.

=Ethyl, Nitrate of.= C_{2}H_{5}NO_{3}. Syn. NITRIC ETHER, NITRATE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL; ÆTHER NITRICUS, L.

Prep. Nitric acid (sp. gr. about 1·375), 50 parts; nitrate of urea, a little (say 2 or 3 parts); dissolve, add alcohol, 50 parts, and distil with the usual precautions, until 7-8ths of the whole (of the liquid portion) have passed over; agitate the distillate with a little water to separate the ether, and preserve the heavier portion.

Prop., &c. Nitric ether possesses an agreeable sweetish taste and odour; it is insoluble in water; the alcoholic (but not the aqueous) solution of potassa decomposes it rapidly; sp. gr. 1·112. Its vapour is very apt to explode when strongly heated, and therefore a small quantity only should be prepared at a time.

=Ethyl, Nitrite.= C_{2}H_{5}NO_{2}. Syn. NITRIC ETHER, HYPONITROUS ETHER, NITRITE OF ETHER, NITRITE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL, HYPONITRITE OF E.; ÆTHER NITROSUS, Æ. HYPONITROSUS, L. This is a compound, of which ‘sweet spirit of nitre’ is an impure alcoholic solution.

Prep. 1. Starch (potato farina), 1 part; nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·30), 10 parts; mix in a capacious retort, connected with a wide tube, 2 or 3 feet long, bent at right angles, and terminating near the bottom of a two-necked bottle, containing a mixture of alcohol (of 85%), 2 parts, and water, 1 part, and surrounded with a freezing mixture, pounded ice, or very cold water; the other neck of the bottle being connected by a long glass tube with a good refrigerator or condenser. All elevation of temperature must be avoided. The heat of a water bath only must be cautiously applied to the retort. The gas liberated passes into the alcohol, causing the ether to distil in a gentle stream. The tube connecting the retort and bottle must be cooled by means of rag or moist paper, kept wetted with ice-cold water; as, if the temperature of the tube and the alcohol rises only a little, the latter becomes spontaneously hot, and boils violently, by which the product is vitiated. This process is very productive and economical, and yields pure nitrous ether.

2. A mixture of oil of vitriol, 8 parts, and alcohol, 9 parts, is poured upon crystallised nitrate of ammonia, 11 parts, contained in any suitable distillatory vessel connected with a well-cooled receiver. Nitrous ether gradually distils over on the application of a gentle heat. An admirable process, but more expensive than the preceding. Even a common fire may be employed without danger, as the liberation of the ether proceeds gradually, and not almost instantaneously, as in operating in the usual way. Sulphate of ammonia is left in the retort. The product is scarcely inferior to that of the last formula.

3. Rectified spirit, 46 fl. oz.; pure nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·500), 7 fl. oz.; put 15 fl. oz. of the spirit, with a little clean sand, into a quart matrass, fitted with a cork, and a safety tube reaching to within an inch of the spirit, and a second tube leading to a refrigeratory. Fill the safety tube with pure nitric acid, then add through it, gradually and cautiously, 3-1/2 fl. oz. of the acid. When the violent action that ensues is nearly over, gradually add the remaining portion of the acid, 1/2 fl. oz. at a time, and at intervals. Agitate the ether that distils over, first with a little milk of lime, till it ceases to redden litmus paper, and then with half its volume of concentrated solution of chloride of calcium. The pure hyponitrous ether thus obtained should have a density of ·899.

4. (Mr John Williams.) Nitrite of ethyl is best made by passing nitrous acid gas into alcohol.

The nitrous acid gas is prepared by acting upon such bodies as starch, copper, mercury, or arsenious acid with nitric acid. The alcohol is generally recommended in the text-books to be diluted with half its bulk of water; this, however, I consider a decided mistake. The alcohol should be as concentrated as possible, even absolute alcohol is preferable. The main points to be attended to are that the current of nitrous acid gas should be slow and steady, so as to give time for the reaction to proceed properly, and that the vessel containing the alcohol should be kept as cool as possible; in this way much of the production of bye-products will be avoided, and the gas can be passed through the alcohol, as long as it continues to be absorbed.

The resulting liquid is anything but pure; it contains much nitrite of ethyl, some aldehyde, acid——it is even stated to contain malic acid. In fact it is well known that the reaction between the nitrous acid, and such products as alcohol, however pure, is not sharp, but is always accompanied by secondary products.

From the crude alcoholic solution obtained by the method I have described, the pure nitrite of ethyl can be obtained without difficulty. Nitrite of ethyl is an extremely volatile liquid; it boils at about 61° F., whereas aldehyde boils at 90° F., and alcohol at 180° F. Taking advantage of this fact, we are enabled to separate it from the crude liquid by distillation. Some precautions are, however, necessary, to ensure the purity of the product. The flask containing the crude product is placed in a water bath, and connected by bent tubes with several other flasks and bottles. The first tube should be passed into a small empty flask, this will condense most of the alcohol which may pass over during the operation. Then a second bent tube passes into a second flask containing a little water; this condenses any alcohol which may not have been stopped in the first flask, together with free acid, and nearly all the aldehyde.

From this wash bottle a third tube proceeds into a somewhat shallow flask, containing a strong solution of caustic potash; the gas, however, is not allowed to pass through this alkaline liquid, but simply over the surface. In this way the last portion of the aldehyde is absorbed, and the potash solution gradually assumes an amber colour. From this vessel, the gas (for such at the ordinary temperature of the laboratory, the nitrite of ethyl is——in very cold weather it would be necessary to gently warm the different flasks) is passed through a tube charged with anhydrous chloride of calcium to absorb moisture, and the pure and dry nitrite of ethyl thus produced, finally passes into alcohol, which readily absorbs it.

It is only necessary to note the weight of the alcohol used for absorbing the gas, and its weight at the end of the operation, to know the strength or per-centage of nitrite of ethyl which must be in solution. Thus, if 9 oz. of alcohol becomes 10 oz., it is evident we have a solution of 10 per cent.; if it becomes 12 oz., then the strength must be 25 per cent., and so on. Ordinary spirits will answer for condensing the nitrite of ethyl, but it is better to use absolute alcohol, as it is very desirable to avoid the presence of water in any form. The solutions made with weaker spirit soon turn acid; those made with absolute alcohol, on the other hand, keep a long time. It is very true the very strong solutions of 50 and 25 per cent. show traces of acidity when tested with moistened litmus paper, but the 10 per cent. solution is quite neutral.[283]

[Footnote 283: The object of Mr Williams’ paper, which is published in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal’ for Dec. 8th, 1877, is to give instructions for the preparation of a pure nitrite of ethyl, which when mixed with alcohol in definite proportions, shall supersede the variable compound sold under the name of “Sweet Spirits of Nitre.”]

One point I have not mentioned; it is that the distillation must be conducted at the very lowest possible temperature; in fact, the water in the water-bath should only be kept gently warm, and the process should be continued only so long as the conducting tubes feel cool to the touch; when they become warm the distillation should be discontinued. By passing the gas into a tube in a freezing mixture, instead of into alcohol, the pure nitrite of ethyl is readily obtained in a liquid form; it is, however, necessary to seal the tube, otherwise the very volatile liquid would soon be lost.

Prop., &c. Pure nitrous ether has a pale-yellow colour, an agreeable odour of apples, and boils at 62° Fahr.; sp. gr. ·947 at 60° Fahr. Commercial nitrous ether contains aldehyde, boils at 70° Fahr., has a more or less suffocating odour combined with that of the pure ether, has a sp. gr. of ·886 at 40° Fahr., and turns brown when mixed with alcoholic solution of potassa, while the latter remains unaltered. It also acidifies by age, whilst pure nitrous ether remains neutral. They are both very inflammable, and burn with a white flame. Ordinary nitrous ether dissolves in about 48 parts of water, and mixes in all proportions with alcohol and sulphuric ether.

Nitrous ether is refrigerant, diaphoretic, and diuretic, but is seldom employed alone, though, when largely diluted with alcohol (sweet spirits of nitric, spirit of nitric ether), it is a common remedy in several diseases. It is also used to flavour malt spirit, in imitation of brandy (British brandy), although for this purpose it is vastly inferior to acetic ether. See SPIRITS (Medicinal).

=Ethyl, Œnanthate of.= Syn. ŒNANTHIC ETHER, PELARGONIC ETHER, ŒNANTHATE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL. Prep. 1. The oil obtained towards the end of the distillation of fermented liquors, especially wines, consists, in a great measure, of the crude ether. It is purified by agitation with a weak solution of carbonate of potassa, freed from water by a few fragments of chloride of calcium, and then re-distilled.

Prop., &c. Œnanthic ether is colourless; lighter than water; boils at about 500° Fahr.; and has a powerful, intoxicating vinous odour, resembling that of an empty wine cask or bottle that has been exposed to the air for some time. It is very sparingly soluble in water, but freely soluble in alcohol. Its sp. gr. is ·862. As obtained by distillation, it is united with a little ŒNANTHIC ACID. 2200 imperial gallons of wine (about 35 hogsheads) only yielded 2-1/5 lbs. of the mixed oil.

=Ethyl, Oxalate of.= (C_{2}H_{5}){2}C{2}O_{4}. Syn. OXALIC ETHER, OXALATE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL; ÆTHER OXALICUS, L. Prep. Alcohol and dry oxalic acid, equal parts, are digested together in a glass flask furnished with a very long glass tube of small bore, so that the spirit, volatilised by the heat, may be condensed, and flow back into the flask. After 6 or 8 hours the process is generally complete, and the liquid contains merely a trace of free acid, from which it may be separated.

Prop., &c. A colourless, oily liquid, slightly heavier than water, boiling at 363° Fahr., only slightly soluble in water, and having an aromatic smell. Alkalies decompose it. Sp. gr. 1·09.

=Ethyl, Sulphate of.= (C_{2}H_{5}){2}SO{4}.

Prep. The vapour of pure anhydrous sulphuric acid is passed (with the usual precautions) into perfectly anhydrous ether; the resulting syrupy liquid is agitated with a mixture of 4 volumes of water, and 1 volume of ether, and after repose the upper stratum, which is an ethereal solution of the sulphate of ethyl, is decanted, and the oxide of ethyl volatilised by a very gentle heat. The colourless liquid forming the residuum is the true sulphuric ether or sulphate of ethyl just referred to. It is a very unstable compound, and cannot be distilled without suffering decomposition.

=Ethyl, Valerianate of.= C_{2}H_{5}C_{5}H_{9}O_{2}. Syn. VALERIANIC ETHER, VALERATE OF OXIDE OF ETHYL; ÆTHER VALERIANICUS, L. Prep. By passing dry hydrochloric acid gas into an alcoholic solution of valeric acid. It is a fragrant, volatile liquid, lighter than water, having a high boiling-point, and a rich fruity odour, said to closely resemble that of butyric ether or pine-apple oil. It is used to flavour liqueurs, &c.

=ETHYL′AMINE.= NH_{2}(C_{2}H_{5}). Syn. ETHYL-AMMONIA. One of the bases of the ethyl-series, obtained by substituting one atom of hydrogen in ammonia NH_{3} by ethyl C_{2}H_{5}.

=EUCALYP′TIN.= A peculiar substance existing in Botany Bay kino. A substance exuded by several species of the Eucalyptus. It has been employed medicinally in diarrhœa.

=EUCALYPTOL.= See EUCALYPTUS.

=EUCALYPTUS.= The Eucalypti, of which there are many species, belong to the natural order Myrtaceæ, and are natives of Australia, where they are known under the names of “gum-trees,” or as “stringy-bark trees.” The most interesting and important characteristic of these plants is the power they undoubtedly possess of correcting, if not of removing, the pestilential exhalations which are regarded as the origin of the fevers that occur in marshy localities. This discovery is due to M. Ramel, and was made by him in 1856.

M. Gimbert, amongst other cases, cites one of a farm, twenty miles from Algiers, the atmosphere surrounding which was of a very pestilential character. In the spring of 1867 13,000 eucalyptus trees were planted on the farm, and M. Gimbert states that since then not a single case of fever has taken place, the freedom from disease occurring the same year the plants were placed in the ground, and the good effects commencing whilst the trees were only two or three mètres in height.

The following is extracted from ‘Les Mondes’ (1876):——“Between Nice and Monaco there is a locality so unhealthy that the Paris, Lyons, and Mediterranean Railway Company have been obliged to change every two or three months the watchman at a crossing there.

“Plantations of the eucalyptus have been formed there, and at present the same watchman has resided there for several months with his family without experiencing the least inconvenience.”

Again:——“In the Campagna, about three miles from Rome, there stand some deserted church buildings and a monastery, the latter having been abandoned because of the mortality amongst the monks caused by the noxious exhalations. Some six years since a company of French trappists, having obtained permission from the Italian Government, planted the grounds in and around the monastery with eucalyptus trees, and the result is stated to have been so total an immunity of the building from fever, although situated in the worst part of the Campagna, that the monastery is now tenanted, the health of the occupants being, it is said, unimpaired.”

The writer in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ who contributes this statement, adds:——“Whether this grand result has been obtained through the efficacy of the extract of the eucalyptus taken each morning with their cup of black coffee, or whether it is to be attributed to the effects of the plantations, I leave to scientific men to determine.”[284]

[Footnote 284: Bentley.]

It seems very probable that the effects above described are due to the eucalyptus having such extensive and far-spreading roots, which suck up and appropriate the moisture of the surrounding soil, the presence of which, aided by heat, giving rise to vegetable decomposition, is believed to be the cause of malarial poisoning.

The avidity of the plant for water is very great; it has been computed that one tree will absorb ten times its weight of moisture from the soil.[285] It is most likely owing, at any rate in very large measure, to this cause, rather than to the supposed antiseptic and disinfecting odours exhaled by its leaves, that the salubrious effects of the eucalyptus are due. The blue gum tree, or Eucalyptus globulus (so distinguished because of the rounded form of the lid which covers its unexpanded flower bud), has been successfully introduced into Asia, Africa, and Southern Europe. If, as asserted, it can only exist in a climate where the temperature is never lower than the freezing point, its domestication (save in hot-houses) is impossible in our own country.

[Footnote 285: ‘Pharm. Journal,’ February 5th, 1876.]

The Eucalyptus globulus is a very rapidly-growing tree, and attains to great proportions. “In some cases it has been known to attain the colossal dimensions of 350 feet in height and a 100 in circumference.”[286]

[Footnote 286: Bentley.]

This magnitude is entirely out of proportion to the size of the seed, which is very minute; so minute that it has been computed one pound weight of the seed could produce 162,000 trees. Various preparations of the leaves and bark of the eucalypti have been introduced into medicine, which will be found under the respective pharmaceutical preparations. They were asserted to be specially serviceable in intermittent fevers and bronchitis. The idea that their efficacy in the former class of disease was due to the presence in the barks of the eucalypti of an alkaloid similar to, if not the same as, quinine, has been shown to be an erroneous one, from the experiments of the Government chemist of Ootacamund (Mr Broughton), who, after a most careful chemical analysis, failed to discover either quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, cinchonidine, or the least trace of any one of the cinchona alkaloids.

When the leaves of the Eucalyptus globulus are held to the light they reveal the presence of little semi-transparent dots, which are found to be receptacles for a volatile oil, that may be obtained in large quantity by submitting the plant to aqueous distillation.

This volatile oil has been examined by Cloez, who found it to consist chiefly of a substance allied in chemical characters to camphor, which substance he named eucalyptol.[287] Any therapeutic power possessed by the eucalyptus may be referred to this substance, since, as just stated, it cannot be due to a bark alkaloid.

[Footnote 287: Messrs Faust and Homeyer state that Cloez’s “Eucalyptol” is a mixture of terpen and cymol.]

Before finishing our notice of the reputed curative effects of the eucalyptus we may mention that Dr Gimbert employs the leaves instead of lint for dressing wounds and fetid ulcers, and says he has found them, when thus used, excellent deodorisers; that another method of employing the leaves of the eucalyptus consists in having them made into cigarettes, which are reported to be useful in asthma and bronchial complaints. Lastly, let us state that another species of eucalyptus exudes a very astringent substance, which, from its appearance and properties, being so analogous to kino, has been denominated Botany Bay kino. (See EUCALYPTIN.)

The essential oil of eucalyptus, which, according to the species of the plant from which it is obtained, varies in colour from light yellow to light blue, is now largely employed as a diluent for the more delicate volatile oils used in perfumery.

Many species of the eucalyptus yield excellent timber, possessed of great hardness and durability, and little affected by moisture. This timber has the power of resisting the attacks of insects. The wood of the eucalyptus is also very rich in potash. The maple and the elm, which are regarded as yielding a large per-centage of this substance, afford only about half as much as can be obtained from the eucalyptus, this latter tree yielding 21 per cent. of potash.

The barks of different species have also been advantageously utilised for paper making, as well as for tanning.

In this country eucalyptus seeds are reared in a greenhouse. They may be sown in a mixture of loam, peat, and ordinary soil, with a sprinkling of sand on the surface.

The following directions for the cultivation of the eucalyptus in England were communicated to the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’ of 1873 by Mr Bennett Stanford, of Pyt House, Tisbury:——“I have successfully reared from seed two dozen of these trees, and they are now growing well out of doors. I obtained the seed five years ago from South Australia, and forced it in a hothouse; in one year it was four feet high, and now, in its fifth year, it is growing rapidly in a sheltered position in the park, having attained a height of thirty feet. The first three years the tree must be taken under cover in the winter, and the fourth and fifth years should be protected for several feet up with wisps of hay or straw. When the trees are kept indoors in winter it should be in an orangery or very high greenhouse, with plenty of light and a little water.”

=EUCHLO′′RINE.= A bright-yellow gas, prepared by gently heating chlorate of potassa with hydrochloric acid. It is probably a mixture of chlorous acid and free chlorine. Prof. Stone, of Manchester, has found Euchlorine of a great service as an aerial disinfectant.

=EUGLENÆ.= These are ciliated infusorial animalcules inhabiting ponds and water-tanks. Sometimes they abound in water in quantities so enormous as to impart to that fluid a blood-red appearance. The principal species are the Euglena viridis and the Euglena pyrum. Their presence is supposed to indicate the existence in the water in which they are found, of decaying animal and vegetable matter upon which they are believed to feed.

=EUPHOR′BIUM.= Syn. GUM EUPHORBIUM; EUPHORBIUM (Ph. E.), L. The concrete resinous juice of the Euphorbia canariensis, and other species of the same genus. It is a powerful acrid, purgative, rubefacient, sternutatory, and vesicant, and the violence of its action has led to its disuse.

=EU′PIONE.= An ethereal liquid forming the chief portion of the light oil of wood-tar, and which also exists in the tar obtained during the destructive distillation of animal substances, and in the fluid product of the distillation of rape oil. It is separated from these substances by agitating them with oil of vitriol, or a mixture of oil of vitriol and nitre, and subsequent cautious distillation. Pure eupione is tasteless, exceedingly thin, limpid, and aromatic; boils at 116° Fahr.; and is the lightest fluid known; sp. gr. ·655. It is very inflammable, burns with a very bright flame, and gives a transient greasy stain to paper. It is isomeric with hydride of amyl. Other volatile hydrocarbons of like origin are often confounded with eupione by chemical writers.

=EUPYR′ION.= Any contrivance for obtaining instantaneous light; as a lucifer match, &c.

=EVAC′UANTS.= Syn. EVACUANTIA, L. Medicines which augment the secretions or excretions. CATHARTICS, DIAPHORETICS, DIURETICS, EMETICS, ERRHINES, EXPECTORANTS, and SIALOGOGUES, belong to this class.

=EVAPORA′TION.= The conversion of a fluid into vapour by means of heat, diminished atmospheric pressure, or exposure to a dry atmosphere. Evaporation is had recourse to——1. For the vapour as a source of heat or power, as in the case of steam-boilers, &c.;——2. To separate volatile fluids from impurities or other bodies, which are either fixed or less volatile;——3. To recover solid bodies from their solutions, as in the preparation of extracts, chemical salts, &c.;——4. To concentrate or strengthen a solution by the expulsion of some of the fluid matter that forms the menstruum;——5. To purify liquids by the dissipation of the volatile matters which may contaminate them.

It is found that, under ordinary circumstances, evaporation is confined to the surface of the heated liquid, and is therefore slower or quicker, in proportion to the extension of that surface. Hence has arisen the adoption of wide, shallow vessels for containing fluids during their exposure to heat for this purpose. Evaporation proceeds most rapidly when a current of air (especially hot and dry air) is made to pass over the surface of the fluid; as, in this ease, the vapour is prevented from resting upon the surface, and impeding the process by its pressure. For a similar reason, liquids evaporate more rapidly in vessels partially covered than in open ones. In the former case the cool incumbent air condenses and throws back a portion of the vapour, which thereupon, besides its cooling action, offers mechanical resistance to the diffusion of the vaporous particles as they arrive at the surface of the liquid. In the latter case these obstacles are avoided, and the impetus of the vapour pouring forth from a contracted orifice (or pipe), not only readily overcomes the pressure of the atmosphere, but offers less surface for its cooling action, until it has passed much beyond the points at which it can exert any influence on the fluid from which it has escaped. In this way the chemical action of the atmosphere on the liquid operated on is also considerably lessened. On the small scale, shallow capsules of glass, wedgwood-ware, porcelain, or metal, are commonly employed as evaporating vessels, and these are exposed to heat by placing them over a lamp, or naked fire, or in a water bath, or sand bath, according to the temperature at which it is proper to conduct the process. On the large scale, high-pressure steam is usually employed as the source of heat. The term ‘spontaneous evaporation’ is applied to the dissipation of a fluid by mere exposure in open vessels, at the common temperature of the atmosphere, and without the application of artificial heat. The celerity of this species of evaporation wholly depends on the degree of humidity of the surrounding air, and differs from the former, in which the rate of evaporation is proportionate to the degree of heat at which the process is conducted, and the amount of pressure upon the surface of the liquid. Evaporation ‘in vacuo’ (as it is called) is conducted under the receiver of an air-pump, or in an attenuated atmosphere, produced by filling a vessel with steam, by which means the air is expelled, when all communication with the external atmosphere is cut off, and the vapour condensed by the application of cold. Fluids are also evaporated in air-tight receivers over sulphuric acid, by which they are continually exposed to the action of a very dry atmosphere. When such a receiver is connected with an air-pump in action, evaporation proceeds with increased rapidity, and intense cold is produced. It appears, from the experiments of Dr Ure, that “if the bottom of a pan, and the portion of the sides immersed in a hot fluid medium (solution of chloride of calcium, for example), be corrugated, so as to contain a double expanse of metallic surface, that pan will evaporate exactly double the quantity of water, in a given time, which a like pan, with smooth bottom and sides, will do, immersed equally deep in the same bath. If the corrugation contain three times the quantity of metallic surface, the evaporation will be threefold in the above circumstances. But if the pan, with the same corrugated bottom and sides, be set over a fire, or in an oblong flue, so that the current of flame may sweep along the corrugations, it will evaporate no more water from its interior than a smooth pan of like shape and dimensions placed alongside it in the same flue, or over the same fire.”

In the laboratory, steam heat is now almost exclusively employed. Copper, or tinned, glazed, or silvered coppered pans, boilers, and stills, are surrounded by a ‘jacket’ of cast iron, and high-pressure steam admitted between the two. By due management of the supply-cock, a range of temperature may be thus obtained extending from about 90° to 325° Fahr.

It is found that, under ordinary circumstances, 10 square feet of heated surface will evaporate fully 1 lb. of water per minute; and that a thin copper tube exposing 10 feet surface will condense about 3 lbs. of steam per minute, with a difference of temperature of about 90° Fahr. This is equal to 30° Fahr. per lb.; and, consequently, the heat of the steam employed to produce the evaporation should be 212° + 30° = 242° Fahr.

An attention to the facts and principles thus briefly explained above will be found of great value in the laboratory.

=EXCIP′IENT.= See PRESCRIPTION.

=EXCI′TANTS.= See STIMULANTS.

=EXCORIA′TIONS.= Syn. Sprays, CHAFINGS.

In surgery and pathology, superficial injuries or affections of the skin, consisting of the removal of the scarf-skin or cuticle, accompanied with more or less irritation and slight inflammations. When arising from rough friction or attrition, they are more commonly called abrasions. Young children are very apt to be chafed under the arms, behind the ears, between the thighs, and in the wrinkles and folds of the skin generally, unless great attention is paid to cleanliness, and wiping the skin perfectly dry after washing them. Whenever there is a tendency to excoriations of this kind, either in adults or children, a little finely powdered starch, or violet powder, applied by means of a puff, or a small bag of muslin, once or twice a day, will generally remove them, and prevent their occurrence in future. Mild unguents, as cold cream, or spermaceti cerate or ointment, may also be used with advantage. The preference should, however, be given to the remedies first named, from their not soiling the linen. See ABRASION.

=EXCRETA.= The excrementitious matter evacuated from the bowels varies of course in composition and quantity according to the food from which it is derived.

Berzelius found a sample analysed by himself to yield about seventy-five per cent. of water, the remainder being made up of alimentary waste, and biliary matter. A large amount of phosphates of calcium and magnesium was found in the ash remaining after the incineration of the solid matter. A specimen of fæcal matter examined by Playfair yielded 15 per cent. of nitrogen and 45 per cent. of carbon. Marcet states that he has obtained from excrement a crystallisable body possessing an alkaline reaction; to which he gives the name excretin; also a fatty substance, which he terms excretolic acid. To excretin he assigns the formula C_{7}{8}H{1}{5}{6}SO_{2}; the composition of the acid has not been determined.

Hinterberger has succeeded in getting excretine (excretin), free from sulphur, and gives as its simplest formula C_{2}{0}H{3}{6}O; which shows a close resemblance to cholesterin, C{2}{6}H{4}_{4}O.

But cholesterin is less easily dissolved in vinegar than excretin, and the solution deposits crystals which, when viewed by the microscope, are found to be beautiful silky six-sided prisms, while the excretin solution yields round masses.

Treated with bromine, excretin gave a crystalline body having the formula C_{2}{0}H{3}{4}Br{2}O; but the author did not succeed in preparing a chlorinated compound of excretin.

In the excreta of carnivorous animals no excretin has been discovered, although a substance resembling it has been found. Cholesterin has been obtained from the fæces of the crocodile, but no urates; whilst the excreta of the boa contain urates, but are destitute of cholesterin.

The fæces of animals that live on vegetables contain neither excretin, butyric acid, nor cholesterin.

The excreta of birds and serpents, which mixed with the secretion from the kidneys, are discharged from the animals by the cavities, are very similar to urine, and consist chiefly of alkaline urates and earthy phosphates.

The excrements of insects consist mainly of the remnants of the tissues, animal or vegetable which they have swallowed as food, mixed with constituents of the urine, provided the insect has no special urinary organs.

Briéger examined the fæces of healthy persons, and of convalescents, and found in addition to acetic, butyric, and isobutyric acids, small quantities of phenol and indol, and a new crystallisable body, which he terms skatol (skatos, fæces). It crystallises in irregular-dentate shining plates, resembling indol, which by frequent recrystallisation from hot water, can be obtained snow white. Skatol forms the chief constituent of the volatile aromatic components of human fæces. Fæces of dogs (whether fed on meat or bread diet) contained no skatol, but indol, and in addition a yellow oil, with a revolting and peculiarly irritating smell.

Briéger has not yet been able to analyse this yellow oil, although it forms the chief volatile constituent of dogs’ fæces. He has repeatedly obtained it from distillation from human pathological fluids. In the pancreas after putrefaction, and in the fæces of typhus patients, no skatol was found. The author considers skatol identical with the substance which Secretan obtained by the decomposition of egg albumen under water for six months.

Skatol injected under the skin of rabbits, passes out in the urine as a substance yielding colouring matter. Skatol is believed by the author to be the substance in human urine which, according to Jaffé, yields a red or violet colour on the addition of hydrochloric acid and chloride of lime.

Phenol, the author finds, is a constant component of human fæces. The above results show that specific products of decomposition are normal components of intestinal digestion.[288]

[Footnote 288: ‘Deut. Chem. Ges. Berg.,’ x, 1027-1031.]

Liebig calculated that the daily average amount of fæcal matter passed by a man is 5-1/2 oz; Lawes says that it averages in healthy male adults, 4·2 oz; Parkes estimates it (in Europe) at 4 oz. on the average; Letheby at 2·784, and Frankland at 3 oz. In India, a native on the average excretes as much as 12 oz., this increase over the above quantities being due to the large proportion of rice and farinaceous food of which the Hindoos’ diet consists.

The daily average amount of urine excreted by a human being has been given by Lawes at 46 oz.; Parkes places it at 50 oz. by measure for each male adult; Letheby at 31·851, and Frankland at nearly 40 oz. by measure. According to Parkes’ figures a population of a thousand persons, would thus void daily 156 lbs. of solids, and 260 gallons of urine; or 25 tons of fæces, and 91,250 gallons of urine per annum; whilst according to Letheby, from the same number of people, the daily discharge would be 2266 lbs. avoirdupois of urine and 177·5 lbs. of fæces.

Messrs Lawes and Gilbert estimate the manurial value of the urine and fæces together at 6s. 8d. per annum for every individual, which corresponds to a yearly produce of about 10 lbs. of ammonia; but Messrs Hoffman, Witt, and Thudichum assess it at 8s. 6d. for a mixed population of both sexes and of all ages, which they say represents about 13 lbs. of ammonia.

Fæcal matter decomposes much more rapidly when mixed with urine than it would otherwise do, ammonia and fetid gases being given off in considerable quantities. Should much water be also present, and the temperature moderately high, light carburetted hydrogen, carbonic anhydride, nitrogen, and sulphuretted hydrogen are likewise evolved.

Unless human excreta be effectually as well as speedily removed from the dwellings, streets, &c., of a community, that community will assuredly pay the penalty of their neglect in the shape of health seriously endangered and deteriorated. If this be so with healthy evacuations, the peril becomes considerably intensified when the excreta are discharged by patients labouring under contagious or many other diseases. See URINE, SEWAGE.

=EX′ERCISE= is essential to the healthy performance of the functions of both body and mind. Without it, the stomach acts feebly, the bowels become inactive, and the circulation of the blood languid and imperfect; the chest contracts, the respiration becomes impeded, the brain is insufficiently supplied with pure arterial blood, the mind grows lethargic, the complexion assumes a sickly and effeminate hue, and the features generally lack the energy and expression which they possess in perfect health. With exercise, the bodily functions are performed with vigour and regularity, the constitution is thereby strengthened, and the attacks of disease repelled. By exercise the mind too is excited to healthy action, its gloomy reveries are dispelled, and the fair face of creation is presented to the mind’s eye in its proper hues. It robs undue mental exertion of half its injurious effects upon the body, whilst it stimulates and directs it in its proper course. It improves the temper, and humanises the character. The disposition is refined, the passions restrained, violent emotions checked, the habits improved, and the personal charms promoted under the stimulus of judicious exercise.

To females, bodily exercise is even more necessary than to males. The disposition and education of females are such as tend to produce habits of sloth and indolence to a greater degree than in the other sex. Hence to them exercise is doubly important——it is inseparable from health. The more retiring dispositions of females lead them almost unconsciously into habits of inactivity, which, above all, they should endeavour to shake off and avoid. By so doing——by replacing habits of indolence and inactivity by liveliness and moderate exercise, the development of the body will be promoted, additional grace and elegance imparted to its natural movements, and the enjoyments arising from both mental and bodily health increased, whilst disease and deformity will be prevented by the removal of their cause.

The necessity of exercise exists equally in every grade of society and age of life. Those who are engaged in sedentary employments or in-door occupations, should particularly seek refreshing out-door exercise during the periods of relaxation from their diurnal duties. To the studious and delicate of both sexes, this is absolutely necessary to preserve the health and vigour of the body.

In infancy, exercise of a suitable kind should be almost the constant occupation of the little beings that claim our protection and care. It should, however, be always borne in mind, that the muscular exercise of very young children must be of the gentlest class. Prejudice and ignorance frequently induce nurses and parents to teach their children to walk, as they falsely call it, and thus their feeble limbs are urged to make premature efforts to totter along, before the bones and muscles have acquired sufficient strength to support the body in an erect position. From this course the legs and joints frequently become bent and misshapened, and severe injuries are often inflicted on the head and body by blows and falls. It should never be forgotten, that crawling and rolling are their first modes of progression, and require the least exertion. Next comes the sitting posture; from this the child gradually advances to the erect one; then to walk by slight assistance; and, lastly, to walk safely alone. All this should come naturally, and never be promoted, further than by laying the infant on the carpet or floor, for the full exercise of its little strength. As soon as a healthy child is able to walk instead of crawl, its own disposition induces it to do so. The faculty of imitation, the spirit of enterprise, and the pride of doing what others do, present even in infancy, is rather apt to lead the infant to over-exertion than the contrary. The practice of constantly ‘dolling’ children in the arms is most prejudicial to the early development of their feeble powers.

It is injudicious to take an infant out during the hottest part of the day in summer; such a proceeding tends to enervate and depress, rather than to strengthen him. Whenever he goes out his head should be protected from the direct rays of the sun by means of a large brimmed hat made of cotton or straw and an umbrella. The neglect of these precautions frequently gives rise to the disordered stomach, sickness, and diarrhœa, so prevalent during very hot weather. During other periods of the day, the weather being favorable and the locality healthy, an infant cannot be too much out of doors, especially during teething.

Infants of three or four months’ old may, under certain precautions, be sent out into the open air during the winter. They must be well wrapped up; they should be carried in the nurse’s arms, and not consigned to a perambulator; they should never go out in foggy nor wet weather; if the wind be neither in the east nor the north-east there will be no objection to their being sent out on a clear frosty day. Spring is a trying period for infants and children, because of the prevalence of east winds; hence the necessity of seeing that they are well and warmly clad when sent out during this season. There is much less danger of a child taking cold during the autumn than the spring, as in autumn the winds frequently blow from the south, or warm quarter.

In childhood the exercise should be regulated according to constitution and age; avoiding inactivity, on the one hand, and excessive exercise on the other. The out-door plays and pastimes of BOYS will generally be found sufficient, and in some cases will even require to be curbed, to prevent fatigue and the overtasking of the young frame. With girls it is frequently difficult to find sufficient exercise without trespassing on the prejudices of the ignorant, or the routine of their daily education. With them walking, and some healthy amusement, as skipping, hooping, or the like, should be indulged in for some hours daily. When this is impossible or inconvenient, they may be habituated to the practice of the more simply and cleanly portion of the domestic duties. In the performance of the latter, the health will be promoted, whilst the care and attention which is always due by a female to herself and others, at all periods of her life, will become an easy acquisition, and assist the cultivation of the best feelings of her nature.

In youth exercise matures and promotes the development of the frame; and in manhood it is equally necessary, as already noticed, to keep it in healthy action. In age it will be found to assist the vital functions, and put off decay. In fact, to all——young, old, rich, and poor, physical exercise is essential to the permanent enjoyment of health.

In a medical point of view, “exercise, employed moderately, has a tonic and stimulating influence on the system, and is calculated to prove beneficial in a great variety of complaints. Used immoderately, it exhausts both the mental and bodily powers, and produces great debility.” (Pereira.) Well-directed exercise favours the preservation of the general health, by calling into direct action the majority of the organs of the body; and it also acts powerfully on the skin, by stimulating its functions, increasing its temperature, awakening its tone, and subjecting it to a current of atmosphere favorable to its respiratory offices. But to be beneficial in the highest degree, exercise must be accompanied by feelings of present interest and enjoyment. The mind must direct and go with it; to ensure its full benefits, the “soul must be present.”

“During convalescence, properly regulated exertion is highly serviceable; but it should never be carried so far as to produce exhaustion, and should be pursued for some time in doors, before it be attempted in the open air; the latter, at first, should always take place in a carriage, that can be opened or closed at will; the patient may then attempt short walks in the open air; but, in all cases, it is of importance that he is not unduly fatigued, as, otherwise, injury instead of benefit will be the result. One of the most serious errors, committed with regard to exertion, is that of permitting a convalescent to sit up too frequently, or for too long a time, under the mistaken notion of giving him strength. A patient should never be allowed to sit up longer than is agreeable to his feelings, and never so long as to produce a sense of fatigue.” (Dr R. E. Griffith.)

The physiological effects of exercise have been studied by numerous scientific observers. The carefully conducted experiments of Dr Edward Smith have satisfactorily demonstrated that during bodily exertion the circulation of the blood through the lungs is much increased in velocity, that these latter inspire air and eliminate carbonic anhydride in quantities proportionate to the exercise taken, and that these quantities show an enormous increase over the amounts of these gases inhaled and exhaled during a state of rest.

Adopting the recumbent position as unity, Dr Edward Smith has given the following table, illustrating the quantities of air inhaled during various forms of exercise:

Lying position 1· Sitting 1·18 Standing 1·33 Singing 1·26 Walking 1 mile per hour 1·90 Walking 2 miles per hour 2·76 Walking 3 miles per hour 3·22 Walking and carrying 34 lbs. 3·50 Walking and carrying 62 lbs. 3·84 Walking and carrying 118 lbs. 4·75 Walking at 4 miles per hour 5· Walking at 6 miles per hour 7· Riding and trotting 4·05 Swimming 4·33 Treadmill 5·50

Since a man takes into his lungs 480 cubic inches of air per minute, in walking four miles an hour he draws in 2400 cubic inches, and if six miles 3260 cubic inches a minute.[289]

[Footnote 289: Parkes.]

Dr Smith estimated the amount of carbonic anhydride evolved under differing conditions, and found that——

Carbonic acid exhaled per minute in grains. During sleep 4·99 Lying down, and almost asleep (average of three observations) 5·91 Walking at the rate of 2 miles an hour 18·10 Walking at the rate of 3 miles an hour 25·83 Working at the treadmill, ascending at the rate of 26·65 feet per minute (average of three observations) 44·97

The relative amounts of carbonic anhydride eliminated from the lungs during periods of rest and exercise have also been investigated by Pettenkofer and Voit. The following table, which gives the results of their experiments, also records the quantities of oxygen absorbed, and of water and urea excreted at the same time:——

----------------------------------------------------------- | | Elimination in Grammes of—— | |Absorption|------------------------------| |of Oxygen | | | | | in |Carbonic| Water. | Urea. | |Grammes. | Acid. | | | |-----------------------------------------| Rest-day. | 708·9 | 911·5 | 828·0 | 37·2 | Work-day. | 954·5 | 1284·2 | 2042·1 | 37·0 | | | | | | Excess on | } | | | | work-day | } | | | | (with exception| } 246·6 | 372·7 | 1214·1 | 0·2 | of urea) | } | | | | -----------------------------------------------------------

If the quantities in the above table be converted into ounces it will be found that nearly 8-3/4 oz. more oxygen were absorbed and 13 oz. more of carbonic anhydride eliminated by the lungs during a work-day than during a rest-day.[290] It must be stated that during the work-day an interval of rest was taken, and that the labour was by no means excessive.

[Footnote 290: Parkes.]

Hirn and Speck appear to have conclusively proved that the formation of the carbonic anhydride occurs in the muscles, and that it is rapidly carried off from them. In short, this latter result seems essential for the development of muscular energy. At any rate it is found that if the respiratory movements be in any way interfered with during exercise, and the elimination of carbonic anhydride in any degree checked, the muscular power rapidly diminishes.

An examination of Pettenkofer and Voit’s table shows that exercise gives rise to the escape of a large amount of water from the body, and to a slightly diminished quantity of urea.

Since the accumulation of the superfluous carbon supplied by the food gives rise to morbid and diseased states of the body,[291] we shall now be enabled to understand why deficient exercise should be a source of physical ill-being, and why, on the contrary, the proper use of the muscles should be so essential a condition for the maintenance of health, since it is in them that the great formation of the eliminated carbon is effected. We shall also not fail to see why, since during exercise the excretion of water is so largely increased, the blood necessarily becomes less diluted and richer in quantity.

[Footnote 291: “Deficient exercise is one of the causes which produce those nutritional alterations in the lung which we class as tuberculosis.”——PARKES.]

Whilst insufficiency of exercise gives rise to a weak action of the heart, and very frequently to fatty degeneration of that organ, exercise that is not excessive, although it increases the beats of the heart from ten to thirty beyond this acceleration, and imparting greater force to the pulsations, does not interfere with their regularity. Furthermore, muscular exercise, by considerably augmenting the flow of the blood through the whole body, the heart included, exercises a most beneficial function, “since it causes in all organs a more rapid outflow of plasma and absorption——in other words, a quicker renewal. In this way also it removes the products of their action, which accumulate in organs, and restores the power of action to various parts of the body.”[292]

[Footnote 292: Parkes.]

Palpitation, enlargement, and valvular disease of the heart result from excessive or injudicious exercise. Wherever, therefore, fatigue or embarrassment of the heart shows itself rest must be had recourse to. Persons having weak hearts suffer greatly in ascending mountain or other heights.

The effect of exercise upon the kidneys is to diminish the quantity of water, as well as the chloride of sodium and other chlorides in the urine. As we have seen, the urea is very slightly lower; but after much exertion the uric acid is increased. There is also a slight increase in the amounts of sulphates and carbonic anhydride. Parkes could find no alteration in the phosphates. The diminution of water and the chlorides is due to the excretion of these by the skin, the function of which is greatly augmented by exercise. No urea escapes by the skin, but many acids (probably fatty ones) are liberated by that organ. Speck has shown that during exercise the amount of fluid is nearly double what it is when the body is quiescent.

This escape of fluid by perspiration doubtless affords an explanation of a diminution in the quantity of the excreta from the bowels. The fæces exhibit no decrease in nitrogen.

Exercise increases the growth of the muscles, making them at the same time harder, and also causing them to obey more readily the behests of the will. Prolonged or excessive exertion, without sufficient rest, has been found to interfere with their nutrition, and to cause them to become soft.

There is a tolerably general impression that much exercise tends to cripple the development of the mental faculties, and this idea is said to have received support from the circumstance that the athletes at our universities seldom signalise themselves in contests of learning. But this fact, it has been suggested, may be explained by the athletic exercise being indulged in to such an extent as to leave no time for cultivating the mind. If an illustration were required to prove that great bodily energy is quite consonant with mental vigour it might be found in the life of the late Professor Wilson, of Edinburgh. On this point Dr Parkes says: “Considering that perfect nutrition is not possible except with bodily activity, we should infer that sufficient exercise would be necessary for the perfect performance of mental work.”

As regards the changes that take place in the muscles during exercise Dr Parkes writes: “The chief changes that take place in the muscles during action appear to be these: there is a considerable increase of temperature (Helmholtz), which, up to a certain point, is proportioned to the amount of work; it is also proportioned to the kind, being less when the muscle is allowed to shorten than if prevented from shortening (Heidenhain); the neutral or alkaline reaction of the tranquil muscle becomes acid from para-lactic acid and acid potassium phosphate; the venous blood passing from the muscles becomes much darker in colour, is much less rich in oxygen, and contains much more carbonic acid (Sczelkow); the extractive matters soluble in water lessen, those soluble in alcohol increase (Helmholtz, in frogs); the amount of water increases (in tetanus, J. Ranke), and the blood is consequently poorer in water; the amount of albumen in tetanus is less, according to Ranke, but Kühne has pointed out that the numbers do not justify the inference.”

Liebig stated that the creatin is increased (but this was an inference from old observations on the extractum carnis of hunted animals, and requires confirmation). Sarokin has stated the same fact in respect to the frog. The electro-motor currents show a decided diminution during contraction.

That great molecular changes go on in the contracting muscles is certain, but their exact nature is not clear; according to Ludimar Hermann there is a jelly-like separation and coagulation of the myosin, and then a resumption of its prior form, so that there is a continual splitting of the muscular structure into a myosin coagulum, carbonic acid, and a free acid, and this constitutes the main molecular movement. But no direct evidence has been given of this.

The increased heat, the great amount of carbonic acid, and the disappearance of oxygen, combined with the respiratory phenomena already noted, all seem to show that an active oxidation goes on; and it is very probable that this is the source of the muscular action. The oxidation may be conceived to take place in two ways——either during rest oxygen is absorbed and stored up in the muscles, and gradually acts there, producing a substance which, when the muscle contracts, splits up into lactic acid, carbonic acid, &c.; or, on the other hand, during the contraction an increased absorption of oxygen goes on in the blood, and acts on the muscles, or on the substances in the blood circulating through the muscles. The first view is strengthened by some of Pettenkofer and Voit’s experiments, which show that during rest a certain amount of storage of oxygen goes on, which no doubt in part occurs in the muscles themselves.

Indeed, it has been inferred that it is this stored-up oxygen, and not that breathed in at the time, which is used in muscular action. The increased oxidation gives us a reason why the nitrogenous food must be increased during periods of great exertion.

An increase in the supply of oxygen is a necessity for increased muscular action; but Pettenkofer and Voit’s observations have shown that the absorption of oxygen is dependent on the amount and action of the nitrogenous structures of the body, so that, as a matter of course, if more oxygen is required for increased muscular work, more nitrogenous food is necessary. But, apart from this, although experiments on the amount of nitrogenous elimination show no very great change on the whole, there is no doubt that, with constant regular exercise, a muscle enlarges, becomes thicker, heavier, contains more solid matter, and, in fact, has gained in nitrogen. This process may be slow, but it is certain; and the nitrogen must either be supplied by increased food, or be taken from other parts.

So that, although we do not know the exact changes going on in the muscles, it is regarded as certain that regular exercise produces in them an addition of nitrogenous tissue.

Whether this addition occurs, as usually believed, in the period of rest succeeding action, when in some unexplained way the destruction which it is presumed has taken place is not only repaired, but is exceeded (a process difficult to understand), or whether the addition of nitrogen is actually made during the action of the muscle, must be left undecided for the present.

The substances which are thus oxidised in the muscle or in the blood circulating through it, and from which the energy manifested as heat or muscular movement is believed to be derived, may probably be of different kinds. Under ordinary circumstances the experiments of Fick and Wislicenus and others, and the arguments of Traube, seem sufficient to show that the non-nitrogenous substances, and perhaps especially the fats, furnish the chief substances acted upon. But it is probable that the nitrogenous substances also furnish a contingent of force. The exact mode in which the energy thus liberated by oxidation is made to assume the form of mechanical motion is quite obscure.

There seems little doubt that the exhaustion of muscles is chiefly owing to two causes——first and principally to the accumulation in them of the products of their own action (especially para-lactic acid); and secondly, from the exhaustion of the supply of oxygen. Hence rest is necessary, in order that the blood may neutralise and carry away the products of action, so that the muscle may recover its neutrality and its normal electrical currents, and may again acquire oxygen in sufficient quantity for the next contraction.

In the case of all muscles these intervals of action and of exhaustion take place, in part even of the period which is called exercise; but the rest is not sufficient entirely to restore it. In the case of the heart the rest between the contractions (about two thirds of the time) is sufficient to allow the muscle to perfectly recover itself.

The foregoing remarks on the effects of muscular exercise will have prepared us for the inference which statistics abundantly support, viz. that, other conditions being favorable, the healthiest occupation is that which consists in the practice (of course within reasonable limits) of manual labour in the open air.

The Rev. Professor Haughton, in his work entitled ‘A New Theory of Manual Labour,’ has drawn up a table (which we append) of the amount of force expended during various kinds of work. It represents the number of tons lifted one foot per diem:——

Professor Haughton has devised a formula by means of which a certain amount of walking exercise may be made to represent its equivalent in manual labour. He points out that walking on a level surface is equivalent to raising one twentieth part of the weight of the body through the distance walked.

When ascending any height, the whole weight of the body is, of course, raised through the ascent. The formula is——

(W + W_{l}) × D --------------- 20 × 2240

where W is the weight of the person; W_{l} the weight carried (if any); D the distance walked in feet; 20 the co-efficient of traction; and 2240 the number of pounds in a ton. The result is the number of tons raised one foot. To get the distance in feet 5280 must be multiplied by the number of miles walked.

Supposing a man to weigh 150 lbs. with his clothes, by the employment of the above formula we should arrive at the following results:——

+----------------------+------------+ | |Work done in| | Kind of Exercise. |tons lifted | | | 1 foot. | +----------------------+------------+ | Walking 1 mile | 17·67 | +----------------------+------------+ | Walking 2 miles | 35·34 | +----------------------+------------+ | Walking 10 miles | 176·7 | +----------------------+------------+ | Walking 20 miles | 353·4 | +----------------------+------------+ | Walking 1 mile | | | and carrying 60 lbs.| 24·75 | +----------------------+------------+ | Walking 2 miles | | | and carrying 60 lbs.| 49·5 | +----------------------+------------+ | Walking 10 miles | | | and carrying 60 lbs.| 247·5 | +----------------------+------------+ | Walking 20 miles | | | and carrying 60 lbs.| 495 | +----------------------+------------+

From the above data something like a rough approximation may be formed of the daily amount of exercise requisite for a healthy male adult.

Since 500 tons lifted a foot is extremely hard work, the number of miles corresponding to this extreme amount of labour would, if persevered in, be objectionable.

Dr Parkes, regarding 300 tons lifted a foot as an average day’s work for a healthy man, thinks that walking exercise equivalent to half that amount should be taken daily. This, or a 150 tons, represents a nine miles’ walk. He, however, qualifies the suggestion by adding “that, as there is much exertion taken in the ordinary business of life, this amount may be in many cases reduced;” and concludes by saying, “It is not possible to lay down rules to meet all cases, but probably every man with the above facts before him could fix the amount necessary for himself with tolerable accuracy.”

For muscular exercise to be safe and efficient, it must be taken under certain conditions and precautions. We have noticed the evil effects of immoderate bodily exertion on the heart. The lungs are no less seriously affected by an excessive indulgence in it, which shows itself in spitting of blood and in congestion of the pulmonary vessels. Congestion of the lungs brought on by overtaxed bodily strength very frequently causes the death of horses in the hunting field.

These facts, therefore, not only point to the importance of avoiding undue or extreme exertion,[293] but also to the necessity of ensuring the full and uncramped play of the respiratory organs during exercise, and the consequent removal of any impediment in the way of tight clothing that in any manner interferes with their freedom of exercise. Laboured respiration and sighing are indications of pulmonary congestion, and counsel temporary rest and abstention from exercise.

[Footnote 293: “There must be proper intervals of rest, or the store of oxygen, and of the material in the muscles which is to be metamorphosed during contraction, cannot take place.”

——PARKES.]

The great augmentation in the excretion of carbon which leaves the lungs in the form of carbonic anhydride during exercise has been already referred to. As this carbon is derived from the food, it follows that in the intervals of exercise an increase of carbonaceous diet is necessary. For this purpose physiologists prefer the fatty to the amylaceous varieties of diet. It has been already stated why at the same time the nitrogenous food must be increased during periods of great exertion. There seems little doubt that water is the best drink that can be taken during moderate as well as great exercise.... It is best taken in small quantities and frequently. Spirits are decidedly prejudicial, and indispose to bodily exertion. They are hurtful because they lessen the exhalation of carbonic anhydride from the lungs. Trainers never allow them, and but very little wine or beer.

The thirst that not unfrequently accompanies exercise is due to the great escape of water from the skin which has been already alluded to. This liberation of moisture, being also accompanied, as already explained, by a large excretion of the chlorides and, perhaps, by other salts. Dr Parkes advises the use of an additional supply of chloride of sodium to the diet of those taking much exercise; he suggests that probably potassium chloride and phosphate might be added with advantage.

The evaporation from the skin has the effect of reducing the bodily temperature and rendering it equable. This temperature, however, falls very rapidly after exertion is over; and hence at this time it is always advisable to guard against the chance of a chill by covering the body over. Flannel forms the best protection. Keeping the skin clean by daily ablution greatly aids in the escape of fluid during exercise.

The large amount of carbonic anhydride given off by the lungs during bodily exercise explains the advantages of open air exercise, and why walking in the fresh air produces such excellent effects in some forms of dyspepsia. This increased exhalation of carbonic anhydride also points to the importance of thorough ventilation when indoor exercise is taken, particularly by large bodies of men or women, as in riding schools and on the treadmill. The mortality amongst miners, whose labour is performed in confined and ill-ventilated spaces is very great. According to Mr Simon, with the exception of those who work in the well-ventilated mines of Durham and Northumberland, the 300,000 miners in England break down prematurely from bronchitis and pneumonia, caused by the atmosphere in which they are compelled to work.

=EXPAN′SION.= All substances, solid, liquid, and gaseous, when chemical change does not take place, expand by heat, and contract by cold. In some of them this property occurs in a greater degree than in others, but is constant for the same substance under the same circumstances. The chemist avails himself of this property in the construction of his thermometer; the wheelwright, in fixing on the tire of his wheels; the engineer, in restoring to the perpendicular the leaning walls of buildings, &c.

This expansion by heat is of great importance in the manufactures, as allowance has to be made of it in every purpose where metals are employed.

The following is a list of the expansion of the chief metals, &c., when heated from 32° to 212° Fahr., or from 0° to 100° Cent.:——

Substance. Expansion. In bulk. In length. Glass 1 in 384 1 in 1150 Platinum 1 in 377 1 in 1311 Steel 1 in 309 1 in 926 Iron 1 in 282 1 in 846 Gold 1 in 227 1 in 682 Copper 1 in 194 1 in 582 Brass 1 in 179 1 in 536 Silver 1 in 175 1 in 524 Tin 1 in 172 1 in 516 Lead 1 in 117 1 in 351 Zinc 1 in 113 1 in 340

Of the liquids, they expand as follows, when heated from 0° to 100° Cent., or from 32° to 212° Fahr.:——

Mercury 1 in 55 in bulk. Water 1 in 21 in bulk.

Gases practically all expand alike; that is to say, for every degree Fahrenheit a gas expands 1/491 of its bulk at 32°, and for every degree Centigrade 1/273 of their volume at 0°C.

An example will show the importance of this. Suppose an iron bar, connecting two sides of a building, and of a length of about 85 feet. The increase in length by heat of this bar would make it 1 inch longer in summer than in winter; and it would, if no allowance be made, pull or thrust the walls to this extent each year.

=EXPEC′TORANTS.= Syn. EXPECTORANTIA, L. Medicines that promote the secretion of the trachial and bronchial mucus. According to Dr Good, true expectorants are “those medicines which rather promote the separation of the viscid phlegm with which the bronchiæ are loaded, than simply inviscate and dilute it; though these are also treated as expectorants by many writers.” Ammoniacum, antimonials, assafœtida, the balsams of Peru and tolu, benzoic acid, benzoin; the fumes of vinegar, tar, and several of the volatile oils; garlic, ipecacuanha, the oleo-resins, squills, tartarised antimony, and the smoke of tobacco and stramonium, are among the principal substances commonly called expectorants. Tartarised antimony, squills, chlorine, and ammoniacal gases, have also been used (diluted) to provoke the coughing and favour the expulsion of foreign bodies from the air-passages; and also to favour the expectoration of mucus, pus, and membranous concretions, when the local irritation is not sufficiently great. (Schwilgue.) Expectorants are commonly employed in pulmonary complaints and affections of the air tubes, attended by a vitiated state of the mucus, or an imperfect performance of the natural functions of the secretory vessels. “Of all classes of the materia medica, none are more uncertain in their action than expectorants.” (Pereira.) The act of ejecting matter from the chest is called EXPECTORATION.

=EXPER′IMENTS= are acts or operations intended to develop some unknown fact, principle, or effect; or to establish or demonstrate it, when discovered. Similar operations, performed merely for amusement, are also often, though incorrectly, called by this name. In rational experiments these two objects are combined. To experimental research is due the present high state of advancement and usefulness of the various sciences most intimately connected with our happiness and well-being. The danger of taking things for granted has been thus pleasantly and instructively pointed out by Archbishop Whately:——“It was objected to the system of Copernicus, when first brought forward, that if the earth turned on its axis, as he represented, a stone dropped from the summit of a tower would not fall at the foot of it, but at a great distance to the west; in the same manner as a stone dropped from the masthead of a ship in full sail does not fall at the foot of the mast, but towards the stern. To this it was answered, that a stone, being a part of the earth, obeys the same laws, and moves with it; whereas it is no part of the ship, of which, consequently, its motion is independent. The solution was admitted by some, but opposed by others; and the controversy went on with spirit; nor was it till one hundred years after the death of Copernicus that, the experiment being tried, it was ascertained that the stone, thus dropped from the head of the mast, does fall at the foot of it.”

=EXPORTATION.= (EXPORTATION ON DRAWBACK.) By law, a certain allowance, or drawback of duty, is payable on certain articles, when exported from any part of the United Kingdom, either as merchandise or ship stores. Thus:——

SUGAR, refined in the United Kingdom, from 4_s._ to 6_s._ per cwt., according to quality.

TOBACCO, manufactured in the United Kingdom, 3_s._ 3_d._ per lb. The full drawback is only allowed on normal tobacco, which contains 13 per cent. of moisture. If the moisture exceeds 13 per cent., a proportionate reduction is made in the drawback; if it is found less than 13 per cent., a proportionate increase is granted.

SNUFF is entitled to drawback at 3_s._ 3_d._ per lb., subject, however, to an increase if the moisture is less than 13 per cent., and the inorganic matter not over 18 per cent., and to a decrease if the moisture in organic matter exceeds these per-centages.

BEER. The amount of this drawback is proportional to the quantity of malt or sugar used in the brewing of the beer, and is nearly equivalent to the duty originally paid on such malt or sugar. It is computed according to the following scale:——For every barrel, or 36 gallons of beer, the original gravity of which was not less than 1040°, a drawback of 4_s._ 3_d._, and for every additional 5 degrees, from 1040° to 1125° inclusive, a further sum of 6_d._ per barrel.

SOLIDIFIED WORTS, made by a licensed brewer, from malt or sugar, or malt and sugar, a drawback of 2_s._ 10-5/100_d._ per 28 lbs.

MALT. Under certain restrictions, a drawback of the duty charged, after deducting 7-1/2 per cent. of the measured quantity.

SPIRITS, from 10_s._ to 10_s._ 3_d._ per proof gallon.

In all cases samples are taken by the Custom House officer, and forwarded to the Inland Revenue laboratory, where they are examined previous to the payment of the drawback.

=EXPRES′SION.= In the useful arts, the mechanical operation by which a fluid contained in the pores or cells of a solid is pressed out or expelled. Many of the fluid substances employed in pharmacy and chemistry are obtained by expression. Thus, the unctuous vegetable oils, as those of almonds, linseed, &c., are procured by submitting these substances to powerful pressure between iron plates, which are either made warm, or the bruised seeds are previously exposed in bags to the steam of boiling water. The juices of fresh vegetables are also obtained by expression. The substances are first bruised in a marble mortar, or, on the large scale, in a mill, and immediately submitted to the press, to prevent them passing into a state of fermentation, which would injure the quality of the product. Fruits which contain highly flavoured or fragrant seeds, or which have rinds containing essential oil, are generally deprived of them before being sent to the press. The subacid fruits are also allowed to lay together for some days before pressing them, as the quantity and quality of the product is thereby increased. The fluid matter absorbed by the ingredients employed in the preparation of tinctures, infusions, decoctions, extracts, &c., is generally obtained by powerful pressure. Expression is also frequently had recourse to for the purpose of obtaining solids in a state of purity, as in the expulsion of olein from stearin, water from bicarbonate of soda, &c. On the small scale, the common screw-press, or one of like construction, is usually employed; but the power thus obtained is insufficient to expel the whole of a fluid diffused through the pores of a solid. Hence has arisen the use of the hydraulic press, which is now almost alone employed on the large scale. In all these cases the substances are placed in bags made of haircloth, or coarse canvas, previously to their being submitted to pressure. For tinctures and like pharmaceuticals, a small screw-press (TINCTURE PRESS) made of ‘galvanised’ or tinned iron, and varying in capacity from 1 quart to several gallons, is employed.

=EXSICCA′TION.= See DESICCATION.

=EX′TRACT.= Syn. EXTRACTUM, L. Among chemists this term is understood to apply to the residuum of the evaporation of aqueous decoctions or infusions of vegetable matter. In medicine and pharmacy, it has a less definite signification, being applied to various preparations obtained by evaporating the expressed juices, or the decoctions, infusions, or tinctures of vegetable substances, until a mass, of a solid or semi-solid consistence is formed. Extracts vary in their nature and composition with the substances from which they are prepared, and the fluids employed as solvents. When water is employed as the menstruum, the products (AQUEOUS EXTRACTS, WATERY E.; EXTRACTA AQUOSA, E. SIMPLICIORA, L.) usually consist of gum, starch, sugar, albumen, extractive and saline and other matter, along with the peculiar principles on which the medicinal virtue of the vegetable depends. When spirit is employed as the solvent, the products (ALCOHOLIC EXTRACTS; EXTRACTA ALCOHOLICA, L.) contain most of the substances above enumerated, except the gum and starch, together with several other substances which are soluble in spirit, but which are either wholly or nearly insoluble in water; as resins, essential oils, and the proximate principles of vegetables. These preparations, with scarcely an exception, are considerably more powerful than the aqueous extracts of the same vegetables. In some cases proof spirit or under-proof spirit is employed, when the extracts (SPIRITUOUS EXTRACTS; EXTRACTA SPIRITUOSA, L.) generally possess properties between those of the above. In other cases, dilute acetic acid or acidulated water is employed as the menstruum, when the products (ACETIC EXTRACTS; EXTRACTA ACETICA, L.) possess much greater activity than when prepared with water; and would in many cases prove fatal, if exhibited in doses as large as those of the aqueous extracts. Still more active extracts are obtained by a combination of the last two menstrua. According to Ferrari, plants treated with rectified spirit of wine, mixed with 1/36th part of acetic acid, yields extracts of remarkable activity. On the Continent ether is sometimes used as the menstruum for the active principles of certain substances, as cantharides, cubebs, worm-seed, &c. (ETHEREAL EXTRACTS; EXTRACTA ETHEREA, L.) The term ‘simple extract’ is applied to an extract prepared from a single plant or vegetable substance, and the term ‘compound extract’ to one prepared from two or more of such substances. The FLUID EXTRACTS (EXTRACTA FLUIDA, L.) of modern pharmacy are those which are only evaporated to the consistence of a thin syrup, and then mixed with 1-10th to 1-8th of their volume of rectified spirit.

Prep. The preparation of medicinal extracts may be conveniently considered under two divisions, viz.——1. The production of a solution of the soluble portion of the substances operated on; and, 2. The reduction of this solution by evaporation to the consistence of an extract.

1. PREPARATION OF SOLUTIONS:——The preliminary operations in the manufacture of extracts are similar to those employed in the preparation of DECOCTIONS, INFUSIONS, and TINCTURES. The proper quantity of the ingredients being taken, the whole is well bruised or reduced to coarse powder, or otherwise divided by slicing with a knife, that every portion may be fully exposed to the solvent action of the fluid. In some few cases (as with gentian, &c.) the ‘slicing,’ or reduction to fragments, is often conveniently deferred until the action of the menstruum shall have so far softened the ingredients as to render them of easy division by the knife. Those substances (as sarsaparilla, chamomiles, &c.) whose medicinal principles reside in the cortical portion, of which are of easy solubility, are commonly subjected to the action of the menstruum without being subjected to any particular preparation.

In the preparation of AQUEOUS EXTRACTS, the ingredients are treated with water until all the soluble matter that it is desirable to obtain is dissolved out. There are several methods of effecting this object, depending upon the nature of the substances acted on. In some cases maceration in cold water is resorted to; in others percolation with that fluid in a ‘displacement apparatus.’ More generally, however, boiling water is poured on the substance, and is digested on it for some time, as in the preparation of infusions; or the substance is exhausted by boiling in water, as in the preparation of decoctions. After the ebullition or infusion has continued a sufficient time, the heat is removed, and the liquid portion drawn off. The ingredients are then pressed to extract the remaining liquid; or they are washed or ‘sparged’ with hot water, which expels it by displacement. According to the usual practice in the majority of cases, a second quantity of water is poured on after the first has been thoroughly drained off, and the effusion or decoction is repeated a second and even a third time, or until the ingredients are perfectly exhausted of their soluble portion. The liquor or liquors thus obtained being allowed to repose for 15 or 20 minutes, for the purpose of depositing the sand or other gritty and heavy matter that is mechanically mixed with them, are carefully decanted from the sediment, and, after being run through a fine hair-sieve, or flannel bag, are ready for concentration. In some instances, however, this method proves insufficient to render the liquid clear. In such cases, the solution may generally be rendered transparent by clarification with a little white of egg, removing the scum as it rises, straining the liquid through flannel, as before; or the liquid may be filtered through a bag made of fine ‘Welsh flannel,’ or of ‘tweeled cotton cloth’ (Canton flannel), both of which should be soaked in clean water for at least an hour before use. In the small way, filters of linen or paper are sometimes employed; but as all media sufficiently fine to render vegetable solutions transparent soon choke up, this filtration is objectionable, from the length of time it occupies. In some houses the aqueous infusion or decoction is allowed to repose for 24 hours, and then decanted and evaporated; but such a plan is objectionable, as, however smooth and glossy extracts so prepared may appear, their medicinal virtues are lessened by the lengthened exposure to the atmosphere.

When about one half of an aqueous solution has evaporated, it is often advantageous to repass it through a flannel or horsehair strainer, to remove the flocculi that generally form by the action of the heat and air. This is especially necessary with vegetable solutions prepared without boiling, and should be adopted whenever a smooth and slightly extract is desired.

II. REDUCTION OF SOLUTIONS:——The reduction of the solution to the proper consistence is effected by evaporation. The mode in which this is performed varies for different extracts. The London College directs that, “unless otherwise ordered, the evaporation should be conducted as quickly as possible, in a broad, shallow pan, placed in a water bath, until a proper consistence is acquired for forming pills; stirring assiduously with a spatula towards the end of the operation.” The Dublin College orders that “all simple (aqueous) extracts (EXTRACTA SIMPLICIORA), unless otherwise ordered, are to be prepared by boiling the vegetable matter in 8 times its weight of water, till the liquid is reduced to one half; the liquor is then to be expressed, and, after a short time allowed for defecation, to be decanted, filtered, and evaporated in a steam or water bath, until it begins to thicken, and then finally inspissated by a reduced heat, with continual stirring, until a consistence for forming pills be attained.” The instructions of the Edinburgh College are similar, with the one important exception, however, of ordering the evaporation to be conducted in a water bath saturated with chloride of sodium.

Though the water bath has the sanction of the London College, it is ill adapted for the purpose to which it is here ordered to be applied, as from its low evaporative power the advantages which are derived from its equable temperature are vastly overbalanced by the lengthened exposure of the solution in a heated state to the action of the atmosphere. It has been shown that a vegetable extract so prepared is inferior in quality to a similar one formed by rapid evaporation in a shallow pan over a naked fire, or placed in a sand bath, provided proper care is taken, and assiduous stirring is adopted during the whole time of the exposure to heat. In practice, however, the use of a naked fire is perfectly inadmissible, as the least neglect on the part of the operator would probably lead to the incineration of the whole. These objections are obviated by the addition of the 1/5th part of salt to the water of the bath, which raises its boiling-point to 218-3/4° Fahr., when the temperature of the contained extract is fully 212°; the remaining 6° being lost by the interposition of the substance of the evaporating vessel.

ON THE LARGE SCALE, the evaporation of infusions or decoctions for extracts is usually conducted in very wide, shallow, copper or tinned-copper pans, having steam-tight jackets of cast iron, and heated by steam ‘playing’ between the two.

The rapid deterioration which vegetable juices and solutions undergo by exposure to the air, especially at high temperatures, has led to the introduction of apparatus, by which they may be concentrated without contact with the atmosphere, and at a less degree of heat than is required for that purpose in open vessels. Such is the method, commonly called ‘Barry’s process,’ in which the air is removed from certain air-tight refrigerators by the introduction of steam, which is then condensed by the application of cold, by which means a partial vacuum is obtained. Another process for attenuating the atmosphere over the surface of fluids during evaporation is by the action of an air-pump. This plan was introduced by Howard, and is commonly applied to the concentration of syrups in the sugar refineries. Extracts obtained by either of these methods are said to be prepared ‘in vacuo,’ and are found in practice to be immensely superior to the common extracts of the shops, and consequently require to be exhibited in proportionably small doses.

‘The American Journal of Pharmacy’ for September, 1877, contains a new process for the preparation of extracts without heat, by Professor Herrara. We extract the following from the Professor’s paper:——

“The results of my observations have satisfied me that, when the water partially congeals, the dissolved principles remain in solution in the mother liquors, and that two or three congelations are generally sufficient for obtaining the solutions concentrated enough to finish the extract by exposure upon plates to the heat of the sun, or of a drying closet, heated to about 30° cent. (86° Fahr.). The extracts prepared by this method accurately represent the properties of the plants, and the principles which are changed by the influence of heat remain unaltered; even the volatile constituents are not dissipated, though most of the water be removed by freezing. Owing to the small cost of the necessary apparatus, it appears to me that my process for preparing extracts should be preferable even in those countries where ice is less readily obtainable than combustibles.

“Extract of conium prepared with unpurified juice by the process mentioned, has preserved the characteristic odour of conia, and by dissolving it in water. I have obtained a solution exactly representing the juice of the plant in appearance and properties, and giving when heated an abundant coagulation, proving that even albumen had remained unaltered. 1750 grams of cow’s milk at 9° R., left, after three congelations, 750 grams of a liquid having a density of 148, and by evaporation in the sun this left a dry extract of milk, which again formed that liquid on being dissolved in water. A number of other liquids similarly treated, gave corresponding results, and it seems to me, therefore, that medicinal extracts are best prepared by congelation. It may be objected that the medical juices should be previously purified, but it should be remembered that coagulated albumen always encloses a considerable portion of the active principles, and that the heat necessary to effect the coagulation and the evaporation by means of a water-bath is sufficient to change many principles; also that the extracts thus prepared are sometimes inert or less active. The careful experiments made by Orfila and the clinical experience of others demonstrate that extracts prepared with unpurified juice are stronger.

“The apparatus employed by me is the so-called sorbetière;[294] for larger quantities the apparatus of Gougaud is preferable. The frigoric mixture is composed of ice and sodium chloride, or preferably of crystallised calcium chloride. After a large portion of the solution has congealed, the mass is enclosed in a cloth and subjected to pressure, the press-cake of ice is broken and again pressed, to separate the mother liquor as completely as possible, and the congelation is repeated two or three times, with the precaution that it is not carried far enough to cause the precipitation of the sparingly soluble principles. The mother liquor is then put into shallow dishes and exposed to the heat of the sun or of a drying room, the temperature of which does not exceed 30° C. (86° F.) until the extract has attained the desired consistence.”

[Footnote 294: An apparatus similar to that used for ice-cream.]

Obs. When water, acidulated with acetic acid, is employed in the preparation of extracts, the vegetable substances are usually macerated in it, in the cold, or the dilute acid is sprinkled over the bruised plant in the fresh or recent state, and the whole is then submitted to strong pressure, to expel the juice, which is strained and evaporated in the usual way, but preferably in a well-tinned or plated-copper pan.

ALCOHOLIC and SPIRITUOUS EXTRACTS are prepared by evaporating a filtered concentrated tincture of the ingredients in any suitable vessel, by which the volatilized spirit may be saved. In general, rectified spirit is used as the menstruum; but in some cases proof spirit is employed; and, in others, the substances are first digested in proof spirit, and afterwards in water, and the mixed tincture and infusion evaporated in the usual manner.

ETHEREAL EXTRACTS are obtained in a similar manner to alcoholic ones; but being merely prepared in small quantities at a time, the process may be conveniently performed in glass vessels. When it is required to boil either of the above fluids (alcoholic or ethereal), or any other volatile liquid on the ingredients, a vessel fitted with a long tube, or a Liebig’s condenser reversed, as noticed under ether, may be used to prevent any loss of the menstruum.

The INSPISSATED VEGETABLE JUICES (JUICES, E.; SUCCI, L.) of the British Pharmacopœia are obtained by expressing the juices from the fresh plants, and preserving them by the addition of spirit. “By thus preserving the juice of the plant its properties are not impaired by the action of the air during the time necessary to dry the leaf for tincture, nor by the action of both air and heat during the time necessary to evaporate the juice to the consistence of an extract.”——Squire. The directions of the Edinburgh College for preparing their inspissated juices (SUCCI SPISSATI, L.) are——“Beat the fresh substance, and press it strongly through a canvas bag, in order to obtain the juice; which, being put into a wide, shallow vessel, and heated by means of boiling water saturated with sea-salt, is to be reduced to the consistence of honey. The mass, when cold, is to be put into glazed earthen vessels, and moistened with strong alcohol.” By operating in this way a considerable portion of the activity of narcotic vegetables is lost. Some of their juices, as that of aconite, are impaired in so short a time as scarcely to compensate for the trouble of preparing them. This deterioration does not, however, take place in any remarkable degree, if the expressed juice from the recent vegetable be evaporated by exposing it in a thin stratum to a current of very dry air, as adopted by Mr Squire. This may be managed by putting the juice into small, flat trays or dishes, placed on shelves in a suitably arranged apparatus, alternated with similar vessels of concentrated sulphuric acid; or by causing a current of very dry air, at the common temperature of the atmosphere, to pass over them. It has been shown that 10 gr. of extract, thus prepared, were more than equal to 20 gr. prepared in vacuo; and to more than 60 gr., and in some cases, 90 gr., of those prepared by the common process of boiling down the juice to an extract.

The concluding portion of the process of extract-making, technically termed ‘finishing-off,’ requires the most scrupulous attention. As the evaporation advances, the heat should be lessened, and as soon as the extract acquires the consistence of thick treacle it should be removed altogether, and the remainder of fluid matter evaporated by the heat retained by the copper pan, the escape of vapour being promoted by assiduous and laborious stirring with a suitably shaped wooden spatula. This part of the process should be continued until a proper consistence is attained and the extract is nearly cold. When high-pressure steam or a chloride of calcium bath is employed, care must be taken to withdraw the heat before stirring the semi-liquid mass; as, if an extract having a temperature of about the boiling-point of water, or even a few degrees below it, is agitated, it becomes full of bubbles, and appears rough and puffy, and this appearance cannot be removed by subsequent stirring, or by any method but redissolving it in water and re-evaporation. This is especially the case with the extracts of sarsaparilla (simple and compound), gentian, liquorice, and most others of a similar class. A good laboratory man knows from experience the proper time for the removal of the heat, but unpractised persons often fail in this particular. In such cases should the heat retained by the evaporating pan, and by the extract, prove insufficient to complete the process, a little more may be cautiously applied. Without assiduous and laborious stirring in the way described, a very smooth and glossy extract cannot be produced. To promote this artificial appearance, some persons add 3% or 4% each of olive oil and gum arabic, dissolved in water, with about 1% or 2% of spirit of wine.

The consistence of the ordinary extracts of the shops is the same as that of electuaries and confections, and is described in the Ph. E. as equal to that of “thick honey.” The instructions of the Ph. L. and D., to evaporate the mass “until it acquires a consistence proper for making pills,” except in 2 or 3 cases (as Ext. Colocynth. Comp., &c.), is not adopted, and, indeed, would be found inconvenient in practice. Extracts evaporated to such a consistence are commonly termed ‘pilular extracts,’ and when evaporated so that they are quite dry, and brittle when cold, they are called ‘hard extracts’ (EXTRACTA DURA, L.).

Pres. Extracts should be put into pots as soon as taken from the pan, and, after being carefully and securely tied over with bladder, should be ‘stored’ in a dry situation. The London College orders “a small quantity of rectified spirit to be sprinkled upon all the softer extracts, to prevent them becoming mouldy.” A better way is to employ a little spirit, holding in solution a few drops of oil of cloves, or a still less quantity of creasote. This should be added to them the last thing before removing them from the evaporating pan, and when they are nearly cold. The same object is effected by moistening the inside of the bladder (used to tie them over) with a few drops of oil of cloves or creasote. Hard extracts should be kept in bladders or gut skins, placed in stone pots, and well covered over. With care, extracts prepared from recent vegetable substances may be preserved twelve months, or from season to season; and those from dry ingredients, or such as are less inclined to spoil, for perhaps double that time; but beyond these periods their virtues cannot be relied on, and they should consequently be discarded, if remaining unused or unsold.

Pur., &c. The quality of an extract cannot be ascertained by mere inspection, nor is it readily discovered by chemical tests. A knowledge of these facts has induced the mercenary and fraudulent manufacturer to employ damaged and inferior drugs in their preparation, alike regardless of the welfare of the patient and the credit of the practitioner. A common practice with some manufacturers is, not only to pick out the least expensive variety of every drug for the preparation of their extracts, but the most inferior and often damaged and worthless portion of this already inferior article. The production of a smooth, bright, and glossy extract is all that is usually attempted by these individuals, and all that is sought after by the mass of purchasers, who mistake the simulation of the mere external signs of good quality for its actual existence. It is a fact, which we can verify from extensive experience in the laboratory, and from years of practical observation on this point, that extracts faithfully prepared from good materials do not possess the sightly and pleasing appearance of those commonly vended by the wholesale druggists. On comparing the extracts prepared by different metropolitan houses, we have found that those which have exhibited a remarkably bright and glossy appearance have been uniformly inferior, and sometimes nearly inert; whilst others, with a less prepossessing appearance, have been generally of good quality. These facts are well established by reference to the extracts of those houses and institutions that are remarkable for the superior quality of their preparations, and by comparing them with the common extracts of the shops supplied by the wholesale trade.

A good extract should be——1. Free from grit, and wholly soluble in 20 parts of the menstruum employed in its preparation, forming a nearly clear solution.——2. It should have a uniform texture and colour, and be of a proper consistence.——3. If a narcotic or active extract, it may be exhibited in proper doses, and its effects watched. Its activity may also be tested on any small animal.——4. An assay for the proximate vegetable principle (alkaloid, &c.) contained in the plant from which it has been prepared may be made. The extracts prepared from the expressed juices of plants, without straining off the coagulated albumen, are, of course, exceptions to the first test. Unfortunately, these tests are not always easily performed, and the last two are inapplicable to those extracts that exercise no very marked physiological action, unless when taken in repeated doses, long continued. This want of a ready means of accurately testing the qualities of extracts has enabled the fraudulent manufacturer to sell inferior articles with impunity, and often without the least fear or danger of detection.

In general, an extract more than six months old contains only half the activity of a similar one newly made. When more than twelve months old they should be rejected as worthless, and the stock renewed.

Uses, &c. The extracts of the shops are generally acknowledged to be the most varying, imperfect, and uncertain class of medicines belonging to modern pharmacy. They are mostly used in the same cases as the plants from which they are prepared, but in smaller doses.

Concluding Remarks. In the preparation of extracts the great desiderata to be aimed at are——to suit the menstrua and the methods of manipulating to the peculiar characteristics of the active constituents of the vegetable substances operated on. The pharmaceutist should always bear in mind that a perfect extract should be a concentrated, solid mass, representing, as near as possible, in medicinal efficacy, the materials from which it has been prepared, and capable of being redissolved, so as to form a solution closely resembling that from which it has been derived. An extract possessing equal strength to the whole mass of the ingredients from which it has been prepared is almost next to an impossibility, however desirable such a degree of perfection may be. The medicinal properties of all solutions of vegetable matter are injured by being reduced to the solid state; and this deterioration, more or less, takes place, whether the solvent be water, acetic acid, proof spirit, or alcohol. The volatile portions (the essential oils, the aroma, &c.) are nearly or wholly dissipated; and though these do not always form the principal or active ingredients of the vegetables from which extracts are prepared, yet they generally exercise a modifying and controlling influence over the other ingredients, which considerably alters their therapeutical action. The loss of aroma may often be a trifling deficiency, but in the extracts of aconite, henbane, hemlock, belladonna, and other narcotic plants, this is not the case. In these cases it is well known that the inert preparations are wholly deficient of the odour of the recent plant, and that in proportion as the odour is developed, so is their activity preserved. The powerful smell of the recently expressed juice of hemlock, with the scarcely perceptible odour of the extract (EXTRACTUM CONII, Ph. L.), offers an excellent example of this fact. The dose of the one often reaches 20 or 30 gr., whilst that of the other seldom exceeds 5 or 10 drops, or a portion equivalent in dry ingredients to considerably less than 1/2 gr.

When extracts are ordered in prescriptions, those of the ‘Pharmacopœia’ should be alone employed by the dispenser, as the substitution of others for them would not only be violating faith with the prescriber, but might also produce consequences alike injurious to the dispenser and the patient. Many medical gentlemen prefer extracts prepared by particular processes or persons, but such intention is always indicated in their prescriptions.

=Extract of Ac′onite.= Syn. EXTRACT OF WOLFSBANE, E. OF MONKSHOOD, INSPISSATED JUICE OF ACONITE; EXTRACTUM ACONITI (B. P., Ph. L. E. & U. S.), SUCCUS SPISSATUS ACONITI (Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Take 112 lbs. of the fresh leaves and flowering tops, bruise them, press out the juice, heat it gradually to 130° F., and separate the green matter by a calico filter. Heat the strained liquor to 200° F. to coagulate albumen, and again filter. Evaporate the filtrate by a water bath to the consistence of a thin syrup; then add to it the green colouring matter previously separated, and stirring the whole together assiduously, evaporate at a temperature not exceeding 140° F. to a pill consistence.——Dose, 1 to 2 gr.

2. (Ph. L.) Take of fresh leaves of aconite, 1 lb.; bruise them in a stone mortar, express the juice, and evaporate it, unstrained, to a proper consistence. The formulæ of the Ph. D. & U. S. are similar.

3. (Ph. E.) Beat the fresh leaves of aconite to a pulp, and express the juice, then subject the residuum to percolation with rectified spirit until the latter passes through without being materially coloured; unite the expressed juice and the percolated tincture, filter, distil off the spirit, and evaporate in a vapour or a water bath to a proper consistence. Stronger than the preceding.

Obs. A variable and uncertain preparation. Numbness and tingling follow its application to the limbs or tongue when it is of good quality.——Product. 1 cwt. of fresh leaves yield between 5 lbs. and 6 lbs. of extract. Prop. Anodyne, sudorific, and narcotic; very poisonous.——Dose, 1/2 gr. to 2 gr., made into a pill with liquorice powder; once or twice a day, in neuralgic pains, chronic rheumatism, glandular swellings, &c., gradually and cautiously increased to 5 or 6 gr.

4. (Alcoholic; E. A. ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——a. (P. Cod.) Aconite (in coarse powder), 1 lb.; proof spirit, 3-1/2 lbs. (say 2-1/2 pints); proceed by the method of displacement, and when all the spirit has penetrated the powdered mass, keep this covered with distilled water, until the liquid begins to cause a precipitate in falling into that which has previously passed through; next distil the spirit from the tincture, and evaporate the residuum to the proper consistence.

b. (Ph. U. S.) Aconite 1 lb.; spirit, sp. gr. ·935 (= 13 u. p.), 1 quart, or q. s.; as last.

c. (Ph. Baden.) From the tincture prepared with rectified spirit, and by either maceration or displacement. Stronger than the last two.

d. (Ph. Bor.) The juice is expressed from the fresh herb, which is then sprinkled with about 1/3 of its weight of water, and again pressed; the mixed and strained liquid is evaporated in a vapour bath, at 122° to 140° Fahr., to about one half; to this, as soon as cold, an equal weight of spirit (sp. gr. ·900) is added, and after frequent agitation for 24 hours, the whole is filtered, with pressure; the marc is treated with fresh spirit (equal to about 1-4th that first used) and again pressed; the mixed liquors are next filtered, and are, lastly, evaporated, as before, to the proper consistence.

Obs. Resembles the simple extract, but is much more powerful. It has been exhibited internally in the form of pills, and used externally, combined with ointment or spread on simple plaster.——Dose, 1/12 to 1/6 gr. every three hours.

5. (Ammoniated; E. A. AMMONIATUM, L.——Dr Turnbull.) Extract of aconite, 1 dr.; liquor of ammonia (strongest), 10 or 12 drops; mix.

6. (Dried); E. A. SICCUM, L.——P. Cod.) The expressed juice, strained through a sieve or coarse linen, is at once, without depuration, exposed in earthen dishes, in layers of about 2 lines deep, in a stove or current of dry air, to a temperature ranging between 95° and 104° Fahr., until reduced to dryness. The dried extract is to be packed in bottles.

7. (Saccharated; E. A. SACCHARATUM, L.) From extract of aconite (Ph. Bor.), 4 oz.; sugar of milk (in powder), 1 oz.; mix, and dry the mass in a warm place, adding sugar of milk, q. s. to make the whole equal in weight to that of the extract used (4 oz.). An excellent preparation, which keeps well. The other NARCOTIC EXTRACTS, as those of BELLADONNA, HEMLOCK, HENBANE, &c., are to be treated in a similar manner. See ACONITE, and below.

=Extract of Aconite Root.= Syn. EXTRACTUM ACONITI RADICIS ALCOHOLICUM, L. Prep. (Dr Fleming; Dr Turnbull.) From a tincture of the root made with rectified spirit. It is said to be 12 times as strong as the extract of the leaves.

=Extract of Ag′aric=. Syn. EXTRACTUM AGARICI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the infusion of white agaric (Polyporus officinalis) prepared with cold water. Purgative.——Dose, 1 to 4 gr.

=Extract of Alcorno′co.= Syn. EXTRACTUM ALCORNOCÆ, L. Prep. From a decoction of alcornoco bark (South American). Astringent and tonic.——Dose, 5 to 20 gr. in phthisis, &c.

=Extract of Al′oes.= Syn. PURIFIED ALOES, WASHED A.; EXTRACTUM ALOËS BARBADENSIS (B. P.), EXTRACTUM ALOËS (Ph. L.), E. A. AQUOSUM (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Barbadoes aloes, in small pieces, 1 lb.; treated with 1 gall. of boiling water for 12 hours, and the clear liquid evaporated.——Dose, 1 to 3 gr. B. P. 2 to 6 gr.

2. (B. P.) Socotrine aloes, 1 lb., treated with 1 gall. of boiling water for 12 hours, and the clear liquid evaporated to dryness.

3. (Ph. D.) Aloes (hepatic), 4 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil till dissolved; when cold, decant the clear liquid, and evaporate as before.

4. (Ph. Bor. 1847.) By macerating powdered aloes in cold water for 48 hours, with frequent agitation, and then evaporating in a water bath at a temperature not exceeding 150° to 165° Fahr., until a pilular consistence is attained.

Obs. The second is the form commonly adopted in the laboratory. When made with the juice of borage, burgloss, &c., it forms the old ‘ALOES INSUCCATA,’——Dose, 5 to 15 gr. See ALOES and EXTRACT OF BARBADOES ALOES.

=Extract of Aloes, prepared with Sulphuric Acid.= Syn. EXTRACTUM ALOËS ACIDO SULFURICO CORRECTUM (Germ. Ph.). Prep. Dissolve extract of aloes, 8 ounces, in distilled water 32 ounces, then gradually add sulphuric acid, 1 oz. (by weight), and evaporate to a dry extract.

=Extract of Anem′one.= See EXTRACT OF PASQUE FLOWER.

=Extract of Angel′ica.= Syn. EXTRACTUM ANGELICÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Baden.) From a tincture of the root, prepared with spirit sp. gr. ·944 (= 21-1/2 u. p.).

2. (Ph. Bor.) Angelica root and rectified spirit, of each 2 parts; water, 9 parts; digest, strain, and evaporate. Inferior to the preceding.

3. (Dr Moir.) Angelica root, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; make a tincture; to the ‘marc’ add proof spirit, 1 gall., and repeat the digestion; filter the two tinctures separately, mix, distil off the spirit, and evaporate. Balsamic, stomachic, and tonic.——Dose, 10 to 20 gr. The last is the most balsamic and agreeable.

=Extract of Ap′ples.= Syn. CHALYBEATED E. OF A.; EXTRACTUM FERRI POMATUM, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Bor.) Crab-apples (unripe), 6 lbs.; peel them and reduce them to a pulp; add iron wire (in small coils), 1 lb.; digest in a vapour bath for about a week, express, strain, decant, and evaporate in a porcelain vessel, with constant stirring, to the consistence of a soft extract; dissolve the residuum in water, 4 parts, strain and evaporate as before.——Dose, 5 to 10 gr.; as a chalybeate tonic. The formula of the Ph. Baden is nearly similar.

2. (Ph. Germ.) Reduce 5 lbs. of unripe apples to a pulp; mix them with cut straw, and press. To the strained juice after removal of the sediment add 1-1/2 oz. of reduced iron. When this has dissolved, to the cooled liquid add as much water as will make up 4-3/4 lbs. Filter, and reduce to a thick extract.

=Extract of Ar′nica.= Syn. EXTRACT OF ARNICA FLOWERS; EXTRACTUM ARNICÆ FLORUM, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the dried flowers, as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE——P. Cod.

2. (Ph. Græca, 1837.) From a tincture of the flowers, prepared with rectified spirit, 3 parts, and water, 5 parts.——Dose, 2 to 6 gr.; as a stimulant in various diseases accompanied with debility, deficient nervous sensibility, paralysis, dropsies, diarrhœa, amenorrhœa, dysentery, &c.

=Extract of Arnica-Root.= Syn. EXTRACT OF ARNICA; EXTRACTUM ARNICÆ RADICIS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Baden.) As EXTRACT OF ANGELICA——Ph. Baden.

2. (Ph. Græca.) From tincture of the root, prepared as No. 2 (above). The form of the Hamburg Codex is nearly similar.——Dose, &c. As the last.

=Extract of Art′ichoke.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CYNARÆ, L. Prep. From the fresh leaves of the artichoke, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L.——Dose, 3 to 6 gr., twice or thrice daily; in rheumatism, &c.

=Extract of Aspar′agus.= Syn. EXTRACTUM ASPARAGI, L. Prep. 1. (Soubeiran.) From the expressed juice of the shoots, clarified and evaporated by a gentle heat.

2. From the juice of the roots, as No. 1. Both are diuretic.——Dose, 15 gr. to 1/2 dr., or more.

=Extract of Bael.= Syn. EXTRACTUM BELÆ LIQUIDUM, L. B. P. Bael, 1; distilled water, 15; rectified spirit, 1/8; macerate for 12 hours in 5 of the water, pour off the liquid, repeat the operation twice for 1 hour; press, filter, and evaporate to 1, including the spirit. A fluid ounce is equal to a solid ounce.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

=Extract of Balsam Apple.= Syn. EXTRACTUM BALSAMIMÆ. The inspissated juice of the balsam apple.——Dose, 5 to 15 drops in dropsy.

=Extract of Bark.= See EXTRACT OF CINCHONA.

=Extract of Belladon′na.= Syn. EXTRACT OF DEADLY NIGHTSHADE, INSPISSATED JUICE OF BELLADONNA; EXTRACTUM BELLADONNÆ (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), SUCCUS SPISSATUS BELLADONNÆ, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Take 112 lbs. of fresh leaves and tender branches, bruise in a stone mortar or other suitable apparatus, and press out the juice, heat it gradually to 130° F., separate the green colouring matter by a calico filter, heat the strained liquor to 200° F. to coagulate the albumen, and again filter; evaporate the filtrate by a water bath to the consistence of a thin syrup, then add to it the green colouring matter previously separated, and, stirring the whole together assiduously, continue the evaporation at a temperature not exceeding 140°, until the extract is of a suitable consistence for forming pills.——Dose, 1/4 to 1/2 gr., gradually increased to 1 or 2 gr.

2. (Ph. E.) Express the juice from the bruised fresh plant, sprinkle the ‘marc’ with water, and again apply pressure; mix the expressed liquids, filter them, and evaporate the filtered liquor in a vapour bath to the consistence of an extract.

3. (Ph. D.) From the leaves, collected when the plant begins to flower. The expressed juice is allowed to stand for 24 hours, and the clear portion is decanted; the sediment is placed on a calico filter, washed with an equal bulk of cold water, and the filtrate mixed with the expressed juice. The mixed liquid is next heated in a water bath, to coagulate its albumen, and after being skimmed, and filtered through flannel whilst hot, the washed sediment is added, and the whole evaporated, as before.

4. (Ph. U. S.) The expressed juice is heated to the boiling-point, filtered and evaporated (see below).

Obs. The P. Cod. directs this extract to be made by two different formulæ. The product of the one resembles that of the Ph. L.; that of the other, that of the Ph. E. That of the Ph. L., from retaining the fecula, is the weakest preparation.——Dose, 1/2 gr. to 1 gr., gradually increased to 3 or 4 gr.; as an anodyne in neuralgia, tic-douloureux, &c.; as an antispasmodic to relieve rigidity and spasms, in various affections of the uterus, rectum, urethra, bladder, &c., and in hooping-cough; in various maladies of the eyes; and as a resolvent and discutient in several glandular diseases. It has been highly recommended as a preservative against scarlet fever. It is most frequently employed externally, under the form of a plaster, ointment, or lotion. It is poisonous.

5. (Alcoholic; E. B. ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——a. (P. Cod.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE——P. Cod.

b. (Ph. U. S.) As the last (nearly), using spirit of ·935 (=about 13 u. p.).

c. (Moir.) The expressed juice is coagulated by heat, cautiously applied, and filtered; the filtrate is reduced to the consistence of a syrup, and mixed with an equal volume of nearly anhydrous alcohol (say of 90%); the clear portion is lastly evaporated, as before.

Obs. The above is much more powerful than the common extract, and is chiefly used in external applications. See BELLADONNA, and below.

=Extract of Belladonna Ber′ries.= Syn. EXTRACTUM BACCARUM BELLADONNÆ, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the expressed juice of the berries, evaporated to the consistence of thick honey.——Dose, 1 to 5 gr.

=Extract of Bis′tort.= Syn. EXTRACTUM BISTORTÆ, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the dried root of bistort or snake-weed (Polygonum Bistorta), by percolation with temperate distilled water.

2. From the infusion made with boiling water, or from the decoction. Astringent and tonic.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.

=Extract of Bit′ter-sweet.= Syn. EXTRACT OF WOODY NIGHTSHADE; EXTRACTUM DULCAMARÆ, L. Prep. 1. From the decoction of the stalks.

2. (Ph. U. S.) From the dried stalks, by percolation with temperate water. Diaphoretic, diuretic, and narcotic.——Dose, 3 to 6 gr.; in chronic asthma, rheumatism, and chest diseases; and particularly in chronic skin diseases.

=Extract, Black.= See EXTRACT OF COCCULUS.

=Extract of Black Pepper.= See EXTRACT OF PEPPER.

=Extract of Bladder-wrack.= Syn. EXTRACTUM FUCI VESICULOSI. From the dried plant of the bladder-wrack. Given in obesity.

=Extract of Bor′age.= Syn. EXTRACTUM BORAGINIS, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the dried herb (Borago officinalis).

2. (Ph. Lusit.) From the clarified juice of the fresh plant. Exhilarating, restorative, and pectoral.——Dose, 10 to 30 gr., or more.

=Extract of Box.= Syn. EXTRACTUM BUXI, E. CORTICIS B., L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the tincture of the root bark, prepared (with proof spirit) by displacement, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——P. Cod.

=Extract of Broom.= Syn. EXTRACT OF BROOM TOPS; EXTRACTUM SCOPARII, E. SPARTII SCOPARII, L. From decoction of broom tops. Diuretic and cathartic; and, occasionally, emetic.——Dose, 20 gr. to 1 dr.; in dropsy, &c. It is now seldom used.

=Extract of Bry′ony.= Syn. EXTRACTUM BRYONIÆ, E. B. ALBÆ, E. RADICIS B. A., L. Prep. From the infusion or decoction of the root of white bryony (Bryonia dioica). Purgative, diuretic, and emmenagogue.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr. It was once a favourite remedy in asthma, dropsy, epilepsy, &c.

=Extract of Bu′chu.= Syn. EXTRACTUM BUCHU, E. DIOSMÆ, L. Prep. 1. From buchu leaves, as the last.

2. (Ethereo-alcoholic; E. B. ÆTHERO-ALCOHOLICUM, L.——W. Procter.) Buchu (in coarse powder), 1 lb.; ether, 4 fl. oz.; alcohol (rectified spirit), 12 fl. oz.; percolate without digestion, adding dilute alcohol until a pint of ethereo-alcoholic tincture is obtained, and suffer this to evaporate spontaneously; treat the residue in the displacer with dilute alcohol, till 2 pints are obtained; evaporate to a syrup, add the product of the first tincture, mix, and complete the evaporation.——Dose, 5 to 10 gr.; in diseases of the urinary organs, &c.

3. (Fluid; E. B. FLUIDUM, L.——W. Procter.) Buchu leaves, 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.; for a tincture by displacement, adding water, until 12 fl. oz. have passed through; allow this to evaporate spontaneously until reduced to one half; next digest the mass in the percolator with cold water, 1 pint, for 12 hours, express a pint, and evaporate this to 10 fl. oz.; lastly, add the 6 fl. oz. of residual tincture, agitate together, and in a few days filter, or decant the clear portion.——Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls. See DIOSMA.

=Extract of Buck′bean.= Syn. EXTRACTUM MENYANTHIS, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the expressed juice of the fresh plant.

2. (Ph. Bor.) From the infusion made with boiling water. Bitter, tonic and astringent.——Dose, 5 to 10 gr. In large doses it is purgative, cathartic, and even emetic.

=Extract of Buck′thorn.= Syn. EXTRACTUM RHAMNI, E. BACCARUM R., L. Prep. From the filtered expressed juice of buckthorn berries. Some persons allow it first to run into a state of fermentation; but the quantity of the product is thereby greatly lessened. Hydragogue and purgative.——Dose, 15 gr. to 1 dr., or more.

=Extract of Bur′dock.= Syn. EXTRACTUM BARDANÆ, L. Prep. 1. From the decoction of burdock root.

2. (P. Cod.) As EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod. In gout, rheumatism, skin diseases, &c.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1 dr. Sir Robert Walpole praised burdock root as a gout medicine; and others have considered it an excellent substitute for sarsaparilla. (Lindley.)

=Extract of Butter-nut.= Syn. EXTRACTUM JUGLANDIS, L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) From the inner bark of the root of the butter-nut or white walnut (Juglanda alba), as EXTRACT OF BITTER SWEET——Ph. U. S. A mild, yet efficacious aperient and vermifuge.——Dose. As a laxative, 5 to 10 gr.; as a purgative, 15 to 30 gr.

=Extract of Cainca Root.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CAINCÆ. (P. Pharm.) Prep. Put 10 oz. of the dried root of cainca into a percolator, pour on it proof spirit q. s. to penetrate the powder in every part, and let it remain 12 hours; then let the liquid drain, and pass successively through the powder in the percolator as much proof spirit as will amount with that previously used to 60 oz. by weight. Distil off the spirit and evaporate to a soft extract.

=Extract of Calabar Bean.= Syn. EXTRACTUM PHYSOSTIGMATIS. (B. P.) Calabar bean in coarse powder, 1; rectified spirit, 5; macerate the bean for 48 hours in one fourth of the spirit in a closed vessel, agitating occasionally, then transfer to a percolator, and when the fluid ceases to pass add the remainder of the spirit, so that it may slowly penetrate through the powder; subject the residue of the bean to pressure, adding the pressed liquid to the product of the percolation; distil off the spirit, and evaporate what is left to the consistence of a soft extract by a water bath.——Dose, 1/16 to 1/4 gr.

=Extract of Calum′ba.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CALUMBÆ, E. RADICIS C., L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Calumba cut small, 1; water, 5; macerate in half the water for 12 hours, strain, and press; macerate again with the remaining water, strain, and press; mix and filter the liquors, and evaporate with the heat of a water bath to pill consistency.——Dose, 2 to 10 gr.

2. (Alcoholic——Ph. Bor.) Nearly as No. 3 (below), but using stronger spirit; the evaporation is to be conducted at a heat not above 167° Fahr., until it acquires the consistence of a pill-mass, which, after being rendered quite dry by a very gentle heat, is to be reduced to fine powder. It should have a brownish-yellow colour, and give a turbid solution with water.——Dose, 4 to 12 gr. They are all tonic and stomachic.

3. (Spirituous——P. Cod.) As EXTRACT OF BOX. The Ph. Baden orders spirit of ·944 to be used.——Dose, 5 to 15 gr.

=Extract of Cannabis Indicæ.= See EXTRACT OF INDIAN HEMP.

=Extract of Canthar′ides.= Syn. EXTRACT OF SPANISH FLIES; EXTRACTUM CANTHARIDES, E. LYTTÆ, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the tincture, as EXTRACT OF BOX.

2. (Soubeiran.) From a tincture prepared with spirit of the sp. gr. ·923 (about 2 u. p.).

3. (Acetic; E. C. ACETICUM, L.) From a tincture prepared with acetic acid, sp. gr. 1·048.

4. (Ethereal; E. C. ÆTHEREUM, L.) From the ethereal tincture.

Obs. The ether, acid, and spirit distilled from the above must be either thrown away or used to make fresh extract, as it is highly poisonous. They are all for external use only, and should have the consistence of soft butter.

=Extract of Car′damoms.= Syn. ETHEREAL E. OF C.; EXTRACTUM CARDAMOMI ÆTHEREUM, L. Prep. (W. Procter.) By spontaneous evaporation of the ethereal tincture. It consists of the volatile and fixed oils of the seeds and is used to aromatise pills, powders, &c.

=Extract of Ca′rob Beans.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CERATONIÆ, L. Prep. From the decoction of the pods (CAROB, or ALGAROBA BEANS) of the ‘Ceratonia siliqua,’ or ‘St. John’s bread tree.’ See ALGAROBA.

=Extract of Caroli′na Pink.= See EXTRACT OF PINK-ROOT.

=Extract of Car′rot.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CAROTÆ, E. RADICIS C., L. Prep. (Swediaur.) From the clarified expressed juice, evaporated to the consistence of honey. Recommended as an application to ulcerated cancers.

=Extract of Cascaril′la.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CASCARILLÆ, E. CORTICIS C., L. Prep. 1. (Guibourt.) From the alcoholic (rectified spirit) tincture.

2. (Ph. Baden.) As the last, but using spirit of the sp. gr. ·944.

3. (Ph. L. 1788.) As EXTRACT OF JALAP——Ph. L.

Obs. This extract is tonic, aromatic, and stomachic.——Dose, 5 to 15 gr., or more, 2 or 3 times a day. 28 lbs. of bark yield about 5-1/4 lbs. of extract.

=Extract of Cas′sia.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CASSIÆ, L. See CASSIA PULP.

=Extract of Cat′echu.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CATECHU, L. Prep. 1. From decoction of catechu.

2. (P. Cod.) From the infusion in boiling water. Astringent and tonic.——Dose, 5 to 25 gr. See CATECHU.

=Extract of Cel′andine.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CHELIDONII, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Bor.) From the herb (Chelidonium majus), as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. Bor.——Dose, 3 to 10 gr.

2. (Van Mons.) From the expressed juice, coagulated by heat, filtered, and evaporated, towards the end adding the coagulum.——Dose, 5 to 15 gr., or more. Used as a drastic hydragogue in dropsies; and in scrofula, &c.

=Extract of Cen′taury.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CENTAURII, L. Extracts under this name are prepared from ‘American centaury’ (Sabbatia angularis), and ‘common centaury’ (Erythræa Centaurium). Prep. 1. By evaporating the decoction, or the infusion made with hot water. The dose and properties resemble those of extract of gentian.

2. (Alcoholic; E. C. ALCOHOLICUM, L.) As EXTRACT OF BOX (see above).

=Extract of Cevadil′′la.= Syn. ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF SABADILLA; EXTRACTUM SABADILLÆ, L. Prep. (Dr Turnbull.) From tincture of cevadilla seeds, made with rectified spirit. Employed by Dr Turnbull as a remedy in painful rheumatic and neuralgic affections, and, generally, as a substitute for VERATRIA.——Dose, 1/10 to 1/6 gr. It is extremely poisonous.

=Extract of Cham′omile.= Syn. EXTRACTUM ANTHEMIDIS (Ph. E.), E. A. NOBILIS, L. Prep. By evaporating the decoction of the flowers to the proper consistence.

Obs. This extract contains only the bitter portion of the chamomile, the aromatic volatile oil being dissipated during the evaporation. This, however is remedied in the formulæ given by the British Pharmacopœia, which is as follows:---

Boil chamomile flowers 1 lb., in one gallon of distilled water, until the volume is reduced to one half; strain, press and filter. Evaporate by a water bath to a proper consistence, adding oil of chamomile, 15 minims at the end of the process.

It is usually prepared from old flowers that have lost their smell and colour, and are thus rendered unsaleable. The extract of chamomile that smells strongly of the flowers, frequently vended by the druggists, is prepared by adding 1 dr. of the essential oil of chamomile to every pound of extract, when nearly cold, and just before removing it from the evaporating pan. This addition, unlike many which are made in the laboratory, vastly increases the medicinal virtues of this article. The mass of extract of chamomile met with in the shops is nothing but extract of gentian scented with a little oil of chamomile. 1 cwt. of chamomiles yields about 48 lbs. of extract.

Extract of chamomile is bitter, tonic, and stomachic.——Dose, 10 to 20 gr., made into a pill, either alone or combined with a little rhubarb and ginger. See PILLS, &c.

=Extract of Chenopo′′dium.= Syn. EXTRACT OF STINKING GOOSE-FOOT; EXTRACTUM CHENOPODII, L. Prep. 1. From the stinking orache or goose-foot (Chenopodium olidum), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE.——Ph. L.

2. (Mr Houlton.) From the expressed juice by spontaneous evaporation. A better plan is to expose it to heated air. Antihysteric, emmenagogue, and vermifuge.——Dose, 5 to 20 gr.

=Extract (Fluid) of Wild Cherry.= Syn. EXTRACTUM PRUNI VIRGINIANÆ FLUIDUM. (Ph. U. S.) Wild cherry in fine powder, 16 oz. (troy); glycerin, 4 oz. (old measure); water, 8 oz. (old measure). Mix the glycerin and the water, and digest the wild cherry in 8 oz. of the mixture for 4 days, then pack in a percolator and pour on the remaining 4 oz. of glycerin and water. When this has disappeared from the surface pour on rectified spirit (·817) until 12 oz. (old measure) of fluid have been obtained, and set this portion aside. Then percolate with spirit, until 20 oz. (old measure) more have been obtained; evaporate to 4 oz. (old measure), and mix with the reserved portion.

=Extract of Cincho′na.= Syn. EXTRACT OF BARK. Three simple extracts, prepared respectively from YELLOW, PALE, and RED CINCHONA, are given in Ph. L.:——Prep. 1. (From CALISAYA or YELLOW BARK:——EXTRACT OF CINCHONA, E. OF YELLOW C., E. OF HEART-LEAVED C.; EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ, L.)——a. EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ FLAVÆ LIQUIDUM (B. P.). Yellow cinchona bark in coarse powder, 16; distilled water, a sufficiency; rectified spirit, 1; macerate the bark in 40 of water for twenty-four hours, then pack in a percolator, and add water until 240 have passed through, or until the bark is exhausted; evaporate the liquor to 20, at a temperature not exceeding 160°; then filter, and continue the evaporation to 3, or until the sp. gr. of the liquid is 1·200; when cold, add the spirit gradually, constantly stirring. Sp. gr. 1·100.——Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

b. (Ph. L.) Yellow cinchona (coarsely bruised), 3 lbs.; distilled water (temperate), 4 pints; macerate for 24 hours (constantly stirring), and strain through linen; what remains, again macerate in water, 1 quart, for 24 hours, and strain; evaporate the mixed liquids to a proper consistence.

Obs. The aqueous extracts of cinchona bark possess little medicinal virtue, owing to the insolubility of the alkaloids (quinine, cinchonine, &c.) in water, and also from the rapid oxidation of their extractive matter, when exposed in solution to the joint action of heat and atmospheric oxygen.——Dose, 5 gr. to 1/2 dr., in mixtures, faintly acidulated with sulphuric acid. Cinchona bark yields from 24% to 30% of aqueous extract.

2. (From PALE BARK:——EXTRACT OF PALE CINCHONA, E. OF PALE BARK, E. OF LANCE-LEAVED B.; EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ VALLIDÆ, L.)——a. (Ph. L.) From pale bark, as EXTRACT OF CINCHONA——Ph. L. (above).

b. (Ph. L. 1836.) From the decoction.

Obs. This forms the EXTRACT OF BARK of the shops. The red and yellow cinchona barks are scarcely ever used for making extracts. Their richness in quinine leads to their almost, exclusive employment for the manufacture of that alkaloid, by which their value is greatly enhanced. As far as our knowledge extends, no other extract of bark than this is either employed or asked for.

3. (From RED BARK:——EXTRACT OF RED CINCHONA, E. OF RED BARK, E. OF OBLONG-LEAVED B.; EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ RUBRÆ, L.)——a. (Ph. L.) From red bark, as EXTRACT OF CINCHONA——Ph. L. (above).

b. (Ph. L. 1836.) From the decoction.

Obs. These extracts are ordered to be kept in two states, the one (SOFT EXTRACT OF CINCHONA; EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ MOLLE) for making pills, &c.; the other (HARD EXTRACT OF CINCHONA; EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ DURUM) for powdering.——The dose, &c., of all the above are the same.

4. (Dry:——ESSENTIAL SALT OF BARK; EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ SICCUM, L.)——a. (P. Cod.) From an aqueous infusion of pale bark (prepared by displacement with water at a temperature not above 77° Fahr.), evaporated to the consistence of a thick syrup, and then spread thinly and uniformly on earthenware dishes, or sheets of glass, and dried in a stove, by a very gentle heat. It is separated from the plates with a knife, and preserved in well-closed phials. Prior to spreading it out on the plates, about 4% or 5% of thick mucilage is commonly added.

b. (Ph. Bor.) As the above (nearly).

c. (Ph. Hann. 1831.) Similar to the above; but the liquid, when it acquires the consistence of treacle, is diluted with water, and again evaporated to a like consistence; and this dilution and evaporation is repeated until, on the addition of water, it forms a clear solution.——Dose, 5 to 25 gr. The product of the last formula is nearly inert, and that of the others possesses little activity.

5. (Fluid:——EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ FLUIDUM, L.)——a. See LIQUOR OF CINCHONA.

b. (Dr Neligan.) From yellow bark, as FLUID EXTRACT OF BUCHU.

6. (Resinous:——ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF BARK; EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ ALCOHOLICUM, E. CINCHONÆ, L.)——a. (Ph. E.) From any variety of cinchona bark (in powder), 4 oz.; proof spirit, 24 fl. oz.; prepare a tincture by displacement, distil off most of the spirit, and evaporate the residuum to the consistence of an extract. This is the only EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ of the Edinburgh College.

b. (Ph. U. S.) Peruvian bark, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 4 pints; make 4 pints of tincture by displacement; add water to the mass in the percolator, digest, and obtain 6 pints of infusion; distil off the spirit from the tincture, and evaporate the infusion to the consistence of syrup, then mix the two, and complete the evaporation. More active than the aqueous extract.——Dose, 5 to 20 gr.

c. (Ellis.) Yellow bark, 2 lbs.; hydrochloric acid, 4 fl. dr.; water, 1 gall.; boil, strain, and repeat the decoction with fresh water and acid; mix the decoctions, filter, and agitate it with fresh-slaked lime, 2-1/2 oz.; filter or decant; dry the residuum, and exhaust it with hot alcohol, q. s.; lastly, evaporate the alcoholic tincture to a pilular consistence.——Dose, 1 to 5 gr. Some persons have proposed to call this ‘ESSENTIAL SALT OF BARK,’

7. (Vinous:——EXTRACTUM CINCHONÆ VINOSUM, L.——Ph. Hesse.) Peruvian bark (in powder), 1 part; white wine (sherry), 8 parts; digest 3 days, express, filter, and evaporate.

=Extract of Coc′culus.= Syn. EXTRACT OF COCCULUS INDICUS, BLACK EXTRACT, EXTRACT (Brewer’s), BEER STRENGTHENER, HARD MULTUM; EXTRACTUM COCCULI, E. C. INDICI, L. Prep. From cocculus indicus, by decoction. It is kept in two states——one having the consistence of thick treacle; the other, that of a pilular extract. The first is ‘put up’ in bladders; the last is made into 1/2-lb. rolls, like lead-plaster-or roll-chocolate. It is narcotic and poisonous, and is employed by fraudulent brewers and publicans to give a false strength to their liquors. See COCCULUS INDICUS, BEER, &c.

=Extract of Col′chicum.= Syn. EXTRACT OF MEADOW SAFFRON, E. OF THE CORMS OF COLCHICUM; EXTRACTUM COLCHICI (B. P.). Prep. 1. (B. P.) The expressed juice of fresh colchicum corms, cleared of deposit, boiled, strained, and evaporated to a proper consistency at a temperature of 160° Fahr.——Dose, 1 to 2 gr.

2. (Wholesale.) From the decoction of the dried corms. Prod. 50% to 55%.

Obs. This extract is given in the usual cases in which colchicum is employed.——Dose, 1 to 4 gr., every third or fourth hour. (Thomson.) “A favorite remedy of Dr Hue, of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, in the early stages of acute rheumatism. The dose is 1 gr. every four hours.” (Pereira.)

3. (Acetic; ACETIC EXTRACT OF MEADOW SAFFRON; EXTRACTUM COLCHICI ACETICUM (B. P.)——a. (B. P.) Crushed fresh corms, previously peeled, 19; acetic acid, 1; stir together, press, boil, and strain through flannel, and evaporate to a soft extract.——Dose, 1 to 2 gr. with an equal weight of liquorice powder.

b. (Wholesale.) Dried corms, 14 lbs.; acetic acid (pyroligneous), 6 pints; distilled water, 5-1/4 gall.; digest for 14 days, express, filter, and evaporate. Product, 2-1/2 to 3 lbs.

Obs. The above extracts are generally prepared from the dried corms, and hence the very uncertain and inferior quality of those commonly met with. They also possess less activity than pharmacopœial preparations. They rapidly get dry and crumbly, and, unless a little spirit and oil of cloves are added, will scarcely keep a week in warm weather without becoming mouldy.——Dose, 1 to 3 gr. two or three times a day. It is much stronger than the common extract, and contains the acetate of colchicine. Sir C. Scudamore prefers the acetic extract prepared by the formula b (above).

4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM COLCHICI ALCOHOLICUM, L.——P. Cod.). As EXTRACT OF BOX. More active than even the acetic extract. All the preparations of colchicum are poisonous in large doses.

=Extract of Colo′cynth.= Syn. EXTRACT OF BITTER APPLE; EXTRACTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS (Ph. L. & E.), E. C. SIMPLEX, E. C. MOLLE, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) From colocynth pulp (cut in pieces and the seeds removed), by simple maceration in cold water for 36 hours, frequently pressing it with the hands, and afterwards strongly pressing out the liquor, which must be strained before evaporating it.

2. (Ph. E.) From the decoction. This is the plan adopted at Apothecaries’ Hall, and in the laboratory generally. Many houses do not even remove the seeds.

Obs. This extract rapidly gets hard, crumbly, and mouldy by keeping. For the remedy, see observations on EXTRACT OF COLCHICUM, above.——Dose, 5 gr. to 20 gr.; as a cathartic. Colocynth pulp yields above 65% of extract.

3. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——a. (Ph. Baden.) As EXTRACT OF ANGELICA——Ph. Bad.)

b. (P. Cod.) From a tincture prepared with proof spirit. Much more active than the simple extract.——Dose, 2 to 7 gr.

4. (Dry; EXTRACTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS SICCUM, L.)——(Ph. Bor.) As the last, but using spirit of the sp. gr. ·900 (about 16 o. p.), digesting at a tepid heat, evaporating to dryness, and powdering.——Dose, 1 to 6 gr.

=Extract of Colocynth (Compound).= Syn. COMPOUND EXTRACT OF BITTER APPLE, CATHARTIC EXTRACT; EXTRACTUM CATHARTICUM, E. COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITUM, B. P. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Colocynth free from seeds, 6; extract of Socotrine aloes, 12; scammony, or resin of scammony in powder, 4; hard soap in powder, 3; cardamoms free from capsules in fine powder, 1; proof spirit, 160. Macerate the colocynth in the spirit for four days, press out the tincture, distil off the spirit, and add to it the extract of aloes, the soap, and the scammony; then evaporate the residue by a water bath to a pilular consistence, adding the cardamoms towards the end of the process.——Dose, 2 to 5 gr., with 2 or 3 gr. of extract of hyoscyamus to prevent griping.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Colocynth pulp (sliced, without the seeds), 6 oz., proof spirit, 1 gal.; digest with a gentle heat for 4 days, express, strain, and add, of extract of aloes (Ph. L. 1836), 12 oz., powdered scammony, 4 oz., Castile soap (cut small), 3 oz., and evaporate (distil) to a proper consistence; adding, towards the last, powdered cardamoms, 1 oz.

3. (Wholesale.) The formulæ adopted by the wholesale druggists are mere modifications of that of the Ph. L. 1809; water being used instead of spirit as the menstruum, with actual benefit, as we honestly believe, to the quality of the preparation. The following are extensively employed by those who do most in this article, and we can speak highly of the quality of the products obtained by their use.

a. Turkey colocynth, 18 lbs., is boiled in about 20 times its weight of water for five or six hours; to the strained decoction is added hepatic aloes, 40 lbs., which are boiled until dissolved, when the solution is decanted. In the mean time the colocynth is exhausted with a second quantity of water (less than the first), and the strained liquor is added to the undissolved residuum of the aloes, and boiled for a few minutes; after which it is drawn off and mixed with the first decoction of aloes; the mixed liquors are then allowed to stand until quite cold (commonly until the next day), to deposit the resinous portion. The liquor is next decanted or drawn off, and set evaporating as quickly as possible; as soon as the consistence of treacle is arrived at, the whole is allowed to cool considerably, and moist sugar (clean), 4 lbs., and Castile soap, 10 lbs. (previously melted with a little water), are added; powdered scammony, 6 lbs., is next gradually sifted in, the extract all the time being assiduously stirred by a second person. Lastly, the heat is further moderated, and the stirring continued until a rather harder consistence is acquired than is proper for the extract, when the steam is wholly ‘shut off,’ or the vessel removed from the heat, and as soon as the whole has become sufficiently cool to prevent any considerable evaporation of the spirit, essence of cardamoms, 2 lbs. (say 1 quart), is expertly stirred in; and the extract at once (whilst still warm) put into stone jars or pots, and tied or covered over for store or use. The product is usually labelled ‘EXT. COLOCYNTH. COMP. OPT.’ It looks well, and smells very aromatic, and is really an excellent preparation.

b. Turkey colocynth, 2-1/4 lbs.; hepatic aloes, 5-1/2 lbs.; powdered scammony, 1-1/2 lb.; powdered cardamoms, 6 oz. (or essence, 1/2 pint); Castile soap (genuine), 1 lb. 2 oz.; pale moist sugar, 1/2 lb.; proceed as last. This produces a beautiful article, and of unquestionable quality, equally effective, and milder in its action than the College preparation. It is labelled and sent out as EXT. COLOCYNTH. COMP. PH. L. (1836).

4. (Ph. L. 1809.) Colocynth, 6 dr. (6 parts); aloes, 1-1/2 oz. (12 parts); scammony, 1/2 oz. (4 parts); hard soap, 3 dr. (3 parts); cardamoms, 1 dr. (1 part); as No. 3, a (nearly).

Qual., &c. Compound extract of colocynth is often adulterated with acrid cathartics to make up for the deficiency or inferiority of its proper ingredients, and foreign matter often becomes mixed with it by the use of impure scammony. The presence of cape aloes may usually be detected by the nauseous odour; chalk (an article frequently present in bad scammony), by placing a little ball of the extract in a glass tube, and pouring over it some dilute hydrochloric or acetic acid, when an effervescence will ensue if that substance be present; jalap, scammony adulterated with fecula, and other starchy substances, by the filtered decoction of the extract turning blue on the addition of tincture of iodine; gamboge, by the decoction becoming deep red on the addition of liquor of potassa, and by a filtered alcoholic solution of the extract forming a yellow emulsion with water, which becomes transparent and assumes a deep-red colour on the addition of caustic potassa; and further, by this solution (if the alkali is not in excess) giving a yellow precipitate with acids and with acetate of lead, a brown precipitate with sulphate of copper, and a very dark brown one with the salts of iron; also by the ethereal solution of the extract dropped on water yielding an opaque yellow film, soluble in caustic potassa if it contains gamboge.

Dose, 3 gr. to 15 gr. It is a safe and mild, yet certain, purgative. It may be mixed with calomel without the latter being decomposed. 2-1/2 or 3 gr., mixed with an equal weight of blue pill and taken overnight forms an excellent aperient in dyspepsia, liver complaints, &c. See ABERNETHY MEDICINES.

Obs. There are few formulæ which have undergone so many alterations in the hands of the College as that for compound extract of colocynth. Before 1809, proof spirit was ordered to be employed as the menstruum, and, omitting the soap, the preparation resembled that of the Ph. L. 1836. In 1809, the College directed water to be used instead of spirit, and added a certain quantity of soap. In the next edition of the Pharmacopœia (1815), the soap was again omitted; but in the edition of 1824, the formula of 1809 was again adopted, substituting, however, proof spirit for the water. These directions were also continued in the edition of 1836. In the last London Pharmacopœia (1851) the formula for this extract is omitted altogether, and in its place a pill (PILULA COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITA) is inserted.

The compound extract of colocynth and the simple and compound extracts of sarsaparilla are in greater demand in the wholesale trade, and are sold in larger quantities at a time, than all the other medicinal extracts put together. As a proof, if it were necessary, that honesty is the best policy, it may be mentioned that a certain metropolitan druggist, remarkable for the superiority of this preparation, has obtained no inconsiderable fortune by its sale alone; while the host of miserable vendors of the evaporated decoction of musty colocynth seed, Cape aloes, worthless scammony, and scentless cardamoms, sold under the name, attempt to ruin each other by offering their rubbish at a price that precludes the possibility of a large profit, or even of the establishment of a respectable connection.

=Extract of Conia.= See EXTRACT OF HEMLOCK.

=Extract of Contrayer′va.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CONTRAYERVÆ, L. Prep. (Palat. Cod.) From contrayerva root, as EXTRACT OF CINCHONA——Ph. L.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.; as a diaphoretic tonic in low conditions of the system.

=Extract of Copai′ba.= Syn. RESINOUS EXTRACT OF COPAIBA; EXTRACTUM COPAIBÆ, E. C. RESINOSUM, L. Prep. (Mr Thorn.) From balsam of copaiba, by distilling off the oil until the residuum assumes the consistence of an extract.——Dose, 10 to 20 gr., or more. One of the many useless preparations which encumber modern pharmacy. It may be taken in 3 dr. doses without any perceptible effect beyond a fit of indigestion.

=Extract of Copal′che.= Syn. EXTRACTUM COPALCHI, E. CORTICIS C., L. Prep. From copalchi bark (Croton pseudo-China), as EXTRACT OF CASCARILLA, which it for the most part resembles.——Dose, 1 to 3 gr.

=Extract (Fluid) of Cotton Root.= Syn. EXTRACTUM GOSSYPII RADICIS FLUIDUM (Ph. U. S.). Cotton root in very fine powder, 16 oz. (troy); macerate with glycerin, 3 fluid oz. (old measure); rectified spirit, 8 oz. (old measure); water, 5 oz. (old measure), in closed percolator for 4 days; then let the percolation commence, and finish it by adding dilute alcohol (eq. vols. of alcohol ·835 and water) until 24 oz. (old measure) have been obtained; reserve the first 14 oz., and evaporate the remaining 10 oz. (to which previously add 1 fluid oz., old measure) of glycerin to 2 fluid oz. (old measure), and mix with the reserved portion.

=Extract of Couch Grass.= Syn. EXTRACT OF DOG’S GRASS; EXTRACTUM GRAMINIS, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From the root of couch grass, or dog’s grass (Triticum repens), as EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod.

2. From the fresh root, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L.

3. (Fluid; MELLAGO GRAMINIS, EXTRACTUM GRAMINIS FLUIDUM, L.——Ph. Hann. 1831.) From the decoction of the fresh root of couch grass, evaporated to the consistence of new honey. Pectoral.——Dose, 15 gr. to 1/2 dr., or more.

=Extract of Cu′bebs.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CUBEBÆ, L. Prep. 1. From the alcoholic tincture evaporated by a very gentle heat.——Dose, 5 gr. to 30 gr.

2. (Mr Toller.) To the last add a little powdered Castile soap, when it begins to thicken, and evaporate to a pilular consistence.——Dose, 10 gr. to 30 gr.

3. (Fluid: LIQUOR CUBEBÆ, EXTRACTUM C. FLUIDUM, L.)——a. Cubebs (ground in a coffee-mill), 1-1/4 lb.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; prepare a tincture, either by displacement or by digestion for a week, and reduce it, by distillation at a very gentle heat, until the whole measures exactly 1 pint. Every fl. oz. represents 2 oz. of cubebs.——Dose, 20 to 40 drops.

b. (M. Puche.) From cubebs and proof spirit, equal parts, by percolation; without subsequent evaporation. Represents its own weight in cubebs.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 fl. dr.

c. (Ph. U. S. 1851.) Cubebs, 1 lb. (nearly); ether, q. s.; make 1 quart of tincture; then distil off 1-1/2 pint of the ether by the heat of a water bath, and expose the residuum in a shallow vessel until the remainder of the ether has evaporated.

d. (Ph. U. S.) EXTRACTUM CUBEBÆ FLUIDUM. Cubebs in moderately fine powder, 16 oz. (troy); alcohol (·817), 16 oz. (old measure). Macerate in a closed percolator for 4 days, and then let the percolation commence, and finish it by adding more menstruum until 24 oz. (old measure) have been obtained; reserve the first 14 oz., evaporate the remaining 10 oz. to 2 oz., and mix this with the reserved portion.

4. (Oleo-resinous; EXTRACTUM CUBEBÆ, E. CUBEBRUM, E. C. OLEO-RESINOSUM, L.)——a. (M. Dublanc.) The essential oil resulting from the careful distillation of any given quantity of cubebs, is mixed with the resinous extract obtained by evaporating a tincture of the dried residuum made with rectified spirit; the whole being reduced to the consistence of a thick syrup. 1 lb. of cubebs yields about 6 oz. of this extract.

b. (Labelonge.) Cubebs are first exhausted with ether, and then with proof spirit, in a displacement apparatus; the alcoholic tincture is evaporated to an extract over a water bath, and when cold, the ethereal tincture is mixed with it, and the mixture abandoned to spontaneous evaporation until the ether is volatilised.

c. (W. Procter.) An ethereal tincture (by displacement) is poured into a large retort, and 5-6ths is drawn over by the heat of a water bath; the evaporation of the residuum, to the proper consistence, is carried on at a heat not exceeding 120° Fahr. The formula of the Ph. Baden is nearly similar. Said to represent 6 to 8 times its weight in cubebs. 1 lb. yields 2 oz. of this extract.

d. (Hamb. Cod. 1845.) This resembles a (above).

Obs. This extract has a darkish brown colour, and tastes and smells strongly of cubebs. It is only slightly soluble in water.——Dose, 5 gr. to 20 gr.; made into an emulsion or pills, or enclosed in a capsule. See CUBEBS.

=Extract of Cu′cumber.= See ELATERIUM.

=Extract of Cuspa′′ria.= EXTRACT OF ANGOSTURA BARK; EXTRACTUM CUSPARIÆ, E. CORTICIS C., E. ANGOSTURÆ, L. Prep. 1. From angostura bark, as EXTRACT OF CINCHONA——Ph. L.

2. (Alcoholic.) As EXTRACT OF CINCHONA——Ph. E. Stronger than the last. Both are aromatic, bitter, tonic, and stimulant.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.; in dyspepsia, chronic diarrhœa, dysentery, &c.

=Extract of Daff′odil.= Syn. EXTRACTUM NARCISSI, L. Prep. 1. From the fresh flowers of daffodil or yellow narcissus (Narcissus pseudo-narcissus), as EXTRACT OF ANCONITE——Ph. L.

2. (Alcoholic.) From the dried flowers, as EXTRACT OF BOX. Both are pectoral and expectorant; and in large doses nauseant and emetic.——Dose, 1/2 gr. to 2 gr.; in hooping-cough, &c.

=Extract of Dandeli′on.= See EXTRACT OF TARAXACUM.

=Extract of Digita′lis.= See EXTRACT OF FOXGLOVE.

=Extract of Dog’s Grass.= See EXTRACT OF COUCH GRASS.

=Extract of Dog′wood.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CORNÛS, E. CORNI, L. Prep. From American or tree dogwood (Cornus Florida), as EXTRACT OF CINCHONA BARK.

Obs. In its general effects, American dogwood approaches the cinchonas, and is said to be not inferior to them in the cure of intermittents. (Bigelow.) It contains a peculiar bitter principle, called cornine. Several other varieties of the genus Cornus, as round-leaved dogwood (Cornus circinata), swamp dogwood (Cornus sericea), &c., are used in America, but are less valuable.

=Extracts, Dried or Powdered.= Syn. EXTRACTA SICCA VEL PULVERATA (Ph. Prus.). These are made by mixing 4 parts of the extract with 1 part of powder of sugar of milk, and setting the mixture in a warm place till dry.

Triturate the mass to powder, adding more of the sugar of milk if necessary, to make the weight the same as the extract used. The German Pharmacopœia directs them to be mixed with dextrin, and then dried at a temperature of 122° Fahr., and, while still warm, triturated into a uniform powder, with dextrin q. s. to make the weight of the powder equal to twice the weight of the extract employed.

=Extract of Dulcama′′ra.= See EXTRACT OF BITTER SWEET.

=Extract of Elate′rium.= Syn. INSPISSATED JUICE OF THE SQUIRTING CUCUMBER; SUCCUS SPISSATUS MOMORDICÆ ELATERII. For preparation and recent synonyms, see ELATERIUM.

=Extract of El′der Berries.= Syn. ELDER ROB; ROOB SAMBUCI, EXTRACTUM SAMBUCI, E. S. NIGRÆ, E. BACCARUM S., SUCCUS SAMBUCI INSPISSATUS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1788.) The expressed and depurated juice of elder berries, evaporated to the consistence of honey.

2. (Ph. E. 1744.) To the above, when it begins to thicken, add 1-5th part of sugar.

3. (Ph. Bor.) As the last (nearly), but adding only 1 oz. of white sugar to each pound of the extract whilst still warm.——Dose, 1 to 4 dr.; in rheumatism, gout, and various skin affections.

=Extract of El′ecampane.= Syn. EXTRACTUM INULÆ, E. RADICUM I. CAMPANÆ, E. HELENII, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1746.) From a decoction of the dried root.

2. (P. Cod.) As EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod.

3. (Ph. Suec 1845.) From a tincture prepared with proof spirit and water, equal parts.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.; as a diaphoretic, expectorant, and tonic; in asthma, hooping-cough, various skin diseases, &c.

=Extract of Elm.= Syn. EXTRACTUM ULMI, E. CORTICUS U., L. Prep. 1. From the decoction of the bark of the common elm (Ulmus campestris).

2. (Soubeiran.) As EXTRACT OF BOX. Astringent and alterative.——Dose, 20 gr. to 1 dr.; in secondary syphilis, chronic skin affections, &c.

=Extract of Er′got.= Syn. AQUEOUS EXTRACT OF ERGOT, HÆMOSTATIC EXTRACT; EXTRACTUM ERGOTÆ, E. E. AQUOSUM, E. SECALIS CORNUTI, E. HÆMOSTATICUM, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Extractum Ergotæ Liquidum. Ergot in coarse powder, 16; ether, 20; distilled water, 70; rectified spirit, 8. Shake the ether in a bottle with half its bulk of the water, and, after separation, decant the ether. Place the ergot in a percolator, and free it from oil by passing the washed ether through it; remove the marc and digest it in the remainder of the water for twelve hours at 160° F. Press out the liquor, and evaporate it to 9, and when cold add the 8 of spirit; allow it to stand for an hour to coagulate, filter, and make up the quantity to 16.——Dose, 15 to 30 minims.

According to Squire, the amount of ether employed should be double the above, in two percolations, and the marc should be dried in the air before digesting with water. See ERGOTINE (Bonjeau’s).

2. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM ERGOTÆ ALCOHOLICUM, L.) See ERGOTINE (Wigger’s).

=Extract of Eucalyptus Globulus.= Syn. EXTRACTUM EUCALYPTI GLOBULI. (Griffith.) Prep. Eucalyptus leaves cut at will. Distil the volatile oil with water; exhaust the residue in the still with water, prepare an extract, exhaust this with alcohol, evaporate to the consistence of an extract, and, while cooling, stir in the volatile oil.——Dose, 2 gr. to 8 gr.

=Extract of Fern.= Syn. EXTRACTUM FILICIS 1IQUIDUM——B. P. see EXTRACT OF MALE FERN.

=Extract of Fleabane (Canadian).= Syn. EXTRACTUM ERIGERONIS. Prep. 1. From Canadian fleabane, by evaporating an aqueous infusion.——Dose, 5 to 10 gr.

2. (EXTRACTUM ERIGERONTIS CANADENSIS FLUIDUM——Ph. U. S.) Canadian erigeron in moderately coarse powder, 16 oz. (troy); rectified spirit, 16 oz. (old measure). Proceed as for fluid extract of cubebs (Ph. U. S.).

=Extract of Flesh.= See EXTRACT OF MEAT, ESSENCE OF BEEF, TEA (Beef), &c.

=Extract of Fox′glove.= Syn. EXTRACTUM DIGITALIS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) From the leaves of Digitalis purpurea, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——(Ph. L.)

2. (Ph. E.) From the filtered expressed juice, either evaporated in vacuo, with the aid of heat, or by exposure to a current of dry air.

3. (P. Cod.)——a. As EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod.

b. As EXTRACT OF BOX——P. Cod.

4. (Ph. Baden.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. Bad.

Obs. The juice of foxglove is very readily injured by exposure to air and heat. The evaporation should therefore be conducted as rapidly as possible, but at a low temperature. It is narcotic, sedative, and is powerfully poisonous.——Dose, 1/2 gr., cautiously increased to 2 or 3 gr. It is principally given in fevers, dropsy, diseases of the heart, pulmonary consumption, epilepsy, scrofula, and asthma. This extract spoils by long keeping. The last two are stronger than the rest, and keep better. It is omitted in the present Ph. L.

=Extract of Fu′mitory.= Syn. EXTRACTUM FUMARIÆ, L. Prep. 1. From either the infusion or decoction of the dried leaves of common fumitory (Fumaria officinalis).

2. (B. Cod.) From the clarified juice of the fresh herb. Slightly aperient, diaphoretic, and alterative. It has been given in obstructions of the liver and cutaneous affections of the leprous kind.

=Extract of Galls.= Syn. EXTRACTUM GALLÆ, E. GALLARUM, L. Prep. 1. From the infusion by maceration or displacement with cold water.

2. From the hot infusion or decoction. The first is to be preferred. Astringent. Used chiefly in ointments and injections for piles, foul ulcers, &c., and, internally, in hæmorrhages, spitting of blood, &c.

=Extract of Gen′tian.= Syn. EXTRACTUM GENTIANÆ (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Gentian root (sliced), 3 lbs.; distilled water (temperate), 4 pints; macerate for 12 hours, and gently express the liquor; repeat the maceration with water, 1 quart, for 6 hours; and evaporate the mixed liquors.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) From the ordinary infusion of the root made with 10 or 12 times its weight of boiling water, the maceration being continued for 24 hours.

3. (Ph. E.) From an infusion prepared by percolation with cold water. The formulæ of the Ph. Baden, Paris, and U. S. are similar.

4. (B. P.) Gentian, 1 lb.; water (boiling), 10; macerate for 2 hours, boil 15 minutes, strain, and evaporate to a soft pilular consistence.——Dose, 10 to 15 gr.

5. (Ph. D. 1826.) From the decoction.

Obs. On the large scale, this extract is almost universally prepared by exhausting the root by coction with water, as in the last formula. When well prepared it is one of the smoothest and brightest extracts of the Pharmacopœia. Good gentian root yields by infusion in hot water fully 50%, and by decoction about 60% of extract.——Dose, 10 gr. to 30 gr., two or three times daily, as a stomachic bitter and tonic; either alone or combined with rhubarb, ginger, or aloes. It is, however, more especially used as a vehicle for chalybeates and other metallic preparations. The principal consumption of extract of gentian is by the brewers, in lieu of hops.

6. (HARD E. OF G.; E. D. DURUM, L.) The last dried by a gentle heat until brittle enough to powder.

=Extract (Fluid) of Ginger.= Syn. EXTRACTUM ZINGIBERIS FLUIDUM. (Ph. U. S.) As fluid extract of cubebs, but using rectified spirit.

=Extract (Fluid) of Golden Seal.= Syn. (Ph. U. S.) EXTRACTUM HYDRASTIS FLUIDUM. Prep. Hydrastis (Golden Seal) in very fine powder, 16 oz. (troy); macerate with 2 oz. (old measure) of glycerine; rectified spirit, 14 oz. (old measure), in closed percolator for 4 days; then let the percolation commence, and finish it by adding a mixture consisting of 2 parts of spirit and 1 of water, until 24 oz. (old measure) have been obtained. Remove the first 14 oz.; evaporate the remaining 10 oz. to 2 oz. (old measure), and mix with the reserved portion.

=Extract, Goulard’s.= See SOLUTION OF SUBACETATE OF LEAD.

=Extract of Guaiac′um.= Syn. EXTRACTUM GUAIACI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1746.) From lignum vitæ shavings or sawdust, exhausted by coction with water; as soon as the mass becomes thick, 1-8th of rectified spirit is to be added.

2. As the last, omitting the spirit. Diaphoretic, diuretic, and alterative; in dropsy, gout, rheumatism, skin diseases, &c.

=Extract of Guarana′.= Syn. EXTRACTUM GUARANÆ, E. PAULLINIÆ, L. Prep. (Dr Gavrelle.) From tincture of guarana (seeds of Paullinia sorbilis), prepared by coction with proof spirit. Tonic and alterative.——Dose, 2 to 5 gr., twice or thrice daily.

=Extract, Hæmostat′ic.= See EXTRACT OF ERGOT.

=Extract of Hedge Hyssop.= Syn. EXTRACTUM GRATIOLÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Bor.) From the herb (Gratiola officinalis), as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. Bor.

2. (Ph. Baden.) As EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. Baden.

3. (Vinous.) As VINOUS EXTRACT OF CINCHONA. Purgative, diuretic, and vermifuge.——Dose, 2 to 5 gr., gradually increased, watching its effects; in dropsy, jaundice, gout, &c. It has been said to be the basis of the celebrated ‘EAU MÉDICINALE D’HUSSON,’

=Extract of Hel′lebore.= The extracts prepared from three different plants may be included under this head:——

1. (EXTRACT OF BLACK HELLEBORE; EXTRACTUM HELLEBORI, E. H. NIGRI, L.)——a. (Ph. L., 1788.) From the infusion or decoction of black hellebore (Helleborus officinalis).——Dose, 5 to 12 gr.

b. (Alcoholic——P. Cod. & Ph. U. S.) As EXTRACT OF BOX (nearly). That of the Ph. Bad. is similar.——Dose, 3 to 8 gr.

c. (Vino-alcoholic——Cottereau.) Powdered black hellebore, 2 lbs.; salt of tartar, 1/2 lb.; dilute alcohol (sp. gr. ·935), 7 pints; digest 12 hours, and express the tincture; add to the marc, white wine, 7 pints; digest for 24 hours, express, mix the tincture, filter, and evaporate.——Dose, 2 to 6 gr.

Obs. When prepared by coction with water till exhausted of soluble matter, black hellebore root yields about 40% of extract. In small doses it is alterative, purgative, and resolvent; in larger ones, it is a drastic, hydragogue cathartic, and emmenagogue, dangerous unless combined and its effects carefully watched.

2. (EXTRACT OF GREEN HELLEBORE, E. OF AMERICAN H., E. OF ITCH-WOOD; EXTRACTUM VERATRI VIRIDIS, L.) From the fresh root (rhizome) of the green hellebore (Veratrum viride), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L.——Dose, 1/6 to 1/2 gr. Used in America in the same cases as white hellebore.

3. (EXTRACT OF WHITE HELLEBORE; EXTRACTUM VERATRI, E. HELLEBORI ALBI, L.) From the root (rhizome) of the white hellebore (Veratrum album), as EXTRACT OF BLACK HELLEBORE.——Dose, 1/12 gr. to 1/4 gr. Emetic, purgative, stimulant, and highly acrid. In gout, rheumatism, and nervous affections, mania, &c. See VERATRINE.

=Extract of Hem′lock.= Syn. INSPISSATED JUICE OF HEMLOCK; EXTRACTUM CONII (B. P.), SUCCUS SPISSATUS CONII, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) The inspissated juice of the fresh plant, prepared as directed for EXTRACTUM BELLADONNÆ.——Dose, 4 to 6 gr.

2. (Ph. L.) From the fresh plant (Conium maculatum), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE.——Ph. L.

3. (Ph. E.) As EXTRACT OF FOXGLOVE——Ph. E.

4. (Ph. D.) As EXTRACT OF BELLADONNA——Ph. D.

Obs. Of all the inspissated juices (not even excepting that of aconite), this is the one most readily injured by exposure to the air and heat, and which soonest loses its qualities by age. Its active principle is CONINE. Extract of hemlock has a greenish colour, and a strong odour of the fresh-bruised plant. It is “of good quality only when a very strong odour of conia (a ‘mouse-odour’) is disengaged by degrees, on its being carefully triturated with liquor of potassa.” (Ph. E.) “The extracts of hemlock may become feeble, if not inert, in one of two ways,——either by the heat being continued after the concentration has been carried to a certain extent, or by long keeping. On the one hand, I have always observed that from the point at which the extract attains the consistence of thin syrup, ammonia begins to be given off in abundance, together with a modified odour of conine; and, on the other hand, I have found extracts which were unquestionably well prepared at first, entirely destitute of conine in a few years.” (Christison.) “The most active extract is that which is procured by moderate pressure from the leaves only.” (Brande.) “The extract of the Ph. D., being freed from the inert albumen and chlorophyll, contains most of the active principle, and is nearly soluble in water.” (Royle.) On the large scale, the whole of the green portion of the plant is pressed for juice. 1 cwt. of hemlock yields from 3 to 5 lbs. of extract.——Dose, 2 gr., gradually increased to 5 gr., or more, until some obvious effect is produced; as an anodyne, alterative, and resolvent in various obstinate disorders, as glandular and visceral enlargements, foul and painful ulcers, scrofula, cancer, neuralgia, rheumatism, troublesome coughs, &c.

5. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM CONII ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——a. (Ph. Baden.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. Baden.

b. (P. Cod.) As the last, but using proof spirit.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 gr.

6. (Dried; EXTRACTUM CONII SICCUM, L.)——a. As the DRIED EXTRACT OF ACONITE——P. Cod.

b. (Archer.) By drying the extract of the Dublin College with a continuous current of warm air.

7. (EXTRACTUM CONII SEMINIS ALCOHOLICUM.) (P. Cod.) Prep. Hemlock seeds in coarse powder, 1 lb; percolate with proof spirit until exhausted. Distil off most of the spirit, and evaporate residue in a water bath to pilular consistence.

=Extract of Hemp.= Syn. EXTRACT OF AMERICAN HEMP; EXTRACTUM APOCYNI, E. A. CANNABINI, L. Prep. From the root of the Apocynum cannabinum, as EXTRACT OF GENTIAN. A hydragogue cathartic.——Dose, 2 to 6 gr.; in dropsy, &c. The plant from which this extract is prepared is called ‘Indian HEMP’ in the United States of America, a practice which should be avoided, as this name is now almost exclusively appropriated to Cannabis Indica, a variety of the common hemp (Cannabis sativa, var. Indica) growing in India. See EXTRACT OF INDIAN HEMP.

=Extract of Hen′bane.= Syn. EXTRACT OF HYOSCYAMUS; EXTRACTUM HYOSCYAMI (B. P.), SUCCUS SPISSATUS HYOSCYAMI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) From the fresh leaves and leafstems of common henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L.

2. (Ph. E.) As EXTRACT OF FOXGLOVE——Ph. E.

3. (Ph. P.) From the fresh leaves and young branches, as EXTRACT OF BELLADONNA.——Dose, 3 to 6 gr.

4. (Ph. U. S.) From the expressed juice coagulated by heat and strained.

Obs. In the Paris Codex Extracts are ordered to be prepared from henbane both by the processes Nos. 1 and 4 above.——Product (by the ordinary method):——1 lb. of the fresh leaves yielded fully 8 dr. of extract (Geiger); 1 cwt. yielded 4 to 5 lb. (Brande); 1 cwt. of the recent plant yielded, by an ordinary screw press, 59-1/2 lbs. of juice, and this evaporated in a water bath gave 5 lbs. 9 oz. of extract (Squire); 1-3/4 cwt. of the green herb yielded 11 lbs. of extract (Gray).——Dose, 2 to 10 gr.; as an anodyne, hypnotic, antispasmodic, sedative, and narcotic, more especially in those cases in which the use of opium is objectionable. Externally, as a topical application to sore or inflamed parts, either made into an ointment or spread on plaster.

5. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM HYOSCYAMI ALCOHOLICUM, L.) The formulæ of the Ph. Bad., Par. & U. S. are similar to those for ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE.

6. (E. OF HENBANE SEEDS; EXTRACTUM SEMINUM HYOSCYAMI, L.——P. Cod.) An extract of the seeds made with spirit sp. gr. ·900 (=about 16 o. p.) is dissolved in 4 parts of cold water, and the solution filtered and evaporated. Stronger than the simple extract.——Dose, 1/4 to 3 gr.

=Extract of Ho′ly This′tle.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CARDUI BENEDICTI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Baden.) From holy or blessed thistle (Carduus Benedictus) by displacement with cold water.

2. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF GENTIAN——Ph. L. (nearly). Tonic, diaphoretic, febrifuge, often diuretic, and occasionally emetic.——Dose, 5 to 15 gr., as a tonic or stomachic chiefly.

=Extract of Hops.= Syn. EXTRACTUM LUPULI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), E. HUMULI (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Hop, 8; rectified spirit, 15; distilled water, 80. Macerate the hop in the spirit for 7 days, press out the tincture, filter, and distil off the spirit, leaving a soft extract; boil the residual hop with the water for one hour, then express the liquor, strain, and evaporate on a water bath to the consistence of a soft extract. Mix the two extracts, and evaporate at a temperature not exceeding 160° to a pilular consistence.——Dose, 5 to 10 gr.

2. (Ph. L.) From commercial hops (the strobiles or catkins of Humulus Lupulus), 2-1/2 lbs.; boiling distilled water, 2 galls.; macerate for 24 hours, boil to a gallon, strain whilst hot, and evaporate to a proper consistence. The form of the Ph. E. is nearly similar.

3. (Ph. D.) As EXTRACT of ALOES——Ph. D. Tonic and stomachic, and slightly anodyne and hypnotic.——Dose, 5 gr. to 30 gr.; in dyspepsia, and cases that do not permit of the use of opium. 1 cwt. of ordinary hops yield about 40 lbs. of extract. (Brande.) The druggists usually employ hops 2 or more years old, called by the dealers ‘yearlings,’ ‘olds,’ or ‘old olds,’ because these may be purchased at 2/3 to 1/2 the price of those of the last season’s growth. The first of the above are estimated to have only 2/3 the strength of new hops; the second about 1/2; and the last little or none, at least in a medical point of view.

4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM LUPULI ALCOHOLICUM, L.——Cottereau.) By displacement with proof spirit. Stronger than the aqueous extract.

=Extract of Hore′hound.= Syn. EXTRACTUM MARRUBII, L. Prep. 1. From the fresh herb, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE.

2. From the infusion or decoction. Antispasmodic, pectoral, tonic, and emmenagogue.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1 dr.

3. (Ph. Baden.) By displacement with cold water.

4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM MARRUBII ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——a. From a tincture made with proof spirit. Said by M. Thoriel to possess considerable power as a febrifuge.——Dose, 5 gr. to 20 gr.

b. (Ph. Lusit.) From a tincture made with a mixture of rectified spirit, 1 part, and water, 7 parts. Inferior to the last.

=Extract of Ind′ian Hemp.= Syn. CANNABINE, HEMP RESIN, ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF INDIAN HEMP; EXTRACTUM CANNABIS INDICÆ, E. C. I. ALCOHOLICUM, RESINA CANNABIS, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Indian hemp in coarse powder, 1; rectified spirit, 5; macerate seven days, press out the tincture, distil off the spirit, and evaporate.——Dose, 1/4 to 1 grain in pill.

2. (O’Shaughnessy.) The dried resinous tops of Indian hemp (‘GUNJAH’) are boiled in rectified spirit until all the resin is taken up, when most of the spirit is distilled off, and the evaporation completed by the heat of a water bath. 1 cwt. yields about 7 lbs.

3. (Robertson). By slowly acting on the ‘gunjah’ with the vapour of alcohol, by a species of percolation; the spirit of the resulting tincture is partly removed by distillation, and the rest by slow evaporation at a temperature not above 150° Fahr. 1 cwt. yields about 8 lbs.——Dose of the last two, 1 to 3 gr., gradually increased.

4. (Messrs Smith.) The bruised ‘gunjah’ is exhausted with tepid water, then with a solution of carbonate of soda (1 of carbonate to 2 of gunjah), and next with pure water; it is then pressed, dried, and exhausted by displacement with rectified spirit; the tincture is agitated with a milk of lime (containing 1 oz. of lime for every lb. of gunjah), and, after filtration or decantation, any retained lime is precipitated by a little sulphuric acid in slight excess; the tincture is next agitated with animal charcoal, and again filtered; most of the spirit is now removed by distillation, and 3 or 4 times its bulk of water being added, the remaining spirit is removed by a gentle heat; lastly, the remaining water is poured off, and the resin remaining washed with fresh water, and dried. Product, 6%.——Commencing dose, 1/4 gr.

3. (Purified; EXTRACTUM CANNABIS INDICÆ PURIFICATUM, L.——Ph. D.) From the crude extract of Indian hemp, as imported (‘CHURRUS’), 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 4 fl. oz.; dissolve, and after defecation, decant, and evaporate.

Obs. The preparations of Indian hemp are said to be anæsthetic, anodyne, hypnotic, stimulant, phrenic, and aphrodisiac, and, in overdoses, to produce catalepsy. They have been recommended in hysteria, hydrophobia, cholera, rheumatism, chorea, convulsions, and various other painful spasmodic and nervous affections of a serious character. According to the observations of Dr O’Shaughnessy, 1 gr. of the extract produced catalepsy in a rheumatic patient. The extract prepared with the plant grown in our botanic gardens has quite a different effect to that of the Indian plant; and it also appears that the inhabitants of this country are less susceptible to its action than those of India, and consequently bear the drug in larger doses. This hemp is known in India as the ‘increaser of pleasure,’ the ‘exciter of desire,’ the ‘cementer of friendship,’ the ‘causer of a reeling gait,’ the ‘laughter-mover,’ &c. See EXTRACT OF HEMP (above), HEMP, &c.

=Extract of Ipecac′uanha.= Syn. EXTRACTUM IPECACUANHA, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From ipecacuanha, as EXTRACT OF BOX.——P. Cod.

2. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF HENBANE SEEDS. Expectorant and emetic.——Dose, 1-1/2 to 8 gr.

=Extract of I′ron.= Syn. EXTRACTUM FERRI, E. MARTIS, L. Prep. 1. From tincture of tartarised iron.——Dose, 2 to 10 gr.; as a chalybeate tonic.

2. (Compound.) See EXTRACT OF APPLE.

=Extract of Jabor′andi (Fluid).= (F. V. Greene, ‘Amer. Journ. Pharm.,’ 1877.) Prep. Jaborandi leaves in moderately fine powder, 16 troy oz.; alcohol (50 per cent.), a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder thoroughly with the menstruum, pack in a conical glass percolator, place a layer of two inches of well-washed sand on the top of the cloth covering the material, add menstruum until the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, when the lower orifice is to be closed with a cork, and the percolator securely covered; set aside in a moderately warm place for four days. At the expiration of this time remove the cork, and add more menstruum by degrees until the material is exhausted. The first 14 ounces (old measure) of the percolate are to be reserved, and the remainder evaporated on a water bath, with constant stirring towards the close, to 2 fluid ounces (old measure), which are to be added to the reserved portion. If the percolation and evaporation have been properly performed the fluid extract will not be required to be filtered.

=Extract of Jal′ap.= Syn. EXTRACTUM JALAPÆ (B. P.), E. SIVE RESINA JALAPÆ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Jalap in coarse powder, 1; rectified spirit, 5; distilled water, 10; macerate the jalap in the spirit for seven days, press out the tincture, then filter, and distil off the spirit, leaving a soft extract; again macerate the residual jalap in the water for four hours, express, strain through flannel, and evaporate by a water bath to a soft extract; mix the two extracts, and evaporate at a temperature not exceeding 140° F. to a proper consistence for forming pills.——Dose, 5 to 15 gr.

2. (Ph. L.) Jalap (powdered) 2-1/2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; digest four days, and express the tincture; boil the ‘marc’ in water, 2 galls.; until reduced to 1/2 gall.; filter the tincture and decoction separately, and let the one distil and the other evaporate until each thickens; lastly, mix the two and complete the evaporation.——Product. About 66% = 16% of alcoholic and 50% of aqueous extract. (Brande.) 18 lbs. yield 12 lbs. of extract. (Lab. Journ.)——Dose, 6 to 15 gr.

3. (Ph. E.) From tincture of jalap prepared by displacement with rectified spirit. It consists of impure resin of jalap. It is more active than the last.——Prod. 16%.——Dose, 2 to 6 gr.

4. (Ph. Ed. 1744, EXTRACTUM JALAPÆ ALKALINUM.) As extract jalap (B. P.) adding for every pound of jalap, 1 oz., or q. s. of carbonate of potash.

Obs. Extract of jalap is an active purgative. It should be well beaten up with a little sulphate of potassa, sugar, or some aromatic powder, to prevent it griping. The substance commonly sold as extract of jalap in the shops is prepared by boiling jalap root for 3 or 4 hours in water, when it is taken out, and well bruised or sliced, and again boiled with water until exhausted of soluble matter. The mixed decoctions are then allowed 12 or 14 hours for defecation, after which the supernatant portion is decanted and evaporated.

Extract of jalap “should be kept in the soft state (EXTRACTUM JALAPÆ, E. J. MOLLE), so as to form pills; and in the hard state (HARD EXTRACT OF JALAP; EXTRACTUM JALAPÆ DURUM), that it may be rubbed to powder.” (Ph. L.)

=Extract of Jasmine (Yellow).= Syn. EXTRACTUM GELSEMII FLUIDUM. (Ph. U. S.) Prep. Yellow jasmine in very fine powder, 16 oz. (troy); rectified spirit, 16 oz. (old measure). Proceed as for fluid extract of cubebs. (Ph. U. S.)

=Extract of Ju′niper.= Syn. EXTRACTUM JUNIPERI, E. BACCARUM J., L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Macerate juniper berries in water at 77° to 86° Fahr., for 24 hours, strain, repeat the process with a fresh quantity of water, mix the liquors, filter, and evaporate.——Dose, 20 gr. to 1 dr.; as a stimulant diuretic, in dropsy, &c.; and also as a pill-basis.

=Extract of Kalada′na.= Syn. EXTRACTUM KALADANÆ, L. Prep. (Bengal Disp.) From the tincture of the seeds of kaladana (Pharbitis Nil). Purgative said to be equal to EXTRACT OF JALAP, and of double the strength.

=Extract of Lettuce=. Syn. INSPISSATED JUICE OF LETTUCE; EXTRACTUM LACTUCÆ (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) The inspissated juice evaporated to a pillular consistence, according to the directions given for EXTRACTUM BELLADONNÆ.

2. (Ph. L.) From the fresh leaves of garden lettuce (Lactuca sativa), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L. Anodyne, sedative, hypnotic, and antispasmodic.——Dose, 3 to 10 gr. 1 cwt. of lettuce yields 4 lbs. to 5 lbs. of extract.

3. (Probait.) From the external parts of the stalks and the old and yellow leaves, after the plants have flowered, by maceration in water for 24 hours, and decoction for 2 hours; the expressed liquid is first evaporated by a gentle heat, and afterwards spread on shallow dishes, and dried by exposure to a current of air. Stronger than the last.——Dose, 1 to 5 gr.

4. (E. OF WILD LETTUCE, INSPISSATED JUICE OF W. L.; EXTRACTUM LACTUCÆ VIROSÆ, SUCCUS SPISSATUS L. V.——Ph. E., L.)——a. (Ph. E.) From the leaves of strong-scented wild lettuce (Lactuca virosa).[295]

[Footnote 295: See general instructions, p. 682.]

b. (P. Cod.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE.——P. Cod.

c. (Ph. Baden.) As EXTRACT OF FOXGLOVE——Ph. Baden. See LACTUCARIUM.

=Extract of Liq′uorice.= Syn. EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (SOFT E. OF L.; EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ MOLLE, L.)——a. (Ph. L.) From fresh liquorice root, as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L.

b. (Ph. E.) From the fresh root, cut into slices, dried, and powdered, as EXTRACT OF GENTIAN——Ph. E. The form of the Ph. Baden is very similar.

c. (Ph. D.) As ordered for simple extracts (EXTRACTA SIMPLICIORA——Ph. D.).

d. (B. P.) Liquorice root in coarse powder, 1; cold distilled water, 5; macerate the root in half the water for twelve hours, strain, and press; again macerate the pressed marc with the remainder of the water for 6 hours, strain and press, mix the strained liquors, heat to 212° F., strain, and evaporate to a pill consistence.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 dr.

e. (B. P. EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ LIQUIDUM.) Prep. Liquorice root in coarse powder, 1 lb.; distilled water, 4 pints. Macerate the liquorice with two pints of water for twelve hours, strain, and press; again macerate the pressed marc with the remainder of the water for six hours, strain, and press. Mix the strained liquors, heat to 212° Fahr., and strain through flannel; then evaporate by a water bath until it has acquired, when cold, a specific gravity of 1·160; add to this one eighth of its volume of rectified spirit; let the mixture stand for twelve hours and filter.

f. (U. S. Disp.) Crude liquorice (SPANISH JUICE), q. s. is dissolved in water, and the solution filtered and evaporated. To produce a good article (EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ PURIFICATUM) in this way, the solution should be allowed some hours for defecation, and should not be decanted and strained until quite cold.

Obs. Soft extract of liquorice is often employed as a pill-basis, and the hard extract (SPANISH JUICE, &c.) is used as a lozenge to allay tickling cough. The principal portion of the latter is, however, consumed by the porter brewers and brewers’ druggists. The product of the last formula, evaporated until it is quite solid when cold, and made into small pipes, sticks, or rolls, forms the BEST REFINED LIQUORICE or REFINED JUICE of the shops.

2. (HARD E. OF L., SPANISH JUICE, S. LIQUORICE, GLYCYRRHIZIN, BLACK SUGAR; EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ SIMPLEX, E. G. DURUM, SUCCUS G., S. G. SPISSATUS, L.) This is seldom prepared by the English druggists, being principally imported in the dry state from Spain and Italy. That from Solazzi (SOLAZZI JUICE) is the most esteemed. A great deal of the foreign extract is mixed with fecula, or the pulp of plums, hence its inferior quality. It also frequently contains copper, derived from the boilers in which it is prepared. The extract prepared from the fresh root is usually preferred to the best foreign, as the latter has a less sweet and agreeable taste. REFINED JUICE is prepared by dissolving the foreign juice in water, filtering and evaporating. See LIQUORICE, and above.

=Extract of Lobe′lia.= Syn. ACETIC EXTRACT OF INDIAN TOBACCO; EXTRACTUM LOBELIÆ, E. L. INFLATÆ, L. Prep. (W. Proctor.) Lobelia seeds (bruised), 8 oz.; dilute alcohol (sp. gr. ·935), 4 pints; acetic acid, 1 fl. oz.; by maceration for 24 hours, and subsequent displacement. Expectorant and diaphoretic, in small doses; emetic and narcotic, in larger ones. It is principally used in asthma and other chest diseases.——Dose, 1/4 gr. to 5 gr.

=Extract of Log′wood.= Syn. EXTRACTUM HÆMATOXYLI (B. P.), E. H. CAMPECHIANI, (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Logwood in chips, 1; boiling distilled water, 10; macerate 24 hours, boil to 5, strain, and evaporate to an extract, but not in iron vessels.

2. (Ph. L.) From cut logwood (logwood chips), as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L.

3. (Ph. E.) As the last (nearly).

4. (Ph. D. 1826 and Wholesale.) From the decoction.

Obs. The Ph. U. S. 1841 orders the wood to be rasped. The Ph. Baden directs displacement with cold water. On the large scale, this extract is prepared solely by decoction. 1 cwt. of wood yields about 20 lbs. of extract (Brande); 80 lbs. yield 14 lbs. of extract (Gray.) It is kept in two states——hard (EXTRACTUM HÆMATOXYLI DURUM) and soft (E. H. MOLLE). The dose of the first is 10 to 20 gr., dissolved in wine, or any cordial water; as an astringent, after each motion in diarrhœa; the second is often employed as a lozenge in the same disease, and is an inexpensive and agreeable remedy for simple relaxation of the bowels.

=Extract of Lov′age.= Syn. EXTRACTUM LEVISTICI, L. Prep. (Ph. Baden.) From lovage (Levisticum officinale), as EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod. Aromatic, stomachic, and diaphoretic.——Dose, 5 to 15 gr.

=Extract of Lu′puline.= Syn. EXTRACTUM LUPULINÆ, L. Prep. 1. From lupuline (the powder separated from hops by rubbing and sifting), by infusion in cold water, or by displacement.

2. (EXTRACTUM LUPULINÆ COCTIONE PARATUM.) From the decoction. Both similar to extract of hops, but stronger. The first is the most aromatic; the last the most bitter.

=Extract of Mad′der.= Syn. EXTRACTUM RUBIÆ. L. Prep. (Ph. Hamb.) From the tincture of dyer’s madder (Rubia tinctorum), made with rectified spirit, 1 part, and water, 3 parts.——Dose, 10 gr. to 30 gr.; as a diuretic, emmenagogue, and parturifacient; and in jaundice, &c.

=Extract of Mahog′any.= Syn. EXTRACTUM SWIETENIÆ, L. From the chips and sawdust of mahogany (Swietenia Mahogoni). It is astringent, and is frequently sold for kino. It is also employed in tanning.

=Extract of Male Fern.= Syn. ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF MALE FERN; EXTRACTUM FILICIS, B. P. Prep. 1. (Dr Ebers.) From the tincture of the dried root of male fern (Lastræa Filix-mas), made with rectified spirit. In tape-worm.——Dose, 20 gr. to 1/2 dr., twice a day, made into an electuary with powdered sugar, and followed by a strong dose of castor oil.

2. (Ethereal.) B. P. (EXTRACTUM FILICIS LIQUIDUM.) Fern root, in coarse powder, 1; ether, 2-1/2, or a sufficiency. Pack closely in a percolator with 1 of the ether, add the rest at intervals, until it passes through colourless, distil off the ether, and the liquid extract remains.——Dose, 30 to 60 minims. See OIL OF MALE FERN.

=Extract of Malt.= Syn. EXTRACTUM MALTI, E. BYNES, L. Prep. 1. From the infusion made with water at a temperature ranging between 160° and 170° Fahr., drained off, without pressure, and evaporated to the consistence of honey. Nutritious and laxative.——Dose. A table-spoonful, or more, ad libitum.

2. EXTRACT OF MALT, FERRATED. (Ph. G.) Extract of malt, 47-1/2 oz., mixed with 1 oz. of pyrophosphate of iron and citrate of ammonia, dissolved in 1-1/2 oz. of water.

=Extract of Ma′′rygold.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CALENDULÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Guibourt.) By maceration of the herb and flowers of the common marygold (Calendula officinalis) in tepid water for 24 hours, and subsequent coction for 15 or 20 minutes.

2. (Ph. Baden.) As EXTRACT OF ANGELICA——Ph. Baden.——Dose, 2 to 10 gr.; cordial, diaphoretic, alterative, and emmenagogue; in dyspepsia, and scirrhous and cancerous affections.

=Extract of May-apple.= Syn. EXTRACTUM PODOPHYLLI. L. Prep. (Ph. U. S. 1841.) From the tincture of the root (rhizomes) of may-apple (Podophyllum peltatum).——Dose, 5 to 15 gr.; as a substitute for extract of jalap. See PODOPHYLLIN.

=Extract of Mea′dow Saf′fron.= See EXTRACT OF COLCHICUM.

=Extract of Meat.= Syn. EXTRACT OF FLESH; EXTRACTUM CARNIS, L. Prep. (Liebig.) The lean of recently killed meat (chopped very small), 1 part; cold water, 8 parts; agitate it well together for 10 minutes; then heat it gradually to the boiling-point, let it simmer gently for a few minutes, and strain through a hair sieve whilst still hot; lastly, evaporate to a soft mass. 1 lb. of meat yields barely 1 oz. See ESSENCE OF BEEF, TEA (Beef), &c.

=Extract of Mezere′on.= Syn. MEZEREON RESIN; EXTRACTUM MEZEREI, RESINA MEZEREI, L. Prep. 1. (Alcoholic; E. M. ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——a. (Ph. Hamb.) By distilling off 5/6ths of the tincture made with rectified spirit, and filtering the residue, retaining what is left on the filter.

b. By the simple distillation of the tincture.

Obs. Green or brownish green; insoluble in water. 1/2 oz. mezereon root-bark yielded 1-1/2 oz. (Hamb. Disp.) It is chiefly used in preparing blistering ointments and plasters.

2. (Ethereal; GREEN OIL OF MEZEREON; EXTRACTUM MEZEREI ÆTHEREUM. B. P.)——a. B. P. Mezereon bark cut small, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 8 pints; ether, 1 pint. Macerate the mezereon in 6 pints of the spirit for 3 days, with frequent agitation, strain, and press. To the residue of the mezereon add the remainder of the spirit, and again macerate for 3 days, with constant agitation, strain, and press. Mix and filter the strained liquors, recover the greater part of the spirit by distillation, evaporate what remains to the consistence of a soft extract, put this in a stoppered bottle with the ether, and macerate for 24 hours, shaking them frequently; decant the etherial solution, recover part of the ether by distillation, and evaporate what remains to the consistence of a soft extract.

b. (Ph. Bor.) By digesting alcoholic extract of mezereon in ether for some days with agitation, reducing the tincture to 1-4th by careful distillation, and evaporating the residuum by a gentle heat to the consistence of an extract.

c. (Ph. U. S. EXTRACTUM MEZEREI FLUIDUM.) Mezereon in moderately coarse powder, 16 oz. (troy); alcohol (·817), 16 oz. (old measure); proceed as for fluid extract of cubebs. (Ph. U. S.)

Obs. Both the alcoholic and ethereal extract of mezereon must be kept in stoppered bottles. The latter, like the former, is used as an external irritant.

=Extract of Mil′foil.= Syn. EXTRACTUM MILLEFOLII, E. Achiliæ m., L. Prep. From the herb milfoil or yarrow (Achillea millefolium), as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L. Astringent, tonic, and alterative.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.

=Extract of Mimo′sa Bark.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CORTICIS MIMOSÆ, L. Prep. From the bark of several Australian species of Acacia or Mimosa (Acacia mollissima, A. decurrens, A. melanoxylon, &c.). It is chiefly imported from Van Diemen’s Land. Astringent. Said to be superior to oak bark for tanning.

=Extract of Mone′sia Bark.= Syn. EXTRACTUM MONESIÆ, E. M. PURIFICATUM, L. Prep. From the monesia or buranheim bark (bark of Chrysophyllum Buranheim); or from commercial monesia, as EXTRACT OF CATECHU. Astringent.——Dose, 4 to 8 gr.

=Extract of Mug′wort.= Syn. EXTRACTUM ARTEMISIÆ, L. Prep. From the tops of the common mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris), as EXTRACT OF BOX,——P. Cod. An active emmenagogue.

=Extract of Myrrh.= Syn. EXTRACTUM MYRRHÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Aqueous; EXTRACTUM MYRRHÆ AQUOSUM, L.)——a. From the strained decoction.

b. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF ALOES——Ph. Bor., afterwards reducing it to a fine powder. The formula of the Ph. Baden is similar.——Dose, 6 to 15 gr., or more.

2. (Alcoholic; RESIN OF MYRRH; EXTRACTUM MYRRHÆ ALCOHOLICUM, E. M. RESINOSUM, L.) From the tincture. Tonic and stimulant.——Dose, 5 to 10 gr., or more.

3. (Compound; EXTRACTUM MYRRHÆ COMPOSITUM, L.——Swediaur.) Myrrh, 2 oz.; gum arabic (in powder), 2 dr.; triturate, add water, q. s. to form a thick emulsion, and add extract of couch grass, 4 oz. Much recommended in phthisis and uterine ulcerations.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr. in water, twice or thrice daily.

=Extracts, Narcotic, with Sugar.= Syn. EXTRACTUM NARCOTICA CUM SACCHARO. (Guager.) Prep. Dissolve 6 oz. of alcoholic extract of the plant in 14 dr. or 2 oz. of strong alcohol by trituration in a porcelain mortar, and mix with it 30 oz. of powdered white sugar, gradually added, with constant stirring. Set the mixture in a warm situation until dry. Add sugar q. s. to make up 36 oz. These preparations are less liable to lose their efficacy than the simple extracts. 6 gr. represent one of the extract.

=Extract of Net′tles.= Syn. EXTRACTUM URTICÆ, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the juice of nettles (Urtica dioica), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L. Antiscorbutic, diuretic, and narcotic.

=Extract of Nose′gay.= Syn. ESSENCE OF NOSEGAY; EXTRAIT DE BOUQUET, Fr. Prep. Flowers of benzoin, 1 dr.; essence of ambergris, 2 fl. oz.; spirits of jasmine and extract (esprit) of violets, of each 1 pint; spirits of cassia, roses, orange flowers and gillyflowers, of each 1/2 pint; mix. A delightful perfume.

=Extract of Nux Vom′ica.= Syn. EXTRACT OF KOOCHLA NUTS; EXTRACTUM NUCIS VOMICÆ, B. P. Prep. 1. (Aqueous; E. N. V. AQUOSUM, L.——Ph. Bor.) From the powdered nut, as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L. (nearly.)——Dose, 1 to 5 gr.

2. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM NUCIS VOMICÆ——Ph. L. E. and D., E. N. V. ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——a. (B. P.) Soften nux vomica by steam, dry rapidly, and reduce to fine powder; boil with rectified spirit until exhausted, strain, distil off the spirit, and evaporate to the consistence of a soft extract.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 gr.

b. (Ph. L.) Koochla or poison nuts (seed or fruit of Strychnos Nux-vomica), 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 3 pints; expose them to steam until softened, then bruise, slice, and dry them, and macerate them in 2-3rds of the spirit for 7 days; express the tincture, and repeat the maceration with the remaining 1-3rd of the spirit; again express the liquid; lastly, filter the mixed tinctures, distil off the greater part of the spirit, and complete the evaporation by a gentle heat. The formula of the P. Cod. is similar, but using spirit sp. gr. ·863 (=41 o. p.).

c. (Ph. E.) The sliced and dried nuts are to be ground in a coffee-mill, and either exhausted by percolation with rectified spirit or by boiling the powder in repeated portions of the menstruum. The formulæ of the Ph. Baden and U. S. are similar.

d. (Ph. D. 1826.) From a tincture of the rasped nut made with proof spirit, observing that the extract, whilst thickening, should be properly stirred.

Obs. This extract consists chiefly of impure igasurate of strychnia, and is exhibited in similar cases to that alkaloid. Used as a stimulant of the nervous system in paralysis.——Dose, 1/2 gr., gradually and cautiously increased to 2 gr. It is very poisonous. On the large scale, the nuts are ground in a drug-mill.

=Extract of Oak Bark.= Syn. EXTRACTUM QUERCÛS, E. CORTICIS QUERCÛS, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) From the decoction. Astringent.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr. Now seldom used.

=Extract of O′pium.= Prep. 1. (AQUEOUS EXTRACT OF OPIUM, SIMPLE E. OF O.; EXTRACTUM OPII (B. P.), E. O. AQUOSUM (Ph. D.), E. O. PURIFICATUM, L.)——a. (B. P.) Opium in thin slices, 1 lb.; distilled water, 6 pints. Macerate the opium in 2 pints of the water for 24 hours, and express the liquor. Reduce the residue of the opium to a uniform pulp, macerate again in 2 pints of the water for 24 hours, and express. Repeat the operation a third time. Mix the liquors, strain through flannel, and evaporate by a water bath to a proper consistence for forming pills.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 gr., or more.

b. (Ph. L.) Opium (powdered), 1-1/2 lb.; distilled water (cold), 2-1/2 pints; mix gradually, and macerate for 24 hours, frequently stirring with a spatula; (press), strain, and repeat the maceration for 24 hours with a fresh quantity (2-1/2 pints) of water; lastly, evaporate the (mixed) strained liquors to a proper consistence. The formulæ of the Ph. E. D. and Baden, and P. Cod., are essentially the same.

c. (Ph. D. 1826.) As the last, but using boiling water, and exposing the mixed liquors to the air for 2 days, before filtering, and evaporating them. Inferior to the last.

d. (Purified.) The extract, prepared with cold water, is evaporated to dryness, powdered, and redissolved in cold water; after 48 hours’ exposure, and defecation, it is decanted from the dregs, filtered, and gently evaporated, as before. Superior to any other extract of opium made.

Obs. Good opium yields from 60% to 70% of its weight of extract, but much depends upon the variety used.——Dose, 1/4 gr. to 2 gr., as an anodyne, sedative, and hypnotic. It is less stimulating than ordinary opium. That prepared by the third formula is, indeed, scarcely inferior in its action to the salts of morphine.

This extract is kept in both the hard and soft state (EXTRACTUM OPII DURUM, E. O. MOLLE). A solution of the former, in distilled water, with the addition of a little spirit to keep it, forms Battley’s ‘LIQUOR OPII SEDATIVUS,’ The Dublin formula is that adopted by the wholesale druggists.

Besides the aqueous extract, there are the following preparations:——

2. (EXTRACTUM OPII LIQUIDUM, B. P.; EXTRACT OF OPIUM.) Distilled water, 16; rectified spirit, 4. Digest the extract of opium in the water for an hour, stirring frequently; filter, and add the spirit. The product should measure 20.——Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

3. (Acetic; EXTRACTUM OPII ACETICUM, L.——Soubeiran.) Opium, 1 oz.; distilled vinegar, 1 quart; digest 2 days (with heat), decant, filter, and evaporate.

4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM OPII ALCOHOLICUM, L.——Ph. Antwerp.) From the tincture.

5. (Aqueo-alcoholic; E. OPII AQUO-ALCOHOLICUM, L.——Taddei.) The opium, exhausted by spirit, is digested in warm water, and the infusion and tincture, separately filtered, are mixed and evaporated.

6. (De-narcotised; EXTRACTUM OPII ABSQUE NARCOTINA, L.——a. (P. Cod.) The aqueous extract is reduced with hot water to the consistence of a syrup, and when cold this is mixed with 8 times its volume of ether, and the whole is frequently shaken for a day or two; the ethereal solution is then decanted, and the process repeated with fresh ether, as long as it dissolves anything. The original form of Robiquet is similar. Said to consist entirely of impure MURIATE OF MORPHINE, GUM, and EXTRACTIVE.

b. (M. Lamousin-Lamothe.) Aqueous extract, 4 parts; resin, 1 part; beat well together; add boiling water, 16 parts; boil to one half; add cold water, 8 parts, filter, and evaporate.

7. (By fermentation; EXTRACTUM OPII PER FERMENTATIONEM, L.)——a. Opium and sugar, of each 4 oz.; water, 1 quart; rub together, and keep the mixture, loosely covered, in a warm situation (about 70° Fahr.), for 10 days or more; then add of cold water, 1 quart, and the next day filter and evaporate.

b. (Duyeux.) From an unstrained mixture of opium, 1 part, with water, 8 parts, and a little yeast; left for a week at a temperature of 68° to 77° Fahr., and then diluted, filtered, and evaporated. Some parties have recommended quince juice as the menstruum.

8. (Roasted; EXTRACTUM OPII TORREFACTI, L.——Guibourt.) Powdered opium is heated on a flat dish over a moderate fire, with constant stirring, as long as fumes are given off; it is then exhausted by treating it twice with 6 times its weight of water, and the mixed liquor, after filtration, is evaporated.

9. (Vinous; EXTRACTUM OPII VINO PARATUM, L.——P. Cod.) From wine of opium. The above extracts of opium (excepting the alcoholic) are regarded as less exciting than the other preparations of the drug. The dose of each is similar to that of the aqueous extract.

=Extract of Or′ange Peel.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CORTICIS AURANTII, L. Prep. 1. From the thin yellow peel, as EXTRACT OF MADDER.

2. See AURANTII.

=Extract of Ox-gall.= Syn. INSPISSATED OX-GALL; EXTRACTUM FELLIS BOVINI, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From ox-gall, strained, and evaporated in a water bath.——Dose, 5 to 15 gr.; in pills.

2. (Hunter Lane.) As the last, but reducing the gall to dryness, and then powdering it. It must be preserved in well-corked bottles.——Dose, 3 to 12 gr.

=Extract of Parei′ra.= Syn. EXTRACTUM PAREIRÆ (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Pareira root in coarse powder, 1; boiling distilled water, 10, or a sufficiency; digest the pareira with 1-1/2 of water for twenty-four hours, then pack in a percolator, and water till by slow percolation 10 has passed through; evaporate in a water bath to a pilular consistence.——Dose, 13 to 20 gr.

2. (Ph. L.) From the root of velvet leaf or pareira brava (Cissampelos Pareira), as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L.

3. (P. E.) As EXTRACT OF LIQUORICE——Ph. E. The P. Cod. formula is similar. Alterative, tonic, and diuretic.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.; chiefly in affections of the bladder.

4. EXTRACTUM PAREIRA LIQUIDUM (B. P.). Pareira in coarse powder, 16; boiling distilled water, 160, or a sufficiency; rectified spirit, 3; macerate in 20 of water for twenty-four hours; pack in a percolator, adding more of the water; allow the liquor slowly to pass until 160 has been collected, or the pareira is exhausted; evaporate to 13, and, when cold, add the spirit; filter and make up to 16.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 2 dr.

=Extract of Par′sley.= Syn. EXTRACTUM PETROSELINI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the root, as EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod.

2. (M. Peraibe.) From the fresh leaves, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE. Febrifuge and tonic.——Dose, 5 to 10 gr.

=Extract of Pasque Flower.= Syn. EXTRACTUM ANEMONIS, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the recent or dried flower, as either of the EXTRACTS OF ACONITE——P. Cod.——Dose, 1 to 4 gr.

Obs. Several species of Anemone have been used in medicine, especially Anemone pratensis and A. pulsatilla. According to Baron Stoerck, the former is resolvent, and is an effectual remedy in various chronic diseases, particularly in amaurosis, cataract, opacity of the cornea, nocturnal pains, suppressions, &c. 1/2 to 1 gr., combined with sugar of milk, has been highly recommended in hooping-cough.

=Extract of Pa′tience Dock.= Syn. EXTRACTUM PATIENTIÆ, L. Prep. From the root of Rumex Patientia or garden patience, as EXTRACT OF HOPS. Aperient and stomachic. Used in double doses in lieu of extract of rhubarb.

=Extract of Paullin′ia.= See EXTRACT OF GUARANA.

=Extract of Peach Blos′som.= Prep. From essence of lemons, 1 oz.; pure balsam of Peru, 2 dr.; essence (oil) of bitter almonds, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 3 pints; spirit of orange flowers, 1 pint; spirit of jasmin, 1/4 pint; mix. A pleasant and powerful perfume.

=Extract of Pel′litory.= Syn. EXTRACTUM PYRETHRI, E. P. ÆTHERO-ALCOHOLICUM, L. Prep. (W. Procter.) Alcohol (rectified spirit), 1 pint; ether, 1/2 pint; mix, and pour it gradually on root of pellitory (Anacyclus Pyrethrum), 1 lb., placed in a percolator; afterwards pour on alcohol, 1 pint; and subsequently sufficient dilute alcohol (proof spirit) to displace 2-1/2 pints of tincture (ESSENCE OF PELLITORY, TOOTHACHE ESSENCE); the latter is either suffered to evaporate spontaneously, or by a very gentle heat, until a soft extract is attained. Used to destroy the sensibility of the nerves of the teeth, previous to plugging, and for toothache.

=Extract of Pep′per.= Syn. EXTRACTUM PIPERIS, E. P. NIGRI, L. Prep. 1. From decoction of black pepper (bruised). Stimulant; stronger tasted than the berries, but less aromatic.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1 dr.; in agues.

2. (Fluid; EXTRACTUM PIPERIS FLUIDUM, L.)——Ph. U. S. From black pepper, as FLUID EXTRACT OF CUBEBS——Ph. U. S., separating the PIPERINE by expression through a cloth, and keeping the fluid portion for use.

=Extract of Pimpinel′la.= Syn. EXTRACTUM PIMPINELLÆ, L. Prep. From the root of burnet saxifrage (Pimpinella saxifraga), as EXTRACT OF HOPS. Astringent.——Dose, 10 to 20 gr.

=Extract of Pink′root.= Syn. EXTRACT OF WORM GRASS, E. OF WORMSEED ROOT; EXTRACTUM SPIGELIÆ, L. Prep. 1. From Carolina pinkroot (Spigelia Marylandica), as EXTRACT OF BOX——P. Cod.——Dose, 5 to 20 gr.

2. (Fluid; ESSENCE OF PINKROOT, LIQUOR OF P.; EXTRACTUM SPIGELIÆ FLUIDUM, L.) Pinkroot, 1 lb.; proof spirit, 3 pints; make a tincture, evaporate to 10 fl. oz., add sugar, 3/4 lb., and rectified spirit, q. s. to make the whole measure exactly a pint.——Dose. For a child, beginning with 1/2 a teaspoonful.

3. (Compound; COMPOUND LIQUOR OF PINKROOT; EXTRACTUM SPIGELIÆ FLUIDUM COMP., L.)——a. (Estlack.) Carolina pinkroot or spigelia (bruised), 4 oz.; senna, 3 oz.; savine, 1 dr.; pour on boiling water, 1 quart; when cold, add rectified spirit, 1/2 pint; digest 24 hours, express (or percolate), filter, evaporate to 12 fl. oz., in which dissolve, manna, 1 oz.; sugar, 8 oz. Every fl. oz. is equal to 2 dr. of pinkroot and 1-1/2 dr. of senna.——Dose. For a child, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful; for an adult, a tablespoonful.

b. (W. Procter.) Pinkroot, 16 oz.; senna, 8 oz. (both in coarse powder); dilute alcohol (sp. gr. ·935), 2 pints; macerate for 2 days, then proceed by displacement, adding fresh spirit, until 4 pints have passed through; filter, evaporate to 20 fl. oz., and add carbonate of potassa, 1 oz.; next add oils of caraway and aniseed, of each 1/2 dr.; (previously triturated with) powdered sugar, 24 oz.; lastly, apply a gentle heat to dissolve the sugar.

c. (EXTRACTUM SPIGELIÆ ET SENNÆ FLUIDUM——Ph. U. S.) As the last (nearly).——Dose. As above. All the above preparations of pinkroot are regarded as powerful and certain anthelmintics; particularly the last two.

=Extract of Pipsis′sewa.= See EXTRACT OF WINTER-GREEN.

=Extract of Poi′son Oak.= Syn. EXTRACTUM RHOIS TOXICODENDRI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the expressed juice of the leaves of Rhus toxicodendron. Narcotic, stimulant, and alterative.——Dose, 1/2 gr. to 1 gr., gradually increased; in chronic rheumatism, obstinate skin diseases, &c.

=Extract of Pomegran′ate.= Syn. EXTRACTUM GRANATI, L. Prep. 1. (Soubeiran, & P. Cod.) From the root-bark of pomegranate, as EXTRACT OF BOX. In tapeworm.——Dose, 10 to 20 gr.; followed by a purgative.

2. (E. G. CORTICIS FRUCTUS, L.) From the decoction of the fruit-rind. As the last.

=Extract of Pop′pies.= Syn. EXTRACTUM PAPAVERIS (B. P.), E. P. ALBI, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Capsules coarsely powdered, 16; rectified spirit, 2; distilled water, a sufficiency; mix the poppy capsules with 40 of the water, stirring them frequently during 24 hours; then pack in a percolator, and pass water slowly through them until about 160 have passed through; evaporate the liquor by a water bath to 20; when cold, add the spirit. After 24 hours filter the liquor, and evaporate to a pilular consistence.——Dose, 2 or 5 grains.

2. (Ph. L.) Bruised poppy-heads (without the seeds), 15 oz.; boiled distilled water, 1 gall.; macerate 24 hours, boil to one half, strain, and complete the evaporation.

3. (Ph. E.) As the last, with “capsules not quite ripe.”

Obs. The medical action of extract of poppies, for the most part, resembles that of opium; but it is considerably weaker, and is generally regarded as less prone to produce headache and delirium.——Dose, 2 to 12 gr. It is usually prepared by the large manufacturers, by exhausting the capsules, by coction with water; hence the inferior quality of the extract of the shops, which contains a considerable quantity of inert matter.

The principal consumption of this extract is among the brewers, brewers’ druggists, and wine merchants. For this purpose it is evaporated until it becomes hard on cooling, when it is formed into half-pound rolls, and covered with paper, like lead plaster. One of these rolls added to a hogshead of ale, stout, or sherry, materially increases the ‘headiness’ or apparent strength of these beverages.

=Extract of Pota′to.= Syn. EXTRACTUM SOLANI TUBEROSI, L. Prep. (Dr J. Latham.) From the stem and leaves of the potato plant, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L. Narcotic.——Dose, 2 to 10 gr.

=Extract of Pur′ging Flax.= Syn. EXTRACTUM LINI CATHARTICI, L. Prep. (Dr B. Lane.) From the dried herb, as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L. Aperient and diuretic——Dose, 5 to 10 gr.; 14 lbs. yielded 2-1/4 lbs. of extract.

=Extract of Quas′sia.= Syn. EXTRACTUM QUASSIÆ (B. P.), EX. Q. LIGNI, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Quassia scraped, 1 lb.; distilled water, a sufficiency; macerate the quassia in 8 oz. of water for 12 hours; pack in a percolator; add water till the quassia is exhausted; evaporate, filter before it becomes thick, and again evaporate in a water bath to a proper consistence for pills.——Dose, 2 to 5 gr.

2. From the decoction of quassia chips. Product, 5% to 6%.

3. (Ph. E.) From the rasped wood, as EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod. Bitter and stomachic.——Dose, 5 to 10 gr., or more.

Obs. This extract is almost universally prepared by coction, and is principally consumed by the brewers, who employ it as a substitute for hops, in large quantities. The bark is frequently substituted for the wood, but is considerably less bitter. The Ph. Baden has an extract prepared with spirit of ·944.

=Extract of Quince Seeds.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CYDONIÆ, E. C. SEMINUM. Prep. From the decoction. Sucked as a lozenge, in hoarseness, &c.

=Extract of Ragwort.= Syn. EXTRACTUM JACOBŒÆ. The inspissated juice of rag-wort.

=Extract of Rha′tany.= Syn. EXTRACTUM RHATANIÆ; E. KRAMERIÆ (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Rhatany in coarse powder, 1; cold distilled water, 15; macerate 24 hours in 2 of the water, then percolate the whole; evaporate by water bath to dryness.——Dose, 5 to 20 grains.

2. (Ph. E. Baden and U. S.) From dried rhatany root (Krameria triandria), as EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod.

3. (Ph. Bor.) By two successive macerations in boiling water of 24 hours each, and evaporating at a temperature not exceeding 165° Fahr.

Obs. Extract of rhatany is astringent and tonic.——Dose, 10 to 20 gr. A large quantity of this extract, of very inferior quality, is imported from Brazil, and other parts of South America. It is kept in two states, hard and soft; the former resembles KINO, and is often sold for it; the latter is chiefly consumed by the manufacturers and ‘improvers’ of port wine.

=Extract of Rhu′barb.= Syn. EXTRACTUM RHEI (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Rhubarb (sliced or bruised), 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 5 oz.; distilled water, 50 oz.; macerate 4 days, strain, and set it aside, that the fæces may subside; next decant the clear portion, strain, mix, and evaporate to a proper consistence over a water bath at 160° F.

2. (Ph. L.) As EXTRACT OF CINCHONA——Ph. L. (nearly). “The extract is obtained of finer quality by evaporation in a vacuum with a gentle heat.” The Baden formula is similar.

Obs. This extract is usually prepared by decoction from inferior and damaged rhubarb, picked out from the chests on purpose; hence the inferior quality of the extract of the shops. When made of good Turkey, or even East India rhubarb, it is a very valuable preparation.——Dose. As a stomachic, 5 to 10 gr.; as a purgative, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr. It is seldom exhibited alone. Product. 5%.

3. (Fluid; LIQUOR OF RHUBARB, ESSENCE OF R.; LIQUOR RHEI, EXTRACTUM RHEI FLUIDUM, L.)——a. (W. Procter.) Rhubarb (in coarse powder), 8 oz.; mix it with an equal bulk of coarse sand, and moisten it with dilute alcohol (sp. gr. ·935, = 13 u. p.) to form a pasty mass; in a short time introduce it into a percolator, shake it until uniformly settled, and cover it with cloth or paper; then pour on the rest of the spirit (the remainder of 2 pints) until the product has little odour or taste of the root; next gently evaporate the tincture to 5-1/2 fl. oz., and add sugar, 5 oz., when the whole should measure 8 fl. oz.——Dose, 15 to 30 drops.

b. (Ph. U. S.) As the last, adding of oils of fennel and anise, of each 4 drops; (dissolved in) tincture of ginger, 4 fl. dr.

4. (Compound; EXTRACTUM RHEI COMPOSITUM, E. PANCHYMAGOGUM, L.——Ph. Bor.) Extract of rhubarb, 3 dr.; extract of aloes, 1 dr. (softened with) water, 4 dr.; mix, and add of soap of jalap, 1 dr. (dissolved in) proof spirit, 4 dr.; lastly, evaporate to an extract, dry this in a warm place, and powder. Stomachic and purgative.——Dose, 4 to 20 gr.

=Extract of Rue.= Syn. EXTRACTUM RUTÆ, E. FOLIORUM RUTÆ, L. Prep. 1. From rue leaves (Rutæ graveolens), as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L.

2. (Alcoholic——P. Cod.) As ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE——P. Cod. (nearly.) The formula of the Ph. Wert. is similar.

Obs. This extract is stomachic, carminative and emmenagogue.——Dose, 10 to 20 gr., twice a day. It is usual to add a little of the essential oil to the extract, just before taking it out of the evaporating-pan, and when nearly cold. The first is the form adopted in trade in this country.

=Extract of Saf′fron.= Syn. POLYCHROITE, EXTRACTUM CROCI, L. Prep. 1. From hay saffron, as EXTRACT OF COLOCYNTH——Ph. L.

2. (P. Cod.) From the tincture. Superior to the last.

Obs. The first is used chiefly as a colouring and flavouring substance by cooks, confectioners, wine and cordial brewers, &c.——Dose, 5 to 15 gr.; as an excitant, antispasmodic, and emmenagogue.

=Extract of Sarsaparil′la.= Syn. EXTRACTUM SARZÆ, E. SARSAPARILLÆ, L.; EXTRAIT DE SALSEPAREILLE, Fr. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) From sarsaparilla, as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L. The Ph. D. 1826 is similar.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1 dr. Product. (From Jamaica sarsaparilla) 32% to 36%.

2. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM SARZÆ ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——a. From a tincture of the root-bark, prepared with proof spirit, either by digestion or percolation.

b. (P. Cod. and Ph. U. S.) From sarsaparilla root (powdered), as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE——P. Cod. Superior to the aqueous extract.——Dose, 10 to 20 gr.

3. (Fluid; LIQUOR OF SARSAPARILLA, ESSENCE OF S.; LIQUOR SARZÆ, ESSENTIA SARSAPARILLÆ, EXTRACTUM SARZÆ LIQUIDUM——Ph. L., E. S. FLUIDUM——Ph. E. & D., L.); EXTRACTUM SARZÆ LIQUIDUM——(B. P.) a. Jamaica sarsaparilla cut transversely, 16; distilled water (temp. 160° Fahr.), 280; rectified spirit, 1. Macerate in half the water for 6 hours, and decant the liquor; digest the residue in the remainder of the water for 6 hours more, mix the liquors, express and filter; evaporate by water bath to 7, or until it has a sp. gr. of 1·130; when cold add the spirit. Sp. gr. should be about 1·025.——Dose, 1 to 4 dr.

b. (Ph. L.) Sarsaparilla, 3-1/2 lbs.; distilled water, 3 galls.; boil to 12 pints, pour off the liquor, and strain whilst hot; again boil the sarsaparilla in water, 2 galls., to one half, and strain; evaporate the mixed liquors to 18 fl. oz.; and when cold, add of rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. Each fl. oz. represents 2-1/8 oz. of the root (nearly).

c. (Ph. E.) Sarsaparilla, 1 lb.; boiling water, 4 pints; digest 2 hours, then bruise the root, boil it for 2 hours, filter, and express the liquid; repeat the coction with water, 2 pints, as before; evaporate the mixed liquors to the consistence of a thin syrup, and, when cold enough, add of rectified spirit q. s. to make up 16 fl. oz. Each fl. oz. represents 6 dr. of the root, and 6 fl. oz. of the decoction.

d. (Ph. D.) Sarsaparilla, 1 lb. (avoir.); proceed as before, and add of rectified spirit, q. s. to make the product up to 20 fl. oz. Strength, as the last (nearly). In the Ph. D. 1826 the decoction of sarsaparilla, 1 lb. (troy), was ordered to be evaporated to 30 oz., which with the spirit (2 oz.) made the preparation only half the strength of the present one.

4. (Compound; EXTRACTUM SARZÆ COMPOSITUM, E. SARSAPARILLÆ COMP., L.) There is no form for this preparation in the Pharmacopœias, but it is nevertheless in immense demand, from its great convenience in dispensing. The following formulæ are employed by one of the wholesale houses that does largest in this preparation:——

a. Guaiacum shavings (from which the small has been sifted), 30 lbs., Italian juice, 24 lbs., mezereon root, 6 lbs., are boiled with water q. s., for 1 hour; the decoction is then drawn off, and the boiling repeated with fresh water a second and a third time; the mixed decoctions are allowed to deposit for 6 or 8 hours, or longer, and the clear portion decanted and strained through flannel; the liquid is now reduced to the consistence of treacle, when extract of sarsaparilla, 9 lbs., is added, and the evaporation conducted at a considerably lower temperature until near its completion, when the source of heat is removed, and the remaining evaporation conducted at the expense of that retained by the metal of the ‘pan,’ when nearly cold, and just before removing the extracts to the ‘pots’ or ‘jars,’ essential oil of sassafras, 2 dr., dissolved in rectified spirit, 1 quart, is added, and quickly but completely stirred in. The product is a very showy article, if well managed, and weighs about 45 lbs., the precise quantity depending on the quality of the juice employed. It is labelled ‘EXT. SARZÆ COMP.’

b. As the last, but only using 15 lbs. of juice, and that Solazzi. Prod. About 35 lbs. It is labelled and sent out as ‘EXT. SARZÆ CO. OPT.’

c. By any of the forms given under COMPOUND DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA, either common or concentrated, by continuing the evaporation.——Dose. Same as that of the simple extract.

5. (Fluid Compound; COMPOUND LIQUOR OF SARSAPARILLA.)——a. From any of the preceding formulæ by arresting the evaporation when the fluid has acquired the consistence of a thin syrup, and adding to each pint, when cold, rectified spirit, 4 fl. oz.

b. (Alcoholic——W. Hodgson.) Sarsaparilla (bruised), 16 oz.; liquorice root (bruised), guaiacum wood (rasped), and sassafras bark (sliced), of each 2 oz.; mezereon (sliced), 6 dr.; spirit, sp. gr. ·935 (= 13 u. p.) 7 pints; digest 14 days, express, filter, evaporate to 12 fl. oz.; add of sugar, 8 oz., and as soon as this is dissolved, withdraw the heat. Stronger than the last.——Dose, 1 fl. dr.

c. (Ph. U. S. EXTRACTUM SARSAPARILLÆ COMPOSITUM FLUIDUM.) Prep. Sarsaparilla in moderately fine powder, 16 oz. (troy); liquorice root in moderately fine powder, 2 oz. (troy); sassafras in moderately fine powder, 2 oz. (troy); mezereon in moderately fine powder, 360 grains; glycerin, 4 oz. (old measure); rectified spirit, 8 oz. (old measure); water, 4 oz. (old measure). Macerate in a closed percolator for 4 days, and then let the percolation commence, and finish it by adding diluted alcohol (equal volumes of alcohol at ·835, and water), until 2 pints (old measure) have been obtained. Reserve the first 12 oz., having added 4 oz. (old measure) of glycerin to the remainder of the percolate, which evaporate to 6 oz. (old measure), and mix with the reserved portion.

6. (From the root-bark; EXTRACTUM CORTICIS SARZÆ, L.) From the decoction or tincture of the root-bark. The cortical portion of sarsaparilla yields fully 50% of aqueous extract. “Five times as much as the meditullium.” (Pope.)

Obs. Each of the above extracts of sarsaparilla (simple, fluid, and compound), when of good quality, dissolves in water, forming a deep reddish-brown solution, perfectly transparent, and depositing little sediment, even by standing some days. See SARSAPARILLA.

1. =Extract of Savine.= Syn. EXTRACTUM SABINÆ. (Ph. L. 1788.) By evaporating a decoction of dry savine.

2. (Ph. U. S. EXTRACTUM SABINÆ FLUIDUM.) As fluid extract of cubebs. (Ph. U. S.)

=Extract of Scam′mony.= Syn. RESIN OF SCAMMONY; RESINA SCAMMONII, E. S. ALCOHOLICUM, E. SIVE RESINA SCAMMONII (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. From powdered scammony, exhausted with proof spirit, and the resulting tincture distilled until little but water passes over; the remaining water is then poured from the resin, which is next well washed in boiling water and dried at a temperature below 240° Fahr. Brown; impure.

2. As the last, but using either alcohol of 90% or ether, and animal charcoal. White; pure.

Obs. Scammony resin is translucent, fusible, and combustible; and freely soluble in alcohol, ether, and oil of turpentine. It is frequently adulterated with jalap resin, a fraud readily detected by its insolubility in the last two menstrua.——Dose, 5 to 10 gr. “When pure or virgin scammony can be procured it is an unnecessary preparation.” (Pereira.)

=Extract of Scurvy-grass.= Syn. EXTRACTUM COCHLEARIÆ, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the clarified juice of fresh scurvy-grass, by exposure to warm air. Anti-scorbutic, stimulant, anti-rheumatic, and diaphoretic.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr. The valuable principles of the juice are dissipated by much heat.

=Extract of Sen′ega.= Syn. EXTRACTUM SENEGÆ, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) From seneka or snake-root (Polygala Senega), as EXTRACT OF BOX——P. Cod.

2. Compound; EXTRACTUM SENEGÆ, COMPOSITUM, E. S. ET SCILLÆ, L.——Ecky.) From equal parts of squills and senega, as the last, but by displacement. Both the above are stimulant, expectorant, sudorific, and diuretic.——Dose, 1 to 12 gr.

3. (Ph. U. S. EXTRACTUM SENEGÆ FLUIDUM.) As EXTRACT OF COTTON-ROOT. (Ph. U. S.)

=Extract of Sen′na.= Syn. EXTRACTUM SENNÆ, L. Prep. 1. (EXTRACTUM SENNÆ AQUOSUM, L.)——a. As EXTRACT OF COLOCYNTH——Ph. L.

b. (P. Cod.) As EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod.

c. (Ph. Bor.) From senna leaves, by maceration in tepid water (104° Fahr.) for 24 hours, and expression and filtration; the operation is repeated with fresh water, and the strained liquors evaporated to a thick extract (at 149° to 157° Fahr.), which is dissolved in water, 4 parts, the solution filtered, and again evaporated.——Dose, 10 to 20 gr. It is principally used as a basis for purgative pill. When prepared by decoction it is nearly inert. A better extract is prepared from the common tincture made with proof spirit.

2. Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM SENNÆ ALCOHOLICUM, L.——(Guibourt.) Senna (in powder), 1 part; rectified spirit, 5 parts; heat gradually to boiling, let it cool; in 24 hours express, strain, and repeat the process with fresh spirit; lastly, distil and evaporate. Proof spirit answers for this purpose.

3. (Fluid; EXTRACTUM SENNÆ FLUIDUM, L.——Ph. (U. S.) Senna (in coarse powder), 2-1/2 lbs.; spirit (at or near proof), 64 fl. oz.; macerate 24 hours, then act by displacement, subsequently adding weak spirit (1 of rectified spirit to 3 of water) until 10 pints of tincture are obtained; evaporate to 1 pint, filter, add sugar, 20 oz., and oil of fennel, 1 fl. dr. (dissolved in) compound spirit of ether, 2 fl. dr. Every fl. oz. represents 1 oz. of senna.

=Extract of Smoke.= Syn. EXTRACTUM FULIGINIS, L. Prep. 1. (Aqueous.) Wood-soot, 2 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil to 16 fl. oz., filter, and evaporate.

2. (Acetic.) Wood-soot, 2 oz.; distilled vinegar and water, of each, 1/2 pint; as the last. Formerly reputed antispasmodic, alterative, &c.——Dose, 3 to 6 gr., 2 three times a day; in dyspepsia, hysteria, cancer, scrofula, and various syphilitical affections.

=Extract of Snake-root.= See EXTRACT OF SENEGA.

=Extract of Black Snake-root (fluid).= Syn. EXTRACTUM CIMICIFUGÆ FLUIDUM (Ph. U. S.). Prep. As FLUID EXTRACT OF CUBEBS. (Ph. U. S.)

=Extract of Soap′wort.= Syn. EXTRACTUM SAPONARIÆ, L. Prep. (P. Cod. & Ph. Bad.) From the dried roots of soapwort (Saponaria officinalis), as EXTRACT OF BISTORT——P. Cod. Aperient and alterative.——Dose, 15 gr. to 1/2 dr.

=Extract of Spruce.= See ESSENCE OF SPRUCE.

=Extract of Squills.= Syn. EXTRACTUM SCILLÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Aqueous; E. S. AQUOSUM.——a. (Ph. Baden.) From squills, as EXTRACT OF COLOCYNTH——Ph. L. (nearly).

b. (Ph. Bor.) From squills, as EXTRACT OF SENNA——Ph. Bor. (nearly), but using boiling water, avoiding ebullition during the evaporation, and powdering the residuum.——Dose, 1 to 5 gr.

2. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM SCILLÆ ALCOHOLICUM, L.——P. Cod.) From the tincture prepared with proof spirit, by distillation and evaporation.——Dose, 1/2 to 3 gr., as an expectorant and diuretic, twice or thrice a day. In larger doses it is nauseant and emetic.

3. (Acetic; EXTRACTUM SCILLÆ ACETICUM.) Digest powder of squills, 1 lb., in acetic acid, 3 oz.; and distilled water, 1 pint, with a gentle heat, for 48 hours.

Express strongly, and without straining; evaporate to a proper consistence. (One grain of this is said to equal three of the powder.)

=Extract (fluid) of Stillingiæ.= Syn. EXTRACTUM STILLINGÆ FLUIDUM (Ph. U. S.). Prep. Stillingia, in fine powder, 16 oz. (troy); macerate with 12 oz. (old measure) of rectified spirit; 3 oz. (old measure) of glycerin; and 1 oz. (old measure) of water, for four days in a closed percolator, and proceed as for FLUID EXTRACT OF COTTON-ROOT. (Ph. U. S.)

=Extract of Stor′ax.= See STYRAX.

=Extract of Stramo′′nium.= Syn. EXTRACT OF THORN-APPLE; EXTRACTUM STRAMONII, (Ph. L. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Pack stramonium seeds, coarsely powdered, in a percolator, and pass about their own weight of washed ether slowly through them, remove the ether, and set aside. Now pour over them proof spirit until the seeds are exhausted; distil off the spirit, and evaporate the residue by a water bath to a proper pill consistence.——Dose, 1/4 gr., gradually increasing.

2. (Ph. L.) Seeds of thorn-apple (Datura stramonium), 15 oz.; boiling distilled water, 1 gall.; macerate for 4 hours in a vessel lightly covered, near the fire; afterwards take out the seeds, bruise them in a stone mortar, and return them to the liquor; then boil down to 4 pints, strain whilst hot, and evaporate. The Ph. D. is similar. Product. (About) 12%, Anodyne and narcotic.——Dose, 1/4 gr. to 1/2 gr., gradually increased, twice or thrice a day; neuralgia, rheumatism, tic doloureux, spasmodic asthma, epilepsy, worms, &c.

3. (P. Cod. & Ph. U. S.) From the expressed juice of the fresh leaves, heated to boiling, and filtered. The P. Cod. also orders it to be prepared as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L. Anodyne and narcotic.——Dose, 1/2 gr. to 1 gr.

Obs. On the large scale, this extract is prepared by expressing the juice of the fresh herb, and boiling the remainder in water; the juice and decoction are then mixed, filtered, and evaporated. 1-1/2 cwt. of stramonium yielded 37 lbs. of juice, and this, with the decoction, gave 31 lbs. of extract. (Gray.)

4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM STRAMONII——Ph. E., E. S. ALCOHOLICUM, L.)——a. (Ph. E. & Ph. U. S.) From the seeds (ground in a coffee-mill), by percolation with proof spirit. Product. (About) 14%; 1 lb. yielded 2-1/4 oz. (Recluz.)

b. (P. Cod.) From the leaves, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——P. Cod.——Dose, 1/4 gr. gradually increased. (See above.)

=Extract of Suc′cory.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CHICORII, L. Prep. (Guibourt.) From the fresh root, as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L. Aperient, deobstruent, and tonic.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.

=Extract of Sweet Flag.= Syn. EXTRACTUM ACIDI, E. CALAMI AROMATICI, L. Prep. From the rhizomes, as EXTRACT OF RHUBARB——Ph. L. See SWEET FLAG.

=Extract of Tan′sy.= Syn. EXTRACTUM TANACETI, L. Prep. 1. From the herb (Tanacetum vulgaris), as EXTRACT OF HOP——Ph. L.

2. (Giordano.) As EXTRACT OF HOREHOUND——Ph. Lusitan.

Obs. This extract is said to be tonic, stomachic, anthelmintic, emmenagogue, and febrifuge. Dr Clark says that in Scotland it was found to be serviceable in various cases of gout. The infusion is, however, preferable.——Dose, 5 gr. to 20 gr.

=Extract of Taraxacum.= Syn. EXTRACT OF DANDELION; EXTRACTUM TARAXACI (Ph. L. & E.), E. T. HERBÆ ET RADICIS (Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Crush fresh dandelion root, press out the juice, and allow it to deposit; heat the clear liquor to 212° F., and maintain the temperature for 10 minutes; then strain and evaporate by a water bath, at a temperature not exceeding 160° F. to a proper consistence.——Dose, 5 to 15 grains.

2. (Ph. L.) From the recent root of dandelion (Leontodon Taraxacum), as EXTRACT OF HOP——Ph. L. The formulæ of the Ph. E. & U. S. are nearly similar.

3. (Ph. D.) From the herb and root, as the other simple extracts (EXTRACTA SIMPLICIORA).

4. (P. Cod.) From the expressed juice, as EXTRACT OF STRAMONIUM——P. Cod.)

5. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF SENNA——Ph. Bor. (nearly).

6. (Ph. Baden.) By displacement with cold water.

7. (Wholesale.) From the decoction.

8. (Fluid.) See LIQUOR OF TARAXACUM.

Obs. The extract of the shops is usually prepared by exhausting the root by coction with water. The products of the first two of the above formulæ, when recent, have a faint and agreeable odour, and a sweet bitter taste; those of Nos. 4, 5, and 6, smell strongly of the recent root, have a pale and lively brownish-yellow colour, and a bitter acidulous taste, without any trace of sweetness; that of the last one is devoid of odour, and possesses a coffee-brown colour, and a sweetish, burnt taste, not much unlike a solution of burnt sugar. The medicinal virtue of this extract is greatest when the aroma and bitter taste of the recent root is well developed; and when sweet, its efficacy as a remedy is impaired. (Squire.)

Taraxacum root should be gathered during the winter months, when the quantity of the product is looked at; as then a given weight of the juice yields more extract; but in summer and autumn it possesses more bitterness and aroma. 4 lbs. of juice from roots gathered in November and December yielded 1 lb. of extract, while it took from 6 to 9 lbs. of juice from the root, gathered in spring or summer, to yield a like quantity. (Squire.) The herb yields by the evaporation of its expressed juice about 5% of extract. According to Mr Jacob Bell, the average yield of 1 cwt. of root is about 7-1/8 lbs. (‘Pharm Journ.,’ x, 446.)

Good extract of taraxacum should be wholly soluble in water.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.; as a resolvent, aperient, and tonic, in liver and stomach complaints, &c.

=Extract of Tea.= Syn. EXTRACTUM THEÆ, L. Prep. 1. From an infusion of any of the rougher kinds of black tea. Astringent. Has been recommended in diarrhœa; formed into pills.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr. A hard, black-looking substance, smelling and tasting faintly of tea, is imported under the same name from China.

2. (Pidding’s.) The joint products of distillation and infusion combined. Proposed to be made in China, and exported as a condensed preparation of tea. (ESSENCE OF TEA; ESSENTIA THEÆ); to be used as a substitute for the leaves, in order to save the expense of freight, &c.

=Extract of Thorn-Apple.= See EXTRACT OF STRAMONIUM.

=Extract of Tobac′co.= Syn. EXTRACTUM TABACI, E. NICOTIANÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Chippendale.) From decoction of tobacco. Proposed as an external application in neuralgia, &c.

2. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM TABACI ALCOHOLICUM, L.——Ph. Bor.) Tobacco leaves, 1 lb.; spirit (sp. gr. ·900), 2 lbs.; digest in a warm place for some days, express strongly, and again digest in a mixture of water and spirit (·900), of each, 1 lb., for 24 hours; again press out the liquor, and evaporate the strained and mixed liquors into a vapour bath, at a temperature not exceeding 167° Fahr.

=Extract of Tor′mentil.= Syn. EXTRACTUM TORMENTILLÆ, L. Prep. (Ph. Amst.) From the root of Potentilla Tormentilla, as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L. The Ph. Baden directs its preparation by displacement with cold water. Astringent and febrifuge.——Dose, 15 to 30 gr.; in diarrhœa. It was formerly regarded as a specific in syphilis. (Lindley.)

=Extract of U′va Ur′si.= See EXTRACT OF WHORTLEBERRY.

=Extract of Valer′ian.= Syn. EXTRACTUM VALERIANÆ, L. Prep. 1. From valerian root, as EXTRACT OF HOP——Ph. L.; but using a covered vessel.

2. (Ph. Bor. and Baden.) As EXTRACT OF CINCHONA——Ph. L. (nearly), employing strong force in the expression of the liquor, and only evaporating to the consistence of syrup.

Obs. It is usual to add to this extract a little of the ESSENTIAL OIL OF VALERIAN, dissolved in a small quantity of rectified spirit, just before removing it from the evaporating-pan, and when nearly cold. Anti-spasmodic and nervine.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr. In hysteric and spasmodic diseases. Valerian yields about 40% of soft extract.

3. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM VALERIANÆ ALCOHOLICUM, L.——P. Cod.) As EXTRACT OF BOX.——P. Cod.

4. (Fluid; EXTRACTUM VALERIANÆ FLUIDUM, L.——Ph. U. S.). Rectified spirit, 12 fl. oz.; mix, add of valerian (in coarse powder), 8 oz. digest and percolate, adding, subsequently, spirit (at or near proof) until 16 fl. oz. of tincture have passed through; let this evaporate spontaneously, in a shallow vessel, until reduced to 5 fl. oz.; in the meantime add fresh spirit to the mass in the percolator, until 10 fl. oz. more of tincture are obtained, which add to the above residuum of the evaporation, observing to dissolve any oleo-resinous deposit in a little rectified spirit, and add to it to the rest; lastly, filter, and add of rectified spirit, q. s. to make the whole measure 16 fl. oz.

=Extract of Vanil′la.= See LIQUOR OF VANILLA.

=Extract of Wall Pel′litory.= Syn. EXTRACTUM PARIETARIÆ, L. Prep. From fresh wall-pellitory (Parietaria officinalis), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L. Aperient, diuretic, and pectoral.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.

=Extract of Wal′nut.= Syn. EXTRACTUM JUGLANDIS IMMATURÆ, L. Prep. 1. From unripe walnuts (Juglans regia), as EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. L.

2. From the decoction of the green shells. Vermifuge.——Dose, 20 to 30 gr. in cinnamon water.

=Extract of Walnut Leaves.= Syn. EXTRACTUM JUGLANDIS FOLIORUM, L. Prep. 1. From the decoction of dried walnut leaves.

2. (Soubeiran.) By displacement with tepid water. Diaphoretic and alterative.——Dose, 2 to 4 gr., twice or thrice a day; in scrofula, scirrhus, &c.

3. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM JUGLANDIS FOLIORUM ALCOHOLICUM, L.——Ph. Bor.) From walnut leaves (cut), as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF TOBACCO——Ph. Bor. (nearly).

=Extract of Wa′ter-dock.= Syn. EXTRACTUM RUMICIS AQUATICI, L. Prep. From the root, as EXTRACT OF HOPS, Ph. L. Astringent and antiscorbutic.——Dose, 15 gr. to 1 dr.; in skin diseases, &c.

=Extract of Whor′tleberry.= Syn. EXTRACT OF BEARBERRY; EXTRACTUM UVÆ URSI. (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. From the dried leaves of the bearberry (Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi), as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L.——Dose, 5 to 15 gr., twice or thrice a day; in chronic diseases of the bladder and kidneys, attended with increased secretion of mucus, without inflammation.

2. (Ph. U. S. EXTRACTUM UVI-URSI ELUIDUM.) As fluid extract of cotton-root. (Ph. U. S.)

=Extract of Willow Bark.= Syn. EXTRACTUM SALICIS. (Ph. Par.) From Powdered willow bark, as EXTRACT OF RHATANY.

=Extract of Win′ter Cher′ry.= Syn. EXTRACTUM ALKEKENGI, L. Prep. From the berries of Physalis alkekengi, as EXTRACT OF ELDER. Aperient, detergent, and diuretic. Dose, 2 to 4 dr.

=Extract of Win′ter-green.= Syn. EXTRACT OF PIPSISSEWA; EXTRACTUM CHIMAPHILÆ, L. Prep. From the herb winter-green or pipsissewa (Chimaphila umbellata), as EXTRACT OF HOPS——Ph. L.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.; in dropsy, scrofula, and chronic affections of the urinary organs.

=Extract of Wood Sor′rel.= Syn. EXTRACTUM ACETOSELLÆ, L. Prep. (Pideret.) From the expressed juice of the fresh herb (Oxalis acetosella.) Acid, bitter, and antiscorbutic.——Dose, 15 gr. to 1/2 dr.

=Extract of Worm Grass.= See EXTRACT OF PINKROOT.

=Extract of Worm′seed.= Syn. EXTRACTUM CINÆ ÆTHEREUM, E. SEMINUM C. Æ., L. Prep. (Hamb. Cod. 1845.) Wormseed, 1 oz.; ether, 4 oz.; digest 3 or 4 days, press, filter, distil off 4-5ths, and evaporate the residuum to a proper consistence. Prod. 25% to 30%. Vermifuge.——Dose, 3 to 10 gr., night and morning, for 2 or 3 successive days, followed by a brisk purge.

=Extract of Worm-wood.= Syn. EXTRACTUM ABSINTHII; EXTRACTUM ARTEMESIÆ ABSINTHII, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D., 1826.) From the dried flowering tops of wormwood, as the other simple extracts (EXTRACTA SIMPLICIORA——Ph. D.)

2. (Ph. Bor.) As EXTRACT OF RHATANY——Ph. Bor.

3. (P. Cod. and Ph. Baden.) By displacement by cold water.

Obs. Bitter, stomachic, tonic, and vermifuge.——Dose, 10 gr. to 20 gr., 2 or 3 times daily; in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, gout, &c. It is usual to add a few drops of the oil of wormwood to the extract before taking it from the pan.

4. (Alcoholic; EXTRACTUM ABSINTHII ALCOHOLICUM, L.——Guibourt.) From a tincture prepared from the dried tops of wormwood boiled in proof spirit. More active than the last.

=Extract of Yew.= Syn. EXTRACTUM TAXI, L. Prep. 1. (Loder.) From the inspissated juice of the fresh leaves of the yew (Taxus baccata). Its action on the circulation greatly resembles that of digitalis, but is more manageable.——Dose, 1 to 7 gr.; in epilepsy, &c.

2. (Alcoholic,——Ph. Baden.) From the dried leaves, as ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF ACONITE——Ph. Baden.

Obs. In addition to the preparations given above, there are many others which are often called ‘EXTRACTS,’ These may be grouped under the following heads:——

=Extracts, Concentra′ted.= Syn. RESINOIDS. Pharmaceutical preparations of more or less value, largely employed by the American physicians who style themselves ‘ECLECTICS,’ They are supposed to present in the most concentrated form the medicinal virtues of the plants from which they are derived. See RESINOIDS.

=Extracts, Fluid.= Syn. EXTRACTA FLUIDA, EXTRACTA LIQUIDA, L. This name has been applied in modern pharmacy to various preparations differing materially from each other in their degree of fluidity and concentration. Some of these have been already noticed, and others will be found under one or other of their synonyms. Much confusion would be avoided by confining the name ‘FLUID EXTRACT’ to those preparations only which differ from the ordinary officinal extracts in being in the liquid form; whilst others of a like character, but of less consistence or concentration, might be conveniently classed under the general denomination of ‘LIQUORS’ (LIQUORES, L.). The various condensed preparations of vegetable substances, now common in trade, professedly several times stronger than the common DECOCTIONS, INFUSIONS, and TINCTURES, might be simply and advantageously distinguished by the addition of ‘CONCENTRATED’ to their names. Tinctures made with rectified spirit, and of (say) at least 8 times the usual strength, might be appropriately termed ‘ESSENCES,’ See DECOCTION, ESSENCE, EXTRACT, INFUSION, OLEO-RESIN, SYRUP, TINCTURE, &c.

=Extracts, Perfu′matory.= See EXTRAIT.

=Extracts, Pulver′ulent.= Syn. DRIED EXTRACTS, DESICCATED E.; SACCHARATED E.; EXTRACTA PULVERATA, E. SICCA, E. CUM SACCHARO, L. Prep. 1. Ordinary soft extract of the drug, 4 parts; white sugar (in powder), 1 part; mix, and dry by exposure in a warm situation; lastly, reduce the mass to powder, and if it weighs less than 4 parts, triturate it with more powdered sugar until its weight is equal to the original weight of the extract used in its preparation. The strength of the extract thus continues unchanged.

2. (Ph. Bor.) As the last, but using powdered sugar of milk, in lieu of cane sugar.

3. (Gauger.) Alcoholic extract, 3 parts, rectified spirit, 1 part, are triturated together in a porcelain mortar until thoroughly incorporated, when white sugar (in powder), 15 oz., is gradually added, and the two carefully and completely blended together; the mixture is dried as before, and more sugar added until the whole weighs exactly 18 oz. Six grains represent one grain of the unprepared extract.

Obs. The above are admirable preparations, intended chiefly to render the perishable extracts of the narcotic plants (EXTRACTA NARCOTICA) less liable to suffer by age. See EXTRACT OF ACONITE (Saccharated), &c.

=EXTRAC′TIVE.= Syn. EXTRACTIVE PRINCIPLE. Fourcroy entertained the belief that all vegetable extracts contained a common basis of definite composition, to which he gave the name of extractive. Chevreul and other chemists have shown, however, that Fourcroy’s extractive is not a chemical compound but a heterogeneous mixture, varying in composition with the plant from which it is obtained. Extractive has a brown colour, or one becoming so in the air; it speedily putrefies, and becomes oxidised, and is rendered insoluble by long exposure to air, and by repeated solutions and evaporations. In its unaltered state it is soluble in water and in alcohol, is nearly insoluble in ether, and is precipitated from its solutions by the acids and metallic oxides. With alumina it forms the basis of several brown dyes.

=EXTRAIT.= [Fr.] Literally an extract. Among perfumers, extraits are mostly spirituous solutions of the essential oils or odorous principles of plants and other fragrant substance. The French commonly apply the term to any concentrated spirit, either simple or compound. In the shops of the Parisian perfumers upwards of 60 preparations of the kind are distinguished by this name. The extracts of JASMINE, JONQUIL, MAY-LILY, ORANGE BLOSSOMS, VIOLETS, and other like flowers of delicate perfume, are obtained by agitating and digesting the ‘huiles’ and ‘pomades’ of the flowers with the purest rectified spirit in the manner described under SCENTED SPIRITS (‘esprits’). This process is repeated with fresh oil or pomade until the spirit is rendered sufficiently fragrant. The other extracts (both simple and compound) are made by the common methods of infusion and distillation. See ESSENCE, EXTRACT, SPIRIT, &c.

=EYE.= In anatomy and physiology, the organ of vision. In order that vision may be distinct, it is necessary that the pencil of rays diverging from each point of the object and entering the pupil should converge to a focus on the retina. Near-sightedness (‘MYOPIA,’ L.) is due to the too great convexity of either the ‘lens’ or ‘cornea,’ causing the rays to converge to a focus before reaching the retina. The spectacles worn by myopic persons have concave glasses, which, by increasing the divergence of the rays falling upon the eye, have the effect of carrying back each focal point towards the retina. In the long sight of old people (‘PRESBYOPIA,’ L.) the foci of the refracted pencils are situated behind the retina, the ‘lens’ or the ‘cornea’ being not sufficiently convex. This defect is corrected by convex glasses, which increase the convergence of the incident rays.

Foreign Bodies in the Eye.——Particles of dust, small insects, hairs, and such like minute bodies frequently get under the eyelid, and thus become a source of considerable discomfort, and very frequently of great pain. Hence the necessity of their prompt removal. In order to effect this the inside of the lids should be so exposed as to reveal the intruding substance. The lower lid may be easily turned down so as to show the inner surface, but the upper lid cannot be so easily manipulated. The end, however, may be attained by taking firm hold of the lid with the finger and thumb, drawing it downward and forward, placing a quill or a small pencil-case on the outer upper part, and turning the lid backwards over it. When the annoying particle is seen it should be removed by gently drawing over it, with a wiping motion, a piece of rag or linen handkerchief, wrapped round the finger, or by means of a camel-hair brush, if this latter be at hand.

If these means fail to remove it, and it should be imbedded too firmly in the membrane, it may be picked off with a tooth-pick, the end of a pair of tweezers, a fine ivory paper-knife, or with a stiff hair from a clothes-brush bent at right angles. If lime-dust has blown into the eye it is only the larger particles that can be removed in this manner; the finer particles may be dissolved out by washing the eye with a lotion made of one part of common vinegar and two parts of water. A drop or two of pure sugar syrup will also frequently dissolve the lime. When a powerfully destructive substance, such, for instance, as sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol, is, as sometimes happens, thrown by some person into the eye, the best course is to wash it out with a solution containing four grains of washing soda in an ounce of water. This should be done as quickly as possible, and pending the time the soda lotion is being got ready, the eye, being kept open, should be diligently washed with cold water. Grains of gunpowder should be carefully removed. Hot fluid, such as melted fat or pitch, may be got rid of by putting into the eye a few drops of almond or olive oil.

Upon removal of the foreign body the pain generally subsides; but it sometimes happens that the membranes may be lacerated, in which case more or less inflammation may ensue. Under these circumstances a medical practitioner should be consulted. For animals the same treatment may be followed. See BLINDNESS, COLOUR BLINDNESS, VISION, &c.

=Eye Balsam=, Vegetable (Martin Reichel, Würzburg). Opium, 5 parts; oxide of mercury, 5 parts; camphor, 2 parts; wax cerate, 52 parts. (Hager.)

=Eye Drops.= See WATER (Eye).

=Eye Essence= (Dr Romershausen). A tincture prepared from fennel seeds and fresh young fennel. (Hager.)

=Eye Powder= (Laeyson, Paris), also known as Odorous Powder. For the strengthening, restoration, and preservation of the sight. A powder composed of——Burnt chalk, 100 parts; ammonia, 50 parts; charcoal, 6 parts; oxide of iron, 2 parts; cinnamon bark, 2 parts. (P. L. Geiger.)

=Eye Pow′ders.= See COLLYRIA.

=Eye Salt.= Powdered alum. (G. Graefe.)

=Eye Salve.= See OINTMENT (Eye).

=Eye Snuff.= See SNUFF.

=Eye Water= (Biedermann, Annaberg). 2 grms. sulphate of zinc in 60 grms. distilled water, with a little infusion of cloves.

=Eye Water= (Brun) is a solution of 4 parts of aloes in 32 parts of white wine, with 32 parts of rose water, and 1-1/2 part of tincture of saffron.

=Eye Water= (Chantomelanus) “makes spectacles superfluous.” A turbid yellow-brownish liquid, consisting of a weak extract of lavender flowers in diluted spirit, in which some oil of lavender has also been dissolved. (Opwyrda.)

=Eye Water, Dr Graefe’s= (L. Roth, Berlin). Sulphate of zinc, 1·5 grms.; fennel water, 100 grms., slightly coloured with fennel seed tincture. (Schädler.)

=Eye Water= (J. P. H. Hette). A solution of ethereal oils of lavender, bergamot, rosemary, and tincture of opium in spirits of wine, 50 per cent. (Wittstein.)

=Eye Water= (Bernhard Kraft, Calbe) for acute inflammation of the eyes and for strengthening the sight. Seven grammes of an impure muddy sediment-leaving spring water containing half a gramme of native sulphate of zinc containing iron. (Schädler.)

=Eye Water= (Inspector Stroinski, Neisse). One part of sulphate of zinc dissolved in 500 parts of common river water. (Schreiber.)

Once a trace of patchouli perfume was added to this water. (Hager.)

=Eye Water, Dr White’s= (T. Ehrhard, Altenfeld, Thuringia). Four cloves, a piece of cinnamon the size of a large pea, 2 teaspoonfuls of rose water, 1 drop of vinegar, 10 drops of arnica tincture. Digest for an hour and filter. Dissolve in the filtrate some white vitriol of the size of a pea. (Hager.)

Sulphate of zinc, 3 parts; honey, 4 parts; water, 80 parts; perfumed with oil of cloves and a trace of mustard oil. (Wittstein.)

=Eye Waters.= See WATER.

=FACE A′GUE.= The common name for the intermittent form of facial NEURALGIA or TIC DOULOUREUX. See NEURALGIA.

=FACE PAINTS.= Syn. FARDS, Fr. See BLOOM, CARMINE, PEARL WHITE, ROUGE, &c.

=FAC-SIM′ILE.= An exact imitation of an original in all its traits and peculiarities. The term is chiefly used in relation to copies of old manuscripts, or of the handwriting of famous men, or of interesting documents, produced by engraving or lithography. See SIGNATURES.

=FACTI′′TIOUS.= Syn. FACTITIUS, L. Artificial; made by art, in distinction from that produced by nature. Numerous illustrations of the application of this word occur in the pages of the present work.

=FÆCES.= Excrement. In the laboratory, the ‘settling’ or sediment deposited by a liquor. See DEFECATION, EXCRETA.

=FAINT′ING.= Syn. SWOONING; SYNCOPE, DELIQUIUM ANIMI, L. In pathology, a state in which the respiration and circulation are apparently suspended for a time, or are extremely feeble. The symptoms are too well known to require description. The causes are supposed to be——diminished energy of the brain, and organic affections of the heart or neighbouring vessels. This has led nosologists to divide syncope into two varieties:——

1. Occasional (SYNCOPE OCCASIONALIS, S. ACCIDENTALIS, L.), primitively induced by sudden and violent emotions of the mind, powerful odours, derangement of the stomach or bowels, constrained position of the body, tight-lacing, pressure, loss of blood, debility from disease, &c. This variety is frequently followed by vomiting, and, occasionally, by convulsions or epileptic fits. The recovery is accelerated by the horizontal position, without the head being the least elevated, by which the arterial blood is more vigorously thrown upon the brain, and thereby stimulates it to resume its usual functions. Pungent substances (smelling-bottle, vinaigrette, &c.) may be applied to the nostrils, and cold water sprinkled on the face and chest. In all cases the dress (corset, waist-band, neck-cloth, &c.) should be instantly loosened, and indeed this is the first assistance which should be given, either in syncope or apoplexy. As soon as the patient can swallow, a little brandy-and-water, or wine, or a few drops of ether or spirit of sal volatile, may be given.

2. Cardiac (SYNCOPE CARDIACA, L.), arising without any apparent cause, with violent palpitation during the intervals, and altogether of a more formidable character than the preceding. The subsequent treatment must here be directed to the cure or alleviation of the original disease.

=FAINTS.= The first and last runnings of the whiskey-still. The one is technically termed the ‘strong faints,’ the other, the ‘weak faints.’ They are both purified by rectification, &c. See DISTILLATION.

=FAITH.= Dr Pereira remarks, that “faith in the beneficial agency of remedies, and confidence in the skill of the medical attendant, are important adjuvants in the treatment of disease. To them both the physician and empiric owe part of their success.”

=FAL′LING SICK′NESS.= See EPILEPSY.

=FAMILIENSALBE=, Family Ointment (Göring). 16 grammes of a hard yellow salve in a round box; a mixture of 9 parts wax, 3 parts fat; 2 parts turpentine, 2 parts inspissated juice of Ornithogalium scilloides Jacquin, or O. candatum Aiton. These plants are known to the public as Meerzwiebel (sea onion or squill), but they are only related to that plant in appearance. (Hager.)

=FAR′CY.= See GLANDERS.

=FARDEL-BOUND.= Syn. CLUE-BOUND, WOOD-EVIL. An affection of the third stomach of cattle, induced by their unduly partaking of coarse indigestible food. Cattle are most commonly attacked by fardel in summer and autumn, when they are able to get at tough, strong, and hard grass. It is also frequently caused by rye-grass in seed and ripe vetches, as well as by eating largely of the shoots of trees or the cuttings of hedges, a circumstance which has given rise to the disease being called ‘wood-evil.’ Sometimes an attack may be brought on through over-feeding, combined with a deficiency of water. The symptoms vary greatly in intensity, and are often some days before they definitely manifest themselves. The animal ceases to ruminate, refuses food, and, if a cow, the secretion of milk is stopped. Then, after a day or two fever (indicated by heat and dryness in the nose and mouth) comes on, with somewhat quickened circulation and breathing, the breathing by the second or third day being accompanied by a grunt at the beginning and end of respiration, which is very noticeable when an attempt is made to move the animal.

In all attacks the animal suffers from obstinate constipation. The first stomach is frequently much distended, and if any fæces are passed they are caked, dark coloured, and of variable consistence.

When the disease is attended with most of these symptoms, the animal may live ten days or a fortnight; but unless relief is afforded, nausea very frequently sets in, and continues to increase, the pulse at the same time getting gradually weaker, and the strength failing. In some instances the animal has an epileptic fit, and in others death is preceded by great stupor; whilst in others, again, if it be a horse, it is attacked with stomach staggers.

“The treatment consists in removing the obstinate constipation by powerful purgatives, advantage being taken to gain their utmost efficacy by combining several together, and giving them along with plenty of fluid.

“Three-quarters of a pound each of Epsom and of common salt, twenty croton beans, and a drachm of calomel, will suffice for a full-grown, middle-sized ox or cow, and must be administered in three or four bottles of water or very thin gruel. In this disease there is little fear of giving too much medicine.

“The action of the purgatives is greatly expedited by the use of occasional stimulants, which in diseases of the digestive organs of cattle may be given without fear of engendering or aggravating inflammation. Every encouragement must be used to get the animal to drink, for large quantities of fluid are obviously most essential in washing out the obstruction which causes the evil. The cessation of the grunt, the passage of some hard cakes of dung, with the subsequent abatement of the fever, are the signs of amendment for which we watch; but even after the first movement of the bowels considerable attention, a sloppy diet, and several doses of purgative medicine, are requisite to empty the canal and prevent the recurrence of the obstruction. If twenty hours elapse after the administration of the above combination without any action of the bowels, the same dose may be repeated, along with a good quantity of some stimulant, such as a bottle of ale, with two ounces of oil of turpentine and two ounces of ginger. Half the quantity of the purgative may be given at the end of a like interval, if no effect be produced; but the further employment of purgatives is injurious, inasmuch as it increases the nausea without expediting the action of the bowels.

“A week will sometimes elapse without any alvine evacuation; in some cases I have known ten or eleven days, and in some fifteen days. Yet even in these recovery took place; and so long as stupor and frenzy are staved off, there is always hope of a cure. After the prompt and energetic adoption of the treatment recommended, little further remains to be done except to withhold all solid indigestible food, administer frequent quantities of water, or any simple fluid, which must be horned over if the beast will not take it; allow also plenty of treacle, and encourage the action of the medicine by clysters, scalding the belly, and occasional exercise. Blood-letting is not only useless, but even injurious.” (FINLAY DUN.)

=FAR′INA.= The flour of any species of corn, pulse, tuber, or starchy root. The most important kinds of farina are noticed under their respective heads. The following dietetic articles of a farinaceous character are extensively advertised:——

BAKER’S ALIMENTARY COMPOUND. Fine flour (pastrycook’s), 2 parts; finely ground rice, 1 part.

BASTER’S COMPOUND FARINA. Wheat flour, 14 oz.; white sugar, 2 oz.

BRADEN’S FARINACEOUS FOOD. Similar to Hard’s (below).

BRIGHT’S NUTRITIOUS FARINA. Rice flour and potato starch, equal parts.

BRIGHT’S BREAKFAST POWDER. Chocolate, 1 part; nutritious farina (Bright’s) 2 parts.

BULLOCK’S SEMOLA. Wheat flour, from which a portion of the starch has been removed, so as to leave an excess of gluten.

DENHAM’S FARINACEOUS FOOD. Wheat flour, 3 parts; barley meal, 1 part; the mixture is slightly baked, and again ground and sifted. Said to be slightly laxative.

DURYEA’S MAIZENA. Indian corn starch prepared for food.

GARDINER’S ALIMENTARY PREPARATION. Pure rice flour, very finely ground.

HARD’S FARINACEOUS FOOD. Wheat flour, slightly baked, and resifted.

KINGSFORD’S OSWEGO PREPARED CORN. An excellent preparation of Indian corn.

LEATH’S ALIMENTARY FARINA. Wheat flour (baked), with some sugar, Indian corn meal, and tapioca. According to some, it also contains potato starch.

MAIDMAN’S NUTRITIOUS FARINA. Potato starch tinged with beet-root or other pink colouring matter.

PLUMBE’S FARINACEOUS FOOD. South-sea arrow-root, with about 1-3rd its weight of pea flour.

POLSON’S CORN FLOUR. The starch of Indian corn or maize prepared with great care. It is much used as a substitute for arrow-root, and for custards, puddings, &c.

SMITH’S NURSING FARINA. Equal parts of baked wheat flour and rice flour.

Obs. Many of the above compounds are deficient in the nitrogenous elements of nutrition, and all of them nearly destitute of the mineral and saline matters which are absolutely necessary to the formation of the bones and tissues, and the support of the body in health, and are consequently utterly unsuitable as an exclusive article of diet, especially for young children. Unfortunately, it has been too much the fashion of medical men of late years to recommend these compounds, and even to furnish testimonials as to their excellence, apparently relying solely on the representation of their proprietors or vendors. We deem it, however, to be a public duty to caution parents and nurses against their injudicious use. As mere adjuvants or auxiliaries, when the natural food supplied by the mother may be insufficient for the nutrition of the infant, some of them may doubtless be of value; but in all other cases they should be largely combined with pure cow’s milk, beef tea, meat broths or gravies, eggs, or other substances rich in the nitrogenous and saline elements of nutrition.

=FARM′ING.= The business or management of a FARM. Formerly farming was looked upon as a profession easily understood, and successfully pursued only by an empiric. It is now, however, regarded in a different light, and the farmer, to succeed, not only requires perseverance and observation, but also a sound knowledge of natural sciences. See BUTTER, CHEESE, IMPLEMENTS, MANURES, SOILS, &c.

=FARMS, SEWAGE.= See SEWAGE FARMS.

=FAT.= Syn. ADEPS, L. The fat of animals is a concrete oil contained in the cellular membrane of their bodies, more especially round the kidneys, in the folds of the omentum, at the base of the heart, upon the surface of the intestines, and among many of the muscles. Fat varies in consistence, colour, and odour, with the animal from which it is obtained. That of the carnivora is usually soft and rank-flavoured; that of the ruminantia solid and nearly scentless. It is generally whitest and most copious in the well-fed young animal, and yellowish and more scanty in the old. That under the skin and surrounding the kidneys (suet) is also more solid than that in the neighbourhood of the movable viscera. In the cetacea, or whale tribe, the fatty secretion assumes the form of oil. These variations in consistency depend upon the relative proportions of solid stearin and liquid olein present in the fat.

The vegetable fats are found in various parts of certain plants, but are generally most abundant in the seeds. They are extracted by simple pressure or else by boiling. Two kinds of vegetable fat, namely, palm-oil and cocoa-nut oil, are extensively employed in the useful arts.

All fats are lighter than water. They are all soluble in ether, benzol, and turpentine, and may be mixed with each other in any proportion.

In former times the fats of many animals were employed in pharmacy, but at present those principally used are lard and suet. In perfumery, in addition to these, beef marrow and bear’s grease are employed. For both these purposes the crude material is cut into small pieces, and freed as much as possible from all extraneous membranes; after which it is placed in a boiler with water, and heated until it is completely fused, when the whole is strained, and allowed to cool very slowly. By this means a cake of cleansed fat is obtained, which may be readily separated from any adhering water.

Fats and the fat oils are best preserved by being run into glazed jars, and secluded from the action of the air. A little benzoic acid or gum-benzoin, dissolved in them by heat, will generally prevent, and in all cases greatly defer, the accession of rancidity. We introduced this method into the laboratory in our early days of manipulation, and ourselves, and others to whom we have made it known, have since employed it with undeviating advantage in the manufacture of cerates, ointments, and other preparations containing fatty matter or the fixed oils. It has been shown by Dr Griesler that nitric ether, and its alcoholic solution, act in the same manner. A few drops are not only sufficient to prevent rancidity, but, it is said, will even destroy the disagreeable odour of rancid fat. When heated to remove the alcohol, they immediately become bright, clear, and scentless. See OIL, GLYCERIN, OLEIN, PALMITIN, STEARIN, TALLOW, &c., also below.

=Fat, to melt down.= Let all the small pieces of fat cut off joints, &c., be collected, divided into small pieces, put in a stew pan (a little water being added to prevent their burning), and placed on the fire. This must be stirred carefully at intervals to prevent any of the pieces of fat sticking to the bottom.

When thoroughly melted (which it will be in about an hour and a half) pour through a strainer into a basin with some cold water in it. Thus prepared, dripping or fat may be used instead of suet, and there are few who would know any difference between them. Dripping, if clarified as above, may be used over and over again for frying, provided it has not been previously employed in dressing fish, in which case it will impart a fishy taste. But it can be used repeatedly for fish if it is kept for that purpose only. The skimmings off the top of the saucepans, while a piece of meat is boiling, will also do capitally for light puddings.[296]

[Footnote 296: ‘Artisan Cookery.’ Griffith and Farran.]

=FAT′TY ACIDS.= In chemistry, compounds having acid properties derived from the various fats and oils. The radicals of these acids exist in the natural fats combined with a base called glyceryl. When fats are saponified by an alkali, stearate, palmitate, and oleate of potassa or soda, as the case may be, are produced and glycerin is set free. On decomposing either of these compounds with sulphuric acid a sulphate of the alkali is formed, and the fatty acid is precipitated. Some of the fatty acids, as stearic, cerotic, palmitic, and lauric, are solid at ordinary temperatures; others, as oleic, are liquid. The hard fatty acids are extensively used as candle materials, being superior in every respect to the natural fats from which they are derived.

=FAT′TENING.= Until comparatively a recent date, the plan used to fatten domestic animals was to prevent their taking exercise, and to gorge them with food. The excessive fat produced by these means was, however, found to be far from wholesome, and was less delicate than that arising in the natural way. This system was therefore gradually abandoned in favour of the present one, which consists in supplying the animal with abundance of wholesome food, and with the means of taking exercise as far as the disposition or feelings dictate. Hence the farmers “in the most enlightened districts, such as Berwickshire, East Lothian, &c., instead of tying up their fattening cattle in stables like horses, and placing their food before them, put two or three together in small yards with sheds attached, in which they can run about, eat when they choose, and take shelter from the rain, or cold, or the sun, at pleasure, under the open shed. Swine are treated in the same manner, and also spring lambs that are fattened for the market. Poultry are no longer kept in coops and crammed, or rabbits in hutches; but the former are allowed to take exercise in fields sown with various herbs, and the latter are kept in a species of artificial warren, where they can take exercise by burrowing.” (Loudon.)

=FAVOURITE PRESCRIPTION (Dr Pierce’s)= for the cure of those chronic weaknesses and complaints peculiar to females. 280 grammes of a turbid greenish-brown fluid with a bulky deposit of the same colour, made according to the following recipe:——Savin tops, 10 grammes; larch agaric and cinnamon, of each 5 grammes; China Jaën (ash cinchona bark), 10 grammes; boil with sufficient water to make 220 grammes when strained. Dissolve in the filtrate gum Arabic, 10 grammes; white sugar, 5 grammes; and add tinct. digitalis and tinct. opii, of each 2 grammes; star anise oil, 8 drops; 90 per cent. spirit, 45 grammes. (Hager.)

=FEAR.= Although fear is a depressing and debilitating emotion, and sometimes acts prejudicially on the health, it frequently acts as a curative or preventive of disease. It is a well-known fact that females who are the most faint-hearted and desponding during the period of their sex’s trial, generally experience a more rapid convalescence than those who are more confident and resolute. During the raging of an epidemic fear generally induces temperance, cleanliness, and the adoption of other precautions which tend powerfully to prevent disease. Boerhaave, according to Pereira, is said to have prevented the occurrence of epileptic attack (brought on by the sight of a person falling down in a fit in the sight of the hospital patients), by directing a red-hot iron to be applied to the person who should next be affected.

=FEA′THERS.= Ostrich feathers are those most esteemed as articles of personal decoration, and goose feathers for beds; but the feathers of other birds are commonly used for both purposes.

Feathers are prepared for ornamental purposes by scouring them with white soap-and-water (1 oz. to the pint), used hot; they are next well rinsed in several successive portions of pure water, and after being drained and shaken, are, lastly, passed through water slightly blued with pure indigo, and dried out of the dust. When dry, the ribs are generally rubbed with a piece of glass, having a curved notch in it, for the purpose of increasing their pliancy, and the filaments are curled by drawing them, between the edge of a blunt knife and the ball of the thumb of the hand which holds it.

=Feathers, Bleaching of:=——

A new trade has sprung up within the past ten years, by which black, brown, or grey feathers are bleached sufficiently to enable them to be dyed any required colour.

The process is as follows:——The feathers are first thoroughly washed with soap-and-water, to free them from any oil they may contain. They are next transferred to a bath composed of bichromate of potash dissolved in water, to which has been added a few drops of nitric or sulphuric acid. In this bath they rapidly lose their black, brown, or grey colour, and become almost white. On being removed from this bath they are well rinsed in water, and are then fit to be dyed, even the most delicate colour. Great care is required in the process, as the flue of the feather is apt to be destroyed, if kept too long in the bath. A bleached feather may be readily known by the yellow colour of its stem.

Other methods have been adopted, such as a bath of chloride of lime, peroxide of hydrogen, or sulphurous acid, &c., but the bichromate bath gives the best results.

=Feathers, Dyeing of:=——

BLACK. By immersion for 2 or 3 days in a bath (at first hot) of logwood, 8 parts, and copperas or acetate of iron, (about) 1 part.

BLUE. With the indigo vat.

BROWN. By any of the brown dyes for silk or woollen.

CRIMSON. A mordant of alum, followed by a hot bath of brazil wood, and afterwards by a weak one of cudbear.

PINK or ROSE. With safflower and lemon juice.

PLUM. The red dye, followed by alkaline bath.

RED. A mordant of alum, followed by a hot brazil-wood bath.

YELLOW. From an alum mordant, followed by a bath of turmeric or weld. Other shades may be obtained by a mixture of the above dyes.

Feathers may also be dyed by simple immersion, for two or three minutes, in a bath of any of the aniline colours.

Goose feathers for BEDS are generally PURIFIED by simply exposing them to the sun or in a stove until perfectly dry, and then beating them to remove loose dirt. When carelessly collected and dirty, they are sometimes first cleansed with lime water, or, better still, with a weak solution of carbonate of soda, or water to which a little solution of chloride of lime has been added; after which they are rinsed in clean water, and dried or stoved as before. Old feathers are cleansed or purified in the same way.

=FEB′RIFUGES.= Syn. FEBRIFUGA, L. In pharmacy, substances or agents which cure or alleviate fever. The term is more particularly applied to medicines used against the ague, as CINCHONA BARK and ARSENIOUS ACID, and their preparations. The extreme value of cold water, as a drink in ardent fever, has been known in all ages. In 1723 Dr Hancocke published a work entitled——‘Febrifugum Magnum, or Common Water the best Cure for Fevers, and probably for the Plague,’ which in a short time ran through several large editions, but appears to have been overlooked by the hydropaths of the present day.

=FEC′ULA.= Syn. FÆCULA, L. The matter which subsides from cold water in which bruised or rasped vegetable substances have been washed. The fecula obtained from the seeds of the cereals and leguminosæ, and from tuberous or bulbous roots, consists of nearly pure STARCH. In some cases the starch is associated with the green colouring matter (CHLOROPHYLL) and the narcotic principles of the vegetables which yield it. The green fecula obtained by straining the expressed juices of the leaves and herbaceous parts of plants is of this character.

The fecula of all the amylaceous roots, rhizomes, and tubers, may be easily obtained, on the small scale, by rasping them, pressing, and working the pulp in cold water, and after straining the resulting milky liquid through a hair sieve, allowing it to settle. The sediment may be again washed by diffusion through clean cold water, and must be, lastly, collected, and dried out of the dust, and, without artificial heat.

The fecula of narcotic plants for medicinal purposes is obtained by allowing the expressed juice to repose for 24 hours, and then decanting the clear portion, and drying the residue. Sometimes heat is employed. See ARROW-ROOT, STARCH, &c.

=FEEDING BOTTLES.= We extract from ‘The Sanitary Record’ the following valuable paper on ‘Feeding Bottles,’ by Dr Eustace Smith, assistant-physician to the City of London Hospital for Diseases of the Chest, and Physician to the East London Hospital for Children:——“In the artificial rearing of infants it is of importance that food should be given to them from a feeding-bottle. By this means the natural method of taking nourishment is imitated; the muscles of the mouth and cheeks are brought into play; and the secretion of saliva——a secretion which, very scanty at birth, becomes gradually more copious and takes so active a part in digestion——is encouraged and increased.

“Almost all babies will take their food more readily by this method, their instinct teaching them to suck everything that is put into their mouths. Even in cases where a deficiency in the hard palate presents so great an obstacle to sucking, on account of the impossibility of creating the necessary vacuum in the mouth, the difficulty can be overcome by a simple mechanical contrivance. Therefore, in every case of hand-feeding, a suitable bottle is the first thing to be desired.

“To be satisfactory a feeding-bottle must fulfil three indispensable conditions: it must be simple in construction and easily manageable; it must be capable of being readily cleaned; and in its use the milk must flow easily and without great effort on the part of the infant. The ordinary feeder in use at the present time consists of a flattened glass flask, closed at the mouth by a cap, which fits over the neck. A caoutchouc tube passes through the cap, and is connected inside the bottle with a straight glass pipe. The other end of the elastic tube is attached to the teat, or mouth-piece, by means of a short hollow cylinder called the ‘union-joint.’ The teat is firmly fixed to this by means of the shield. In the construction of the cap and union-joint, metal, earthenware, or wood, is employed. The metal used by the best makers is tin, and this, if cleanliness be properly attended to, is not objectionable. In cheaper bottles, sold in the shops for sixpence, the mouth is closed by a perforated cork, through which the flexible tube passes. Here there is no cap, but in all essential points the construction is the same as in the more expensive articles.

“In this apparatus it is important that the channel through the tubes should be perfectly free. The point at which the channel is narrowest is the union-joint, which connects the mouth-piece with the flexible tube. In a badly made bottle an impediment may exist at this point from carelessness in the manufacture, and may present a great obstacle to the ready passage of the fluid. Care also should be taken that the flexible tube passes completely through the cap, before it becomes connected with the glass pipe. This is very important. In the early feeding-bottles constructed upon this model by O′Connel, the glass pipe passed from within the bottle through the cap, and was attached outside this to the caoutchouc tube. It was thus held rigidly in the centre of the bottle, and as a natural consequence, when the apparatus was in use, unless the bottle was held upright during the whole meal, long before its contents were exhausted the milk ceased to flow, as the end of the pipe soon came to be above the surface of the fluid, which necessarily gravitated to the lowest part as the bottle lay on its side.

“When, however, the connection between the two tubes is made within instead of outside the bottle, this disadvantage no longer exists, for the glass tube being free to move, its end is able to sink to whichever side of the bottle is undermost, and therefore always remains below the level of the fluid. The best bottles have a small cylindrical stop, i.e. a thick ring of metal or wood placed within the flexible tube, just above its junction with the glass pipe. The object of this is to prevent the latter being drawn through the cap, and thus held rigidly in the centre of the bottle.

“The method of connection of the cap with the neck of the bottle is not unimportant. It should not be too tight or air will be prevented from entering the bottle to supply the place of the milk which is withdrawn. A common plan is to line the interior of the cap with cork, but this substance, besides its risk of being broken and detached by careless handling, has the further disadvantage of absorbing milk, which turns sour and may afterwards set up fermentation in fresh milk put into the bottle for a subsequent meal. In the best bottles the cap is constructed to screw on to the neck, as in the ‘Alexandra’ Feeding bottle made by the Messrs Maw; or is united to it by an application of the ‘bayonet catch,’ as in the ‘Improved’ feeding-bottle made by Messrs Lynch and Son. In this very admirable apparatus three grooves in the inside of the cap pass over corresponding projections on the neck of the bottle; the cap is then turned to the right, with a slight screwing motion, and becomes securely fastened.

“With badly made bottles infants often have very great difficulty in drawing up the milk, and can only do so by violent efforts, which soon exhaust their strength or their patience. There are two reasons why milk in these cases may not flow easily——either the cap fits too tightly, so that air cannot enter with sufficient facility in proportion as the liquid contents become diminished, as has just been mentioned; or the caoutchouc forming the flexible tube is too thin, so that it collapses when suction is applied. In the first case a small hole should be made through the cap, so as to allow a free admission of air, or if the bottle be a simpler one, closed at the mouth by a perforated cork, this may be slightly eased at the neck of the bottle, so as to fit less closely. In the second case, stouter caoutchouc should be used in the construction of the tube. In weakly infants, or those much reduced in strength by acute disease, special attention should be paid to these points, as such children will often refuse to take the bottle, if they find any difficulty in drawing up the milk.

“Infants born with a cleft palate cannot suck from an ordinary bottle, as the deficiency in the hard palate prevents the necessary vacuum being formed in the mouth. Such children are, therefore, usually brought up with a spoon, and often waste and die through insufficient nourishment. An ingenious contrivance first suggested by Mr Oakley Coles will, however, entirely remove the difficulty, and enable them to suck with as much ease as if they suffered from no such congenital difficulty. The plan is a very simple one, and consists in attaching to the nipple of any ordinary feeding-bottle a flap of sheet elastic, cut to fit the roof of the mouth. This flap must be of the shape and about the size of the bowl of a teaspoon, and is to be sewn to the upper part of the stalk of the teat, where this projects from the shield. In the mouth of the child the flap forms an artificial palate, which if the sheet elastic chosen be sufficiently stout, offers firm resistance to the tongue pressing against in sucking, and prevents fluid from passing into the nose in the act of swallowing.

“The closest attention must be paid to the cleaning of feeding-bottles. Each time after being used the whole apparatus should be well washed out with water containing a little soda in solution.

“The inside of the cap must be carefully cleaned, and the brush should be carried several times through the whole length of the tubing. Afterwards the bottle and tubes should be laid in cold water until again wanted. An objection to the common brush usually supplied with each feeder is, that after a few days’ use the softened bristles are apt to get detached and be caught in the joints of the tubing, whence they may afterwards be washed by the stream of fluid and be swallowed by the child. Accordingly, a new cleaner has been manufactured by Messrs Maw and Sons, in which bristles are entirely dispensed with. They are replaced by a thin strip of caoutchouc, which is wound round in a spiral form, at the end of the ordinary wire handle. This instrument answers all the purposes of a brush, without the disadvantages alluded to, and is besides far more durable.

“Excellent feeding-bottles are now made by many different manufacturers, and are sold at prices which place them within the reach of the poorest. These cannot all be mentioned, but some of the bottles more commonly met with, may be shortly referred to. The six-penny feeder made by Messrs Maw, Son, and Thompson, can be recommended for its simplicity of construction, and at the same time for its perfect efficiency. In this instrument there is no cap, instead the mouth of the bottle is closed by a cork, which is perforated for the passage of the flexible tube. In all other respects the construction of this apparatus is the same as in the more expensive instruments. The ‘Alexandra’ feeding-bottle, price half-a-crown, by the same makers, is an admirable bottle. The cap screws on to the neck, and is furnished with a small hole for the admission of air. A ‘stop’ in the lower part of the flexible tube prevents the glass pipe being drawn into the cap, and the instrument is supplied with all the latest improvements. The bottles made by Messrs Maw are all furnished with the new patent cleaner just described. The improved feeding-bottle made by Messrs Lynch and Son, at one shilling and eighteen pence, has been before referred to. The material used for the cap is boxwood. It is a capital bottle, and will give the fullest satisfaction to the purchaser. Mr Lang’s ‘Alma Mater’ feeding-bottle can also be recommended. In this instrument the cap is made of earthenware and is lined with cork. A good bottle is made by Mr Elam, of Oxford Street, price two shillings; the cap is formed of britannia metal, and screws on to the neck. A cheaper bottle, but one which for elegance of design and accuracy of detail cannot be surpassed, is Mr Mather’s ‘Princess’ feeding-bottle. A tin cup screws on the neck, and is pierced by a small hole for the admission of air. The opening is fitted with a ‘cone valve’ of simple and ingenious construction, which allows air to enter freely when suction is applied to the tube, but closes firmly against any escape through the air-hole of the fluid contents of the bottle. The bottle itself has a double curve towards the neck to provide against too sudden bending of the flexible tube against the tap. This is apt to happen when the curve is single, if the bottle lie with the convexity downwards, and partial obstruction of the tube may be the result. The ‘Princess’ feeding-bottle is sold in the shops for eighteen pence.

“All bottles bear their name in raised letters upon the glass, but a report which has obtained currency that these letters are hollow in the interior, and difficult to cleanse is without any foundation in fact. Any one may test this for himself by placing a finger within the bottle underneath the letters, when the internal surface will be found perfectly plain and uniform. In all cases where cork enters into the construction of a feeding-bottle, especial care should be taken in cleansing the apparatus, and the cork should be well soaked in soda and water in order that any sour milk it may contain may be neutralised at once.”

=FEET (The).= To preserve the feet in a proper condition, they should be frequently soaked, and well washed in warm or tepid water. The nails of the toes should be pared, to prevent their becoming inconveniently long, and from growing into the flesh, soaked, and well washed in warm or tepid water. Many persons suffer severely from TENDER FEET. This generally arises from the use of thin cotton or silk stockings, and boots or shoes that are either too tight or stiff, or not sufficiently porous to permit of the escape of the perspiration. Waterproof boots and shoes which are also air-tight (as those of gutta percha and India rubber), are common causes of tender feet, and even of headaches, dyspepsia, and apoplexy. The best treatment of tender feet is the immediate adoption of worsted stockings or socks, and light, easy shoes of buckskin, goatskin, or some other equally soft kind of leather. It is highly necessary for the preservation of health to preserve the feet DRY; persons who are, therefore, exposed to the wet, or who are frequently passengers through the public streets in bad weather, should regard sound and good boots and shoes as of the first importance. In fact, in a hygienic point of view, a wet back should be less shunned than wet feet. Many persons frequently experience EXTREME COLDNESS and NUMBNESS OF THE FEET. The best and most natural remedy for this is active exercise or friction, the former being always adopted when possible. In such cases the use of warm woollen stockings is absolutely necessary, and the debilitated and aged may advantageously keep them on throughout the night, or at all events until the feet acquire a comfortable degree of warmth. The DISAGREEABLE ODOUR which is evolved by the feet of some individuals in hot weather may be removed by the observance of extreme cleanliness, and by occasionally soaking the feet in warm water, to which a small quantity of chloride of lime or sal ammoniac has been added. A good deodoriser for unpleasant smelling feet is said to be the following, invented by M Paulcke:——A mixture of equal parts of salicylic acid, soap, talc, and starch, to be applied in the form of powder.

DISTORTION OF THE FEET is not uncommon in childhood, being sometimes congenital, but as frequently the result of weakness or bad nursing. “A child with its feet turned inwards is called VARUS; when they are turned outwards it is styled VALGUS. The proper use of bandages, early applied, will generally correct these deformities; but if they be neglected in infancy they become incurable.” (‘Med. Lex.’) CLUBFOOT, of which there are several varieties, may also be frequently relieved by a simple surgical operation. See BOOTS and SHOES, DISTORTIONS.

=FELT′ING.= This is a process by which various species of fur, hair, and wool, are blended into a compact texture, in many respects resembling cloth. It depends on the peculiar anatomical construction of these substances, enabling them to interlace and intertwine with each other, by which they become permanently matted together. Felt was formerly chiefly employed for hats. It is now commonly used for mill-bands, filters, &c.; and when varnished or japanned, or saturated with asphalte or bitumen, is a durable substitute for japanned leather, and for roofing.

=FENNEL.= Syn. FŒNICULUM (Ph. L.), L. The fruit (seed) of Fœniculum dulce, or sweet fennel; the oil distilled from the fruit (OIL OF FENNEL; OLEUM FŒNICULI, L.) as well as a distilled water (FENNEL WATER; AQUA FŒNICULI, L.), are officinal in the Pharmacopœias. They are stimulant and carminative; but are now seldom employed.

=FEN′UGREEK.= The seeds of Trigonella Fœnum Græcum. Resolvent and stomachic. The seeds dye yellow; formerly roasted for coffee; now chiefly employed in veterinary medicine.

=FER′MENT.= Syn. FERMENTUM, L. A substance which induces fermentation. According to one view ferments are compounds whose decomposition proceeds simultaneously with that of the body undergoing metamorphosis. They all contain albuminous or azotised principles, which in a moist state putrefy and suffer decomposition. According to Pasteur, however, fermentation is excited by living organisms——fungi and infusoria. See FERMENTATION and YEAST.

=FERMENTA′TION.= Syn. FERMENTATIO, L. In chemistry, a peculiar metamorphosis of a complex organic substance, by a transposition of its elements under the agency of an external disturbing force. Fermentation, according to the theory proposed by Liebig, is a metamorphosis, by which the elements of a complex molecule group themselves so as to form more intimate and stable compounds. It is excited by the contact of all bodies the elements of which are in a state of active decomposition or fermentation. “In nitrogenised substances of a very complex constitution, putrefaction or fermentation is spontaneously established when water is present, and the temperature sufficiently high, and it continues till the original compounds are wholly destroyed. Substances destitute of nitrogen, on the contrary, require, in order to their undergoing this metamorphosis, the presence of a nitrogenised substance, already in a state of putrefaction (fermentation).” (Liebig.) The substances which promote this change are termed FERMENTS, and among these the principal are gliadin, gluten, vegetable albumen, and all nitrogenous substances in a state of spontaneous decomposition or fermentation. “It is imagined that when these substances, in the act of undergoing change, are brought into contact with neutral ternary compounds of small stability, as sugar, the molecular disturbance of the body, already in a state of decomposition, may be, as it were, propagated to the other, and bring about the destruction of the equilibrium of forces to which it owes its being. The complex body, under these circumstances, breaks up into simpler products, which possess greater permanence.” (Fownes.) YEAST, the ferment most commonly employed for inducing the vinous fermentation, is such a substance in an active state of putrefaction, and whose atoms are in continual motion. Putrefying animal substances are equally capable of exciting the same action. “If we add to a solution of pure sugar an albuminous substance, a caseous or fleshy matter, the development of yeast becomes manifest, and an additional quantity of it is found at the end of the operation. Thus, with nourishment, ferment engenders ferment. It is for this reason that a little fermenting must, added to a body of fresh grape juice, excite fermentation in the whole mass. These effects are not confined to alcoholic (vinous) fermentation. The smallest portion of sour milk, of sour dough, or sour juice of beet-root, of putrefied flesh and blood, occasions like alterations in fresh milk, dough, juice of beet-root, flesh, and blood. But further, and which is a very curious circumstance, if we put into a liquid containing any fermenting substance another in a sound state, the latter would suffer decomposition under the influence of the former. If we place urea in the presence of beer-yeast, it experiences no change; while if we add it to sugar-water in a fermenting state, the urea is converted into carbonate of ammonia. “We thus possess two modes of decomposition; the one direct, the other indirect.” (Ure.)

A very remarkable circumstance connected with fermentation is that it is always accompanied by the development of microscopic living organism——fungi and infusoria. “So constantly, indeed, is this the case, that many chemists and physiologists regard these organisms as the existing cause of fermentation and putrefaction; and this view appears to be corroborated by the fact that each particular kind of fermentation takes place most readily in contact with certain living organisms.” (Fownes.) Thus the vinous or alcohol-producing fermentation is accompanied, or caused, by two fungi, called Torula cerevisiæ and Penicillium glaucum; the acetous or vinegar-producing fermentation by Torula aceti; the lactous fermentation (souring of milk) by Penicillium glaucum.

The butyric fermentation by an animal——an infusorium, which cannot exist in free oxygen, but flourishes in an atmosphere of hydrogen, &c.

Of late years these latter views as to the cause of fermentation have been accepted by most of the scientific world, notwithstanding the opposition they experienced from so powerful an antagonist as Liebig.

From the researches of Pasteur, the distinguished author of the modern theory of fermentation, as opposed to the chemico-physical theory of Liebig, it appears that when yeast is placed in a solution of sugar and water, or in a solution of sugar and water containing albuminous substances, under proper conditions as to temperature, the fermentation that ensues is due to the process of growth taking place in the yeast plant; the new cells of which, in assimilating part of the sugar and converting it into cellulose and fat, cause, at the same time, the breaking up of the sugar molecule, and resolve it into the more stable combinations of alcohol and carbonic acid.

In order that the ferment or fungus should grow it is essential that, in addition to the cellulose and fat, it should be supplied with ammoniacal salts and soluble phosphates. These are generally present in the liquid about to be fermented; but when yeast is added to pure sugar and water “it lives at the expense of the sugar, and of the nitrogenous and mineral substances contained within itself.”[297]

[Footnote 297: Pasteur.]

Speaking of the influence of oxygen on the development of yeast on alcoholic fermentation, Pasteur states that ready-formed yeast can germinate and grow in a liquid containing sugar and albuminous matters, even when oxygen is completely excluded. The quantity of yeast formed, however, in this case, is but small, and the fermentation goes on slowly; nevertheless, a large quantity of sugar disappears (sixty to eighty parts to one part of yeast). If the air has access to a large surface the fermentation goes on quickly, and a much larger quantity of yeast is formed in proportion to the quantity of sugar which disappears.

In this case, also, oxygen is absorbed by the yeast, which grows quickly, but does not act so decidedly as a ferment, inasmuch as only four to ten parts of sugar disappear for one part of yeast produced.

When the air is excluded the same yeast again acts as a powerful ferment. Pasteur, therefore, infers that yeast which acts as a ferment in the absence of air abstracts oxygen from the sugar, and that upon this deoxidising power its action as a ferment depends. The violent activity of the yeast at the commencement of the fermentation is due to oxygen dissolved in the liquid. In liquids containing albumen (yeast and water, &c.) yeast likewise grows, though sparingly, even if the solution does not contain a trace of sugar, provided there is a sufficient access of air. But if the air is excluded this does not take place, even though the liquid may contain, besides albumen, a non-fermentable sugar, such as milk sugar. The yeast formed in a liquid not containing sugar possesses all the properties of a ferment, and excites fermentation in a solution of sugar excluded from the air.[298]

[Footnote 298: ‘Bull. Soc. Chem.,’ 1861, pp. 61, 79.]

Similarly, Pasteur regards putrefaction as a kind of fermentation, set up and maintained by an animal organism, or ferment belonging to the genus Vibrio. Putrefaction, when taking place in contact with the air, is always accompanied by decay or EREMACAUSIS. The abandonment of the old theory as to the nature of eremacausis, viz. that it consisted in the gradual combustion of decaying organic matters by atmospheric oxygen, has been necessitated by the experiments of Pasteur, Schröder, and others, which have conclusively established the facts that organic substances are not oxidised by perfectly pure air, and that their decomposition and subsequent destruction are due to the presence in the air of the sporules or seeds of certain low organisms. Pasteur cites numerous instances corroborative of the statement that perfectly pure oxygen fails to affect, save to a very limited extent, organic substances.

In one case an aqueous infusion of yeast mixed with sugar was enclosed in a sealed flask with double its volume of air, which had been previously depurated by being made to pass through a red-hot tube. At the end of three years the liquid (which had during part of the time been kept at a temperature of from 25° to 30° Cent.) was found to be perfectly fresh and transparent, and the air when examined gave 18·1 vols. of oxygen, 80·5 vols. of nitrogen, and 1·4 of carbonic acid. Under the same conditions urine and milk, whether fresh or previously boiled, showed minute traces only of oxidation; crystals of uric acid and phosphates formed in the urine, but the milk was unaltered, having preserved its alkaline reaction, and showed no disposition to curdle.

Very different, however, was the result when either of the above substances was enclosed with ordinary air. It was then found that in a few days the whole of the oxygen was absorbed, carbonic acid being at the same time simultaneously formed. A certain quantity of moistened oak sawdust kept in contact with ordinary air for a fortnight was found at the end of that time to have absorbed 140 cubic centimètres of oxygen; whilst the same amount of sawdust enclosed with an equal volume of purified air had removed only a few cubic centimètres of the gas in a month. In the former experiment a microscopic film of mycelia and spores of Mucidineæ formed on the sawdust.

From numerous experiments of a like nature with the above, and attended with analogous results, chemists and physiologists now generally regard eremacausis as effected by agencies similar in character to those which produce fermentation and putrefaction.

“The observations of Schröder upon the processes of fermentation and putrefaction are remarkable. He has shown that any organic liquid may be prevented from fermenting or putrefying if it be heated under pressure to about 266° F. (130° C.), then transferred to a flask and boiled, the mouth of the flask being plugged whilst boiling with a pellet of cotton wool, which is left in the neck of the flask. In this way he preserved, during a hot summer, various liquids, including freshly-boiled wort, blood, white of egg, whey, urine, broth, and milk; but when afterwards the plug of cotton wool was withdrawn these liquids in a few days began to undergo decomposition. He explains these results by supposing that the spores of some organism must find access to the substance in order to set up the process of decomposition. By a temperature of 260° F. (126·7° C.) any such spores which the substance itself might contain are destroyed, and as the air is filtered through the cotton wool before it reaches the interior of the flask, none of these organic germs can afterwards gain access to the body under experiment. I have repeated some of these experiments with complete success.[299]

[Footnote 299: The Editor of this work has also repeated Schröder’s experiments on milk, and obtained the same results.]

“If air be transmitted with suitable precautions slowly through narrow ignited platinum tubes, so as to destroy all suspended organic particles, no fermentation or putrefaction will take place on admitting such air into contact with putrescible substances previously heated to 260° for an hour.”[300]

[Footnote 300: Miller.]

Pasteur has shown the existence of these floating germs in the air by drawing a large volume of atmospheric air, by means of an aspirator, through a narrow tube obstructed by collodion wool. On subsequently dissolving this wool in a mixture of alcohol and ether various microscopic sporules were left undissolved.

The entire absence of the exciting causes——warmth, air, and moisture——leaves even those substances which under ordinary circumstances are most liable to change, in a state in which they may remain for an almost indefinite period without perceptible alteration. Thus, animal substances in a frozen or dry state do not undergo decomposition, nor does a solution of sugar or the juice of grapes (must) when perfectly excluded from the air; but on the mere exposure of these substances to warmth, moisture, or atmospheric air, putrefaction or fermentation immediately commences. Remove the cork from the bottle of ‘capillaire’ on the parlour sideboard, or pierce the skin of one of the grapes on the dessert table with a needle, and these bodies, which would have otherwise suffered no change for weeks, or even months, will soon exhibit symptoms of spontaneous decomposition. The knowledge of this fact has been practically applied to the preservation of animal and vegetable substances for food. Even the most putrescible of these may be preserved for an unlimited period by enclosure in metallic cases, or glass bottles, from which the air has been completely removed and excluded.

The important duties which fermentation or putrefaction performs in the economy of our globe, and in several of the arts of life and civilisation, have long rendered the development of its principles an object of the highest interest and importance, both in a scientific and practical point of view. In its most extended sense, this subtile process of nature, though occasionally productive of injurious effects, may be regarded as one of the most necessary and beneficial with which we are acquainted. Like the labours of a scavenger, it speedily removes from the surface of our globe those matters which would otherwise remain for some time without undergoing decomposition. It either dissipates in air, or reduces to more fixed and useful forms of matter, those organic substances which, by their presence, would prove noxious, or, at all events, useless to the animal and vegetable kingdoms. It is the giant power that cleans the Augean stable of nature, at the same time that it provides some of the most esteemed articles of utility and luxury for the well-being and enjoyment of man.

Chemists have distinguished fermentation into different varieties, which, in general, are named after the more important products of its action. Of late years, the number of these varieties has been greatly increased by the extension of the term to several operations besides those formerly included under it. See ACETIFICATION, BREAD, PUTREFACTION, BREWING, &c.

=FERN (Male).= Syn. MALE SHIELD FERN, FILIX MAS, RADIX FILICIS, L. The root (rhizome) of the Lastræa Filix-mas, or male fern. It is bitter, astringent, or vermifuge.——Dose, 1 to 3 dr. in powder, or made into a decoction, repeated for 3 or 4 days, and followed by a purge. It is chiefly given in tapeworm. In Switzerland it is deemed almost infallible, but has proved less successful in these countries. See OILS.

=FERRICY′ANIDE.= Syn. FERRIDCYANIDE, FERRIDCYANURET. A compound of ferricyanogen with a metal or other basic radical. The FERRICYANIDE OF POTASSIUM, or ‘RED PRUSSIATE OF POTASH,’ as it is often improperly called, is a well-known example. The ferricyanides of AMMONIUM and the ALKALIES and ALKALINE EARTHS are soluble; those of most of the METALS, insoluble. See below.

=FERRICYAN′OGEN.= Syn. FERRIDCYANOGEN, FERRIC-CYANOGEN. The peculiar salt-radical which exists in the so-called red prussiate of potash. It is isomeric with ferrocyanogen, from which it differs in capacity of saturation (being tribasic), and in the behaviour of its compounds with solutions of the metals. It has not been isolated. See POTASSIUM (Ferricyanide).

=FERROCY′ANIDE.= Syn. FERROCYANURET, PRUSSIATE; FERROCYANIDUM, FERROCYANURETUM, L. A compound of ferrocyanogen with a metal or other basic radical. The principal substance of this kind is the FERROCYANIDE OF POTASSIUM or ‘YELLOW PRUSSIATE OF POTASH,’ as it is often called. See the respective basis——AMMONIUM, POTASSIUM, SODIUM, &c., and below.

=FERROCYAN′OGEN.= Syn. FERROCYANOGENIUM, L. A bibasic salt radical, composed of the elements of 3 equivalents of CYANOGEN and 1 equivalent of the metal IRON. It has never been isolated. It unites with the various bases to form FERROCYANIDES. See CYANOGEN, HYDROFERROCYANIC ACID, IRON, &c.

=FERRU′GO.= [=L=.] Rust of iron. See IRON (Sesquioxide).

=FE′VER.= Syn. FEBRIS, PYREXIA, L. In pathology a condition characterised by loss of appetite, thirst, languor, debility, unwillingness to move, accelerated pulse, increased heat of surface, and general disturbance of all the functions. A large number of diseases in which all or some of these symptoms appear are called FEVERS. They have been divided by nosologists into intermittent (INTERMITTENTES), remittent (REMITTENTES), and continued fevers (CONTINUÆ). The first of these are generally known as AGUES; the second differ from agues in there being one or more marked exacerbations and remissions of the symptoms every 24 hours, but without any entire intermission. The terms ‘hectic,’ ‘nervous,’ ‘bilious,’ ‘inflammatory,’ &c., have also been applied to particular varieties of fever; and names indicative of certain cutaneous appearances connected with them have been given to others; as ‘scarlet’ fever, ‘yellow’ fever, &c.

The usual symptoms of incipient fever (febrile symptoms) are——chilliness (varying from a simple shiver to a sensation of cold water running down the back), a quick pulse, hot and dry skin or flushing, languor, often evinced by yawning, depression of spirits, alternate fits of shivering and heat, hurried and uneasy respiration, flying pains in various parts of the body, as the head, back, and loins; loss of appetite, nausea or vomiting, dry mouth, furred tongue, costiveness, urine small in quantity, and usually of a deep colour, &c. When any of these symptoms appear, their progress may often be arrested by the timely exhibition of an emetic, followed by a saline purgative, and diaphoretics; at the same time promoting the action of these remedies by a low diet and drinking copiously of diluents, and carefully avoiding animal food, spirits, fermented liquors, or anything at all stimulant. Whenever symptoms of fever become established, medical advice should be sought and implicitly followed. In parts where it cannot be obtained the treatment recommended under AGUE, INFLAMMATION, REMITTENT FEVER, and TYPHUS, may be followed with advantage.

In visiting or attending persons labouring under fevers, it is advisable to avoid immediate contact with them or their clothing, or standing near them in such a position as to inhale their breath, or the effluvia evolved (in some cases) by their bodies; and when remaining for some time in the apartment it is preferable to sit or stand near the fireplace, or between the window and door, as such parts of the room are generally better ventilated than the other portions. The greatest purifier of the atmosphere of a sick chamber is a good fire, because it occasions a continual current of the impure air up the chimney, and a corresponding influx of fresh air from without. Chloride of lime, or chloride of zinc, or their solutions, are also good purifiers. The first, however, should not be used in quantity, as the evolved chlorine might in that case impede the respiration of the patient. It is also advisable to avoid entering the room of a patient labouring under contagious diseases of any class when the stomach is empty or the spirits depressed; and it has been recommended to clear the mouth of the saliva immediately after quitting the chamber. See ABLUTION, &c.

=FEVER DROPS (C. Warburg’s Vegetable).= Camphor and aloes, 2-1/2; orange peel, 10; elecampane root, 12; digest with 90 per cent. spirit 240, mixed with ac. sulphuric dil. 24. To the tincture add quinine sulphate 9; tinct. opii crocatæ, 2-1/2. (Ragsky.)

=FEVER POWDERS (James’s, also called James’s Powder and Pulvis Jacobi).= It consists essentially of phosphate and antimoniate of lime with free antimonic acid.

=FEVERSTONE——Lapis Anti-febrilis——Fieber Stein.= Lead oxide, 54 parts; arsenic acid, 46 parts; melted together. (Winckler.)

=FI′BRIN.= Syn. FIBRINE. An azotised substance, forming the coagulable portion of fresh-drawn blood, and the principal constituent of the muscular or fleshy parts of animals. It is eminently nutritious, and capable of yielding in the animal body albumen, caseine, and the tissues derived from them. (Liebig.)

Prep. Fibrin is easily obtained in a nearly pure state, by agitating or beating newly drawn blood with a small bundle of twigs, when it attaches itself to the latter under the form of long reddish filaments, which become white when worked with the hands in a stream of cold water. It may also be procured by washing the coagulum of blood, tied up in a cloth, in cold water, until all the soluble portions are removed. A small quantity of fat, which it still contains, may be removed by digesting it in ether.

Prop., &c. Pure fibrin occurs as long, white, elastic filaments, which are tasteless, inodorous, and insoluble in both hot and cold water. Wetted with acetic acid, it forms, after a time, a transparent jelly, which is slowly soluble in pure water. Very dilute solutions of the caustic alkalies dissolve it completely, and the new solution greatly resembles liquid albumen. Dried by a gentle heat it loses about 80% of water.

=FICHTENNADEL-BRUSTZUCKER (Pine-needle Pectoral Sugar).= (L. Morgenthau, Mannheim.) For irritable cough, hoarseness, tightness of the chest, asthma, stubborn lung affections, chronic catarrh, &c. Little sticks of bonbon, containing a very little opium, and wrapped in tinfoil. (Hager.)

=FICHTENNADEL-TABAK (Pine-Needle Tobacco.= (L. Morgenthau.) Is said to be patented in England. Ordinary tobacco moistened or sprinkled with a weak spirituous solution of wood wool extract and wood wool oil and dried; made up in cigars for smoking. (Hager.)

=FIG.= Syn. FICUS (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), CARICA, CARICÆ FRUCTUS, L. The figs of commerce are the dried fruit of Ficus Carica, the common fig-tree. They are demulcent, emollient, laxative, and pectoral. Roasted and boiled figs are occasionally employed as poultices to gumboils and other affections of the mouth.

=FILARIA DRACUNCULUS.= The Guinea worm. The female of this parasite is to be met with in tropical climates only, infesting the subcutaneous cellular tissue of man and some animals. In appearance it resembles a piece of white whip-cord of uniform thickness. According to Mr Ewart it varies in length from twelve and three quarters to forty inches, and is on an average twenty-five and a half inches long. It usually contains only one young worm, although rare instances have occurred in which as many as fifty of its progeny have been discovered in the same parent. In almost every case when this creature leaves the body, it does so by the lower extremities; occasionally, however, it does so by the mouth, the cheeks, or below the tongue. When the young of the guinea worm are placed in pure water they survive only four or five days; in foul water they will exist for three weeks. It appears that immersion in water, of the body of the person afflicted with the parasite, sometimes has the effect of inducing the creature to leave his human quarters, since Dr Lorimer states “that many people belonging to the bazaars in the vicinity of the lines, affected with the parasite, come, for the express purpose of extracting the worm, to the same tank where the men of the regiment bathe. The people so infested swim about in the water, with the worm hanging loose, drawing the limb quickly backwards and forwards, and from side to side, until the expulsion is affected.” Outside the body the guinea worm is generally found beneath organic débris in wells, tanks, and other reservoirs for water, from whence it appears to be now pretty universally admitted it effects an entrance through the skin during bathing or wading.

=FILARIA SANGUINIS HOMINIS.= In 1872, Dr T. R. Lewis, in examining microscopically the blood and urine of some of his patients in India, discovered a worm enveloped in an extremely delicate tube, closed at both ends, within which it could either elongate or shorten itself. This parasite (called from its principal habitat the Filaria Sanguinis Hominis) is about 1/75th of an inch in length, and about 1/35000th of an inch in diameter. When removed from the body with a small quantity of blood, it is described as being in a state of incessant motion, unceasingly coiling and uncoiling itself, lashing the blood-corpuscles in all directions, and insinuating itself between them.

The worms are said, when first taken from the body, to present a translucent appearance; the larger specimens, however, frequently exhibit an aggregation of granules towards the junction of the lower and middle half. Occasionally a bright spot, suggestive of a mouth, is seen at the thicker extremity. It is stated that they continue active from six to thirty hours. Mr Lewis does not believe they are able to perforate the tissues.

“These parasites,” says Mr Lewis, “are so persistently ubiquitous, as to be obtained day after day by simply pricking any portion of the body, even to the tips of the fingers and toes of both hands and both feet of one and the same person, with a finely pointed needle. On one occasion six excellent specimens were obtained in a single drop of blood by merely pricking the lobule of the ear.”

Dr Lewis estimates, from the number of the Filaria found in one drop of the blood of one patient, that his body must have contained more than 140,000. The presence of these creatures in the blood is believed to be the cause of chylous urine, which is a very common disease in the East. It seems probable they gain admission into the body from being present in drinking water.

=FIL′BERT.= Syn. FILBERD. The fruit of the cultivated hazel or nut-tree (Corylus Avellana). Filberts are distinguished from common nuts by their lengthened figure and larger size. The best are imported from Spain.

=FILES.= The manufactures of these articles do not come within the limits of this work. It may, however, be useful to mention that FILES, FLOATS, and RASPS, which “cut dull” from age, dirt, or being much worn, are greatly improved by being kept wet, immersed in water for some hours, or even for a day or two.

Mr Ernest Spon recommends the following method for renovating files:——The file to be first cleansed from all foreign matter, and then dipped in a solution of one part of nitric acid, three parts of sulphuric acid, and seven parts of water; the time of immersion will be according to the extent the file has been worn, and the fineness of the teeth, varying from five seconds to five minutes. On taking it out of the mixture, wash in water, then dip in milk of lime, wash off the lime, dry by a gentle heat, rub over equal parts of olive oil and turpentine, and finally brush over with powdered coke.

=FIL′TER.= Syn. FILTRUM, L. An instrument or apparatus for straining or filtering liquids.

=FIL′TERING POWDERS.= Prep. 1. Fuller’s earth washed, dried without heat, and reduced to coarse powder.

2. Pipe clay or potter’s clay, as the last. Both the above are used to filter and bleach oils.

3. Clay or fuller’s earth, 1 part; fine siliceous sand, 2 parts; the two are separately washed, after which they are drained, and mixed together, and dried as before. Used for GLUTINOUS OILS.

4. Granulated animal charcoal, sifted and fanned from the dust. Used to filter and bleach SYRUPS and VEGETABLE SOLUTIONS.

Obs. Filtering powders are prepared of several degrees of coarseness, and should be chosen with reference to the degree of fluidity of the liquid to be filtered through them. In no case should they be reduced to fine powder, as not only is the process of filtration thereby rendered unnecessarily tedious, but in some cases (as when charcoal dust is mixed with glutinous vegetable solutions and syrups) the filtrate carries off a portion of the powder, which can afterwards be separated from it only with considerable difficulty. See CHARCOAL, FILTRATION, OIL, &c.

=FILTRA′TION.= Syn. FILTRATIO, L. The separation of liquids from substances mechanically suspended in them, by passing them through media having pores sufficiently fine to retain or keep back the solid matter. Filtration is one of the most common and useful of the chemico-mechanical operations of the arts, and its successful performance in an economical and expeditious manner is therefore a matter of the highest importance in the laboratory, and, indeed, in almost every branch of human skill and industry, in which liquids are employed. Simple in principle, and apparently easily performed, it is, nevertheless, one of those operations which require no less of care than of tact and experience to conduct it with certainty and success. The losses sustained in the laboratory, by defective manipulation in this particular, often exceed those arising from ignorance and accidents in every other department conducted in it.

Filtration is generally resorted to for the purpose of freeing liquids from feculence, dirt, and other foreign matter, and for obtaining them in a clear or transparent state; but, in some cases, it has for its object the collection of the suspended substances, as precipitates, &c., and in others both these intentions are combined. The word ‘filtration’ is absolutely synonymous with ‘straining,’ but in the language of the laboratory it is usually applied to the operation of rendering liquids transparent, or nearly so, by passing them through fine media, as filtering paper, sand, and the like; whilst the term ‘straining’ is employed to designate the mere separation of the grosser portion, by means of coarse media, flannel, horsehair cloth, &c., through which they flow with considerable rapidity. Filtration is distinguished from ‘clarification’ by its mere mechanical action, whereas the latter operates by depuration, or the subsidence of the suspended substances or fæces, arising from their gravity being naturally greater than the fluid with which they are mixed, or being rendered so by the application of heat, or by the addition of some foreign substance.

The apparatus, vessels, or media, employed for filtration, are called ‘FILTERS,’ and are technically distinguished from ‘STRAINERS’ by the superior fineness of their pores.

Both strainers and filters act on the same principles as the common sieve on powders; they all, in like manner, retain or hold back the coarser matter, and permit the liquid or smaller and more attenuated particles to pass through. The term ‘medium’ (pleural ‘media’) is applied to the substance or substances through the pores of which the liquid percolates.

The form of filters, and the substances of which they are composed, are various, and depend upon the nature of the liquids for which they are intended. On the small scale, funnels of tin, zinc, copper, wedgwood-ware, earthenware, glass, or porcelain, are commonly employed as the containing vessels. (See engr.) The filtering medium may be any substance of a sufficiently spongy or porous nature to allow of the free percolation of the liquid, and whose pores are, at the same time, sufficiently small to render it limpid or transparent. Unsized paper, flannel, linen, calico, cotton wool, felt, sand, coarsely powdered charcoal, porous stone, or earthenware, and numerous other substances of a similar kind, are employed for this purpose.

For many liquids that filter easily, and in which the suspended matter is of a coarse and porous nature, it is often sufficient merely to place a little cotton wool or tow, or a small piece of sponge, in neck of the funnel, as at (a, fig. 1) in the above engr.; but such an apparatus, from the small extent of the filtering surface, acts either slowly or imperfectly, and soon gets choked up. Filters of unsized paper are well suited for all liquids that are not of a corrosive or viscid nature, and are universally employed for filtering small quantities of liquids in the laboratory. A piece of the paper is taken of a size proportionate to the quantity of the liquid to be filtered, and is first doubled from corner to corner into a triangle (see engr. a), which is again doubled into a smaller triangle b, and the angular portion of the margin being rounded off with a pair of scissors c, it constitutes a paper cone, which is placed on a funnel of proportionate capacity, and is then nearly filled with the liquid. A piece of paper so cut, when laid flat upon the table, should be nearly circular. Filtering paper is now sold ready cut in circles of various sizes, which simply require doubling for use. Another method of forming a paper filter, preferred by some persons, is to double the paper once, as above, and then to fold it in a similar way to a fan, observing so to open it and lay it on the funnel that a sufficient interval be left between the two to permit of the free passage of the filtered liquid on its descent towards the receiver. The ‘plaited filter,’ as thus formed, is exceedingly useful for general purposes; it exposes the entire surface of the paper to the liquid, and allows filtration to proceed more rapidly than a ‘plain filter’ does. (See Fig. 3.)

Mr Rother takes objection to the ordinary plain paper filter employed in the laboratory, because of the superfluous fold which in two thicknesses lies under one half of the extended surface of the filter. He says the interposition of these two extra layers compels the liquid to pass through three thicknesses of paper on the half side of the extended filter, whilst the other half side presents only a single thickness. It is evident that the two hidden layers are a very appreciable impediment to the current, aside from the more important fact that the liquid will traverse this side less rapidly than the other, and thus occasion an imperfect washing of the precipitate, or at least prolong the operation beyond reasonable limits. Recognising these objections to the old filter, Mr Rother has invented a very simple modification of the plain filter which, whilst saving 50 per cent. of the paper, he states, removes all the defects of the old form. This new filter practically presents but a single thickness of paper to penetrate, at the same time preserving an even surface, equal in all other advantages to the plain filter.

The filtrations are said to be more rapid than with the usual form, and the absence of the superfluous half sheet admits of more rapid drying.

To make the new filter:——Cut the circular disk of filtering paper in two through the line of its diameter, take either half disk, and fold it across the line of the radius, then turn down the double edge of the cut side and fold it over several times——finally, run a hard smooth surface along the seam thus produced, to compress it, and spread the finished filter into an appropriate funnel, first moistening it with water before the liquid to be filtered is poured in.

In reference to funnels, it may be remarked that those employed for filtering rapidly should be deeply ribbed on the inside, or small rods of wood or glass, or pieces of straw, or quills, should be placed between them and the paper. The neck or tubular part of the funnel should, in like manner, be deeply ribbed or fluted on the outside, to permit of the free passage of the air, when it is placed in a narrow-mouthed bottle or receiver. When this is not the case, filtration proceeds but slowly, and the filtered liquid is apt to be driven up the outside of the neck of the funnel by the confined air, and to be continually hissing and flowing over the mouth of the vessel. The breadth of a funnel, to filter well, should be about three fourths its height, reckoning from the throat (a). When deeper, the paper is liable to be continually ruptured, from the pressure of the superincumbent fluid; and when shallower, filtration proceeds slowly, and an unnecessarily large surface of the liquid is exposed to the atmosphere, and is lost by evaporation. To lessen this as much as possible, the upper edge of the glass is frequently ground perfectly smooth, and a piece of smooth plate-glass is laid thereon. When paper filters are of large dimensions, or employed for aqueous fluids that rapidly soften the texture of the paper, or for collecting heavy powders, or metallic precipitates, it is usual to support them on linen or calico, to prevent them breaking. This is best done by folding the cloth up with the paper, and cutting the filter out of the two, in the same way as would be done with doubled paper, observing so to place it in the funnel that the paper and calico may remain close together, especially towards the bottom.

The filtration of small quantities of liquid, as in chemical experiments, may often be conveniently performed by merely placing the paper on the circular top of a recipient (see engr.), or on a ring of glass or earthenware laid on the top of any suitable vessel. A filter of this kind that will hold one fluid ounce will filter many ounces of some liquids in an hour.

Good filtering paper should contain no soluble matter, and should not give more than 1/250 to 1/230 of its weight of ashes. The soluble matter may be removed by washing it, first, with very dilute hydrochloric acid, and secondly, with distilled water.

The ‘Munktell’ Swedish filtering paper[301] is composed of flax fibres very much crushed and broken, and owes its value to the broken pieces of the fibres filling up the pores, and thus preventing solids from passing through the paper. Rhenish filtering paper is also made from flax, but in consequence of the more perfect condition of its fibres, is more porous than Munktell’s, and therefore inferior to it for filtering purposes. Another kind of Rhenish paper, also of flax, in which the fibres are much torn, is manufactured and is said to be a useful article, and to allow the rapid passage of fluids through it. The white filtering papers of English make have a small quantity of cotton mixed with the flax; and the fibres are much torn and crushed; hence they make serviceable filters.

[Footnote 301: Dr F. Mohr says that Swedish filtering paper is now undeserving its traditional reputation, and that it contains soluble alumina.]

The grey, circular cut filtering paper of varying sizes, of foreign make, as well as the grey sheet filtering paper of Dutch and English manufacture, contains a large quantity of wool, much of which is coloured; as well as jute and esparto grass, both of these latter in an unbleached state. The amount of ash in the Munktell paper has of late increased in quality.[302]

[Footnote 302: Greenish.]

For filtering a larger quantity of a liquid than can be conveniently managed with a funnel, and also for substances that are either too viscid or too much loaded with feculence to allow them to pass freely through paper, conical bags made of flannel, felt, tweeled cotton cloth or Canton flannel, linen or calico, and suspended to iron-hooks by rings or tapes, are commonly employed. The first two of the above substances are preferable for saccharine, mucilaginous, and acidulous liquors; the third for oily ones; and the remainder for tinctures, weak alkaline lyes, and similar solutions. These bags have the disadvantage of sucking up a considerable quantity of the fluid poured into them, and are therefore objectionable, except for large quantities, or when they are to be continued in actual use as filters for some time. On the large scale, a number of them are usually worked together, and are generally enclosed in cases to prevent evaporation, and to exclude dirt from the filtered liquor that trickles down their sides. These arrangements will be noticed further on.

A simple mode of filtering aqueous fluids, which are not injured by exposure to the air, is to draw them off from one vessel to another, by means of a number of threads of loosely twisted cotton or worsted, arranged in the form of a syphon. (See engr.) The little cotton rope at once performs the operations of decantation and filtration. This method is often convenient for sucking off the water from a small quantity of a precipitate.

For fuller information on the subject of laboratory filtration, the reader is referred to the following papers (which are too long for quotation here) in ‘The Chemical News’:——

“On a New Mode of Filtration,” by J. B. Cooke, May 30th, 1873; “Filtering Apparatus,” by John F. Kerr, February 6th, 1874; “Implements for Filtration,” by P. Casamajor, July 23rd, 1875, and 30th, 1875; Ibid, by W. Jago, February 4th, 1876; “On Rapid Filtration,” by E. C. H. Hildebrand, August 11th, 1876; also to ‘Journal of the Chemical Society,’ for papers on:——“Simple Suction arrangement for Rapid Filtering,” by C. Holthof, vol. xxxii, part 2, p. 508; “Employment of Compressed Air on Filtering Solutions,” by W. Leübe, vol. xxxii, part 1, p. 270.

When solid substances, as porous stone or earthenware, are used as the media for filtrations, vessels of metal, wood, or stone-ware, are employed to contain them and the supernatant liquid. In these cases the filtering medium is usually arranged as a shelf or diaphragm, and divides the vessel into two compartments; the upper one being intended to contain the dirty liquid, and the under one to receive the same when filtered. Such an apparatus is set in operation by merely filling the upper chamber, and may at any time be readily cleared out by reversing it, and passing clean water through it in an opposite direction. Small arrangements of this kind, intended to be screwed on to the water supply-pipe by either end, and which answer the purpose intended in the most satisfactory manner, have been manufactured and vended under the name of ‘REVERSIBLE’ or ‘SELF-CLEANING FILTERS,’ When pulverulent substances, as sand, coarsely powdered charcoal, &c., are employed, a similar arrangement is followed; but in this case the shelf or diaphragm must consist of any convenient substance pierced with numerous holes, over which must be placed, first a stratum of coarse pebbles, next some of a finer description, and on this a proper quantity of the sand, charcoal, or other medium. Over the whole should be placed another layer of pebbles, or a board or plate of metal or earthenware, pierced with a number of holes, to allow the liquid to be poured into the filter without disturbing its arrangement. Apparatus of this kind, of a permanent description, and arranged for filtering large quantities of liquids, are properly denominated ‘FILTERING MACHINES,’

Among the liquids usually submitted to filtration, the following may be mentioned as the principal——water, oils, syrups, tinctures, vegetable juices, infusions, and decoctions.

The filtration of water may now be considered. The water of our wells is presented by nature ready filtered to the hand of man, and often exhibits an admirable degree of transparency and purity. It acquires this state by percolating through the mineral strata of the earth, which deprives it of the organic matter it derives from the soil and subsoil, but, at the same time, it dissolves a portion of the saline and earthy media through which it passes, and hence acquires that peculiar ‘hardness’ which is constantly found in spring water. On the large scale, this natural system of filtration has been imitated by some of the commercial companies that supply our cities and towns with water. Extensive beds of sand and gravel have been employed, with variable success, as the filtering media; and were it not that filters gradually lose their porosity by the accumulation of the retained matter in their pores, such a method would be excellent. But the great expense of such filters precludes the possibility of frequently cleaning or renewing them, by which means they can alone be kept in an efficient state.

A filter which possesses the advantages of being easily and cheaply cleaned when dirty, and which frees water from mechanical impurities with immense rapidity, may be formed by placing a stratum of sponge between two perforated metallic plates, united by a central screw, and arranged in such a manner as to permit of the sponge being compressed to any required degree. Water, under gentle pressure, flows with such rapidity through the pores of compressed sponge, that it is said that a few square feet of this substance will perfectly filter several millions of gallons of water daily. This method of filtration has been made the subject of a patent, and has been favorably noticed by the legislature.

A few barrels or hogsheads of water may be easily filtered daily, by the arrangement represented in the engraving.

It is evident that when water is poured into the upper portion B of a vessel, so arranged, it will sink through the filter c, and pipe d, into the lower chamber C, and this filtration will go on as long as the supply continues, and water is drawn from the cock e. By uniting the cock e with a tank or casks, and by keeping the upper portion B always full by means of a ball-cock, a considerable quantity of water may be thus filtered. The advantage of this plan is, that the filter c can be always readily got at, and easily cleaned or renewed.

For filtering water on the small scale, and for domestic use, ‘alcarazzas,’ diaphragms of porous earthenware and filtering-stone and layers of sand and charcoal, &c., already referred to, are commonly employed as filtering media. The filtering power of porous stone or earthenware may be greatly increased by adopting the arrangement represented in the margin, which consists in making the diaphragm of the shape of a disc (d), supporting plates of the same material, the whole forming but one piece. The ‘PLATYLITHIC WATER-FILTERS,’ which are formed of porous stone cut on this plan, present 200 to 300 square inches of filtering surface. A cheap, useful form of portable filter, is the following, given in the ‘Proceedings of the British Association,’ “Take any common vessel, perforated below, such as a flower-pot, fill the lower portion with coarse pebbles, over which place a layer of finer ones, and on these a layer of clean coarse sand. On the top of this a piece of burnt clay, perforated with small holes, should be put, and on this again a stratum of three or four inches thick, of well burnt pounded animal charcoal. A filter thus formed will last a considerable time, and will be found particularly useful in removing noxious and putrescent substances held in solution by water.”[303] The ‘PORTABLE-FILTERS,’ set up in stone-ware, that are commonly sold in the shops, contain a stratum of sand, or coarsely-powdered charcoal;[304] before, however, having access to this, the water has to pass through a sponge, to remove the coarser portion of the impurities. Among the many new kinds of portable filters now offered for sale, which claim special notice, are the following, viz.——

[Footnote 303: A very similar filter to this was invented by the late Mr George Robins, the celebrated auctioneer. Mr Robins’ filter differed from the above in having a lid with a hole in the centre in which a sponge was placed; an arrangement which by keeping back the suspended matter contained in the water, prevented the filter from being clogged up.]

[Footnote 304: Frankland and Byrne have shown that animal is greatly superior to vegetable charcoal when employed for water-filters.]

=1.= The MOULDED CARBON FILTER, consisting of a spherical or cylindrical vessel formed of compressed carbon.

=2.= The SILICATED CARBON FILTER, in which the medium is a compact substance, formed of animal charcoal and the ashes of Boghead coal.

Of the many forms of this filter, we may mention the ‘Syphon Filter for Travellers,’ by means of which wholesome water may be drunk from any pond or stream by simply immersing the filter therein and drawing the water through the tube by suction. Of the ‘Silicated Carbon Filter,’ Professor Wanklyn says that it will render river water containing a considerable amount of free and albuminoid ammonia as pure as deep spring water.

=3.= BISCHOFF’S PATENT SPONGY-IRON FILTER.——This differs from one invented many years ago by Dr Medlock, in bringing the water into contact with spongy iron instead of thin iron rods, and thus effecting filtration much more rapidly. Medlock believed that the iron rods brought about the oxidation of the nitrogenous organic matter and its consequent conversion into nitrites and nitrates. Bischoff states that he has experimentally investigated the properties of spongy iron, and finds that it——

a. Decomposes even distilled water, which has been previously boiled.

b. That it reduces nitric acid to ammonia.

c. That the amounts of organic nitrogen and albuminoid ammonia are always much reduced after filtration through spongy iron.

d. That a minute quantity of iron is dissolved by the carbonic acid contained in the water, ferrous bicarbonate being formed. The latter being soon oxidised and precipitated is easily removed by filtration.

e. That the action of spongy iron on impure water is two fold, viz. chemical and mechanical. “The chemical action is clearly indicated by the decomposition of water. The readiest explanation for the decomposition of water, is, the intimate contact between the electro-positive and electro-negative bodies, such as metallic iron and carbon, or even metallic iron and any ferric oxide, which has escaped reduction, or which has been reoxidised by exposure to air or water; and it may well be supposed that, consequent to the galvanic current thus produced, the atmospheric oxygen dissolved in water is ozonised, and caused to act as a powerful oxidising agent in organic matter.”

We extract the tables on the next page from the Sixth Report of the Royal Commission on Rivers’ Pollution. The Commissioners, we may here state, speak in high terms of this filter.

=4.= The so-called MAGNETIC CARBIDE OF IRON FILTER. In this, the filtering material is said to be prepared by heating hæmatite with sawdust. This filter has a good repute.

⁂ The Royal Commission “on Rivers Pollution” strongly recommend filters of animal charcoal to be recharged every three to six months, “since they found that myriads of minute worms were developed in the animal charcoal, and passed out with the water when these filters were used for Thames water, and when the charcoal was not renewed at sufficiently short intervals.”

Cleansing of Filters.——Every two or three months (according to the kind of water) air should be blown through, and if the charcoal be in the block form it should be brushed. Then four to six ounces of the pharmacopœial solution of potassium permanganate, or twenty to thirty grains of the solid permanganate in a quart of distilled water, and ten drops of strong sulphuric acid, should be poured through, and subsequently a quarter to half an ounce of pure hydrochloric acid in two to four gallons of distilled water. This plan would be useful on foreign stations where the filter cannot be sent home, or taken to pieces; if it can be taken to pieces, the charcoal should be spread out in a thin layer, and exposed for some time to air or sun, or heated in an oven.

The Average Composition of Thames Water, before and after Filtration through Spongy Iron.

------------------+---------------------------------------------------------- | Dissolved Matters. |---------+-------+---------+--------+-----------+--------- Description. | Total |Organic| Organic |Ammonia.| Nitrogen, | Total | solid |carbon.|nitrogen.| |as nitrates|combined |impurity.| | | | and |nitrogen. | | | | | nitrites. | ------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+-----------+--------- As delivered from | | | | | | Chelsea | | | | | | Waterworks | 28·04 | ·198 | ·042 | ·0009 | ·117 | ·220 The same water | | | | | | filtered through | | | | | | spongy iron | 16·8 | ·069 | ·018 | ·019 | ·018 | ·049 ------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+-----------+--------- The mean of the | | | | | | 14th and 15th | | | | | | taken after the | | | | | | spongy iron | | | | | | filter had been | | | | | | in operation in | | | | | | the Rivers | | | | | | Commission | | | | | | Laboratory for | | | | | | upwards of eight | | | | | | months.[305] As | | | | | | supplied from | | | | | | Waterworks | 24·47 | ·170 | ·055 | ·001 | ·098 | ·154 After filtration | | | | | | through spongy | | | | | | iron | 14·26 | ·083 | ·016 | 0 | 0 | ·016 ------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+-----------+---------

---------------+------------------------------------------------------------- | Dissolved Matters. +---------+---------+-------------------------------+--------- | | | Hardness. | | | +----------+----------+---------+ Description. |Previous |Chlorine.|Temporary.|Permanent.| Total. | No. of | Sewage | | | | | samples |or Animal| | | | |analysed. |contamin-| | | | | | ation. | | | | | ---------------+---------+---------+----------+----------+---------+--------- As delivered | | | | | | from Chelsea | | | | | | Waterworks | 1·464 | 2·01 | 15·5 | 6·2 | 21·7 | 15 The same | | | | | | filtered | | | | | | through | | | | | | spongy iron | ·177 | 2·00 | 6·8 | 4·9 | 11·7 | 15 ---------------+---------+---------+----------+----------+---------+--------- The mean of the| | | | |Analysis | 14th and 15th | | | | | of the | samples taken | | | | | 15th | after the | | | | | sample. | spongy iron | | | | | | filters had | | | | | | been in | | | | | | operation in | | | | | | the Rivers | | | | | | Commission | | | | | | Laboratory for| | | | | | upwards of | | | | | | eight | | | | | | months.[305] As | | | | | supplied from | | | | | | Waterworks | ·675 | 1·95 | ——— | ——— | 19·1 | ——— After | | | | | | filtration | | | | | | through spongy| | | | | | iron | 0 | 1·95 | ——— | ——— | 9·6 | ——— ---------------+---------+---------+----------+----------+---------+---------

[Footnote 305: The figures demonstrate that the purifying action of spongy iron, if at all altered, has been increased, as regards the most important impurities of water, viz., nitrogenous matters and hardness.]

If sponges are at all used, they should be removed from time to time, and thoroughly washed in hot water.[306]

[Footnote 306: Parkes ‘Practical Hygiene.’]

Oils are filtered, on the small scale, through cotton-wool, or unsized paper, arranged in a funnel; and on the large scale, through long bags, made of tweeled cotton-cloth (Canton flannel). These bags are usually made about 12 or 15 inches in diameter, and from 4 to 8 feet long (see engr.), and are inclosed in bottomless casings, or bags of coarse canvas, about 5 to 6 or 8 inches in diameter, for the purpose of condensing a great extent of filtering surface into the smallest possible space. A number of these double bags (from 1 to 50 or 60) are connected with corresponding holes in the bottom of a block-tin or tinned-copper cistern, into which the oil to be filtered is poured. The mode in which these bags are fastened to the cistern is of the utmost importance, as on the joint being close and secure depends the integrity of the apparatus. Three methods of doing this are figured in the engraving, which, with the references, will explain themselves, the same letters referring to the same parts of each.

The second of the above arrangements is the least expensive, and certainly the most convenient in practice; and when the cylinder l fits the hole closely (allowing for the bag), is as safe, or safer, than an ordinary screw.

The bags are surrounded by a wooden screen fitted up with doors for the purpose of keeping off the dust; and the bottom of the apartment is furnished with large steam-pipes, by which a proper temperature may be kept up in cold weather. The use of heat should, however, never be had recourse to when it can be avoided, as although it vastly increases the rate of filtration, the oil so filtered is more apt to become opaque in cold weather than when the process is conducted at the natural temperature of the atmosphere. This is particularly the case with castor oil and sperm oil. In the United States of America, where the latter is consumed in enormous quantities for illumination, the best is always ‘winter strained,’ as it is popularly called. In practice, it is more convenient to have a number of small cisterns at work (say 50 or 100 galls. each), than one or two larger ones, as any accident that may occur is more easily remedied, and that without stopping the whole operation.

When cotton-cloth bags are employed without being ‘creased,’ or enclosed in others of canvas, they should not be longer than about 3 or 4 feet, and not wider than about 5 or 6 inches when filled. When larger they are dangerous.

A convenient method of filtering a single cask of oil is, to insert the pipe of a two-way patent filter into the cork-hole, by which means the whole will be filtered as drawn off, without any trouble on the part of the operator. This filter consists of a porous bag stretched over a perforated metallic vessel, nearly the shape and size of the exterior casing, and its edge is tightly screwed between the sides and bottom of the latter, so as to be quite water-tight. The cock communicates with the interior of the perforated plate and filter, and the supply-pipe with the exterior. By this means the interior chamber, which occupies 5/6ths of the vessel, rapidly fills with filtered oil, and continues full as long as any liquor remains in the cask. This arrangement is also well adapted to the filtration of wines, beer, cordials, porter, and various other liquors. It is unequalled in simplicity and usefulness. The same filter may be removed from cask to cask, with the facility of a common cock.

The filtration of SYRUPS is now generally effected on the large scale by passing them through the ‘CREASED BAG FILTER’ just described. On the small scale, as employed by confectioners and druggists, they are usually passed through CONICAL FLANNEL BAGS. (See page 726.) The filtration of thick syrups is, however, attended with some difficulty, and it is therefore a good plan to filter them in a somewhat dilute state, and afterwards to reduce them to a proper consistence by evaporation in clean vessels of tinned copper, by steam heat. Syrups, when filtered in a heated state, run well for a time, but the pores of the fabric rapidly get choked, from the thickening of the syrup and partial crystallization of the sugar, occasioned by the evaporation of the aqueous portion from the surface of the bag. This may be partially prevented by enclosing the bag in a metallic casing. On the whole clarification is preferable for syrups to filtration on the small scale. They need only be well beaten up while cold with a little white of egg, and then heated; a scum rises, which must be removed as soon as it becomes consistent, and the skimming continued until the liquid becomes clear. Any floating portions of scum that may have escaped notice are easily removed by running the syrup through a coarse flannel strainer, whilst hot. The most extensive application of the process of filtration in the arts is in the refining of sugars.

TINCTURES AND DILUTE SPIRITS are usually filtered, on the small scale, through BIBULOUS or UNSIZED PAPER placed on a funnel; and on the large scale, through thin and fine COTTON BAGS. In general, however, tinctures clarify themselves by the subsidence of the suspended matter, when allowed to repose for a few days. Hence it is the bottoms alone that require filtering; the supernatant clear portion need only be run through a small hair sieve, a piece of tow or cotton placed in the throat of a funnel, or some other coarse medium, to remove any floating substances, as pieces of straw, &c. Spirits which are largely loaded with essential oil, as those of ANISEED, &c., run rapidly through paper or calico, but usually require the addition of a spoonful or two of magnesia before they will flow quite clear. When possible, tinctures, spirits, and all similar volatile fluids, are better and more economically cleared by subsidence or clarification than by filtration, as, in the latter way, a portion is lost by evaporation, and the strength of the liquid is thereby altered.

Vegetable juices should be allowed to deposit their feculous portion before filtration. The supernatant liquid will then be often found quite clear. It is only when this is not the case that filtration should be had recourse to. A small quantity may be filtered through coarse or woollen filtering paper, supported on a piece of coarse calico placed on a funnel; when the quantity is large, one of the CONICAL BAGS before described should be employed. The bottoms from which the clear portion has been decanted should be placed on a separate filter, or else not added until the whole of the other portion has drained through. Vegetable juices are often rendered clear by simply heating them to about 180° or 200° Fahr., by which their albumen is coagulated; they are also frequently clarified by the addition of a little white of egg and heat, in the same way as syrups. Many of them (as those of hemlock, henbane, aconite, &c.) are greatly injured by heat, and must consequently be filtered, or only simply decanted after repose. In all cases they should be exposed to the air as little as possible, as they rapidly suffer decomposition.

Vegetable infusions and decoctions may be cleared by defecation followed by filtration. The conical bags of flannel before described are usually employed for this purpose. When the liquid is to be evaporated to an extract, they are commonly suspended by a hook over the evaporating pan. A convenient method of straining these fluids, practised in the laboratory, is to stretch a square of flannel on a frame or ‘horse,’ securing it at the corners by pieces of string. (See engr.) Such a frame, laid across the mouth of a pan, is more easily fed with fresh liquid than a bag, whose mouth is 40 or 50 inches higher. The same purpose, for small quantities of liquid, is effected by laying the flannel across the mouth of a coarse hair sieve. The concentrated infusions and decoctions being usually weak tinctures, may be filtered in the same way as the latter. (See above.) Many vegetable solutions, that from the viscidity of the suspended matter can scarcely be filtered, may be readily clarified with white of egg in the cold, or pass the filter rapidly if a very small quantity of acetic, tartaric, sulphuric, or other strong acid, is previously added.

Corrosive liquids, as the STRONG ACIDS, are filtered through powdered glass, or SILICEOUS SAND, supported on pebbles in the throat of a glass funnel, or through asbestos or gun-cotton placed in the same manner. Charcoal has also been employed for the same purpose, but is not fit for some acids. Strong caustic alkaline lyes are also filtered through powdered glass or sand. Weak alkaline lyes may be filtered through fine calico, stretched across the mouth of a funnel. Many corrosive liquids, as solution of potassa, &c., require to be excluded from the air during filtration. The simplest apparatus that can be employed for this purpose is that figured in the margin:——(a) is a globular bottle fitted with the ground stopper (d), and having a perforated neck (f) ground to the bottle (b); (c) is a small tube, wrapped round with as much asbestos, linen, or calico, as is required to make it fit the under neck of the bottle through which it passes. The tube (c) may also be fixed by placing pebbles and powdered glass or sand round it, as before mentioned. For use, the solution to be filtered is poured into the bottle (a) nearly as high as the top of the tube (c), and the stopper is replaced. The liquid then descends into (b), and a similar quantity of air passes up the tube into (a). LIQUOR POTASSÆ may be always obtained fine by depuration in close vessels, when the sediment of lime only need be filtered, which may be effected with calico fixed across the mouth of a funnel.

When a precipitate, or the suspended matter in a liquid, is the object of the filtration, the filter should be of such a nature that the powder may be easily separated from it, when dry, and that with the least loss possible. Linen filters are for this reason preferable for large quantities, and those of smooth bibulous paper for small ones. The powder should be washed down the sides of the filter, and collected, by means of a small stream of water, in one spot at the bottom, assisting the operation with a camel-hair pencil; and, when the whole is dry, it should be swept off the paper or cloth with a similar pencil or brush, and not removed by a knife, as is commonly done, when it can be possibly avoided.

The ‘first runnings’ of liquid from a filter are commonly foul, and are pumped back or returned until the fluid runs perfectly limpid and transparent, when it is ‘turned into’ the ‘filtered liquor cistern,’ or proper receiver. In many cases the liquid does not readily become transparent by simply passing through the filter; hence has arisen the use of FILTERING POWDERS, or substances which rapidly choke up the pores of the media in a sufficient degree to make the fluid pass clear. In the employment of these powders care should be taken that they are not in too fine a state of division, nor used in larger quantities than are absolutely necessary, as they are apt to choke up the filter, and to absorb a large quantity of the liquid. The less filtering powder used, the more rapid will be the progress of the filtration, and the longer will be the period during which the apparatus will continue in effective action. For some liquids these substances are employed for the double purpose of decolouring or whitening, as well as rendering them transparent. In such cases it is preferable first to pass the fluid through a layer of the substance in coarse powder, from which it will ‘run’ but slightly contaminated into the filter; or, if the powder is mixed with the whole body of the liquid, as in bleaching almond oil, &c., to pass the mixture through some coarser medium to remove the cruder portion before allowing it to run into the filter. Another plan is, after long agitation and subsequent repose, to decant the clearer portion from the grosser sediment, and to employ separate filters for the two. Granulated animal charcoal is used according to the first method, to decolour syrups, oils, &c.; and filtering powder by the second and third, to remove a portion of the colour, and to clarify castor and other oils. The common plan of mixing large quantities of filtering powder with castor oil, and throwing the whole into the filter, as adopted by the druggists, is injudicious. When simple filtration is required, it is better to use little or no powder, and to continue returning the oil that ‘runs’ through, until, by the swelling of the fibres of the filter bags, it flows quite clear. By this plan the same filters may be used for a long period of time (for many years), and will continue to work well; whilst, by the usual method, they rapidly decline in power, and soon deliver their contents slowly, and after a short time scarcely at all.

It is often of great advantage to render a filter ‘self-acting,’ or to construct it in such a way that it may ‘feed itself,’ so that it may continue full and at work without the constant attention of the operator. On the small scale, this may be readily effected on the principle of the common fountain lamp (see engr.); and on the large scale, by placing the vessel containing the unfiltered liquid on a higher level than the filter, and by having the end of the supply-pipe fitted with a ball-cock, to keep the liquid in the filter constantly at the same height.

The rapidity of filtration depends upon——the porosity of the filtering medium——the extent of the filtering surface——the relative viscidity or mobility of the filtering liquid——the pressure or force by which the liquid is impelled through the pores of the filter, and——the porosity and fineness of the substances it holds in suspension. The most efficient filter is produced when the first two or the first three are so graduated to the others that liquid filters rapidly, and is at the same time rendered perfectly transparent.

In the common method of filtration no pressure is exerted beyond that of the weight of the column of the liquid resting on the filtering medium, but in some cases additional pressure is employed. This is had recourse to for the purpose of producing a more rapid filtration, and more especially for filtering liquids that, from their viscidity, will scarcely pass through the pores of substances sufficiently fine to remove their impurities in the ordinary way.

One of the easiest means of employing pressure in filtration is to increase the height of the column of the filtering liquid. From the peculiar properties of fluids, by which they transmit pressure in an equal degree in all directions, this column need not be of equal diameter throughout, but may be conveniently contracted to the size of a small pipe, as in the accompanying engraving, which represents a small filter on this construction at work. (a) Is the funnel or reservoir of foul liquid; (b) a small pipe conveying the liquid to the filter; (c c) a chamber, of which the upper portion (d) is filled with the descending liquid, and the lower portion (e) with the filtering media; (i i) are screws by which the bottom plate is fastened on, which plate is removed to clean out or renew the filter. For use, the cocks (k) and (l) are closed, and the liquid poured into the funnel (a); the cock (k) is next opened, and, in a few minutes after, the cock (l), when an uninterrupted flow of filtered liquor will be obtained as long as any fluid remains in the funnel (a) and the tube (b). The length of the tube determines the degree of pressure. Care must be taken first to pass the foul liquid through a hair sieve, or some other strainer, to remove any substance that might choke up the pipe (b).

Another method of employing pressure in filtration is the withdrawal of the air from the receiving vessel, as in the vacuum filter, by which a pressure of about 14-1/2 lbs. to the square inch becomes exerted on the surface of the liquid by the atmosphere. The vacuum in the receiving vessel may be produced by the air-pump, by steam, or by the Bunsen or Sprengel pump.

A commoner method of applying pressure than either of those already mentioned is to condense the air over the surface of the liquid by means of a forcing-pump, or by steam.

On the small scale, pressure may be applied to filtration by means of a syphon, whose shorter leg has its mouth blown into the shape of a bell or funnel, over which filtering paper or fine calico may be stretched.

The application of pressure to filtration is not always advantageous, and beyond a certain limit is generally attended with inconvenience, if not with absolute disadvantage. It is found in practice that fluids under pressure take a longer period to run clear than without pressure, and that ruptures of the media more frequently take place in the former case, or with pressure, than in the latter. Great pressure is in no case advantageous.

The filters already noticed are those that act by the fluid descending through the media; but in some cases the reverse method is employed, and the liquid filters upwards, instead of downwards. These are called ascending filters, and are often preferable to those on the descending principle, because the suspended matters that require removal by filtration usually sink, and thus a portion escapes being forced into the pores of the filter. They are also more convenient when pressure is employed. The construction depends upon the same principles as the common filter, and merely requires that the feeding vessel should be higher than the upper surface of the filtering media. OILS are conveniently filtered in this way, because of their little specific gravity. By fixing a small filter on this principle into the head of a cask, and pouring in water through a funnel, whose neck reaches nearly to the bottom of the cask, the oil will float up and pass the filter, leaving the sediment behind. In cold weather hot water may be employed.

In some cases the upward and downward systems of filtration are united in the same apparatus, and this plan is advantageous where the space for operating is limited. For this purpose it is merely necessary to connect the bottom of an ascending filter with the top of a descending one, or the reverse; the proper pressure being in either case applied.

=Filtration, the Laws of.= The ‘Revue Universelle des Mines,’ 1874, pp. 469, 551 contains a paper by M. Paul Havre recording his investigations on the rapidity of the filtration of water through sand, wool, &c., which resulted in ascertaining and measuring the influences which may modify the flow of water. In all cases of filtration, the influences which are exerted are:——the pressure and temperature of the water, the thickness of the filtering medium, compression in the case of fibrous filters, the size of the grains and their mixture in the case of a filtering medium analogous to sand. The influence of obstruction, due to the dirtiness of the filter, depends on circumstances too variable to be taken into account. The delivery of a filter per square mètre per 24 hours is equal to two cubic mètres multiplied by the pressure of water in mètres, divided by the thickness of the filtering medium in mètres. An application of this formula is made to existing filter beds, including those at Southwark and at the Chelsea waterworks.

The first experiments for ascertaining the influence of a head of water on the delivery led to the following results:——The delivery increases in a higher ratio than the square root of the pressure, due to the height (TORRECELLI’S LAW); the delivery increases in direct ratio to the height of the column of water above the filter, admitting a previous initial delivery, due solely to the pressure of water above the filter; the co-efficient of the increase of delivery is constant, and in this case of a filtering substance 8·662 inches (22 centimètres) thick, is equal to 0·106 pint (6 centilitres) for sand to 0·528 pint (30 centilitres) for compressed wool, and to 0·792 pints (45 centilitres) for wool only slightly compressed.

The subsequent experiments were made with graduated transparent cylinders, 3·28 feet (1 mètre) high, with the ends perfectly level, the filtering substances being kept in place by a thick double cloth tied tightly under the bottom of the tube. This apparatus presented no other obstacle to the running of the water than the layer of filtering substance; it permitted experiments to be made at all temperatures, and the thickness of the filtering medium to be measured exactly.

In these experiments sand is ‘taken as the type of pulverulent substances,’ but an unexpected difficulty was encountered in the settling or partial agglomeration of the large and small grains of the unsifted sand, thus diminishing the delivery of water to one half, one third, and ultimately to one fifth of its previous volume. This led to the adoption of sand——the grains of which were uniform in size, and to the discovery of the fact that, other tissues being equal, the resistance of filtration is constant when the sand is coarse, when the grains of fine sand are of nearly equal size, and when there is but little fine sand mixed with the coarse. From experiments in filtering through a layer of coarse sand approximately 4 inches (10 centimètres) thick, it was found that the higher the temperature the more rapid was the delivery, and by filtering through a layer of coarser sand 11·8 inches (30 centimètres) thick, the conclusion was arrived at that the temperature exerts an influence in proportion to the thickness of the layer.

See AIR-PUMP, BUNSEN’S WATER-AIR PUMP; CLARIFICATION; DEFECATION; FININGS, &c.

=FI′NINGS.= Substances used by publicans, brewers, wine merchants, &c., to clarify their liquors.

Prep. 1. (BREWER’S FININGS; COOPER’S F.) Isinglass (finely shredded), 1 lb., and sour beer or cider or vinegar, 3 or 4 pints, are macerated together, and more of the sour liquor added as the isinglass swells, until about a gallon has been used, agitation with a whisk or a small bundle of twigs being occasionally had recourse to, for the purpose of promoting the solution. As soon as the whole of the isinglass is dissolved, the mixture is reduced to the consistence of thin syrup, with weak mild beer, or cider, or any other liquid that the finings are intended for. The whole is next strained through a tammy cloth or a hair sieve, and at once reduced to a proper state of dilution, by the addition of more liquor. Product, 6-1/2 to 7 galls. “A pound of good isinglass will make about 12 galls. of finings.” (Ure.) Used to clarify fermented liquors, especially beer. 1 to 1-1/2 pint is the usual dose for a barrel of ale or porter; and a quart for a hogshead of cider or wine.

2. (SPIRIT FININGS.)——a. Alum (ord. cryst.), 1 lb.; powder, and divide it into 12 equal portions, which are to be separately wrapped in blue paper, and marked No. 1. Next take of carbonate of soda (sesquicarbonate of the shops), 6 oz.; divide this as the last, wrap it in white paper, and mark each parcel No. 2. Keeps dry anywhere.

b. From alum, 1 lb.; salt of tartar (dry), 1/4 lb.; proceed as before. The white papers containing the salt of tartar must be kept in a dry, well-corked, wide-mouthed bottle or jar. Both of the last two are used to clarify gin and cordials. The contents of one of the blue papers are dissolved in about a pint of hot water, and the resulting solution is well ‘rummaged up’ with the liquor. A solution of the contents of one of the white papers, in about 1/2 pint of hot water, is then added, and the agitation continued for some minutes longer; after which the cask is ‘bunged’ close and the whole allowed to repose until the next day. This is sufficient for a barrel (say 30 to 36 galls.), but many persons use double the quantity. The effect is not only to clarify, but also to ‘blanch’ the liquor.

Obs. Good liquors, either fermented or spirituous, need no artificial ‘fining,’ as they always clarify themselves by repose. With those, however, which are out of ‘condition,’ or of inferior quality, it is often necessary, as, without such a proceeding, they remain unsaleable. This is particularly the case with malt liquor. “Attempts to clarify it in the cask seldom fail to do harm. The only thing that can be used with advantage for fining foul or muddy beer is isinglass.” (Ure.) The disadvantages resulting from the artificial clarification of fermented liquors are——that they do not afterwards ‘stand well on draught,’ that much of the conservative astringent matter which they contain is precipitated with the ‘finings,’ that their piquancy and flavour is more or less diminished, and that they are more than usually liable to become flat and vapid, whether in cask or bottle. The larger the proportion of ‘finings’ used, the more marked are their injurious effects, and the shorter the interval which elapses before the accession of the several symptoms referred to. We have seen the most disastrous consequences follow the injudicious use of ‘finings,’ more especially in respect to those liquors in which a certain amount of piquancy, astringency, and briskness, is an essential condition. In one instance which came under our notice upwards of 30 barrels of ‘underground’ (a very strong old ale) was thus reduced in value to less than 1-3rd its original cost; and in another, a large bottled stock of the ‘finest old Burton’ was found to be utterly unsaleable. In both cases the ‘spoiled liquor’ was got rid of by mixing it in and selling it with 3d. and 4d. beer.

Liquors which ‘refuse to fine’ or become clear, when treated with ‘finings’ in the usual manner, are called ‘stubborn’ by coopers and cellarmen. See BREWING, GIN, MALT, LIQUORS, WINES, &c.

=FIRE.= The calamities resulting from this destructive agent are of such frequent occurrence, as to justly claim a notice of the subject here. The causes of fires are numerous, and of a varied character, and, in most instances, difficult to determine, because it is the interest of those concerned to suppress all evidence connected with the matter. Accident, that convenient word given to the imaginary hack to which so many fires are referred, if truthfully interpreted, will, in general, be found to be equivalent to carelessness, recklessness, or guilt. We believe that there are few fires which have happened that might not have been prevented by the exercise of common prudence, and that a vast number have been caused by direct negligence, arising from sheer laziness and indifference, to use no harsher terms. As familiar instances, may be mentioned——allowing sparks to fall on the ground and remain there without extinguishing them; carrying a naked candle into rooms containing inflammable substances; smoking carelessly and in dangerous places, as workshops, warehouses, on shipboard, &c.; keeping instantaneous light matches in improper places, and neglecting to pick up those that may happen to fall on the ground, &c. &c. The list might easily be extended, but we believe every reflecting reader can do so for himself. The great increase in the number of fires since the introduction of lucifer matches, and the almost general use of tobacco, cannot fail to have attracted the attention of every one. The danger of matches falling about might be avoided by the use of those which can only be ignited by rubbing them on the prepared surface of the box. These ‘safety matches’ are coming into general use, and must eventually supersede all the more dangerous kinds.

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Cooley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades..., Sixth Edition, Volume I (part 8 of 10)