Cooley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades..., Sixth Edition, Volume I (part 4 of 10)

Cooley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades..., Sixth Edition, Volume I (part 4 of 10)

Classif., Causes, &c. It is either local, as in the case of a limb which is small, imperfectly developed, or withered; or general, affecting the whole body. GEN′ERAL ATROPHY appears to depend on deficient nutrition, arising from a want of due balance between the functions of assimilation and absorption, or from profuse evacuations draining off the materials necessary for the support of the body. In the former case only may it be regarded as an independent disease. LO′CAL ATROPHY commonly arises from some cause which lessens the normal circulation of blood in the part; or from a diminution of the nervous influence, as in paralysis. General atrophy is most frequent in infancy, childhood, and old age. In the first two it may be often traced to bad nursing, worms, or a scrofulous taint; and not unfrequently to continually inhaling impure or damp air. In adults, the causes are impaired digestion and imperfect action of the chyliferous organs, and sometimes diseased action of the liver. In many cases it results from the use of tobacco.

Treatm. This consists in a close attention to diet (which should be liberal and nutritious), exercise, clothing, ventilation, warmth, &c., with gentle stimulants, and chalybeate tonics where not contra-indicated; and, in the case of adults, the moderate use of pure generous wine or malt-liquor. Among special remedies, both in this disease and anæmia, may be mentioned pure sweet cod-liver oil, which seldom fails to arrest or greatly retard the progress of the disease, and in very many cases effect an entire cure. When this affection is symptomatic of any other disease, as worms, stomach or liver complaints, &c., the removal of the latter must of course be first attempted. See ANÆMIA, CHLOROSIS, TABES, &c.

=ATRO′′PIA= (trōpe′y′ă). C_{34}H_{23}NO_{6}. [L.; B. P.] Syn. AT′ROPINE (-pin; sometimes atro′pĭne‡), Eng., Fr.; ATROPI′NA, ATRO′′PIUM*, L. An alkaloid discovered by Brandes in at′ropa belladon′na or deadly nightshade.

Prep. 1. (B. P. Process.) Take of belladonna-root, recently dried, and in coarse powder, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 10 pints; slaked lime, 1 oz.; diluted sulphuric acid, carbonate of potash, of each a sufficiency; chloroform, 3 fl. oz.; purified animal charcoal, a sufficiency; distilled water, 10 fl. oz. Macerate the root in 4 pints of the spirit, for 24 hours, with frequent stirring. Transfer to a displacement apparatus, and exhaust the root with the remainder of the spirit by slow percolation. Add the lime to the tincture placed in a bottle, and shake them occasionally several times. Filter, add the diluted sulphuric acid in very feeble excess to the filtrate, and filter again. Distil off three fourths of the spirit, add to the residue the distilled water, evaporate at a gentle heat, but as rapidly as possible, until the liquor is reduced to one third of its volume and no longer smells of alcohol; then let it cool. Add very cautiously, with constant stirring, a solution of carbonate of potash so as nearly to neutralise the acid, care, however, being taken that an excess is not used. Set to rest for six hours, then filter, and add carbonate of potash in such quantity that the liquid shall acquire a decided alkaline reaction. Place in a bottle with the chloroform; mix well by frequently repeated brisk agitation, and pour the mixed liquids into a funnel furnished with a glass stop-cock. When the chloroform has subsided, draw it off by the stop-cock, and distil it on a water-bath from a retort connected with a condenser. Dissolve the residue in warm rectified spirit; digest the solution with a little animal charcoal: filter, evaporate, and cool until colourless crystals are obtained.

2. Expressed juice of belladonna is evaporated over a water-bath to the consistence of an extract, and then triturated in a marble or porcelain mortar with a strong solution of caustic potassa; the resulting mass is digested and well agitated for some time, at the temperature of 75° to 80° Fahr., with benzole, q. s.; and, after repose, the benzole-solution is carefully separated, and its volatile hydrocarbon is distilled off by the heat of a water-bath; the residuum in the retort is now exhausted with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and the resulting ‘acid-solution,’ after filtration, precipitated with carbonate of soda; the precipitate is crude ATROPIA, which is collected on a filter, pressed between folds of bibulous paper, and dried; after which it is purified by one or more re-solutions, in alcohol, and crystallisations, which may or may not be modified in the manner noticed. The proportion of potassa should be about 1 dr. to every quart of the expressed juice. An excellent and economical process. The product is 0·3 to 4% of the weight of the plant from which the juice has been obtained.

3. (Mein and Liebig.) Belladonna-root (fresh-dried and coarsely powdered) is exhausted by alcohol (sp. gr. 0·822); slaked lime (1 part for every 24 of the dried root employed) is then added to the tincture, and the whole digested, with agitation, for 24 hours; sulphuric acid is next added, drop by drop, to slight excess, and, after filtration, rather more than one half the spirit is removed by distillation; a little water is now added to the residue, and the remainder of the alcohol evaporated as quickly as possible by a gentle heat; after again filtering, the liquid is reduced by further evaporation to the 1/12th part of the weight of the root employed, and a concentrated solution of potassa dropped into the cold liquid (to throw down a dark greyish-brown matter), carefully avoiding excess or rendering the liquid in the slightest degree alkaline; in a few hours the liquid is again filtered, and carbonate of potassa added as long as a precipitate (ATROPIA) falls; after a further interval of from 12 to 24 hours, this precipitate is collected and drained in a filter, and after pressure between folds of blotting-paper, dried by a very gentle heat. It is purified by making it into a paste with water, again squeezing it between the folds of blotting-paper, drying it, re-dissolving it in 5 times its weight of alcohol, decolouring it with pure animal charcoal, distilling off greater part of the alcohol, and evaporation and crystallisation by a very gentle heat; or only about one half the spirit is distilled off, and 3 or 4 times its volume of water gradually agitated with it, the resulting milky liquid being then heated to boiling, and allowed to cool very slowly, when nearly the whole of the ATROPIA crystallises out after a few hours. The same may be effected by at once agitating 6 or 8 volumes of water with the alcoholic solution, and setting aside the mixture for 12 to 24 hours, by which time the crystallisation will be completed. This process originated with Soubeiran, was improved by Mein, and subsequently, with slight modifications, adopted by Liebig. The product is about 0·3% of the weight of root operated on.

4. (Bouchardat and Cooper.) The filtered tincture is precipitated with iodine dissolved in an aqueous solution of iodide of potassium, the resulting ioduretted hydriodate of atropia, decomposed by zinc-and-water, the metallic oxide separated by means of carbonate of potassa, and the alkaloid thus obtained dissolved in alcohol and crystallised.

5. (Mr Luxton.) The dry leaves of belladonna are gently boiled for 2 hours in distilled water just sufficient to cover them, and the resulting decoction is strained through a coarse cloth into a large precipitating jar; this process is repeated with a second quantity of distilled water, and the two decoctions mixed; concentrated sulphuric acid is now added in the proportion of 2 dr. to every pound of leaves operated on, by which the vegetable albumen of the decoction is precipitated, and the liquid becomes clear and sherry-coloured; the clear liquor is now decanted or syphoned off, and, if necessary, filtered; the filtrate is now decomposed by either passing a stream of gaseous ammonia through it, or by suspending in it a lump of carbonate of ammonia. The effect is that the liquid turns black, and crystals of ATROPIA are slowly formed and deposited. At the expiration of a day or two, the supernatant mother-liquid is removed with a syphon, and the crystals thrown on a filter to drain and dry.[102] It may be purified by re-solution and crystallisation. 1 lb. of leaves yields 40 gr.; or at the rate of fully ·57%.

[Footnote 102: ‘Pharm. Journ.,’ 1854-5, p. 209{?}.]

6. (Rabourdin.) To the crystallised juice of the plant (previously heated to coagulate its albumen, filtered, and allowed to cool), 1 quart, is added of caustic potassa 1 dr., and afterwards of chloroform 1 oz.; the whole is then agitated well, and after half an hour’s repose, the supernatant liquor is poured from the discoloured chloroform, which, after being washed with distilled water as long as it gives any colour to that liquid, is placed in a small retort, and the chloroform distilled off by the heat of a water-bath; the residuum is dissolved in a little water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and precipitated with carbonate of potassa, in slight excess; the precipitate is redissolved in alcohol, and the solution, by spontaneous evaporation, yields crystals of ATROPIA.

7. (Ure.) From the expressed juice of the fresh, or the watery extract of the dry plant, by treating it with caustic soda, in slight excess, and then agitating the mixture with 1-1/2 times its volume of ether; the ATROPIA taken up by the ether is again deposited after repose for some time, and is then purified by repeating the treatment with fresh ether as often as necessary.

8. Freshly precipitated hydrate of magnesia is added to the coagulated and filtered expressed juice, and the mixture evaporated to dryness, as quickly as possible, in a water-bath; the residuum is pulverised and digested in strong alcohol, and the clear liquid allowed to evaporate spontaneously. The crystals may be purified by repeated re-solutions in alcohol.

Prop., Tests, &c. The crystals obtained from hot concentrated solutions, colourless, transparent, silky prisms; from solutions in dilute spirit, silky needles, like those of disulphate of quinine. It is colourless; has a bitter, acrid, and somewhat metallic taste; dissolves in 200 parts (300 parts——Thomson) of cold and 50 to 54 parts of boiling water, in 1-1/2 parts of cold alcohol, and in 25 parts of cold, and 6 parts of boiling ether; it has an alkaline reaction, fuses at about 194° Fahr., is slightly volatile at common temperatures, and freely rises in vapour at 212° Fahr.; at higher temperatures it volatilises with partial decomposition; with the acids it forms salts, of which several are crystallisable.

Tests.——1. Nitric acid forms with it a yellow solution:——2. With cold sulphuric acid it gives a colourless solution, which becomes red only when heated:——3. Aqueous solutions of atropia and its salts are——a, turned red by tincture of iodine——b, gives a citron-yellow precipitate with terchloride of gold——c, a flocculent whitish precipitate with tincture of galls, and——d, a yellowish-white one with bichloride of platinum:——4. Heated with caustic potassa or soda, it suffers decomposition, and ammonia is evolved:——5. A weak solution cautiously applied to the eyelid or conjunctiva, produces dilation of the pupil lasting for several hours.

Pur., &c. Alkaloid prepared from the root of atropa belladonna. Crystals; white, in the form of prisms; soluble in water and rectified spirit. It leaves no ash when burned with free access of air (B. P.).

Phys. eff. It is a very powerful narcotico-acrid poison.[103] Its effects are similar to those of belladonna, but considerably more powerful. “A very minute (imponderable) quantity applied to the eye is sufficient to dilate the pupil.” (Pereira.) The 1/12 to 1/10 gr. often causes very serious effects in the human subject. The 1/6th of a grain accelerates the pulse, affects the brain, causes dryness of the throat, difficulty of deglutition, dilation of the pupil, dimness of sight, giddiness, strangury, numbness of limbs, sense of formication in the arms, rigidity of thighs, depression of pulse, and sometimes feebleness or loss of voice. These symptoms continue for from 12 to 24 hours. In larger doses death ensues.

[Footnote 103: A “cerebro-spinal poison.”——Taylor.]

Ant., &c. These may be similar to those described under BELLADONNA and ALKALOID.

Uses. Chiefly as an external agent, as a substitute for belladonna, to cause dilation of the pupil; and as a local anæsthetic or anodyne, especially in facial neuralgia. Internally, it has been occasionally given in hooping-cough, chorea, and a few other nervous diseases.——Dose, 1/30 gr., gradually increased to 1/20, or, occasionally, even 1/15 gr. in solution, or made into a pill with liquorice powder and honey, or syrup, or used endermically; for a collyrium, 1 gr. to water 1 oz., a few drops only being applied to the eye at a time, the greatest caution in each case being observed. It is also employed to make the sulphate. In dispensing it a single drop of acetic acid, or dilute sulphuric acid, will be found to facilitate and ensure its perfect solution. See BELLADONNA and BELLADONINE.

=Atropia, Sul′phate of.= Syn. ATRO′PIA SUL′PHAS, L. Prep. (B. P.) Take of atropia, 120 gr.; distilled water, 4 fl. dr.; diluted sulphuric acid, a sufficiency.

Mix the atropia with the water and add the acid gradually, stirring them together until the alkaloid is dissolved and the solution is neutral. Evaporate it to dryness at a temperature not exceeding 100°.

Characters and Tests.——A colourless powder, soluble in water, forming a solution which is neutral to test-paper, and when applied to the eye dilates the pupil as the solution of atropia does. It leaves no ash when burned with free access of air.

Intended for external application. It is a powerful poison.

Uses, &c. The same as those of the pure alkaloid.——Dose, 1/25 to 1/20 gr., either in solution or pills; 1 to 3 gr. to water 1 fl. oz., as a collyrium, of which a few drops seldom fail to produce full dilation of the pupil in about a quarter of an hour; 1 to 2 gr. to lard 1 dr. forms an excellent ointment in neuralgic affections.

Obs. Sulphate of atropia (which is intended for external use only) is rather difficult to crystallise, as it has a tendency to assume an amorphous or gum-like condition. It is more soluble than the pure alkaloid; and, like it, is a terrific poison.

=ATROPIA, VALERIANATÈ.= The Paris Codex directs this salt to be prepared as follows:——Dissolve valerianic acid in ether, and add atropia just sufficient to saturate the acid. Let the ether evaporate.

=ATROP′IC ACID.= Syn. ACIDUM ATROP′ICUM, L. The name given by Richter to a volatile crystallisable substance, possessing acid properties, found in atropa belladonna or deadly nightshade. In many respects it resembles benzoic acid, from which, however it is distinguished by not precipitating the salts of iron.

=ATROPI′NA, At′ropine.= See ATROPIA.

=AT′TAR.= See OTTO and VOLATILE OILS.

=ATTELETTES= (-lĕts′). [Fr.] In cookery, small skewers, generally of silver, with ornamental heads. The term is also applied to small dishes (ENTRÉES, &c.) in which the articles are mounted on attelettes. Small fish, as smelts, are often served in this way. See AIGUILLETTE.

=ATTEN′UANT= (-ū-ănt). Syn. ATTEN′UANS, L.; ATTÉNUANT, Fr.; VERDÜNNEND, Ger. That makes thin, or less dense or viscid; diluting. In medicine, applied to remedies (ATTEN′UANTS, SPANÆM′ICS) which are supposed to act by thinning, diluting, or impoverishing the blood.

=ATTENUA′TION.= Syn. ATTENUA′TIO, L.; ATTÉNUATION, Fr.; VERDÜNNUNG, Ger. A thinning or diminishing; a reducing in consistence. In medicine, see the adj. (above); in brewing, the decrease of the density of worts during fermentation, arising from the gradual conversion of their ‘saccharine’ (sugar) into alcohol. See BREWING, DISTILLATION, WORTS, &c.

=ATTRAC′TION.= [Eng., Fr.] Syn. ATTRAC′TIO, L.; ANZIEHUNG, Ger. The power that draws together matter and resists its separation. That force which attracts bodies towards the centre of the earth, and which keeps on its surface those that are movable, is called GRAVITY, or the attraction of gravitation. It is exerted at sensible, often at immense, distances, and determines the figure and motions of the planets and comets, and causes the descent of heavy bodies to the ground. This force it is which confers the property of weight upon matter.

That force which unites particles of the same kind of matter, so as to cause them to assume the condition of solid or liquid masses, e.g. particles of chalk to form a mass of chalk, particles of water to form a mass of water, is called COHESION, or the ATTRACTION OF COHESION. That force which binds together different substances without changing their properties, as when paint sticks to wood, ink to paper, &c., is called ADHESION, or the ATTRACTION OF ADHESION. CAPILLARY ATTRACTION is a modification of adhesion, and is characterised by being exerted between liquids and the internal surfaces of tubes and pervious bodies. The absorption of water by a sponge, the ascent of oil in the wick of a lamp, are examples of this power. The CHEMICAL FORCE or AFFINITY differs from all other kinds of attraction in being exerted between definite and constant quantities (atoms) of matter, usually of dissimilar natures, and producing combinations possessing properties different from those of their components. (See AFFINITY.) This force, as well as cohesion and adhesion, is exerted at distances so small as to be immeasurable.

The terms ELEC′TRIC ATTRACTION and MAGNET′IC ATTRACTION are employed in physics to denote phenomena which we imperfectly understand, and which operate between bodies at sensible distances, and simulate those of the attraction of gravitation.

=ATTRI′′TION= (trĭsh′-ŭn). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. ATTRI′′TIO, L.; ABREIBUNG, AUFREIBUNG, Ger. In mechanics, the wearing away of parts by friction. In medicine, a graze, abrasion, or solution of continuity of the cuticle, or the act which causes it. In surgery, the crushing or tearing away of any exterior portion of the body by violence. See ABRASION, ANTI-ATTRITION, FRICTION, &c.

=AURANTIA′CEÆ= (-she-ē). [Lat.; DC.] The orange tribe. In botany, an extensive and important natural order of exogenous trees and shrubs, found exclusively in the temperate and tropical parts of the Old World, and unknown in a wild state in America. The fruit is pulpy, succulent, sub-acid, and eatable, and separated into cells by membranous partitions, and is covered with a leathery aromatic skin or rind. Some of the genera embrace plants of great beauty and utility. A few of the Indian species are climbers. The genus CIT′RUS, which includes the orange, lemon, citron, lime, bergamot, and shaddock, is that best known in Europe.

=AURAN′′TIIN= (-she-ĭn). Syn. HESPERIDIN; AURAN′TINE* (-tĭn), Eng., Fr.; AURANTII′NA, &c., L. The bitter principle of the peel of oranges and lemons.

Prep. The exterior or yellow peel of the Seville orange (carefully separated from the white matter, and air-dried) is steeped in hot water, and the filtered liquor gently evaporated to dryness.

Prop., &c. It possesses the bitter properties of the peel without any of its glutinosity or fragrance, and is said to agree better with delicate stomachs. It may be taken in water either with or without the addition of a little sugar or capillaire, or dissolved in wine.

=AU′′RIC= (aw′- or awr′-). Syn. AURI′CUS, L. Of or relating to gold, or containing it, or formed from it.

=AURIF′EROUS.= Syn. AU′′RIFER, AURIF′ERUS, L.; AURIFÈRE, Fr.; GOLDHALTIG, Ger. In, mineralogy, that yields or contains gold; as auriferous sand, a. quartz, &c.

=AURIPIGMEN′TUM†.= [L.] Literally, paint of gold; appr., native orpiment. See ARSENIC.

=AURO-CHLO′′RIDES= (klōre′-īdz). Compounds of terchloride of gold with chlorides of other bases. They may be prepared by mixing the terchloride of gold with the chloride of the base, in atomic proportions, and setting aside the solution to crystallise.

Prop., &c. Most of the auro-chlorides crystallise in prisms, dissolve in both alcohol and water, have an orange or yellow colour, and are decomposed at a red heat.

=AURO-CY′ANIDES= (ĭdz). In chemistry, compounds of cyanide of gold with cyanides of other bases. They may be formed in a similar manner to the auro-chlorides. Auro-cyanide of potassium is much used in electro-gilding.

=AURORA BOREALIS.= This luminous phenomenon, which is occasionally seen in our own country on clear frosty nights, and much more frequently and vividly by the dwellers in more northern latitudes, has been supposed to have an electrical origin, and to be occasioned by the passage of electricity through the rarefied strata of the upper regions of the atmosphere from the poles towards the equator. But physicists look upon this explanation as unsatisfactory, and inadequate to account for the effects produced. The hypothesis, however, seems to derive some support from the following fact:——

If one of Gassiot’s vacuum tubes be brought near to a powerful electrical machine, both while the machine is in motion and for some time after, flashes of light may be seen passing from the wire at one end of the tube to the other extremity, which flashes bear a great resemblance to the auroral rays. The great doubt, however, is whether the conditions necessary to the production of the aurora are similar to those prevailing during this experiment, a doubt not lessened by the difficulty of satisfactorily accounting for the rarefied state of the atmosphere which is assumed to exist.

The forms which the aurora assumes are very varied and of great beauty; there appears, however, to be some general similarity in its aspect at the same locality. Its appearance is briefly as follows:——A dingy aspect in the heavens in a northernly direction is usually the precursor of the aurora; and this gradually becomes darker in colour, and assumes the form of a circular segment surrounded by a luminous arch, and resting at each end on the horizon. This dark segment presents the appearance of a thick cloud, and is frequently seen as such in the fading twilight, before the auroral light manifests itself. The density of this segment must, however, be very inconsiderable, as stars may sometimes be seen shining brightly through it.

This dark segment is bounded by a luminous arch of a blueish-white colour, which varies in breadth from 1 to 6 diameters of the moon, having the lower edge sharply defined, and the upper edge only when the breadth of the arch is small. This arch may be considered to be a part of a luminous ring, elevated at a considerable distance above the earth’s surface and having its centre corresponding with some point near the north pole. The preceding description indicates the general features of the appearance of the aurora borealis; but several auroras have been described which presented striking peculiarities. Sometimes the phenomenon assumed the form of one or more curtains of light, depending from dingy clouds whose folds were agitated to and fro as if by the wind. Sometimes this curtain appeared to consist of separate ribbons of light, arranged side by side in groups of different lengths, and attaining their greatest brilliancy at the lower edges. In this country the aurora borealis seldom assumes the distinctness and brilliancy which characterise its appearance in northern latitudes, but the description thus given indicates the type to which such appearance of the meteor more or less approaches. During the winter that prevails in the northern hemispheres the inhabitants of the arctic zone are deprived for months together of the sun’s light, and their long dreary night is relieved by the light emanating from this beautiful meteor, which shines with great frequency and brilliancy in those regions.

A remarkable connection has been observed between the aurora and the earth’s magnetism, the magnetic needle showing great disturbance during a display of the aurora. The arches of the aurora most commonly traverse the sky at right angles to the magnetic meridian, though deviations from this direction are not rare. Sir J. Franklin found that the disturbance of the needle was not always proportionate to the agitation of the aurora, but was always greater when the quick motion and vivid light were observed to take place in a hazy atmosphere. The aurora is most frequent and vivid in high latitudes, towards either pole, but the meteor is not confined to these parts, as Dr Hooker states that one of the most brilliant displays he ever witnessed was under the tropical sky of India; and other observers have recorded instances of its appearance in the equatorial districts of the globe.

The attitude of the aurora varies considerably; there appears to be little doubt, however, that it frequently occurs at small elevations. Both Franklin and Parry record instances where it appeared below the level of the clouds, which they describe as having been hidden behind the masses of its light, and as reappearing when the meteor vanished. It would seem that there are two distinct kinds of aurora one dependent upon local causes, as in the cases last given, while in the other causes are probably cosmical, and the auroral effects are seen at very distant points of the earth’s surface.

=AURORA POMADE.= For promoting the action of the skin. Cocoa butter with orris.

=AUTOG′ENOUS= (tŏj′-). Syn. AUTOGE′′NEAL; AUTOG′ENUS (tŏj′). L. Self-generating or affecting; acting without the aid of foreign matter. In anatomy, &c., developed from distinct and independent centres; as parts or processes. Among metallists, it denotes a method of joining metals by fusing the parts in contact, by means of a flame of hydrogen, or of a mixture of hydrogen and common air, without the intervention of a fusible alloy or solder. Lead, and even ordinary hard solders, are, however, sometimes so employed, and the name, though improperly, retained.

=AUTOMAT′IC.= Syn. AUTOMATI′CUS, AUTOM′ATUS, L.; AUTOMATIQUE, Fr.; AUTOMATISCHE, Ger. Self-acting or self-moving, or that seems to be so; mechanical; of or resembling an automaton. In physiology, involuntary, applied to functions which are performed without the operation of the will; as the movements in respiration, the contractions and dilations of the heart, the persistent contraction of the sphincters, &c. In mechanics, &c., moving and acting from concealed machinery; also, as applied to machinery, self-regulating and directing, within the limits prescribed by its author, though moved by external power. To the last class belongs the self-acting machinery of our flax and cotton mills, our engineering establishments, &c.; in which the elemental powers are made to animate, as it were, millions of complex organs, infusing into forms of wood, iron, and brass, an agency resembling that of intelligent beings. The manufactures in which such machinery is employed are termed the AUTOMATIC ARTS.

=AUTOPSY.= Literally, personal observation or examination; ocular view. The term, however, is now applied, rather loosely, to a post-mortem investigation. A post-mortem may be performed with the object of endeavouring to ascertain the cause of death in a medico-legal inquiry, or in the furtherance of the study of pathology. It is also a preliminary to embalmment, and is sometimes had recourse to as a means of saving the child when a woman dies in full pregnancy.

In France no post-mortem examination is permitted to take place until at least 24 hours after death, this delay being enforced as a safeguard against the possibility of the body operated upon being still alive. In England no post-mortem can be made without the consent of the friends of the deceased, unless by warrant from a coroner; although in many public institutions this consent is dispensed with. Whenever, however, a prisoner dies in gaol an inquest and post-mortem are held on the body.

An autopsy is to be discouraged in cases where a person has died from infectious disease; but should the law require it to be undertaken, disinfectants both during and after the operation should be liberally had recourse to.

=AUTUMNAL FEVER.= This term is chiefly employed by American medical writers to designate typhoid fever, because of its prevalence in the autumn.

=AUXILION.= A packet of small plasters for the painless and radical cure of corns. Each plaster is to be worn for about a week, and then the horny pustule is to be removed with a sharp knife. The plaster is a compound of 1 part of resin plaster and 2 parts of lead plaster, and is likely to promote the removal and solution of the thick skin of the corns. (Hager.)

=AVA.= Syn. KAVA-KAVA. The native names of the root, a species of piper, the piper methysticum, cultivated in Tahiti, Hawaii, the Society and Tongan Islands, the natives of which make it into an intoxicating drink. It is said to have been used in France with excellent effect in gonorrhœa; and a tincture of it has been strongly recommended both for external and internal administration in gout. “For medicinal purposes it is used in the form of infusion,” a drachm of the scraped root being macerated in a quart of water for five minutes. Its action appears to vary with the amount taken; in small doses it is generally stated to act as a stimulant and tonic, but when taken in large doses it produces an intoxication which differs from that caused by alcohol, in being of a silent and drowsy nature accompanied by incoherent dreams” (‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ August 19th, 1876, which consult for further information.’)

=AVE′NA.= [L.] The oat; oats.

=AVE′NIN= (-nĭn). Syn. AVENA′INE* (ăv-e-) AVENI′NA, &c., L.; AVÉNINE, &c., Fr. A nitrogenous compound, analogous to, and probably identical with, casein, obtained from oats, and on which its nutritiveness chiefly depends.

Prep. The grain, reduced to the state of powder or meal, is washed on a sieve, and the milky liquid, after being allowed to deposit its starch, is heated to about 200° Fahr., to coagulate the albumen; when cold, acetic acid is added as long as a white powder falls, which is AVENIN; this is collected on a filter, drained, and dried by a gentle heat.

=AVEN′TURIN, Avant′urin= (-ū-rĭn; -vŏ_ng_-tōō——Knowles and Smart). [Eng. Fr.] A beautiful iridescent variety of rock crystal, minutely spangled throughout with yellow scales of mica (AVENTURIN, A. QUARTZ). A variety of felspar (A. FELSPAR) of somewhat similar appearance is found in the Continent and the Peninsula, of which the finer kinds are called A. ORIENTALE and PIERRE DE SOLEIL by the lapidaries. Both varieties are now imitated by the glass and porcelain manufacturers. See GLASS, GLAZE, PASTE, &c.

=A′VIARY= (-ve-). Syn. AVIA′′RIUM, L.; VOLIÈRE, Fr.; VOGELHAUS, VOGELHECKE, Ger. A place for keeping birds; generally applied to an enclosed space or building in which birds are kept, or bred, on account of their rarity, plumage, or song; and not for food.

Situa., &c. For exotic birds, a place should be selected where the temperature can be maintained at a proper degree throughout the year, and which is well protected from the weather. This is commonly done by choosing a space attached to the summerhouse or hot-house. When the aviary is only intended for birds of climates similar to our own, any part of the open garden may be chosen, and a portion closed in, either with trellis-work or wire-work, or netting; care being taken to provide, in some easily accessible portion of it, full protection from vicissitudes of weather and season. Nor must cleanliness, and due ventilation and protection from foul air or noxious fumes, be left unattended to.

=AVIGNON′ BERRIES= (ăv-veen-yo_ng_). French berries.

=AV′OIRDUPOIS′= (ăv-ĕr-du-pois′). The common weight of 16 oz. or 7000 gr. to the lb., used in these realms for all kinds of goods, except jewelry and the precious metals, and medicines in dispensing, or as ordered in the ‘British Pharmacopœia’ of 1867.

=AX′IS.= [L., Eng., Fr.] Syn. AXE, Fr.; ACHSE, Ger. Primarily, that on or around which anything acts or performs; an axle or axle-tree. In anatomy, that on or around which any organ or part rests, gravitates, or centres. In astronomy, the diameter on or about which a celestial body revolves. In botany, part or parts about which particular organs are arranged; an imaginary line passing from the base to the apex of a pericarp &c. In crystallography, imaginary lines passing through the central points of a crystal, and about which the molecules or particles of matter composing it may be conceived to be symmetrically built up. In geology, the centre of a mountain-group. In mechanics, the straight line, real or imaginary, about which any body oscillates or revolves. See CRYSTAL, &c.

=AX′LE, Ax′le-tree= (ăks′l). Syn. ESSIEU, Fr.; AXE (am rade), &c., Ger. In mechanics, the pin, rod, or material line, on which a wheel, &c., turns. See ANTI-ATTRITION, FRICTION, &c.

=AX′UNGE= (-ŭnje). Syn. AXUN′GIA, L. Primarily, ‘wheel-grease,’ the lard or fat of an animal; restricted in pharmacy to hog’s lard.——AXUNGIA CURA′TA, A. PREPARA′TA, is prepared or washed hog’s lard (which see).

=AYER’S PILLS.= Sold in long wooden boxes, each containing 25 pills, covered with sugar and starch, and composed of pepper, colocynth, gamboge, and aloes. (Hager.)

=AZADIRACHTA INDICA.= (Ind. Ph.) Nim or Margosa Tree. (Ind. Ph.) Habitat. Common throughout India; often cultivated in gardens. Officinal parts.——1. The bark (Azadirachtæ cortex, Nim bark). It varies much in appearance, according to the size and age of the tree producing it. The bark from the trunk of a tree above three or four years of age is covered with a thick scaly epidermis, and varies in thickness from 1/4 to 1/2 inch. That from the smaller branches is smooth, of a dullish purple colour, marked by longitudinal lines of ash-coloured epidermis, from 1/8th to 1/12th of an inch apart. The inner layer of the bark, of a whitish colour in the fresh state, is powerfully bitter, far more so than the outer dark-coloured layer, which, however, possesses a greater amount of astringency. It contains a crystallisable principle (margosine) and an astringent principle (catechin).——2. The fresh leaves (Azadirachtæ folia, Nim leaves).——Properties. Bark astringent tonic and antiperiodic; leaves stimulant.——Therapeutic uses. In intermittent and other paroxysmal fevers, in general debility, and convalescence after febrile and other diseases, the bark has been employed with success. The leaves form a useful application to ulcers and skin diseases when a mild stimulant is required.——Dose. Of the powdered bark, a drachm three or four times a day.

Preparations. DECOCTION OF NIM BARK (Decoctum Azadirachtæ). Take of the inner layer of nim bark, bruised, 2 oz.; water, a pint and a half. Boil for 15 minutes, and strain whilst hot.——Dose. As an antiperiodic, from 1-1/2 to 3 fl. oz., every second hour previous to an expected paroxysm. As a tonic, 1 or 2 fl. oz. twice or thrice daily. As this decoction soon decomposes in hot weather, it should be prepared fresh for use when required.

TINCTURE OF NIM BARK (Tinctura Azadirachtæ). Take of the inner layer of nim bark, bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Macerate for seven days in a closed vessel, with occasional agitation; strain, press, filter, and add sufficient proof spirit to make 1 pint. It may also be prepared by percolation in the same manner as Tincture of Calumba, q. v.——Dose. From 1/2 to 2 fl. dr. as a tonic.

POLTICE OF NIM LEAVES (Cataplasma Azadirachtæ). Take of fresh nim leaves a sufficiency; bruise and moisten with tepid water. A good stimulant application to indolent and ill-conditioned ulcers. Should it cause pain and irritation, as it sometimes does, equal parts of rice-flour and linseed-meal may be added. The bitter oil of the seeds is held in high repute by the natives as an anthelmintic, and as an external application in rheumatism. It is also said to be an insecticide.

=AZOERYTH′RYN= (-rĭth′-rĭn). A substance obtained, by Kane, from archil. It is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and water; but is very soluble in alkaline lyes, to which it imparts a port-wine colour.

=AZO′IC.= Syn. AZÖOT′IC; AZO′ICUS, AZÖOT′ICUS, &c., L. Lifeless; wholly destitute of organic life. In geology, &c., applied to strata which do not contain organic remains.

=AZOLIT′MIN= (ăz-o-lĭt′-mĭn). A dark-red substance obtained, by Kane, from litmus, of which it forms a large portion of the colouring matter. It is insoluble in alcohol, and in water unless alkalised.

=AZ′OTE*= (ăz′ōte; a′-zōte). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. AZO′TUM*, L.; AZOT*, Ger. Nitrogen (because it is unfit for respiration, i.e. destroys life).

=AZOT′IC.= Syn. AZOT′ICUM, L.; AZOTIQUE, Fr.; AZOTISCH, Ger. Of or like azote, or containing it or formed from it; irrespirable; destructive to life.——AZOTIC ACID† is nitric acid; A. GAS†, nitrogen.——AZO′TOUS ACID† was nitrous acid.

=AZ′OTISED= (-tīzd). Syn. NITROGENISED, Containing azote or nitrogen; a common epithet of nitrogenous substances used as food.

=AZ′URE= (ăzh′-ūre; ā′zhure——Knowles, Smart, Walker). Syn. CÆRU′LEUM, L.; AZUR, Fr.; HELLBLAU, HIMMELBLAU, Ger. In dyeing and painting, sky-blue; also the name of one or more pigments which possess this colour. See BLUE DYES, BLUE PIGMENTS, SMALTS, ULTRAMARINE, &c.

=AZ′URE-STONE.= Lapis lazuli.

=AZ′URITE= (-īte). In mineralogy, lazulite; blue malachite; sometimes, lapis lazuli (the name being, unfortunately, very loosely applied by different writers).

=AZ′YMOUS†= (-e-mŭs). Syn. AZ′YMUS, L. Unleavened; unfermented; as sea-biscuit. Unleavened bread was formerly termed AZ′YME† (-e-me) and AZ′YMUS† by theologists.

=BAB′LAH.= The rind or shell of the fruit of mimosa cineraria. According to Dr Ure, it contains a considerable quantity of gallic acid, some tannin, a red colouring principle, and an azotised substance, and is the article imported from the East Indies and Senegal under the name of NEB-NEB.——Used as a cheap dye-stuff for various shades of drab and grey.

=BAC′CA= (băk′-ă). [L.; pl., bac′cæ, băk′-sē.] A berry.

=BACK.= [D., bak, a bowl or cistern.] Syn. BAC. In brewing, a large, open, flat reservoir or cistern; commonly that in which wort is cooled. In distillation, the vessel into which the wort is pumped from the coolers, in order to be ‘worked’ with yeast. The LIQUOR-BACK in a brewery, distillery, or rectifying house is the water reservoir or cistern.

=BACKS.= In the leather trade, the thickest and stoutest portion of the hide, used for sole-leather.

=BACON= (bā′-kn). [W., baccun, prob. from Ger., bache, a wild sow; “old Fr., for dried flesh or pork”——Craig.] The flesh of swine salted and dried, and subsequently either smoked or not. The term is usually restricted to the sides and belly so prepared; the other parts of the animal having distinctive names. Sometimes, though rarely, the term is extended to the flesh of bears, and of other like animals, cured in a similar manner.

Qual., &c. When bacon has been properly prepared from young and well-fed animals, and is neither ‘stale’ nor ‘rusty,’ it forms a very wholesome and excellent article of food, especially adapted for a light or hasty meal, or as a relish for bread or vegetables. For persons with a weak stomach, and for invalids, great care should be taken to cook it without injuring its flavour, or rendering it indigestible. This is best effected by cutting it into slices of moderate thickness, and carefully broiling or toasting it; avoiding dressing it too hastily, too slowly, or too much. The common practice of cooking it in almost wafer-like slices, until it becomes brown and crisp, renders it not merely indigestible, but also a most fertile source of heartburn and dyspepsia. Fried bacon is remarkably strong, and is hence more likely to offend the stomach than when it is broiled, or preferably toasted before the fire; the last being, of all others, the best way of dressing it so as to preserve its delicacy and flavour. Gourmands, however, often esteem, as ‘une bonne bouche,’ bacon dressed in the flame arising from the dropping of its own fat.

Choice. Good bacon has a thin rind, and an agreeable odour, the fat has a firm consistence and a slightly reddish tinge; the lean is of a pleasing red colour, is tender, and adheres, whilst raw, strongly to the bone. When the fat is yellow, it is either ‘rusty’ or becoming so, and should be avoided. The streaky parts are not only those which are most esteemed, but are the most wholesome.

Bacon should be broiled or toasted in front of the fire. The rashers should be in thin slices, and the rind should be removed. The melted fat from the bacon should never be wasted. To partake of all broiled meats in perfection they should be served up as soon as they are taken off the gridiron.

=BACTERIUM= (BACTERION, a little rod). Since the publication of the researches of Professor Cohn, of Breslau, upon the nature of this organism, the idea previously entertained by Ehrenberg and others as to its animal origin has been long abandoned, and microscopists now very generally regard it as belonging to the vegetable kingdom. It is probably one of the lowest and most simple forms of vegetable or animal life, and consists of an envelope more or less enclosing protoplasm——the nitrogenous substance from which the cell nucleus is formed. Dr Lionel Beale very carefully crushed a very large bacterium while under observation by the microscope, and when the external membrane was ruptured the protoplasm was seen to escape, and to exhibit what Dr Beale regards as vital movement. In form, bacteria may be either globular, rod-shaped, egg-shaped, or filamentous. Cohn has described a variety presenting the appearance of beaded chains, or aggregations.

Bacteria vary considerably in size, some being as much as 1/3000th of an inch in length, whilst others are less than 1/10000th, and are only visible by the aid of a glass of very high power, such as the 1/50th of an inch objective. Dr Beale says, “The germs from which the little particles spring are far more minute and more difficult to identify. They appear as minute specks, the largest of them exhibiting a circular outline, and probably being spherical. The smallest are too minute to be discerned with the highest magnifying powers at our command. If a specimen of fluid in which these particles are rapidly growing and multiplying be carefully examined, many points will be observed to appear from time to time. After watching with great care for a considerable time a given spot I have assured myself that new particles actually come into existence; and that one does not, after intently watching for a time and concentrating the attention upon a certain space, merely see one coming into view one after another, as star after star. The material in which the minute germs of bacteria are imbedded, and which, at least in part, consists of formed material produced by the bacteria, is much softer than the matter of which the capsule of fungi consists. It is, perhaps, almost as soft as mucus. I believe that even the most minute bacterium germ is surrounded by a layer of such soft formed matter, in which very minute particles of bioplasm (protoplasm) divide and subdivide before they attain even the 1/100000th of an inch in diameter. When, therefore, bacteria in an early stage of development dry, it is not possible to identify them. When moistened, the dry mass swells up, and the bioplasm in the soft mucus-like matter grows, each particle producing a fresh investment of formed material, and then if the conditions are favorable, the germs either at once divide and subdivide for a time, or grow into perfect bacteria, which move freely and grow and multiply in this more advanced stage of development.”

Bacteria increase by bisection, and when the surrounding conditions are favorable their rate of production is marvellous. It has been computed that an individual bacterium will generate nearly 17,000,000 of its fellows within twenty-four hours. The very probable vegetable origin and nature of bacteria insisted upon by Professor Cohn not only appears to derive great support from his researches into the metamorphoses they undergo during development, &c., but also from their behaviour with certain chemical reagents. For instance, it was found that boiling them in solution of potash had no effect, and also when treated with sulphuric acid and iodine they deported themselves somewhat as cellulin does under like circumstances; although from their extreme minuteness any changes that take place in their tissue are very difficult to observe. Another remarkable analogy presented between bacteria and plants is the manner in which they both assimilate the elements of which they are built up; for they derive their nitrogen not from previously existing albuminous compounds, but from ammonia.

They may be made to develop themselves in any fluid if the fluid contains an organic substance in which carbon is present, a nitrogenous substance which need not be organic, and a phosphate. They appear to derive their carbon by the decomposition of almost any substance, containing this element except carbonic acid, and they will obtain their nitrogen from a nitrate, the nitrate becoming reduced to the state of a nitrite. A knowledge of these facts will of course indicate the method to be followed if we wish to obtain bacteria. All that we have to do is to prepare a liquid that fulfils the conditions just stated. Dr J. Burdon Sanderson gives the following formula for one:——Phosphate of potassium 1/2 per cent., sulphate of magnesium, 1/2 per cent., dissolve in water having a trace of phosphate of calcium in suspension, and then add a per cent. of tartrate of ammonium, and boil the mixture. If properly boiled the liquid will be free from bacteria; but the contact of almost any organic substance, for example, a drop of water, a pinch of hay, a morsel of meal, &c., will cause their appearance.

The tenacity of life exhibited by the bacteria is extremely great. Dr Beale says, “Extreme dryness does not destroy them, and they withstand a temperature far below the freezing point; and that under adverse circumstances they remain dormant, and are not destroyed by a degree of heat which is fatal probably to every other living organism.” Bastian says that the germs of bacteria are destroyed at a temperature of 160° F., but others are of opinion that under certain circumstances these germs are not killed at 212°, and that they may increase and multiply after having been exposed to this degree of heat. Professor Tyndall indeed has shown that in one experiment heating for a quarter of an hour at a temperature of 230° F. was insufficient to destroy them, whilst in another the five minutes’ exposure of an atmosphere containing them to the incandescence of the voltaic current failed to kill them.

Cohn relates that manufacturers of pots of preserved peas at Lubek have since 1858 been obliged to cook them in a solution of 28 per cent. of salt, at a temperature of 226° F., to prevent the putrefaction of their contents, as in warm years nearly half the pots were found to be spoiled. In experiments made in conjunction with Dr Hare, Cohn found that in infusions boiled for less than fifteen minutes organisms were, without exceptions, developed. Somewhat lower temperature proved fatal to the great majority of bacteria. Those that survived were all found to belong to the genus Bacillus, and among bacilli to the species Bacillus subtilis.

The experiments of Drs Ferrier and Burdon Sanderson would seem to show that bacteria do not nominally exist in the fluids and tissues of the body, but that their presence in the animal fluids may be traced to external surface contamination with ordinary water, the extent of their development being in proportion to the amount of the contamination. They contend that different varieties of water possess different degrees of what they term the ‘zymotic power.’ They examined the waters supplied by the several London water companies, and they found them to consist of varying degrees of bacterian impurity. They assert that all except freshly distilled water teems with invisible germs of bacteria. Writing of the universality of the presence of bacteria and bacterian germs, Dr Beale remarks:——“It would be difficult to say where bacterium germs do not exist. In air, in water, in the soil adhering to tiny particles of every kind, in every region of the earth, from the poles to the equator, they are found. In the substance of the tissues——nay, in the cells of almost all plants, and in the interstices of the tissues of many animals——bacteria germs exist. I know not what part of the body of man and the higher animals is entirely destitute of particles which under favorable circumstances develop into bacteria. Upon the skin and the surface of the mucous membranes they exist in profusion, and they abound in the mouth and in the follicles and glands.”

Dr Eberth, of Zurich, states that he has found on ordinary sweat small oval-shaped bacteria which are frequently united in strings of two or three, and endowed with rather active movements. The author thinks that they very likely conduce to produce certain chemical modifications of sweat.

Drs Ferrier and Sanderson appear to have satisfactorily proved that fungi are not developed from microzymes, and that their apparent association is one of juxtaposition only. They give the following reasons for adopting this conclusion:——(1) The quick appearance of torula cells in Pasteur’s solution whenever it is exposed to the air, and the rapid development and luxuriant fructification of the higher form (penicillium) show that so far as the chemical composition of the liquid is concerned, there exist in it all the conditions favorable to the process. (2) When precautions are taken to prevent contamination by impure surfaces or liquids, the development which ends in penicillium goes on from first to last without the appearance of microzymes. (3) Whenever it is possible to impregnate the test-liquid with microzymes, without at the same time introducing torula cells or germs, the development of the former begins and continues by itself without any transformation into the latter. Thus fungi are not developed, notwithstanding the presence of microzymes in the same liquid in which, microzymes being absent, but air having access, they appear with the greatest readiness. As we have already seen the germs of bacteria exist largely in air; the experiments of Hiller, of Berlin, would seem to negative the theory of Ferrier and Sanderson, as they tend to show that bacteria have little influence on putrefaction.

We are indebted to Dr Lionel Beale for these illustrations, which are taken from his very interesting work on ‘Disease Germs.’

Hiller’s experiments tend to show that putrefaction is independent of the presence of bacteria, that bacteria can develop in liquids such as urine without producing its decomposition, and that the degree of their development and the rate of their multiplication depend upon the amount of assimilable material.

The following is the definition given to the word ‘microzyme’ (which occurs above) by its originator, Dr Sanderson: “I proposed the word ‘microzyme’ as a convenient general term for the first organic forms which present themselves in organic nitrogenous liquids when about to undergo spontaneous decomposition.”

From the experiments of Béchamp it appears that under some circumstances the mother of vinegar, a conglomeration of microzymes, can be transformed into bacteria, and under other circumstances into a cellular ferment which can excite normal alcoholic fermentation in cane sugar. Subsequent researches have shown that the converse of this is also true, and that the cellular ferment may be transformed into microzymes and bacteria.

A mixture of starch and yeast kept at a temperature of 24° to 35° soon liquefies, and the yeast undergoes remarkable changes. The cells swell, become transparent, and gradually disappear. Myriads of microzymes of great agility spring into existence, then vibrios appear, and as these increase the microzymes diminish. The vibrios in their turn are succeeded by myriads of bacteria, and finally the bacteria disappear, leaving nothing but microzymes, single or coupled together. During these changes a small quantity of gas is disengaged, no butyric acid is formed, and but little acetic or lactic acids.

As then the mother of vinegar when changed into bacteria becomes lactic or butyric ferment, and when transformed into cellular matter becomes alcoholic ferment, and as beer yeast becomes lactic or butyric ferment when reduced to microzymes, vibrios, or bacteria, it is evident that the property of being a ferment of any particular nature does not depend essentially upon the nature of the ferment, but upon its organisation or structure.

A contributor to the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’ of February 2nd, 1878, advances the opinion that many of the bacteria are only parts of a plant which has other forms and other modes of growth and propagation when not confined to the living organism or to fluids, and regards the bacterium as a transitional or provisional and not as a permanent form, but an abnormal phase of life thrust upon the plant by accident.

=BACTERIA AS ORIGINATORS OF DISEASE.=——The researches of many eminent microscopists and physiologists afford abundant evidence of the presence of bacteria in the blood of persons affected with various infectious diseases. For instance, Core and Feltz, of Strasbourg, found a linked bacterium in the blood of those attacked with septicæmia, typhoid, and puerperal fevers. The same investigators also discovered bacteria in the blood of patients suffering from scarlet fever; this blood when injected into the veins of rabbits set up a feverish disease that proved fatal.

Again, in the blood of man and the sheep attacked with smallpox, a bacterium of the globular or sphere-shaped variety was found by Keber, Hallier, and Zurn.

Bacteria have also been found in the blood during measles, and in the splenic apoplexy of sheep and cattle. They have likewise been identified in diphtheritical exudations both from the kidneys and womb, as well as in the blood during an attack of rheumatic fever, and they are undoubtedly present in the same fluid during many feverish disorders. Drs Lewis and Cunningham failed to discover them in the blood of cholera patients. Professors Cohn and Koch stand prominently forward as the advocates of the germ theory of disease by bacteria. Professor Cohn divides the bacteria into groups, genera, and species, and assigns to each species a different function.

For instance, he considers the ferment of contagion to be due to the presence of a variety of the sphere-shaped bacterium——one of his groups. He divides the whole group into three——the chromogen, zymogen, and pathogen, the bacteria of pigmentation, of fermentation, and of contagion, respectively. He says those organisms are exceedingly minute, darkish or coloured granules, so small as to be immeasurable. They frequently present the appearance of beaded chains or the form of aggregations. They are motionless and are occasionally found with the Bacterium termo in putrefying organic liquids.

Messrs Chauveau and Sanderson have discovered a bacterium in vaccine lymph which believers in the germ theory class among the pathogen bacteria, and which they have named the Micrococcus vaccinæ. Amongst the pathogen bacteria they also include the Micrococcus dipthericus and Micrococcus septicus, the former found in the epithelium of certain organs during certain forms of pyæmia, and the latter in the miliary eruption of typhus, pyæmia, and other diseases. The chromogen or pigmentary bacteria have occasionally been the means of working miracles. Several instances of bread exuding blood, under supernatural circumstances, are related by Rivola. Ehrenberg found this colour on some bread in the house of a patient who had died of cholera, and he ascertained the pigment to be due to the presence of the Monas prodigiosa, small round bodies which Professor Cohn classes with the micrococci, a variety of the sphere-shaped bacterium.

The recent investigations of Koch were directed to the cause of splenic fever, and Cohn on examining his specimens found that they were examples of Bacteria of the species called Bacillus anthracis, which seems to present little or no difference to the Bacillus subtilis of hay infusions. Koch found that bacilli increase with enormous rapidity in the blood, and in the fluid of tissues of living animals, by developing in length and dividing transversely. The animals employed were chiefly mice, and a small incision being made at the root of the tail, as minute a drop as possible of the fluid containing the bacilli was injected into the system. The spleen invariably became enormously swollen, and filled with a large number of crystalline-looking rods of varying size, never exhibiting movement or spore formation; they increased in numbers solely by division. The number of bacilli found in the blood varies in different animals; thus in the guinea-pig it was enormous, sometimes exceeding that of the blood-corpuscles; in the rabbit much smaller, so that sometimes several drops had to be examined before any were found, in the mouse often nil. In the blood of dead animals or other suitable fluids the bacilli grow to very long straight leptothorax-like filaments (within certain limits of temperature, and with the presence of air), while the formation of numerous spores goes on at the same time.

Kohl believes that it is to the presence of the spores that the occurrence of splenetic fever appears to be referable. When living, inoculation with them always produced the disease; but if killed, as by drying, or a high temperature, inoculation failed; it was necessary either that living spores should be present, or that the filaments should be capable of generating spores, in order that the disease should be propagated by inoculation.

Koch tried whether the poisonous bacilli spores could gain entrance through the digestive organs, but found that mice and rabbits could eat them with impunity. Koch draws attention to the similarity of splenic fever to typhus and cholera. He says it presents analogies to typhus in its dependence on soil-water, its preference for low grounds, its sporadic occurrence throughout the year, and its development into an epidemic in the late summer and autumn. Like cholera, again, he says, it is connected with soil-water, and it also agrees with cholera in the point which has been so well made out by Pettenkofer, that on board ship an interval of three or four weeks is sufficient to prevent its further development.

Hence Koch is disposed to hope that the contagium of typhus and cholera may still be discovered in the form of some Schizophyte or spheroidal bacterium, though practical observers have hitherto sought for them in vain.

Many pathologists, however, refuse to accept the accuracy of these deductions, and regard the presence of bacteria in the blood and tissues during disease as of no significance; whilst they deny that it is satisfactorily proved that they are the cause of disease.

Dr Lionel Beale says:——“Changes in the processes of digestion are soon followed by the multiplication of bacteria in every part of the alimentary canal, and within a few hours countless millions may be developed. They multiply in the secretions under certain circumstances, almost as soon as these are formed, and I have adduced evidence to show that bacteria germs exist even in healthy blood. In the very substance of some cells I have seen them, and in many cases in which little granules have been discerned in connection with bioplasts. There is reason to believe that some of them are really bacteria germs, passive as long as the higher life is maintained in its integrity, but ready to grow and multiply the instant a change favorable to them, and adverse to us, shall occur.”

And again he remarks:——“Bacteria prey upon morbid structure, and upon the substances resulting from the death of bioplasm (protoplasm). We ought not, therefore, to be surprised at their existence in disease. They are found in great numbers amongst pus-corpuscles which have ceased to live, and they grow and multiply with great rapidity in fluids which contain disease germs, as soon as these begin to lose their specific powers and to undergo decomposition.” See GERMS.

=BAD′′GER= (băj′-ĕr). Syn. ME′LES, L.; BLAIREAU, Fr.; DACHS, Ger. The ur′sus me′les (Linn.), one of the plantigrade carnivora, a burrowing nocturnal animal, common in Europe, Asia, and North America. Since the extirpation of the bear, the badger is the sole representative of the ursine family in our indigenous zoology. Its habits are “nocturnal, inoffensive, and slothful; its food consists of roots, earth-nuts, fruits, the eggs of birds, insects, reptiles, and the smaller quadrupeds; its noxious qualities are consequently few and of slight moment, and by no means justify the exterminating war unintermittently waged against it.” (Brande.) Its “muscular strength is great, its bite proverbially powerful; and a dog must be trained and encouraged to enter willingly into combat” with it. (Id.)

Uses, &c. The flesh of the badger is prized as food; the skin used for pistol furniture; the hair made into brushes. The American badger is commonly called the GROUND-HOG. The Cape badger produces HYRACEUM (which see).

=BAD′IANE= (-e-ăhn). [Fr.] Syn. BAD′IAN, B.-SEED. Star-anise seed.

=BADI′′GEON= (bă-dĭzh′ōne; băd′-e-zhŭn‡, or bă-dĭj′ŭn‡——Smart). Among operatives and artists, any cement used to fill up holes and to cover defects in their work. Among statuaries, a mixture of plaster and free-stone is commonly used for this purpose; among joiners and carpenters, a mixture of sawdust and glue, or of whiting and glue; and among coopers, one of tallow and chalk. The name is also given to a stone-coloured mixture used for the fronts of houses, and said to be composed of wood-dust and lime, slaked together, stone powder, and a little ochre, umber, or sienna; the whole being mixed up with weak alum water to the consistence of paint, and laid on in dry weather.

=BAEL.= [Nat.] Syn. INDIAN BAEL, BEL*; BAEL, B. IN′DICUS, BE′LA, B. IN′DICA, L. The œg′le marmelos (Correa; cratæva m., Linn.) one of the Aurantiaceæ (DC.). Dried half-ripe fruit imported from the E. Indies, under the name of INDIAN BAEL. Astringent and refrigerant; highly extolled in chronic dysentery, diarrhœa, English cholera, and relaxations generally. It is also used in bilious fevers, hypochondriasis, melancholia, &c. Root-bark, stem-bark, and expressed juice of the leaves, particularly the first, also used in the same cases in India. Ripe fruit fragrant and delicious; used, in the E. I., as a warm cathartic, and regarded as a certain cure for habitual costiveness. Mucus of the seeds used by painters as size; also as a cement. Unripe fruit used to dye yellow. It is generally administered under the form of DECOCTION or EXTRACT (which see).

=BAGASSE′= (-găs′). [Fr.] The dry refuse stalks of the sugar cane as they leave the crushing-mill.——Used as fuel in the colonial sugar-houses.

=BAGG′ING.= The cloth or materials of which bags or sacks are made. In agriculture, applied to a method of reaping corn by a chopping, instead of a drawing cut. See RATS, &c.

=BAHIA POWDER.= See ARAROBA.

=BAHR’S NON-POISONOUS MEDICAL SNUFF.= A snuff largely advertised in the Berlin journals, composed chiefly of powdered galls. (Hager.)

=BAIN-MARIE.= [Fr.] In old chemistry, a water bath; also, sometimes, a sand bath. In cookery, a shallow vessel containing heated water, in which saucepans, &c., are placed, when it is necessary either to make them hot, or to keep them so, without allowing them to boil. It is extremely useful in making sauces, warming soups and small dishes, and when dinners are delayed after they are ready to be served.

=BA′′KING= (bāke′-). Syn. ACTION DE CUIRE AU FOUR, Fr. The process of cooking, or of heating, drying, and hardening any substance in an oven or kiln, or by the rays of the sun; the art or trade of a baker‡; also technically, a batch or ovenful, or the quantity baked at once (= FOURNÉE, Fr.).

In cookery, baking is, perhaps, of all others, the cheapest, most convenient, and best way of dressing dinners for small families, where a good domestic oven is at hand. Though the flavour of baked meat is generally considered barely equal to that of the same parts roasted, there are some joints and dishes to which it appears particularly suitable. Among these may be mentioned legs and loins of pork, legs and shoulders of mutton, fillets of veal, &c. A baked pig, if it has been occasionally basted, and the heat has not been too great, eats equal to a roast one. Geese and ducks treated in the same way are also excellent. A baked hare which has been basted with raw milk and butter also eats well; and so do various pieces of beef, especially the buttock. Cooks tell us that this last should be sprinkled with a little salt for a day or two before dressing it, and after being washed is preferably baked, along with about a pint of water, in a glazed earthen pan tied over with writing paper, ‘three or four times thick.’ A baked ham is said to be preferable to a boiled one; to be tenderer, fuller of gravy, and finer flavoured. It should be soaked in water for about an hour, wiped dry, and covered with a coarse thin paste or batter. Ordinary dishes require similar treatment in baking to that given them when roasted.

For domestic use, where the kitchen-range does not include a really good oven, the portable articles known as a ‘DUTCH-OVEN,’ and an ‘American oven,’ form an excellent substitute, admirably adapted for small joints, poultry, &c., all of which, when these utensils are skilfully employed, possess a delicacy and flavour fully equal to the same when roasted; whilst not more than one half the fire is required for the purpose. According to Miss Acton they also “answer excellently for delicate sweet puddings, and for cakes.” See BREAD, CAKES, ROASTING, &c.

=Baking Pow′der.= See POWDERS.

=Baking Powder, American.= For making light pastry. Tartaric acid and chalk. (Reichardt.)

=Baking Powder, Borwick’s German=, is an artificial fermentation powder, compounded with coarse maize-flour. (Gädike.)

=Baking Powder, Goodall’s=, is a compound of 2 parts of rice flour with 1 part of a mixture of tartaric acid and bicarbonate of soda. (K. Boschan.)

=Baking Powder or Yeast Powder, Professor Horsford’s= (Cambridge, U.S.). This is a powder supplied in two packets. The one contains an acid phosphate of lime and magnesia made up with a certain quantity of flour, and the other is bicarbonate of soda, with a little chloride of potassium.

=BAL′ANCE.= As in the process of what is termed gravimetric analysis the chemist has to determine the weights of the different substances employed as well as found, it will be self-evident that for his results to be trustworthy the balance he employs must be perfectly accurate and reliable.

The accompanying drawing, from Roscoe, represents a common form of chemical balance.

The apparatus consists of a perforated brass beam (AA), vibrating about its centre, at which is fixed a triangular knife-edge of agate (C); this rests upon a horizontal agate plane attached to the upright brass pillar. To each end of the beam light brass pans (BB) are hung, each pan being suspended by an agate plane, upon an agate knife-edge fixed on the end of the beam at DD. This arrangement is rendered necessary in order to reduce as much as possible the friction of the edges on their supports, which friction, if unchecked, would seriously impair the sensibility of the balance.

In order to prevent the agate edges being worn away by constantly rubbing on the agate planes, the beam and the ends (DD) are supported by the brass arm (EE), when the balance is not in use, so that the agate surfaces are not in contact. The beam and pans are released when required by turning the handle (F). The movement of the brass arm (EE) is accompanied by means of a rod descending through the upright brass pillar, and resting on a simple eccentric, by the turning of which by the handle (F) it may be gradually raised or lowered. The substance to be weighed (held by a tube, watch glass, &c.) is placed in one of the pans, and weights added one by one in the other, until the beam is in equilibrium: this is ascertained by the long pointer(G) oscillating to an equal distance on each side of the central mark or index, this latter being subdivided into equal spaces, so that the oscillations can be measured. A spirit level is also a necessary appendage to the instrument, since it enables the operator to place the beam on an exactly horizontal level.

The beam of the balance is generally graduated into decimals. This saves the trouble of placing a weight on the scale, since it enables the operator to weigh the milligramme and its fractions by suspending a centigramme rider or hook on or between the indicated points of a graduated line.

The balance is enclosed in a glass case, which serves not only to protect it from dust, but to allow of the weighing being carried on away from the outer air, in which the prevalence of draughts proves a source of considerable annoyance to the weigher. The front of the scale case generally consists of three parts, viz. a fixed centre piece and two lateral frames or doors, all of course of glass. It is of importance that the air inside the balance case should be perfectly dry, since a humid atmosphere would not only affect the weight of many hygroscopic substances when placed in the pans, but likewise be liable to attack the instrument itself. To guard against these casualties a small beaker containing oil of vitriol, or chloride of calcium, or freshly-burnt lime, should be kept in the case. A balance capable of weighing 70 or 80 grammes in each scale will be found to meet the needs of most chemists.

Fresenius says, “The ACCURACY of a balance depends upon the following conditions:

“a. The fulcrum must be placed above the centre of gravity of the beam.

“b. The suspension points of the scales must be on an exact level with the fulcrum.

“c. The beam must be sufficiently strong and inflexible to bear without bending the greatest weight that the construction of the balance admits of.

“d. The arms of the balance must be of equal length; i.e. the points of suspension must be equidistant from the fulcrum or point of support.

“The SENSIBILITY or DELICACY of a balance depends upon the following conditions:

“a. The friction of the edges upon their supports must be as slight as possible.

“b. The centre of gravity must be as near as possible to the fulcrum.

“c. The beam must be as light as possible.”

The following are the tests given by the same authority for the accuracy and sensibility of a balance:

“1. The balance is in the first place accurately adjusted, if necessary, either by the regulating screws, or by means of tinfoil, and a milligramme weight is then placed in one of the scales. A good and practically useful balance must turn distinctly with this weight; a delicate chemical balance should indicate the one tenth of a milligramme with perfect distinctness.

“2. Both scales are loaded with the maximum weight the construction of the balance will admit of; the balance is then accurately adjusted, and a milligramme added to the weight in one scale. This ought to cause the balance to turn to the same extent as in 1. In most balances, however, it shows somewhat less on the index.

“3. The balance is accurately adjusted should it be necessary to establish a perfect equilibrium between the scales by loading the one with a minute portion of tinfoil (this tinfoil must be left remaining upon the scale during the experiment); both scales are then equally loaded, say with about fifty grammes each, and if necessary the balance is again adjusted (by the addition of small weights, &c.). The load of the two scales is then interchanged, so as to transfer that of the right scale to the left, and vice versâ. A balance with perfectly equal arms must maintain its absolute equilibrium upon the interchange of the weights of the two scales.

“4. The balance is accurately adjusted; it is then arrested, subsequently set in motion, and again allowed to recover its equilibrium; the same process should be repeated several times. A good balance must invariably reassume its original equilibrium.

“A balance of which the end edges afford too much play to the hook resting upon them, so as to allow the latter slightly to alter its position, will show perceptible differences in different trials. This fault, however, is possible only with balances of defective construction.

“A balance to be perfectly useful for the purposes of quantitative analysis must stand the first, second, and last of these tests. A slight inequality of the arms is of no great consequence, since this may be readily and completely remedied by the manner of weighing.” See WEIGHTS.

=Balance, Hydrostat′ic.= See SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

=Balance, Tor′sion.= A delicate instrument, invented by Coulomb, for measuring the intensities of the electrical and magnetic forces.

=BALD′NESS= (bawld′-). Syn. CAL′VITAS, CALVI′′TIES (vĭsh′-e-ēz), L.; CALVITIE, CHAUVETÉ, Fr.; KAHLHEIT, KAHLKOPF, KAHLKÖPFIGHEIT, Ger. Primarily, absence or loss of any natural covering; appr., destitution or loss of hair, more especially of that of the top and fore-part of the head. In botany, absence of beard or awn.

Grey hair and baldness dependent on old age are natural consequences of man’s infirmity, and must be regarded as evidence of failing vigour, rather than in the light of a disease. Premature loss of hair may be induced by various causes. It is common after severe fevers, and is frequently caused by external pressure, friction, or violence, and by such other local actions and conditions which, when long continued, interrupt the normal functions of the skin. Persons with a consumptive, scorbutic, scrofulous, or syphilitic taint, or of a general bad habit of body, frequently lose their hair early. In these cases it probably arises from debility or paralysis of the cutaneous vessels, and the consequent insufficient nutrition of the hair-bulbs. When it occurs in persons under the middle age, and apparently enjoying good health, it may be often traced to the pernicious practice of constantly wearing a hard non-ventilating hat, or to disordered stomach, habitual smoking or hard drinking, irregular habits, or late hours. Excessive anxiety or grief, and intense study and thoughtfulness, also tend to promote the early decay of the hair. The natural baldness of the aged, and frequently the premature baldness of earlier years, arises from the gradual attenuation of the scalp, which ultimately becomes too thin to afford room for the performance of the functions of the hair-producing organs, and too scantily supplied with blood for their due nutrition and support.[104]

[Footnote 104: In such cases it will be found that, owing to this attenuation, the scalp covers a larger portion of the skull than previously; and that its sides have somewhat receded from the top of the head, so that the roots of the remaining hair descend lower towards the forehead, temples, and back of the neck, than when the parts were in vigorous health. This may be perceived by applying the open hand to the part, and then gently closing the fingers, when the scalp may be drawn into its original position, and will then appear loose and wrinkled over the occiput, &c.; and this in a manner very different to what occurs when the top of the head is covered, or well-covered, with hair.]

Treatm. The baldness of senility and that arising from the permanent injury or destruction of the hair-bulbs, admit of no cure, notwithstanding the daily assurances of advertising impostors to the contrary. In other cases, when a disposition to baldness exists, shown by the hair falling off in large quantities, or ceasing to grow with its usual vigour and rapidity, the frequent but gentle use of the hair-brush, and of any bland stimulating oil, pomade, or wash, if adopted in time, will generally prove sufficient to arrest the progress of decay, and, very frequently, to restore the hair to its pristine condition. The head may be advantageously washed in cold water, at least once a day; or what is better, a shower bath may be taken on rising in the morning. Should this plan not succeed, the head, or the upper part of it, may be shaved, and a wig, or a scalp, adopted for a time. The effect of keeping the hair closely cropped or shaved is to make it grow thicker, stiffer, and stronger, and this often when all other means fail.

Among more active and less common remedies for baldness may be mentioned——mild streaming electricity, stimulant fomentations, cantharidised, ioduretted, phosphoretted, &c., oils and lotions, a night-cap that, without pressing injuriously on the head, lifts, as it were, the scalp into its natural position, &c., all of which are noticed elsewhere.

The celebrated John Wesley recommended rubbing the part morning and evening with a raw onion until it became red, and then applying a little honey. The vendors of Rowland’s ‘Macassar Oil’ recommend the head to be rubbed with a towel (or hair-brush), until somewhat red, each time before applying their nostrum; and the advice is certainly good, as independent of the stimulus thus given to the skin, and the increased flow of blood through the minute vessels of the scalp, it is rendered more absorbent and sensitive to the action of medicaments. At the same time the reader must be cautioned against placing any reliance on external applications, unless he assists their action by due attention to diet, exercise, ventilation, and such other matters as tend to promote the general health and vigour of the body.

The substances usually employed to medicate hair-cosmetics, the general management of the hair, and the formulæ for various applications to promote its growth, preservation, and beauty, are noticed in the articles HAIR, HAIR-COSMETICS, POMADES, OILS, WASHES, &c., to which the reader is referred.

=BALEEN′= (-lēne′). [Fr. baleine.] The fisher’s name for whalebone.

=BALL= (bawl). [Eng., Ger., Swed.] Syn. BALLE, BOULE, Fr.; BAL, BOL, Dau.; GLOB-U-LUS, PI′LA, L. In commerce, veterinary medicine, perfumery, &c., applied to various substances made up into a globular, spheroidal, or even a cylindrical form, as ash-balls, horse-balls, soap-balls, &c.

=BALLOON′= (-lōōn’). Syn. BALLON, Fr., Ger. Any hollow spherical body of which the sides are extremely thin or attenuated in comparison with its diameter or bulk. In aërostatics, a machine or apparatus for elevating and sustaining bodies in the air. In chemistry, a globular glass-receiver, with either one or two necks (= GROS RÉCIEIENT, FR.; GROSSE R., Ger.). In pyrotechny, a hollow case or ball of pasteboard filled with fire-works or combustibles, which explodes in the air on being fired from a mortar.

=Balloon.= In aërostation, a bag or hollow pear-shaped vessel, made of varnished silk or other light material, and inflated with some gas or vapour lighter than the air, as hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen, heated air, &c., so as to rise and float in the atmosphere. When filled with gas it is called by way of distinction an AIR-BALLOON (aérostat, &c., Fr., lufball, luft-schiff, &c., Ger.); when with heated air, a FIRE-BALLOON or MONTGOLFIER B. (ballon à feu, &c., Fr.).

In the early days of aërostation, and indeed for some years afterwards, balloons were inflated with hydrogen gas, obtained by the action of sulphuric acid and water on iron filings or small fragments of iron; but this method of filing them ultimately gave place to the cheaper and more convenient supply afforded by the gas-light companies. Of late years, the coal-gas furnished by the gas-works has been generally, if not solely, used for the inflation of balloons.

The principles of ballooning may be referred to the well-known difference in the specific gravity of bodies, and to the physical properties of the atmosphere. Pure hydrogen, weighed at the level of the sea, is about 16 times lighter than common air; but when prepared on the large scale, and containing water, and other impurities, it is only from 7 to 11 times lighter than the atmosphere. A globe of atmospheric air of 1 foot in diameter, under like circumstances, weighs 1/25 lb.; a similar globe of hydrogen (reckoning it only as 6 times lighter than common air, will, therefore, have an ascensional force of 1/30 lb.). Now, the weight of the body of air which a balloon displaces must exceed the gross weight of the balloon and all its appendages, in order for the latter to ascend in the atmosphere. The difference of the two weights expresses the ascensional force. The aërostatic power of balloons is proportional to their dimensions, in the ratio of the cubes of their diameters. Thus, it appears that a balloon of 60 feet diameter filled with common hydrogen will ascend with a weight of nearly 7000 lbs., besides the gas case; whilst one of only 1-1/2 foot in diameter will barely float, owing to the less proportionate volume of gas to the weight of the case containing it. In round numbers the buoyancy of a balloon may be reckoned as equal to 1 oz. for every cubic foot of hydrogen it contains, less the weight of the case and appendages. The carburetted hydrogen supplied by the gas-works is much heavier than hydrogen gas, and consequently much less buoyant, for which due allowance must be made. That which possesses the least illuminating power is the lightest, and consequently the best adapted for aërostation.

The fabric of which the cases of air-balloons are made is strong thin silk, covered with an elastic varnish of drying oil or india rubber, or, what is better, a solution of india rubber in either chloroform or bisulphide of carbon; the netting is of strong light silk or flaxen cord; and the car of basket-work. Fire-balloons, on the small scale, are generally made of silver-paper, and are inflated with the fumes of burning spirit of wine, by means of a sponge dipped in that liquid, and suspended just within the mouth of the apparatus.

Owing to the increasing rarity of the atmosphere as we ascend from the earth’s surface, balloon cases are made very much larger than is required to contain the necessary quantity of gas, to allow for its expansion as it rises into a rarer medium. A cubical foot of gas measured at the level of the sea occupies a space of two feet at an elevation of 3-1/2 miles.

The following Table will prove useful to the amateur aëronaut or balloonist:——

TABLE showing the relations between the diameters, surfaces, and capacities of spheres.

--------------------------------------------- | Diameters. | Surfaces. | Cubical contents.| --------------------------------------------- | 1 | 3·141 | ·523 | | 2 | 12·567 | 4·188 | | 3 | 28·274 | 14·137 | | 4 | 50·265 | 33·51 | | 5 | 78·54 | 65·45 | | 10 | 314·159 | 523·6 | | 15 | 706·9 | 1767·1 | | 20 | 1256·6 | 4189· | | 25 | 1963·5 | 8181· | | 30 | 2827· | 14137· | | 40 | 5026· | 33510· | ---------------------------------------------

See ATMOSPHERE, GAS, HYDROGEN, PARACHUTE, VARNISH, &c.

=BALLOON′ING‡.= Syn. BALLOON′RY†*. The act, art, or practice of ascending or travelling in balloons; aërostation. A BALLOON′IST‡ is an aëronaut (particularly an amateur or enthusiastic one).

=BALLS.= The application of this term in commerce, perfumery, veterinary medicine, &c., has been already noticed. (See BALL.) The following may be inserted here:——

=Balls, Al′mond= (ah′-mŭnd). Syn. BOULES D’AMANDE, Fr. Prep. 1. Spermaceti, 4 oz.; white wax (pure) 8 oz.; oil of almonds, 1 pint; melt them together in a glazed earthenware-vessel, by the heat of a water bath, and when the mixture has cooled a little, add essential oil of almonds, and expressed oil of mace, of each 2 dr.; stir assiduously until it begins to cool, and then pour it into the moulds, which may be ounce-gallipots with smooth bottoms (very slightly warmed), when it will form beautiful hemispherical cakes. Very fine.

2. Hard clarified suet, 1-1/4 lb.; white wax, 1/4 lb.; ess. oil of almonds, 1-1/2 dr.; oil of cloves (or of pimento), 1/2 dr.; as before.

Uses, &c. To soften the skin, and in winter to prevent chaps and chilblains. Sometimes these balls are coloured, which is done whilst the mixture is in the liquid state. A rich pink or red may be given by a little alkanet-root or dragon’s blood; a yellow, by palm oil or annotta; a blue, by a little finely powdered indigo; and a green, with spinage (steeped in the oil before use), or a few grains of verdigris. The most appropriate tint for them is a pale yellow or amber.

=Balls, Barèges= (-rāzhe’). Syn. BOULES DE BARÈGES, Fr. Prep. 1. Extract of soap-wort, 3 oz.; good glue or gelatin, 1-1/2 oz.; water, 4 oz.; dissolve with heat, and add of sulphide of calcium, 6 oz.; common salt, 1 oz. (both in powder); mix thoroughly, and form the mass into balls weighing 2-1/2 oz. each, adding a little powdered gum, if required, to thicken it, and using powdered starch to roll them in.

2. Gelatin, 8 oz.; sulphide of calcium, 12 oz.; common salt, 2 oz.; water, q. s.; after solution and admixture, add carbonate of soda and Castile soap, of each (in powder), 2-1/2 oz. One ball is added to the water of a bath for an adult, to be used as a substitute for that of Barèges.

=Balls, Bitter.= Prep. 1. Powdered gentian, 2 lbs.; extract of gentian, 1 lb.; grains of paradise (ground), 1/2 lb. syrup, q. s.; mix with heat, and divide into half-pound rolls. For ALE.

2. To the above add of Spanish-juice, 1-1/2 lb.; previously softened with a little boiling water For PORTER and STOUT. Both are used by fraudulent brewers; and by publicans in reducing their beer.

=Balls, Black′ing.= Prep. 1 (Bailey’s). Gum-tragacanth, 1 oz.; water, 4 oz.; dissolve, add of sugar candy, 4 oz.; and afterwards, ivory-black and Prussian blue (in very fine powder), of each 2 oz.; neat’s foot oil, 2 fl. oz.; thoroughly incorporate, and evaporate by a gentle heat, constantly stirring, until of a proper consistence, then pour it into oiled moulds.

2. Gum-arabic, moist sugar, and ivory-black, of each 1/2 lb.; lamp-black, 1/4 lb.; glue (melted with a little water), 2 oz.; water, 1 quart, or q. s.; neat’s foot oil, 1/4 pint; as before.——Used by the shoemakers, harness-makers, &c., to blacken and polish leather. See BALLS, HEEL.

=Balls, Breech′es.= See BALLS, SCOURING.

=Balls, Bronze.= See BALLS, COPYING.

=Balls, Cam′phor.= Syn. CAM′PHOR-CAKES, CHAP′-BALLS‡, CHIL′BLAIN B.‡, &c.; GLOB′ULI CAMPHORA′TI, PLACEN′TÆ CAMPHORA′TÆ, &c., L. Prep. 1. Spermaceti and white wax, of each 2 oz.; almond or olive oil, 1/4 pint; melt together by a gentle heat, add of camphor (in small pieces), 1 oz.; when dissolved, stir until partly cold, and then pour it into moulds, as directed under ALMOND-CAKES (above).

2. Clarified suet, 1 lb.; spermaceti and white wax, of each, 3 oz.; camphor, 2 oz.; as before.

3. Spermaceti cerate (Ph. L.), 1 lb.; spermaceti, 2 oz.; camphor, 1-1/2 oz.; as before.

4. To either of the above add of balsam of Peru, 1/4 to 1/2 oz.; and, after solution, either strain the mixture through muslin, or allow it to settle, and decant the clear portion from the dregs.

Use, &c. A popular preventive of chapping and chilblains. A little is well rubbed into the skin, previously washed clean and wiped dry. Some persons add colour and scent; but they are generally sold without either. The only suitable colours are amber, pink, or yellow. The best perfumes are allspice, ambergris, cassia, cloves, mush, nutmeg, rondoletia, vanilla, and violets. See BALLS, ALMOND (antè).

=Balls, Clothes.= See BALLS, SCOURING.

=Balls, Contrayer′va.= Syn. LA′PIS CONTRAYER′VÆ, GLOB′ULI C., L. Compound contrayerva-powder made into balls with gum-water. An obsolete preparation, once in great repute as a stimulant, tonic, diaphoretic, and absorbent.

=Balls, Cop′ying.= These have a similar composition to ‘heel-balls’ (see below). For BLACK, the best colouring matter is lamp-black or plumbago with about half its weight of indigo; for a BRONZE-COLOUR, bronze-powder is substituted; and for a mellow BROWN, burnt terra di Sienna. These should be all in very fine powder. The semi-fluid mass is poured into small flat cylindrical moulds——paper pill-boxes answer the purpose well.——Used by artists and amateurs to copy inscriptions, monumental brasses, and other slightly raised or sunken patterns; the ball being rubbed over the paper previously laid flat on the design, and held securely in its place. They are sometimes rendered more permanent by damping the wrong side with a sponge dipped in water, strong spirit, or oil of turpentine; or by passing the wrong side over a hot iron held with the face upwards.

=Balls, Cosmet′ic.= See SAVONETTES, &c. (also above).

=Balls, Cream.= See SAVONETTES, SOAP BALLS, &c.

=Balls, Dog.= See DOGS.

=Balls, Gas′coign’s.= Syn. GLOB′ULI GASCOIG′NII, L. Gascoign’s powder made up into small balls with thin mucilage. See POWDERS.

=Balls, Heel.= Prep. 1. (Ullathorne’s.) Bees’ wax, 1 lb.; suet, 4 oz.; melt together, and stir in of ivory-black (very finely powdered), 4 oz.; lamp-black (sifted), 3 oz.; gum arabic and sugar-candy, of each (in very fine powder) 2 oz.; and, when thoroughly mixed and partly cold, pour the composition into tin or leaden moulds.

2. To the last add of resin, 3 oz.; oil of turpentine, 2 oz.

3. Hard suet and bees’ wax, of each 4 oz.; powdered gum, sugar candy, and Venice turpentine, of each 1 oz.; ivory-black and lamp-black, of each 2 oz.; as before.

4. Suet and bees’ wax, of each 4 oz.; lamp-black and brown sugar, of each 8 oz.; common size, 5 oz.; melt together and stir until incorporated.

Uses, &c. Employed to black leather, and more especially by shoemakers for the edges of the soles; the ball being first rubbed on, and the part afterwards smoothed over with a burnisher or polished iron tool gently heated. Also used by artists to copy inscriptions, basso relievos, &c. To produce a good article, the gum, colouring matter, and sugar, must be in the state of extremely fine powder, and the mixture very carefully made; no lumps being left. Some persons dissolve the gum in a little water, and then stir the mixture over the fire until it acquires the proper consistence for moulding (as in No. 4, above); but the first is accounted the best method.

=Balls, Horse.= See VETERINARY MEDICINE, &c.

=Balls, Martial.= Syn. GLOB′ULI MARTIA′LES, L. Prep. 1. Those of the P. Cod. consist of tartarised iron mixed with aromatics, and made up into small globular masses.

2. (BOULES DE NANCY.) Equal parts of iron filings and red tartar, in fine powder, made into balls with proof spirit or brandy. Both are used as chalybeate tonics, either in the form of pills or dissolved in hot water. Seldom employed in England.

=Balls, Physic.= (Vet. Med.) See MASSES.

=Balls, Poultry.= See POULTRY.

=Balls, Scent.= See PASTILS (Toilet), PERFUMERY, POMAMBRA, SCENTS, &c.

=Balls, Scouring.= Syn. BREECH′ES BALLS, CLOTHES B., CARPET B., &c. Prep. 1. Curd soap (sliced), 1 lb.; water, 2 oz.; melt in a water bath, or a glue-pot, and when cooled a little, add ox-gall and oil of turpentine, of each, 5-1/2 oz.; mix well and roll or mould the mass into balls or cakes.

2. Fuller’s earth, 2 lbs.; curd-soap, 1 lb.; beat to a stiff paste with ox-gall, q. s.

3. Soft soap and fuller’s earth, equal parts, beat up with a little oil of turpentine, and either with or without a little essence of lemons.——Obs. The above are used to remove paint, grease, and dirt from cloth, carpets, &c. The spot, first moistened with hot water, is rubbed with the cake, and allowed to soak a few minutes, or to become nearly dry, when it is well rubbed with a little warm water and a brush or piece of woollen cloth, and afterwards rinsed in clean water, and finally rubbed dry and smoothed off with a piece of dry cloth or a dry brush. The last formula produces the composition so commonly vended about the streets of London in penny cakes.

4. Whiting and pipe-clay, equal parts; water, q. s. Used for soldiers’ belts, trousers, &c.

5. Pipe-clay, 2 lbs.; fuller’s earth, 1 lb.; whiting, 1/2 lb.; water, q. s.

6. Bath brick, 1 lb.; pipe-clay, 2 lbs.; soft soap, 1/4 lb.; ox-gall, 1/2 pint.

7. To the last add of pumice-stone, in very fine powder, 6 oz.——Obs. The last four are used for cloth and leather, especially for drab and light-coloured coats, trousers, leather breeches, belts, and gloves. Rose pink, yellow ochre, umber, Irish slate, or other like colouring matter, may be added to produce any desired tint. White pepper, cloves, &c., are also occasionally added to drive away moths and insects; and orris root, or essence of bergamot or of lemon-grass, as perfume.

=Balls, Sweet.= See BALLS, SCENT (antè).

=Balls, Tan.= The muddy sediment of tan-pits made into balls or lumps.——Used by the poor for summer fuel.

=Balls, Wash.= See SAVONETTES, SOAP, &c.

=BALM= (bahm). Syn. BAL′SAMUM, L.; BAUME, Fr.; BALSAM, Ger. Primarily, balsam (of which it is a contraction); formerly and still popularly applied to anything assumed to be soothing, healing, or genial in its action, particularly if also aromatic or fragrant; but chiefly to medicines and liqueurs, supposed to possess these properties. See BALSAMS, LIQUEURS, QUACK MEDICINES, &c.

=Balm.= Syn. COM′MON BALM, GAR′DEN B.; MELIS′SA, L.; BAUME, MÉLISSE, Fr. The melis′sa officina′lis (Linn.), an aromatic perennial herb, a native of the south of Europe, but commonly cultivated in our gardens. It is reputed to be diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, exhilarating, nervine, and stomachic; and under the form of infusion (BALM-TEA) has long been a popular remedy in hypochondriacal, hysterical, and nervous affections, and in amenorrhœa and chlorosis. It is still sometimes ordered as a drink in fevers and in hypochondriasis.

=Balm of a Thousand Flowers.= Chandler says this is a thick yellow emulsion, free from injurious metallic ingredients.

=Balm of White Lilies=, for preserving and beautifying the skin (H. A. Hoadley, New York). This, also according to Chandler, is a red-coloured water containing a large quantity of chalk in suspension, but with no injurious metallic ingredient.

=BAL′SAM= (bawl′-săm; -sŭm‡§——Knowles, Walker). [Eng., Ger.] Syn. BAL′SAMUM (băl′-), L.; BAUME, Fr. Originally, any strong-scented oleo-resinous vegetable juice or exudation, of about the fluidity of treacle, and supposed to possess medicinal virtues. In modern chemistry and pharmacy, any vegetable production which is either semi-liquid, or which naturally becomes concrete, and which contains either benzoic acid, or cinnamic acid, combined with resin and aromatic essential oil. Several of the substances popularly termed balsams contain no benzoic acid, and are consequently now classed with the turpentines. This distinction, however, is far from being universally adopted, and a late high authority defines balsams to be “Exudations from plants, which are liquid or soft solid, and consist of a substance resembling a resin, either combined with benzoic acid, or with an essential oil, or both.” (Brande.)

The leading properties of the true natural balsams are——Insolubility in water, almost entire solubility in alcohol, and partial solubility in ether and in the volatile and fixed oils; the possession of a powerful, and generally, an agreeable odour, a hot, resinous or terebinthinate taste, and the usual stimulant and tonic properties of the milder turpentines. Distilled with water, ethereal oil and some acid pass over, and the residuum consists chiefly or entirely of acid-resin.

The TRUE BALSAMS, as those of benzoin Peru, styrax, and tolu, and the celebrated Chinese varnish-balsam, contain either benzoic or cinnamic acid. Among those falsely termed balsams, are copaiba, opobalsam, Japan lac-varnish, and some of the turpentines.

The following list includes most of the substances, natural and artificial, which pass, or have passed, under the name of balsams:[105]——

[Footnote 105: For articles and preparations often called ‘balsams’, and not found under this head, see ELIXIRS, OILS, PATENT MEDICINES, PERFUMERY, TINCTURES, &c. &c.]

=Balsam, Acous′tic.= See DROPS.

=Balsam, Amer′ican†.= Balsam of Peru.

=Balsam, An′odyne.= Syn. SOOTH′ING BALSAM; BAL′SAMUM ANO′DYNUM (-dĭn-), B. TRANQUIL′LANS, L.; BAUME ANODIN, B. TRANQUILLE, B. TRANQUILLISANT, &c., Fr. Prep. 1. (Bate’s.) See PATENT MEDICINES.

2. (Guy’s.) A vulnerary balsam invented by Guy, of Caliac, once in great repute, but now obsolete. It consisted of aloes, amber, ammoniacum, balsam of Peru, bdellium, caranna, castor, galbanum, labdanum, myrrh, olibanum, storax, tacamahaca, and Venice turpentine, digested in alcohol.

3. (B. TRANQUILLANS, P. Cod.) Fresh leaves of belladonna, henbane, night-shade, tobacco, poppy, stramonium, of each two ounces; dried leaves of costermary, rosemary, rue, and sage, of each half an ounce; dried tops of wormwood, hyssop, sweet marjoram, peppermint, buckbean, and thyme, of each half an ounce; flowers of lavender and elder, of each half an ounce; olive oil, fifty ounces. Heat the green plants in the oil gently until all their water is dissipated; keep on the fire until the oil becomes of a green colour, and whilst still hot, mix in the other plants, carefully dried, and cut up. Digest for twelve hours on a water bath, strain, and filter.

4. (BAUME TRANQUILLE DE CHOMEL.) Henbane, hound’s tongue, and tobacco, of each 1 lb.; white wine, 3 pints; boil down to a quart; press, strain, and add to the hot ‘strained liquor’ of olive oil, 1 quart, and again boil.

=Balsam, Ap′oplexy.= Syn. BAL′SAMUM APOPLEC′TICUM, B. AD APOPLEC′TICOS (Ph. E. 1744), L. Prep. 1. Amber, civet, musk, Peruvian balsam, and some volatile oils, made into a balsam.

2. (Ph. E. 1744) Expressed oil of nutmeg, 1 oz.; liquefy by a gentle heat, and stir in of the oils of cloves, lavender, and rosemary, of each, 1/2 dr.; oil of amber, 10 drops; balsam of Peru, 1 dr. Both were formerly used to anoint the head and nostrils of apoplectic patients, and were believed to be of great efficacy.

=Balsam, Asiat′ic†.= Balm of Gilead.

=Balsam, Bate’s.= See BALSAM, ANODYNE.

=Balsam, Berlin=, for burns, cuts, bruises, and wounds of every kind, sores and ulcers, frost-bites, &c. Chloride of lime with impure glycerine.

=Balsam Bilfinger=, for rheumatism and gout. Black soap, 25 grms.; water, 40 grms.; spirit of wine, 10 grms.; camphorated spirit, 10 grms.; liquor ammoniæ caustic, 20 grms.; tinct. capsici, 5 grms. (Schädler.)

=Balsam, Brazilian.= Balsam of copaiba.

=Balsam, Calaba′.= Syn. TACAMAHA′CA. A fragrant resinous substance produced by calophyl′lum cal′aba, or Santa Maria tree.

=Balsam, Cam′phor.= Syn. CAM′PHORATED BALSAM; BAL′SAMUM CAMPHORA′TUM, &c., L. Prep. 1. As camphor-liniment, Ph. L.

2. (B. ACE′TICUM C., Sanchez’s GOUT-B.:——Pelletier.) Curd-soap and camphor, of each 5 drs.; oil of thyme, 2 scru.; acetic ether, 5 oz.; digest together in a stoppered bottle until the solids are dissolved. Recommended as an efficacious anodyne liniment in certain forms of rheumatism and gout.

=Balsam, Can′ada.= See TURPENTINES.

=Balsam, Cana′ry.= A volatile oleaginous substance obtained by distillation from draco-ceph′alum Moldavi′cum.

=Balsam, Carpa′thian.= Riga Balsam.

=Balsam, Cephal′ic.= (Saxon.) Syn. BAL′SAMUM CEPHALI′CUM SAXON′ICUM, L. A liquid preparation obtained from the essential oils of amber, lavender, marjoram, nutmeg, pennyroyal, rue, sage, &c., distilled together. Once in high repute; but long disused in England.

=Balsam, Chil′blain.= See LINIMENTS.

=Balsam, Chi′na Varnish.= The aromatic varnish-like exudation of au′gia sinen′sis, used by the Chinese as a varnish or lacquer, for which purpose it is, perhaps, unequalled. It is highly fragrant, and abounds in benzoic acid.

=Balsam, Command′er’s†.= Compound tincture of benzoin.

=Balsam, Copalm′.= Liquid-ambar.

=Balsam Egyp′tian.= Balm of Mecca.

=Balsam, Eye, Augsburg.= Red oxide of mercury, ·75 grm.; extract of belladonna, ·5 grm.; tincture of opium, ·5 grm.; fatty substance, 7 grms. (Hager.)

=Balsam, Eye= (Müller, Berlin). Red oxide of mercury, 5 parts; opium, 3 parts; unsalted butter, 100 parts.

=Balsam, Eye=, (Müller’s Widow, Berlin). Red oxide of mercury, ·2 grm.; unsalted, unusually rancid, butter, 10 grms.

=Balsam, Fe′male.= Syn. BAL′SAMUM EMBRYO′NUM, A′QUA E., L. An obsolete preparation made by digesting misletoe, civet, musk, and several other aromatics, in a mixture of wine and various medicated waters, and submitting the whole to distillation. Formerly taken both internally and externally, as a tonic for both fœtus and mother; and particularly to prevent abortion, &c.

=Balsam, Fri′ar’s.= Compound tincture of benzoin.

=Balsam, Gen′oa.= Locatelle’s balsam.

=Balsam, Glyc′erin= (glĭs′-). Syn. BAL′SAMUM GLY̆̆CERI′NÆ, L. Prep. To white wax and spermaceti, of each, 1 oz.; almond oil, 1/2 lb.; melted together, add of glycerin, 2 oz.; balsam of Peru, 1/2 oz.; and stir or agitate until nearly cold. 12 or 15 drops of otto of roses may be substituted for the balsam.——Used to soften and whiten the skin, and to prevent chaps and chilblains.

=Balsam, God′bold’s Vegetable.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Balsam, Goulard’s′.= Syn. BAL′SAMUM GOULAR′DII, B. SATUR′NI, L.; BAUME DE GOULARD, Fr. Prep. (Van Mons.) Acetate of lead (in fine powder, and quite dry) is triturated, for some time, with hot oil of turpentine, in a heated mortar, or until no more will dissolve; after repose, and whilst still hot, the clear portion is decanted. Recommended as a useful application to foul and painful ulcers, and to scalds and burns.

=Balsam, Green.= Syn. BAL′SAMUM VIR′IDE, &c., L.; BAUME VERT, Fr. Prep. 1. Linseed-oil, 6 lbs.; gum-elemi, 1 lb.; heat them together; add of powdered verdigris, 3 oz., or q. s. to impart a rich green colour, and, after repose, decant the clear portion.

2. Linseed oil strongly coloured with verdigris. Both were formerly much used by surgeons as detergents. ‘Green-oil’ or ‘oil of elder-leaves’ is now commonly sold for it.

A natural balsam, brought from Peru, and produced by chlorox′ylon verticilla′tum, is also popularly called GREEN BALSAM (of Peru).

=Balsam, Guaiacum.= (Ph. Lond. 1745.) Guaiac, 1 lb.; balsam of Peru, 3 dr.; rect. spirit, 2 pints.

=Balsam, Gurgun′= (-gōōn’) Syn. GURGI′NA BALSAM, WOOD-OIL (of India). From dipterocar′pus tri′nervis, and other species, by applying a slow fire to a notch or wound made in the trunk. Has a mixed smell of copaiba and naphtha. Properties and dose similar to those of balsam of copaiba. Sp. gr. ·962 to ·964. See COPAIBA and WOOD-OIL.

=Balsam, Hill’s, of Honey.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Balsam, Hungarian.= Syn. BAL′SAMUM HUNGAR′ICUM, L. A terebinthinate exudation from the extremities of the branches of pi′nus pumil′io (Willd.) or mountain-pine. It is also obtained by pressure from the ‘cones’ of the same tree.

=Balsam, Ioduretted.= See LINIMENTS.

=Balsam, Japan Varnish.= Syn. JAPAN LACQ′UER. Exudes from incisions made in the trunk of melanorrhœ′a usitatis′sima, according to Wallich; or stagma′′ria, avernicif′lua according to Lindley. It constitutes the celebrated lac-varnish of the Japanese. It differs from that of China, and from the true balsams, in not containing benzoic acid. It is extremely acrid and irritant; and even its fumes affect the eyes and respiration.

=Balsam†, Jews′.= Balm of Gilead.

=Balsam of Life, Professor Cook’s.= Recommended especially for toothache and skin diseases. Borax, 20 parts; boiling water, 250 parts; camphor, 1-1/2 part. (Hager.)

=Balsam, Locatelle’s′.= Syn. LOCATEL′LI’S BALSAM; BAL′SAMUM LOCATEL′LI, B. LUCATEL′LI, B. ITAL′ICUM, B. GENOFE′VÆ, &c., L. var. Prep. 1. (Original Formula.) Olive oil, 6 oz.; yellow wax, 4 oz.; sherry wine, 5 fl. oz.; red sanders (in very fine powder), 4 dr.; simmer them together until the moisture is nearly evaporated, then add of Strasburgh turpentine, 6 oz.; balsam of Peru, 2 dr.; strain through linen, and stir until nearly cold.

2. (Ph. E. 1744.) Olive oil, 24 fl. oz.; yellow wax, 1 lb.; melt, and add of Venice turpentine, 1-1/2 lb.; and, when cooled a little, further add, powdered dragon’s blood, 1 oz.; balsam of Peru, 2 oz.; and stir until cold.

3. (Ph. L. 1746.) Olive oil, 16 fl. oz.; Venice turpentine and yellow wax, of each 1/2 lb.; red sanders, 6 dr.

Uses, &c. A once highly esteemed pectoral, and still occasionally used, by the lower classes, in phthisis and chronic coughs (mixed with an equal weight of conserve of roses), and as a mild stimulating ointment.——Dose, 1/2 dr. or more.

=Balsam, Mercu′′rial†.= Ointment of nitrate of mercury.

=Balsam, Metz’s.= Syn. BAL′SAMUM VIR′IDE METEN′SIUM, L.; BAUME VERT DE METZ, Fr. Prep. (Guibourt.) Linseed oil and olive oil, of each 6 oz.; oil of laurel-berries, 1 oz.; common turpentine, 2 oz.; melt by a gentle heat, and add of verdigris 3 dr.; aloes, 2 dr.; sulphate of zinc, 1-1/2 dr. (all in powder); mix well, strain or pour the liquid into a bottle, and add oil of juniper, 4 dr.; oil of cloves, 1 dr. Used on the Continent as a common detergent dressing to wounds and ulcers.

=Balsam, Mex′ican†.= Balsam of Peru.

=Balsam, Nat′ural†.= That which exudes from plants, as opposed to those formed by art.

=Balsam, Ner′vine.= See OINTMENTS.

=Balsam, Odontal′gic.= See DROPS.

=Balsam, Opodel′doc.= See OPODELDOC (French).

=Balsam, Pec′toral.= Syn. BAL′SAMUM PECTORA′LE, L.; BAUME PECTORAL, Fr. Prep. 1. Tincture of tolu and compound tincture of benzoin, of each, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 4 oz.; mix. Dose, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful, night and morning; in chronic coughs, hoarseness, &c.

2, 3. See BALSAM OF HONEY, B. OF HOREHOUND, &c.

=Balsam, Persian†.= Friar’s Balsam.

=Balsam, Peru′′vian.= See BALSAM OF PERU.

=Balsam, Poly′chrest.= Syn. ELIXIR POLYCHRESTON. (E. 1745.) Guaiacum, 6 oz.; balsam of Peru, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 32 oz. Digest in a sand bath for 4 days, and add oil of sassafras, 2 dr.

=Balsam, Poser’s= (E. Gross, Breslau), for chronic and local rheumatism. A yellow liquid, composed of:——Oil of rosemary, 4 grms.; camphor, 10 grms.; tincture of ants, 15 grms.; tincture of cantharides, 5 grms.; spirit of wine, 90 grms.; tincture of saffron, 10 drops. (Hager.)

=Balsam, Potsdam= (aromatic balsamic perfume). Liquid storax, 4 grms.; cloves, 2 grms.; oil of cloves, 3 grms.; oil of cassia, 1 grm.; oils of bergamot, lemon, and lavender, āā, 2 grms.; oil of curled mint, 1/4 grm.; rectified spirit, 200 grms.; macerate and filter. (Hager.)

=Balsam, Riga.= (rē′-). Syn. CARPA′THINA BALSAM; BAL′SAMUM CARPATH′ICUM, B. LIB′ANI, &c., L.; BAUME DE CARPATHES, Fr. A pellucid white fluid obtained by careful distillation from the young shoots of pi′nus cem′bra (Linn.) or Siberian stone-pine. It much resembles oil of juniper; and, like that article, is powerfully diuretic. It is regarded as vulnerary, and is highly esteemed by some in sprains and bruises. The bottoms of oil of juniper are commonly sold for it in the shops. The spirit distilled from pine-tops (spiritus turionum pini) is also frequently, although incorrectly, called BIGA BALSAM.

=Balsam, Sanchez’s Gout.= See BALSAM, CAMPHORATED.

=Balsam, Sooth′ing.= See BALSAM, ANODYNE.

=Balsam, St. Genevieve.= Thick turpentine, 5 parts; olive oil, 30 parts; bees’ wax, 25 parts; spermaceti, 5 parts; camphor, 1 part; red sanders, 4 parts.

=Balsam, St. John Long’s= (liniment), used for application to the chest in cases of phthisis, is a thick emulsion composed of:——Turpentine, 25 parts; yolk of eggs, 50 parts; concentrated vinegar, 5 parts; rose water, 15 parts; and a few drops of essence of lemon.

=Balsam, Stomach′ic= (-măk′-). Syn. BAL′SAMUM STOMACH′ICUM, L.; BAUME STOMACHIQUE, Fr. Prep. (Ph. Slesv.-Hols. 1831.) Oils of cloves, mace, wormwood, and peppermint, of each 1 dr.; balsam of Peru, 2 dr.; oil of nutmeg, 2 oz.; mix. 1 to 5 or 6 drops, on sugar, or dissolved in spirit.

=Balsam, Syr′ian.= Balsam of Mecca.

=Balsam, Thibaut’s.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Balsam, Tooth′ache.= See DROPS, &c.

=Balsam, Traumat′ic.= Compound tincture of benzoin.

=Balsam, Tur′key.= Syn. TUR′KEY BALM. The distilled oil of the dracocephalum moldavicum.

=Balsam, Tur′lington’s.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Balsam, Univer′sal.= Syn. BAL′SAMUM UNIVERSA′LE, L. Prep. (Ph. Slesv.-Hols. 1831.) Rape oil (recent), 1-1/2 lb.; yellow wax, 1/2 lb.; acetate of lead (in fine powder), 3 oz.; powdered camphor, 1/2 oz.; melted together; observing to triturate the acetate with a small portion of the oil before adding it to the mixture, and not to add the camphor until the heat is reduced a little.——Obs. This name has also been given to ‘compound cerate of lead,’ and even to ‘cerate of acetate of lead.’

=Balsam, Vervain’s†.= Compound tincture of benzoin.

=Balsam, Wound.= Several vulnerary preparations have been so called; but FRIAR’S BALSAM (comp. tinct. of benzoin) is that usually intended.

=Balsam of Acou′chi.= A yellowish aromatic liquid, of a terebinthinous nature and consistence, obtained from the wounded branches and shoots of the icica heterophylla (DC.). It is highly esteemed as vulnerary by the Caribs of Guiana. (Lindley.)

=Balsam of Alpi′nus.= Balm of Gilead; because Prosper Alpinus wrote a learned (?) treatise on it.

=Balsam of Am′ber.= Syn. BAL′SAMUM SUCCINI, L.; BAUME D’AMBRE, Fr. The article to which this term is usually applied has been already noticed. Oil of amber was also formerly so called; and the same name has been given to the following and other like preparations by their inventors:——

1. (Radius.) Oil of amber, 4 fl. oz.; oil of myrrh, 2 fl. oz; oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz.; mix with a gentle heat.

2. (Bate.) See BALSAM ANODYNE. They are all stimulant and antispasmodic, and are used either internally or as a friction, like oil of amber.

=Balsam of Arcæ′us.= Syn. BAL′SAMUM ARCÆ′I, L.; BAUME D’ARCÆUS, Fr. A digestive ointment formerly in great repute, and still much employed on the Continent. It is now superseded in England by the comp. elemi ointment of the Pharmacopœias. In the original formula, boiling water, 4 parts, were ordered to be stirred in.

=Balsam of Can′ada.= See TURPENTINES.

=Balsam of Cloves.= Syn. AROMAT′IC BALSAM OF CLOVES; BAL′SAMUM CARYOPHYL′LI, L. Prep. (Bories.) Oil of cloves and oil of nutmeg, of each 1/2 dr.; spirit of juniper berries, 3 oz.; mix. Rubefacient and diuretic.——Used chiefly as a stimulating friction. Internally, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful.

=Balsam of Copai′ba.= See COPAIBA.

=Balsam of Fern.= Oil of male fern.

=Balsam of Fiovaren′ti.= Syn. BAL′SAMUM FIOVAREN′TI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Venice turpentine, 16 oz.; amber, elemi, galbanum, myrrh, styrax, and tacamahaca, of each 3 oz.; aloes, 1 oz.; bay-berries, 4 oz.; cinnamon, cloves, galangal, ginger, nutmegs, and zedoary, of each 1-1/2 oz.; dittany of Crete, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 lbs.; macerate a week and distil off 7 lbs. The distilled spirit constitutes this notable preparation of, professedly, many virtues. It is reputed aromatic, diuretic, antispasmodic, and stimulant. One of its applications is as a collyrium——a drop or two being rubbed on the palm of the hands, which are then held to the eyes, so as to cover, without touching them——in chronic ophthalmia, conjunctivitis, &c.

=Balsam of Gil′ead.= See BALSAM OF MECCA.

=Balsam of Gua′iacum= (gwā-yă-). Syn. BAL′SAMUM GUAI′ACI, B. GUAIACI′NUM, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1745.) Gum-guaiacum, 1 lb.; balsam of Peru, 3 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest 10 days and filter. Diaphoretic, arthrodynic, and anodyne.——Dose, 30 to 60 drops, in milk or water; in agues, rheumatism, &c. Externally, reputed also anti-suppurative.

=Balsam of Honey.= Syn. PEC′TORAL BALSAM, P. B. OF HONEY; BAL′SAMUM MEL′LIS, B. PECTORA′LE, B. P. MELLIS, L.; BAUME DE MIEL, &c., Fr. Prep. 1. Balsam of tolu, 1 lb.; honey (finest), 2-1/2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; turmeric, 1 oz.; make a tincture.

2. To the last, before maceration, add of powdered opium, 2 oz.

3. (Hill’s.) See PATENT MEDICINES. Uses, &c. A good pectoral in colds, tickling chronic coughs, hoarseness, &c., when unaccompanied with fever.——Dose. For an adult, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful, twice or thrice a day; an occasional dose of some mild aperient being also taken. Tincture of balsam of tolu, or a mixture of the tinctures of tolu and benzoin, is frequently sold in the shops under the name of ‘balsam of honey.’ See PECTORAL BALSAM, &c.

=Balsam of Hore′hound.= Syn. BAL′SAMUM MARRU′BII, L. Prep. 1. Extracts of horehound and liquorice, of each 2 oz.; hot water, 1/2 pint; dissolve, and when cold, add of paregoric, 3/4 pint; oxymel of squills, 6 oz.; tincture of benzoin, 2 oz.; honey, 10 oz.; and, after thorough admixture, strain through flannel.

2. (Ford’s.) See PATENT MEDICINES.

Uses, &c. A popular pectoral.——Dose, &c., same as of BALSAM OF HONEY (above).

=Balsam of Houmi′′ri.= [Nat.] From humir′ia balsamif′era, or the houmiri-tree of Guiana. It resembles ‘balsam of umiri’ produced by another tree of the same genus. (See below.)

=Balsam of Lead.= See BALSAM, GOULARD’S.

=Balsam of Life.= Syn. BALM OF LIFE; BAL′SAMUM VI′TÆ, L.; BAUME DE VIE, ELIX′IR DE VIE, &c., Fr. Several compound medicines have been called by this name. Those of Gabius, Hoffman, and Turlington, are noticed under PATENT MEDICINES (which see). The following are distinct preparations:——

1. BAUME DE VIE EXTERNE:——Soap liniment, 2 parts; oil of turpentine, 1 part; mix. Stimulant and rubefacient. Used with friction.

2. BAUME DE VIE PURGATIF; Elixir de vie:——a. (Briett.) Socotrine aloes and saffron, of each, 2 drs.; rhubarb, 6 drs.; liquorice-root, 1 oz.; proof spirit or brandy, 1/2 pint; digest a week, and filter.

b. (Original Swedish formula.) Aloes, 9 drs.; agaric, gentian, rhubarb, saffron, theriaca, and zedoary, of each 1 dr.; proof spirit or brandy, 1 quart. A mild stomachic purge.——Dose. 1 to 6 drs. Tincture of rhubarb-and-aloes (Ph. E.) is commonly substituted for it. See ELIXIRS.

=Balsam of Liq′uorice.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Balsam of Mec′ca.= Syn. BALM OF GIL′EAD, B. OF MEC′CA, OPOBAL′SAM (-bawl′-), JEWS’ BALSAM†, OIL OF B.†, &c., Eng.; BAL′SAMUM (băl′-) GILEADEN′SE, B. È MEC′CA, OPOBAL′SAMUM (-băl′-) &c., L.; BAUME DE LA MECQUE, B. DE MECCA*, B. DE JUDÉE, OPOBALSAMUM, &c., Fr. BAL′SAMUM ÆGYPTI′ACUM†, B. ALPI′NI†, B. ANTIQUO′′RUM GENUI′NUM†, B. ASIAT′ICUM†, B. SYRI′ACUM†, O′LEUM BAL′SAMI†, &c., L. A fragrant oleo-resinous substance, obtained from balsamoden′dron gileaden′se (Kunth.; amy′ris gileaden′sis, Linn.; a. opobal′samum, Forsk), a middle-sized tree of the nat. ord. Terebinthacæ (DC.), growing in Arabia Felix, Asia Minor, and Egypt. It is the BALM of the Old Testament, and the βἁλσαμον of Theophrastus and Dioscorides. It is chemically classed with the turpentines.

Prop., &c. When fresh it is turbid and whitish, but becomes by degrees transparent, of a rich golden colour, and slightly thicker; and by exposure, eventually solid. It possesses a penetrating and delicate fragrance; tastes sharp, bitter, spicy, and somewhat astringent; is not entirely soluble in rectified spirit, but dissolves more or less completely in both the fixed and volatile oils, which then assume the fragrance of the balsam. A drop let fall on hot water spreads itself over the whole surface, like a film of oil, and again contracts on the water cooling. This, with its fragrance, is the common test of its genuineness in Turkey. The inferior qualities, or those of commerce, are generally opaque and thick, rapidly resinifying and turning of a dull yellow by age. When applied to the skin it causes redness and swelling. It was formerly regarded as possessing the most varied and exalted virtues, particularly as an antiseptic, stimulant, vulnerary, and nervine; and its fumes were supposed to prevent barrenness. It is still highly prized in the East as a cosmetic and perfume; and is said to be unequalled for giving a healthy glow to the complexion and promoting the growth of the hair. Its medicinal qualities are intermediate to those of the aromatic turpentines and balsam of tolu.——Dose. From 3 to 6, or even 10 or 12 drops.

Obs. According to Bruce, and others, the best balm of Gilead is a spontaneous exudation from the tree; a second quality is obtained by cutting the bark with an axe, and receiving the juice which exudes in a small earthen bottle. A large branch is said to produce not more than 3 or 4 drops a day; and even the most resinous trees seldom yield more than 60 drops daily. Hence its scarcity and costliness. Both varieties are held in such high estimation by the Turks and Egyptians, that none of them are exported as an article of commerce. That which is sent to England is obtained by boiling the leaves and young twigs of the balsam tree in water, and is rejected by the Orientals as worthless. Most of that sold in the shops of England is entirely spurious (see below).

The cosmetics recently so much advertised as ‘BALM OF MECCA’ do not contain even a trace of this article; nor do we believe that there is a single drop of the genuine balm to be purchased in London.

The following formulæ are current in the trade for =Fac′′titious Balm of Mecca=:——

1. Gum-benzoin (bright, coarsely powdered), 4 oz.; liquid styrax (finest), 3 oz.; balsam of tolu, 2 oz.; Canadian balsam, 1-1/2 pint; are mixed together in a flask, and exposed (closed) to the heat of a water bath, with frequent agitation, until the liquid is saturated; when cold, the clear portion is decanted, and a sufficient quantity of the oils of lemon, cassia, rosemary, nutmeg, and vanilla, added to give it a strong aromatic odour.

2. From gum-benzoin and balsam of Peru, of each 1 oz.; vanilla and nutmeg, of each (cut small) 1 dr.; Canadian balsam, 1/2 pint; digested as before, and some essential oils added to the decanted liquid.

=Balsam of Nut′meg.= Syn. BAL′SAMUM MYRIS′TICÆ, B. NUCIS′TÆ. L. Prep. (Ph. Bor. 1847.) Expressed oil of nutmeg (——? mace), 3 oz.; olive oil, 1 oz.; yellow wax, 1/2 oz.; melt them together by a gentle heat, pour the mixture into paper moulds, and, when cold, cut the mass up into cakes.

=Balsam of Peru’= (rōō′). Syn. PERU′VIAN BALSAM; BAL′SAMUM PERUVIA′NUM (Ph. L., E., and D.), L.; BAUME DU PÉROU, B. PERUVIEN, Fr.; PERUVIANISCHER BALSAM, Ger. A balsam obtained from Myroxylon Pereiræ (Myrospermum of Sonsonate). It exudes from the trunk of the tree after it has been scorched and removed. From Salvador, in Central America. B. P.

Prop., &c. A chocolate-coloured or a reddish-brown liquid, of the consistence of treacle, possessing a bitterish, rather pungent taste, and an agreeable aromatic odour somewhat similar to that of a mixture of vanilla and benzoin. It is reputed stimulant, tonic, and expectorant, and has long been a popular remedy in chronic asthma, catarrh, and other pulmonary affections, debility, &c. It is now, however, principally used as an ingredient in pomades, hair-oils, lip-salves, and other cosmetics, in which it is only inferior to ‘balm of Mecca,’ and in compound perfumery. It is also used to scent lozenges, pastils, and chocolate and liqueurs; for these last, chiefly as a substitute for ‘vanilla’ when it is scarce and dear.——Dose, 10 or 12 to 30 gr. (even 1 dr. is sometimes given), either on sugar, or made into a bolus with liquorice powder, or into an emulsion with honey, mucilage, or yolk of egg.

Pur., Tests, &c.——1. The sp. gr. should not be lower than 1·15; nor higher than 1·16:——2. Ether dissolves it readily and completely:——3. Soluble in 5 parts of rectified spirit:——4. It should undergo no diminution in volume when agitated with water:——5. 100 gr., by its benzoic or cinnamic acid, should saturate not less than 7-1/2 gr. of pure crystallised carbonate of soda:——6. Sulphuric acid converts it into resin, artificial tannin, or charcoal, according to the quantity employed; if, on adding water, a brittle resin is not formed, some fixed oil (probably castor oil) is present:——7. Treated with nitric acid, some hydrocyanic acid is formed, benzoic acid sublimes, and the residual matter is artificial tannin:——8. The alkalies and their carbonates form with it a thickish semi-crystalline mass, which, on being treated with sulphuric acid, deposits a peculiar resinous matter, with crystals of benzoic and cinnamic acid:——9. If a few drops are distilled, and, when iodine is added to the distillate, an explosion results, it has been adulterated with ‘copaiba’:——10. The genuine balsam contains about 6-1/2% of benzoic (cinnamic) acid:——11. (Hager). If two or three cubic centimètres of balsam of Peru be shaken with five or six cubic centimètres of petroleum spirit, the mixture separates upon being allowed to stand into a black-brown layer, and a limpid and colourless or slightly yellowish layer, and is easily decanted. If the balsam be adulterated, this latter layer is turbid and coloured, while the viscous residue which separates is more fluid, which renders decantation more difficult. Sometimes the brown residue is pulverulent.

Obs. Balsam of Peru was formerly very generally adulterated, and often entirely factitious; but, owing to its present reduced price, this is now only confined to a few of the most unprincipled venders. The following formulæ for this purpose are still extant in the trade:——

=Balsam of Peru, Facti′′tious:=——From gum-benzoin (in coarse powder), 3 lbs.; dissolved in the least possible quantity of rectified spirit, and then mixed with balsam of tolu, 1 lb.; and liquid styrax, 2 oz.; subsequently adding of rectified spirit, q. s.

=Balsam, Reduced Peruvian:=——1. Balsam of Peru, 3 lbs.; balsam of tolu, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, q. s. to reduce it to a proper consistence:——2. Balsam of Peru, 3 lbs.; gum-benzoin (dissolved in a little rectified spirit), 1 lb.; as before. It is occasionally met with largely adulterated with liquid styrax.

=Balsam of Rackasi′ri.= Syn. BALSAM OF RAKASI′RA; BAL′SAMUM RACKASIRI, B. RACAZZI′RÆ, B. RHADASI′RI. A species of balsamic turpentine, said to be obtained from the bursera balsamifera (Pers.), an Indian tree of the natural order Terebinthaceæ. It has a slightly bitter taste, adheres to the teeth when chewed, and, when heated, smells like balsam of tolu. It has been extolled as possessing the virtues of copaiba in an exalted degree. The nostrum vended under the name of BALM OF RACKASIRI by certain quacks, simply consists of English gin, coloured, sweetened, and aromatised.

=Balsam, Saturnine.= (Bate.) Acetate of lead 40 oz.; oil of turpentine 12 oz. Digest for some days.

=Balsam of Soap.= Soap-liniment.

=Balsam of Soap= (Ethe′′real). Syn. BAL′SAMUM SAPO′NIS ÆTHE′′REUM, L. Prep. (Cottereau.) Castile soap (powdered) and camphor, of each 1 dr.; oil of thyme, 10 drops; acetic ether, 1 oz.; dissolve in a close vessel with the aid of a gentle heat, and decant the clear portion. Used as an embrocation or liniment in gout, rheumatism, &c.

=Balsam of St. John’s Wort.= See OILS.

=Balsam of Sto′′rax.= Liquid-ambar or styrax.

=Balsam of Sul′phur.= See OILS.

=Balsam of Sul′phur, Anisated.= (Ph. Edin. 1722). Originally made by digesting one part of sulphur; three of turpentine; and four of oil of aniseed. A mixture of one part of oil of aniseed with three or four of balsam of sulphur is usually sold for it.

=Balsam of Sul′phur with Turpentine.= Digest one part of sulphur with three of oil of turpentine till dissolved. Similar compounds were formerly made with sulphur and Barbadoes tar, and with the empyreumatic oils of amber, benzoin, &c.

=Balsam of Syri′acum.= See BALSAM OF MECCA.

=Balsam of Tolu′= (-l′ōō). Syn. TOLU’ BAL′SAM*; BAL′SAMUM TOLUTA′NUM (Ph. L., E., & D.), B. DE TO′LÛ, L.; BAUME DE TOLU, Fr.; TOLUTANISCHER BALSAM, B. VON TOLU, &c., Ger. Balsam flowing from the incised trunk of “myrosper′mum toluif′erum.” (B. P.) The tree which produces it is a native of the mountains of Tolu, Turbaco, &c., in South America.

Prop., Uses, &c. When first brought over it is soft and tenacious, but by age and careless keeping becomes hard, and even brittle, somewhat similar to resin. It is perfectly soluble in alcohol and in ether, and gives out its acid (benzoic or cinnamic) to water. Its odour is fragrant, though less powerful than that of either styrax or balsam of Peru; and it has a pleasant sweetish taste. It softens under the teeth, melts readily, and burns with an agreeable odour. As a medicine it is a stimulating expectorant, and, as such, is employed in chronic bronchial affections unaccompanied with inflammatory action. It has long been a popular pectoral. Syrup of Tolu is an agreeable and common adjunct to pectoral mixtures, and, with Tolu lozenges, is often serviceable in tickling coughs. It is also used by confectioners, perfumers, &c., and in fumigating pastils.——Dose, 5 to 20, or even 30 gr., dissolved in spirit, or made into an emulsion.

Pur. This is shown by its perfect solubility in rectified spirit, forming a transparent tincture, and by its odour. When adulterated it has a weaker smell, is only partially soluble in alcohol, and the tincture formed with that fluid is opaque. The presence of colophony (or lac), according to Ulex, may be detected by the balsam, instead of dissolving in sulphuric acid, swelling up, blackening, and disengaging sulphurous fumes.[106] Castor oil may be detected in the way noticed under BALSAM OF PERU.

[Footnote 106: ‘Archiv der Pharm.,’ 1855.]

=Balsam of Tolu, a Factitious=, was formerly met with in trade, made of equal parts of orange-lac and white sugar, reduced to a proper consistence with rectified spirit, and ‘brought up’ with some tincture of benzoin, and a few drops of the oils of cassia and nutmeg dissolved in a little essence of vanilla.

=Balsam of Tur′pentine= (-tīne). Syn. BAL′SAMUM TEREBIN′THINÆ, L. A name formerly given to Strasburgh, Venice, and other like turpentines.

=Balsam of Tur′pentine= (Emollient). Syn. B. TEREBINTHINA′TUM, L. Prep. Olive oil, 6 oz.; oil of turpentine, 2 oz.; yellow wax, 1 oz.; balsam of Peru, oil of nutmeg, and camphor, of each 2 dr. A stimulant emollient; in contusions, ulcerations, engorgements, nephritic pains, &c.

=Balsam of Umi′′ri.= [Nat.] By incision, from the humir′ia floribun′dum (Mart.), or the umiri-plant of Para. It is fragrant, limpid, of a palish-yellow colour, and in its medicinal properties is said to combine those of the balsams of copaiba and Peru.

=BALSAM′IC= (băl-). Syn. BALSAM′ICUS, BALSA′MEUS, BALSAM′INUS, L.; BALSAMIQUE, Fr.; BALSAMISCH, Ger. Of the nature of balsam, or containing or resembling it; bland, soothing, healing; balmy.

=BAMBOO′= (-bōō′). [Nat.] Syn. BAMBU′SA, L.; BAMBON, Fr.; BAMBUS, BAMBUSROHR, INDIANISCHER ROHR, Ger. The name of several species of the genus ‘bambusa,’ but appr. of b. arundina′cea or ‘common bamboo.’ See BAMBUSA.

=Bamboo′-habit= (-hăb-). A species of ‘life-preserver,’ or ‘float,’ used in China and the Indian Archipelago, consisting of four pieces of bamboo tied together so as to form a square.

=BAMBU′SA.= [Endl.] The bamboo. In botany, a genus of magnificent arborescent grasses, of the nat. order Gramineæ (DC.), having hollow jointed stems, of a hard woody texture, externally coated with siliceous matter, and sometimes secreting a similar siliceous substance (TABASHEER′) in their internal cavities. They are all of rapid growth, and vary in height from 6 to 150 feet.

There, is, perhaps, scarcely any other plant besides the palm which serves for so many purposes useful to man, as the various species of bamboo. Its grain is used for bread; the young shoots are eaten like asparagus, and are also pickled; the smaller stalks are made into walking canes, umbrella and parasol sticks, flutes, &c.; whilst its fibres are manufactured into cloth, and even paper. It is employed extensively in the construction of houses, bridges, masts for boats, domestic furniture, boxes, mats, baskets, utensils of various kinds, fences, water pipes and vessels, quicksilver bottles, &c., and for numerous other purposes connected with everyday life. In localities where ordinary surgical appliances are not at hand, splints, of any required length or size, can be made with very little delay, from the stems of the bamboo. The older and drier stems are to be preferred for this purpose. The genus is confined to the East and West Indies and tropical America. See CANE, PICKLES, TABASHEER, &c.

=BANA′NA= (nā′- or -nah′-). [Nat.] The mu′sa sapien′tum (Linn.), a species of plantain; also its fruit. The Banana contains about 27 per cent. of solid matter, and has nearly the same nutritive value as rice. It is largely consumed in the tropics, where the common allowance for a labourer is 6-1/2 lbs. of the fresh fruit or 2 lbs. of the dry meal, with a quarter of a pound of salt meat or fish. It is sometimes fried in slices and often made into preserves.

Composition of the Pulp of Ripe Bananas (CORENWINDER).

Nitrogenous matter 4·820 Sugar, pectose, organic acid, and traces of starch 19·657 Fatty matter 0·632 Cellulose 0·200 Saline matter 0·791 Water 73·900 ——————— 100·000

See PLANTAIN.

=BANCOUL, NUTS OF.= This nut is the seed of a tree belonging to the Euphorbiaciæ, of which two or three species occur in Ceylon, Cochin-China, New Caledonia, Bourbon, &c. It is composed of a hard and woody endocarp, and of an oily kernel, containing:——

Water 5·000 Oil 62·175 Nitrogenous matter 22·653 Non-nitrogenous matter 6·827 Mineral matter 3·345 ——————— 100·000 Nitrogen 3·625%

This cake, after expression of the oil, contains 9 per cent. of nitrogen, and 4 per cent. of phosphoric acid, and is consequently of high value as a manure. The expressed oil is purgative, but as a lamp-oil it is superior to colza. Unfortunately the kernel forms only 33 per cent. of the entire weight of the nut. Hence, before it can become an article of commerce, it must be decorticated at the place of its birth. (Corenwinder.)

=BAND′AGE= (āje). Syn. DELIGA′TIO, FAS′′CIA, LIGA′MEN, LIGATU′′RA, VINCTU′′RA, L.; BANDAGE, BANDE, Fr.; BINDE, VERBAND, Ger. In surgery, the fillet, roller, or cloths, used to support parts, to exert pressure on them, or to retain dressings in their proper places.

Bandages are usually formed of long narrow slips of calico or linen, and, occasionally, of flannel, which are generally made into a roll (ROLLER) of moderate size, so as to be the more conveniently handled and applied. They are either SIMPLE, as the cir′cular, the spīral, or the unīt′ing bandage; or COMPOUND, as the T-bandage, suspen′sory b., &c.

The application of bandages, as in the dressing of wounds, ulcers, &c., though of such frequent occurrence, is often very carelessly and badly done. The form and nature of the part, and the object in view, should always receive consideration; as should also the condition of the patient after their application——whether of repose, exercise, or labour. Ordinary ingenuity will supply the rest. The safest, simplest, and most effective means of fastening them is, in most cases, furnished by a common needle and thread or cotton.

=Bandage, Mus′tard.= A woollen roller soaked in a mixture of the best flour of mustard and warm water, of the consistence of fresh cream, the excess of moisture being expelled by gentle pressure.——Used to envelope the body, or a limb, by repeatedly folding it round the part; in the cold stages of cholera, and in other cases requiring an energetic stimulant. Other medicaments, particularly those of a stimulating and anodyne character, are sometimes applied in the same manner. See EMBROCATIONS, LOTIONS, POULTICES, &c.

=BANDAN′A.= [Ind.] Syn. BANDAN′NA. A handkerchief, originally from the East Indies, having white spots on a red, blue, or other dark ground. In calico-printing, a ‘discharge style’ in imitation of the Indian bandanas. The fabric, many folds thick, is placed between leaden plates having the pattern cut out of them; hydraulic pressure is then applied, and a clear solution of chloride of lime forced through, followed by a stream of pure water.

=BAND′OLINE= (-lĭn; -lēne‡). See FIXATURE.

=BANE.= Poison; anything deleterious or destructive; a word often found joined to another, in the popular and vulgar names of plants and disease, to denote their character; as BANE′-BERRY, the herb Christopher; BANE′-WORT, deadly-nightshade; SHEEP’S BANE, the rot; &c.

=BANG, Bangue= (băng′). [Nat.] See HEMP, INDIAN.

=BAN′IAN= (băn′-yăn). The fi′cus In′dicus (Linn.), or Indian fig. The fruit and young branches yield one species of gum-lac; and both the juice and bark are used medicinally.

Among sailors, BANIAN′ DAYS are those on which butcher’s meat is not served up at dinner.

=BANN′OCK= (-ŭk). In Scotland and the northern counties of England, a flat round cake made of oat, rye, or barley meal, baked on an iron plate over the fire, or on the hot hearth.

=BARBS.= Syn. LAMPAS, SKEW. This occurs in horses from two to four years old, and arises from a little inflammation of the ridges that pass along the palate, above and behind the incisor teeth, occasionally preventing the animal from eating and setting up slight fever. The best treatment is to scarify the enlarged ridges freely with a lancet or penknife, and to give for a time bran mashes, soaked grain, and other soft food.

=BAR′BERRY.= Syn. PEP′PERIDGE-BUSH‡, THORNY BOX′-TREE*; BER′BERIS, B. VULGA′′RIS (Linn.), L.; EPINE-VINETTE, VINETTIER, Fr.; BERBERITZE, Ger. A perennial bush or shrub common in woods and hedges. Berries (BAR′BERRIES, PEP′PERIDGES), gratefully acid, cooling, and astringent; used in pastry, but require, according to their degree of ripeness, from one half their weight to an equal weight of sugar. Both bark and berries were formerly esteemed in jaundice, biliary flukes, &c. The crushed berries with water form a refreshing fever-drink. The root dyes a fugitive yellow. See BERBERINE, JAMS, PRESERVES, &c.

=BAREGE= (barège, băr-rāzhe’). [Fr.] A light woollen fabric so named from having been first made in the valley of Barèges. Of late years Paris has become celebrated for its barèges; but these are generally woven with the ‘warp’ of silk, and the ‘woof’ of wool. In the common imitations of the shops, the ‘warp’ is generally of cotton.

=BAREGINE= (barégine). See GLAIRINE.

=BARIL′LA.= [Eng., Ger., L., Sp.] Syn. SO′DÆ CAR′BONAS VENA′LE, L.; BARIG′′LIA, BARIL′LOR, Sp., Lev.; BARILLE, SOUDE, Fr. The alkaline residuum of the combustion of salsola, salicornia, chenopodium, and other species of the order Chenopodiaceæ. These plants, which are cultivated on the sea-coast for the purpose, are cut down when ripe, dried, and burned in heaps, on iron bars laid across pits dug in the earth. The alkali and saline matter contained in them is thus fused, and flows into the cavity below, forming, when cold, a hard grey or bluish porous mass which is BARILLA.

Comp. Carbonate, sulphate, chloride, and sulphide of sodium, carbonate and sulphate of calcium, alumina, silica, oxide of iron, and imperfectly consumed carbonaceous matter, with a little iodine and bromine. The proportion of soda varies in different varieties:——

ALICANT’ BARILLA; obtained chiefly from several species of salso′la and from chenopo′dium setig′erum (-tĭj′-), &c.; contains from 25% to 40% of carbonate of soda. (Guibourt.)

CANA′′RY B.; from salso′la ka′li. (Loudon.) French barillas:——

a. NARBONNE’ B., SALICOR; from salicor′nia ann′ua or herba′cea; contains 14% to 15% of carbonate of soda.

b. B. OF AIGUEMORTES, BLANQUETTE; from mixed plants; contains 3% to 8% of carbonate of soda. (Guibourt.)

c. NOR′MANDY B., N. SODA; from fuci.

SIC′ILY BARILLA (sĭs′-). Principally from salso′la sati′va; furnishes 55% of carbonate of soda. (Fée.)

Good barilla, on the average, contains about 20% of real or available alkali, chiefly under the form of carbonate, besides sulphates, muriates, &c.

Assay. See ALKALIMETRY.

Uses, &c. Barilla is chiefly used in the manufacture of soap and glass; but the gross quantity imported, though annually increasing, only reached 54,608 cwt. in 1856; whilst the exports of soda in the same year reached to about 1,500,000 cwt., and in 1859 to above 2,000,000 cwt. This enormous quantity was chiefly furnished by our home manufactories.

Barilla is chiefly imported from Spain, Sicily, Teneriffe, and the Levant; but since the introduction of Le Blanc’s process for obtaining soda from common salt, its importance and value has considerably lessened. See KELP, SODA, &c.

=BARIUM.= Ba. A metallic radical or element, of which baryta is the chief oxide, and somewhat extensively distributed. First obtained in 1808 by Sir H. Davy. Prepared from baryta by strongly heating it in an iron tube, through which the vapour of potassium is conveyed; the reduced barium being subsequently extracted from the mixed residuum by quicksilver, which is afterwards driven off in a small green-glass retort, in a vapour of mineral naphtha.

Prop., &c. Greyish-white, approaching silver in colour and lustre; decomposes water, and gradually oxidises in the air, with the formation of the ordinary oxide (BARYTA). It is malleable, fusible under a red heat; burns in contact with air with a deep red light, and has the sp. gr. 4·70.

Salts. Barium forms numerous salts, which are all either colourless or white, except a few, whose acids are coloured, as the chromate, manganate, &c. Some of them are soluble in water; one or two only are soluble in alcohol, and that very sparingly; and (with the exception of the sulphate) they are all extremely poisonous. They may be prepared by saturating solutions of the acids with either baryta-water, or carbonate of barium; and some of them may be prepared by double decomposition.

The various soluble barium salts are known by the following reactions, and they are all (except the sulphate) soluble either in water or in dilute hydrochloric acid, except the nitrate and chloride, which are not soluble in aqueous solutions of their respective acids. Their solutions give an immediate heavy white precipitate with dilute sulphuric acid, and with solutions of the sulphates, which is insoluble in dilute acids and solutions of the alkalies and of the salts of ammonia, that with a solution of sulphate of lime being very sensitive, and characteristic:——Hydrofluosilicic acid gives a very characteristic colourless crystalline and quickly subsiding precipitate, only slightly soluble in hydrochloric acid and nitric acid; alcohol, in equal volume, being added, so hastens and completes the reaction, that the filtrate is unaffected by sulphuric acid:——Chromate of potassium gives a bright yellow precipitate in neutral solutions, soluble in hydrochloric acid and in nitric acid, but insoluble in acetic acid:——Caustic potassa or soda (when quite free from carbonate), and caustic ammonia, cause no precipitate, except in highly concentrated solutions:——Alkaline carbonates give a heavy white precipitate with baryta-water or a solution of baryta, and which is all but insoluble in water, and freely soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid:——Heated with proof spirit, or pyroxilic spirit, the barium salts give a greenish-yellow tinge to the flame:——The barium salts, and particularly the chloride, when exposed on a platinum wire to the inner flame of the blowpipe, colour the outer flame yellowish-green:——Insoluble sulphate of barium may be mixed with powdered charcoal, and exposed for a short time to a full red heat, when sulphide of barium will be formed, which is freely soluble in water, and which, after being neutralised with hydrochloric acid, or acetic acid, will yield a solution suitable to the application of the usual tests. The carbonate, and the salts of barium with the organic acids, are all convertible into pure baryta by exposure to a bright red heat.

Baryta is distinguished from lime and from magnesia by its great solubility in hot water, and by the entire insolubility of its sulphate; from strontia, by being precipitated by hydrofluosilicic acid, and by not giving a red colour to the flame of alcohol; from alumina, by its causticity and alkaline reaction, and by not being precipitated from its solution in water by ammonium sulphydrate.

Pois., &c. The sulphate, owing to its insolubility, is the only salt of barium which is not poisonous.——Symp. Nausea, vomiting, pains in the head, ringing in the ears, vertigo, and intermitting cramps and convulsions; the respiration is frequently suspended for several moments, and the pupil is generally dilated. The symptoms, however, often vary, and are not very distinctive.——Treatm., Ant., &c. Vomiting, followed by copious draughts of water soured with sulphuric acid, or sulphate of soda (Glauber-salt) or sulphate of magnesia (Epsom-salt), dissolved in a large quantity of water. When carbonate of barium has been swallowed, a mixture of one of the above sulphates and weak vinegar should be taken after the vomiting, in order that a soluble barium salt may be first formed, on which the alkaline sulphate will act more readily. Subsequent irritation may be soothed by opium or morphia, and antiphlogistics.

=Barium, Ac′etate of.= Ba(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}). Syn. BARY′TÆ ACE′TAS, L. Prep. From dilute sulphuric acid, neutralised with carbonate of barium, and the solution evaporated and crystallised. Very soluble in water; insoluble, or nearly so, in rectified spirit.——Uses, Dose, &c. Same as the chloride. It is seldom employed.

=Barium, Arse′′niate of.= Ba_{3}(PO_{4})_{2}. Syn. BARY′TÆ ARSE′′NIAS, L. Prep. A solution of chloride of barium is added to another of arseniate of potassium or sodium, and the precipitate collected, washed, and dried. By dissolving this salt in a solution of arsenic acid, and crystallising, BINARSE′′NIATE OF BARIUM is obtained. Has been recommended in certain skin diseases, and in phthisis complicated with scrofula.——Dose, 1/16 to 1/4 gr.

=Barium, Ar′senite of.= Ba(AsO_{2})_{2}. Syn. BARY′TÆ AR′SENIS, L. Very slightly soluble.——Use, &c. As the last.

=Barium, Bromide of.= BaBr_{2}. Syn. BA′′RII BROMI′DUM, L.; BROMURE DE BARYUM, &c., Fr. Prep. Boil a solution of protobromide of iron with moist carbonate of barium, in slight excess; filter, evaporate to dryness, and heat the residuum to redness. By careful evaporation of its aqueous solution it may be obtained in crystals. It is soluble in both alcohol and water, and its physiological properties resemble those of iodide of barium.

=Barium, Carbonate of.= BaCO_{3}. Syn. CARBONATE OF BARY′TA; BARY′TÆ CAR′BONAS, L.; CARBONATE DE BARYTE, &c., Fr.; KOHLENSAURES, BARYT, &c., Ger. A heavy white mass or powder, very nearly insoluble in water, and decomposed by nearly all the acids. It is found in the crude state abundantly in nature, but can only be obtained absolutely pure by adding an alkaline carbonate to a solution of chloride of barium, or by saturating the hydrate with carbonic anhydride, and in either case washing and drying the precipitate. Native carbonate of barium (witherite) is ordered in the pharmacopœias, and is sufficiently pure for making the barium salts, the only purpose to which it is therein applied.

Uses. In pharmacy, &c., chiefly to prepare barium salts. In chemistry, to separate certain metallic oxides when occurring together in solutions. In the arts, as a base for certain delicate colours, as an ingredient in plate-glass, in the manufacture of beet sugar, &c. It is not used in medicine. It is extremely poisonous.

=Barium, Bisulphide.= This substance may be obtained as a fine yellow-coloured product by shaking a solution of barium chloride with a mixture of ammonium sulphide and carbon disulphide. It is insoluble in alcohol, soluble in water, and rapidly dissolved by slightly acidulated water.

=Barium, Chloride of.= BaCl_{2}.2Aq. Syn. CHLORIDE OF BARIUM; BARII CHLORIDUM, L.; CHLORURE DE BARYUM, CHLORHYDRATE DE BARYTE, &c., Fr.; SALZSÄURE SCHWERERDE, CHLORBARIUM, Ger. Neutralise a hot dilute solution of hydrochloric acid with carbonate of barium, evaporate down, and crystallise. Sulphide of barium can be substituted for the carbonate. If required chemically pure, gaseous hydrochloric acid is transmitted through a concentrated solution of common or impure chloride of barium, as long as a precipitate forms; the resulting crystalline powder, which is nearly the whole of the chloride of barium present, is collected on a filter, and, after draining, is washed repeatedly with small quantities of pure hydrochloric acid, until the washings, diluted with water, and precipitated with sulphuric acid, give a filtrate which, upon evaporation in a platinum capsule or a watch-glass, leaves no residue; the last traces of acid having been removed by a little alcohol applied in a like manner, the powder is at once dried, and then carefully preserved from the air.——Used in analysis.

Prop., &c. Crystals, flat, four-sided tables, colourless and transparent; sometimes double eight-sided pyramids; slightly efflorescent in dry warm air, but otherwise permanent; decrepitate when heated, and lose their water of crystallisation; fuse at a red heat; volatilise at a white heat; insoluble in hydrochloric acid and in alcohol, slightly soluble in rectified spirit, and very soluble in water; water at 60° dissolves 43-1/2% of the crystals, and nearly 37% of the dry salt; and when boiling 75% of the former, and about 66% of the latter; a saturated boiling solution (223° Fahr.) contains 100 parts of water, and 78 parts of the crystallised salt.

The crystals contain 2 atoms of water; and a formula of BaCl_{2} + 2Aq.

Uses, Phys. eff., &c. In chemistry, it is employed as a test for sulphuric acid and the soluble sulphates. In medicine, it has been employed, both internally and externally, as an alterative, resolvent, and deobstruent, in scrofula, glandular swellings, and enlargements, scirrhous cancer, skin diseases, &c.; and more particularly in the first with marked benefit. In large doses it is poisonous. According to Sir B. Brodie, its action on animals is analogous to that of arsenic. Locally, it acts as an irritant. A very weak solution, used as a lotion, often proves serviceable in herpetic eruptions, and as a collyrium in scrofulous ophthalmia. Dose, 1/2 gr. thrice a day, in water, gradually increased to 2 or 3 gr.

=Barium, Chlorate of.= Ba(ClO_{3})_{2}. Syn. CHLORATE OF BARY′TA; BARY′TÆ CHLO′′RAS, L. Prep. From a solution of chloric acid neutralised with freshly precipitated carbonate of barium; the resulting solution, after filtration, being crystallised by evaporation.

By passing chlorine through strong milk of hydrate or of carbonate of barium, in the same way as in making chlorate of potassium.

Prop., &c. Soluble in 4 parts of cold water. Used in pyrotechny, and to make chloric acid.

=Barium, Ferrocy′anide of.= Ba_{2}FeC_{6}N_{6}. Syn. BA′′RII FERROCYANI′DUM, L. From pure ferrocyanide of iron digested in baryta water. By careful evaporation, efflorescent prismatic crystals may be obtained, soluble in 4-1/2 parts of water.

=Barium, Fluoride of.= BaF_{2}. Syn. BA′′RII FLUORI′DUM, &c., L. A white powder, formed by digesting freshly precipitated carbonate of barium in hydrofluoric acid, in excess.

=Barium, Hydrate of.= Ba(HO)_{2}. Syn. HYDRATE OF BARYTA; BARYTÆ HYDRAS, L. Prep. By digesting caustic baryta, or barium oxide, with a little water, or igniting gently the crystallised hydrate. It can be obtained crystallised as follows:

1. From a concentrated solution of either nitrate or chloride of barium, precipitated with a rather strong solution of pure potassa, or of pure soda, perfectly free from carbonic acid.

2. A strong solution of sulphide of barium is boiled with successive portions of black oxide of copper, until it ceases to give a black precipitate with a salt of lead; the liquid, after filtration, yields crystals of the hydrate on cooling.

=Prop., Uses, &c.= Forms a bulky white powder, containing 10-1/2% of water of hydration, which it retains even after ignition. In this state it is soluble in 20 parts of cold water, and in 2 parts of boiling water. The hot saturated solution, as it cools, deposits abundantly columnar crystals (CRYS′TALLISED HYDRATE OF B.), which contain 51-1/2% of water, of which they lose, by drying and ignition, 88-3/4% (= 4-3/4% of their weight), being reduced to the state of the common or amorphous hydrate. Of all the bases it has the strongest affinity for both sulphuric and carbonic acid, and hence its solution (BARY′TA-WATER) and those of its neutral salts (nitrate or chloride) form our most sensitive tests for these substances. Sp. gr. 4·3 to 4·7. The crystallised hydrate is converted into the ordinary hydrate at a gentle heat, and this last fuses at a low red heat without losing its water of hydration, which it only slowly and with difficulty begins to part with at higher temperatures. In chemistry, its uses are, for the most part, similar to those of BARIUM, OXIDE OF.

=Barium, Iodide of.= Ba_{2}I. Syn. BA′′RII IODI′DUM, L.; IODURE DE BARYUM, &c., Fr.

Prep. 1. Dissolve sulphide of barium in water, and add iodine (gradually) in excess; after the reaction is complete, filter, and either evaporate to dryness, or crystallise.

2. Digest freshly precipitated carbonate of barium, in excess, in a hot solution of protiodide of iron; filter and evaporate to dryness; then re-dissolve and crystallise.

3. By saturating hydriodic acid with oxide or carbonate of barium.

Prop., &c. A white or greyish-white mass, or acicular crystals (according to the mode of its preparation); very soluble in water and in alcohol; and decomposed by exposure to the air. It has been highly recommended as an alterative, resolvent, and liquefacient, particularly in scrofula, glandular swellings, chronic inflammations, and the other affections in which chloride of barium and iodine are given.——Dose, 1/12th to 1/8th gr. (gradually and cautiously increased to 1 gr.), in distilled water, 2 or 3 times a day. Externally, as an ointment (3 or 4 gr., to lard, 1 oz.), as an application to scrofulous swellings. (Biett.) It possesses all the irritant, corrosive, and poisonous properties of the chloride, but in a much more violent degree.

=Barium, Nitrate of.= Ba(NO_{3})_{2}. Syn. NITRATE OF BARYTA; BARY′TÆ NI′TRAS, L. Prep. As the acetate or chloride of barium, substituting pure nitric acid for acetic or hydrochloric acid.

Prop., &c. Transparent, colourless octahedrons, which are anhydrous, insoluble in alcohol, and require about 8 parts of cold water, and about 3 parts of boiling water, for solution.

Uses. In chemistry, to prepare baryta, and as a test for sulphuric acid and the soluble sulphates; and in pyrotechny, to give a green tinge to flame.

=Barium, Oxalate of.= BaC_{2}O_{4}. Syn. OX′ALATE OF BARYTA; BARY′TÆ OX′ALAS, L. Prep. By precipitating a barium salt with oxalate of ammonium. Very nearly insoluble.

=Barium, Oxide of.= BaO. Syn. BARYTA, BARY′TES, CAU′STIC BARYTA*, OX′IDE OF BA′′RIUM, PROTOX′IDE OF B., HEAV′Y EARTH; BARYTE, OXIDE DE BARIUM, TERRE PESANTE†, &c., Fr.; BARYT, BARYTERDE, SCHWERERDE, &c., Ger. One of the earths discovered by Scheele in 1774.

Sources. Sulphate and carbonate of barium are abundant minerals, forming the ‘vein-stone’ of many lead mines. It is from the latter that baryta and the barium salts are almost exclusively obtained.

Prep. 1. A mixture of carbonate of barium and charcoal (both in fine powder and moistened) is strongly ignited, for some time, in a porcelain, Hessian, or black-lead crucible, and then allowed to cool out of contact with the air, from which it must also be subsequently carefully preserved.

2. (Pure.) Crystallised nitrate of barium is calcined in a capacious covered porcelain or Hessian crucible, at a bright red heat, until red (nitrous) vapours are no longer disengaged, even on raising the temperature; and the residuum, as soon as the temperature has fallen sufficiently, but whilst still warm, is at once transferred to a bottle, as before.

3. M. Rosenthiel’s process is founded upon the decomposition of sulphide of barium dissolved in boiling water by oxide of zinc. Caustic baryta and sulphate of zinc are formed.

Prop. A greyish-white, spongy, earthy-looking mass, fusible only before the oxyhydrogen blowpipe; highly caustic, corrosive, and alkaline, and slaking, like quick-lime, on the addition of water, but with the evolution of more heat.

=Barium, Peroxide of.= BaO_{2}. Syn. DEUTOX′IDE OF BARIUM; BA′′RII BINOX′YDUM, &c. L.; BINOXIDE DE BARYUM, &c., Fr. Prep. Pure baryta is heated to full redness in a porcelain tube, and a stream of pure dry oxygen passed over it as long as the gas is absorbed.

Baryta, 4 parts, is heated as above in a platinum crucible, and chlorate of potassium, 1 part, gradually added to it; the chloride of potassium formed along with the binoxide being afterwards washed away with cold water.

Prop., &c. Grey or greyish-white; with water it forms a hydrate, which is slightly soluble in water, and undecomposed by it in the cold. It is interesting chiefly in its relations with peroxide of hydrogen and the oxygenised acids of M. Thénard.

=Barium, Phosphate of.= Ba(PO_{4})_{2}. Prep. In a similar manner to the oxalate, which it resembles in being an almost insoluble white powder.

=Barium, Sulphate of.= BaSO_{4}. Syn. SULPHATE OF BARYTA, HEAV′Y SPAR, BOLO′′GNIAN S., CAWK (mi); BARY′TÆ SUL′PHAS (Ph. E. & D.), SPA′THIUM PONDERO′SUM, &c., L.; SULFATE DE BARYTE, SPATH PESANT, &c., Fr.; SCHWEFELSAURES BARYT, SCHWERSPATH, &c., Ger. This salt is found native, often in beautiful tabular crystals, but more frequently in white or reddish-white masses. It is also occasionally prepared artificially, as a pigment and chemical, by decomposing a solution of chloride of barium with dilute sulphuric acid, or with a solution of sulphate of sodium; the resulting precipitate being collected, well washed, and dried.

=Prop., &c.= When pure, or free from iron, its powder is white. It is insoluble in water, and nearly insoluble in all other menstrua; before the blowpipe it decrepitates, fuses with great difficulty (by which it is distinguished from the sulphates of strontium and calcium), and ultimately melts into a hard, white enamel. Mixed with charcoal, and heated to redness in a covered crucible, it is reduced to sulphide of barium. It is readily decomposed by fusion with alkaline carbonates; also very slightly so by their cold solutions; but ultimately completely, though slowly, by their boiling solutions. Sp. gr. 4·3 to 4·75.

Uses. Chiefly as a pigment (PER′MANENT WHITE), and to adulterate white-lead; for which purposes the native sulphate is commonly well washed, first in very dilute sulphuric acid, and afterwards in pure water, to remove any iron which may contaminate it, and impair its whiteness. It is also used to form sulphide of barium; and, in pyrotechny, instead of the more expensive nitrate.

=Barium, Sulphide of.= BaS. Syn. SUL′PHIDE OF BARIUM, SUL′PHURET OF BARYTA; BA′′RII SULPHURE′TUM, &c., L.; SULFURE DE BARYUM, &c., Fr. Prep. Sulphate of barium, well dried and in fine powder, 3 parts; powdered charcoal or powdered coal, 1 part; the mixture is pressed tightly into an earthen crucible, and the cover being fitted on, it is exposed for 1-1/2 to 2 hours, to a bright red heat; after it has cooled, the black mass thus obtained is powdered, and boiled in water, and the resulting solution allowed to crystallise. Some authorities recommend forming the mixed powders into a stiff paste with oil, or oil of turpentine, before calcination; but this is not at all necessary.

Prop., Uses, &c. Crystals, thin and nearly colourless plates, containing combined water; very soluble in hot water, less so in cold water; and rapidly decomposed by exposure to the air. It is principally used to form the BARIUM SALTS, and in organic analysis. Care should be taken in its preparation to expose the solution to the air as little as possible. SULPHIDES of a higher grade may be formed by boiling this compound with sulphur; but they possess little practical interest.

=Barium, Sulphite of.= BaSO_{3}. Syn. SUL′PHITE OF BARYTA. Prep. By testing a soluble barium salt with sodium sulphite, and washing the precipitate. Insoluble.

=Barium, Tartrate of.= BaC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}. Syn. TAR′TRATE OF BARYTA. Prep. Like that of oxalate of barium. White powder. Slightly soluble.

=BARK.= [Eng., Dan.] Syn. COR′TEX, L.; ÉCORCE, Fr.; BAUMRINDE, RINDE, Ger. The rind or exterior covering of vegetables, corresponding to the skin of animals. It consists of the——cu′ticle or epiderm′is——cellular substance, containing colouring matter, &c., and——li′ber, the inner or true bark. The last is formed of woody fibre in great quantity, intermixed with cellular tissue. At the commencement of the annual growth of a tree, the bark separates spontaneously from the wood, in order to make room for the new matter forming beneath. It thus increases by yearly layers, and gradually perishes on the outside, owing to distension, from the growth of the interior portion. Its physiological uses are numerous and important. It is the depository of many of the secretions of plants, and it acts as a living filter, separating secretions from each other, and allowing a part of them to pass off horizontally through the medullary processes on their way to the centre of the tree. But its principal offices appear to be to act as a protection to the tender wood, and as a channel for the sap in its descent from the leaves. “True bark only exists in exogens and gymnosperms; in endogens its place is supplied by cortical integuments, which cannot be separated from the adjacent wood, without violence.” (Lindley.)

According to Liebig, the characteristic ingredients found in bark are excrementitious——“substances evidently expelled by the living organism.” True wood yields only ·25% to 2% of ash; whilst the bark of some trees give 6, 10, to 15 times more; and these, like the organic constituents, differ materially in their composition and characters.

The uses of different species of bark in medicine and the arts are well known. CINCHONA-BARK is invaluable in fevers; OAK-BARK furnishes the tanner with one of the most important materials of his trade; and the tenacious fibres of other varieties are manufactured into cordage and textile fabrics.

Barks should be collected at that season in which they can be most easily separated from the wood, which, with a few exceptions, is late in the spring; because at this time the active principles deposited in their cells are most abundant. OAK-BARK, collected in spring, contains four times as much astringent matter as that collected in winter.

=Bark.= (In medicine.) See CINCHONA.

=Bark.= (In tanning.) See OAK.

=Bark, Jes′uit’s.= Cinchona-bark.

=Bark, Salt of= (Essential). See EXTRACTS and SALTS.

=BAR′LEY.= Syn. HOR′DEUM, L.; ORGE, Fr.; GERSTE, Ger., Anglo-S. A well-known grain, the produce of several species of the genus hordeum.

Var., Cult., &c. Those principally cultivated in England are——TWO′-ROWED, LONG′-EARED, or COMM′ON BARLEY (hor′deum dis′tichon, Linn.); SPRING′-BARLEY, SQUARE′-B., or BERE (h. vulga′′re, Linn.); and SIX′-ROWED BARLEY, WINTER B., Scotch BERE or BIGG (h. hexas′tichon, Linn.). PUT′NEY, SPRAT, or BATT′LEDORE B. (h. zeocriton, Linn.), is another species less frequently met with. Of each of the above there are several varieties. In Spain and Sicily, two crops of barley are obtained in a year; but, in countries so far north as Britain, it produces only one, and is a delicate species of grain. In England it is generally adopted as a succession crop on light lands, following turnips or green crops. (Loudon.) The ‘yield’ per acre varies from 28 to 64 bushels, and is usually from 28 to 40 bushels. The average weight per bushel is 50 to 51 lbs.; but the best Norfolk and Essex samples weigh 53 to 54 lbs. per bushel.

Comp. The leading constituents of barley are nearly similar to those of wheat, but it is scarcely so rich in nitrogenised matter. According to Einhof, the ripe SEEDS or GRAINS are composed of——

Meal 70·05 Husk 18·75 Moisture 11·20 —————— 100·

According to Johnston, average fine BARLEY-MEAL contains——

Starch 68· Albumen, gluten, &c. 14· Fatty matter 2· Ash or saline matter 2· Water 14· ———— 100·

According to Payen, dried barley possesses the following composition——

Nitrogenous matter 12·96 Starch 66·43 Dextrin 10·00 Fatty matter 2·76 Cellulose 4·75 Mineral matter 3·10 —————— 100·00

According to Dr Ure, the sp. gr. of ENGLISH BARLEY is 1·25 to 1·33 (average, 1·235), and the weight of the husk is about 1-6th; that of BIGG, 1·227 to 1·265, and weight of husk, 2-9ths.

The analyses of the following varieties of barley, gave as the composition of the ashes of the grains:——

--------------------------------------------------- |Unknown |Chevalier| From |Chevalier | | Barley |Moldavia| Barley -------------+--------+---------+--------+--------- Potash | 21·14 | 20·77 | 37·55 | 7·70 Soda | | 4·56 | 1·06 | 0·36 Lime | 1·65 | 1·48 | 1·21 | 10·36 Magnesia | 7·26 | 7·45 | 10·17 | 1·26 Sesquioxide | | | | of iron | 2·13 | 0·51 | 1·02 | 1·46 Sulphuric | | | | acid | 1·91 | 0·79 | 0·27 | 2·99 Silica | 30·68 | 32·73 | 24·56 | 70·77 Phosphoric | | | | acid | 28·53 | 31·69 | 38·64 | 1·99 Chloride of | | | | Sodium | 1·10 | | 1·47 | 1·10 ---------------------------------------------------

In the ‘Journal of the Agricultural Society’ for 1873 is a report by Messrs Lawes and Gilbert of twenty years’ experiments with barley. The soil of a field at Rothampstead, in which the barley had been grown for twenty years, consisted of heavy loam, with a subsoil of clay resting on chalk, and was previous to the barley being planted almost exhausted by cropping. The produce was found to be greatest during the absence of drought and sudden alterations of temperature, the rather cool but uniform season of 1854 giving the heaviest crops. The yield from farm-yard manure and nitrate of soda was found in dry seasons to be rather larger than that from ammonia salts. Barley manured with phosphates was found to ripen one to two weeks earlier than when the phosphate was omitted.

The average produce per acre of a few of the principal plots is given below. The “ammonium salts” are stated to be a mixture of equal parts of sulphate and chloride; the “alkali salts” consist of the sulphates of potassium, sodium, and magnesium; the “cinerials” consist of alkali salts, plus superphosphate:

KEY: A: Dressed Corn. B: Straw and Chaff. C: Total Produce. D: Corn to 100 Straw. E: Weight per Bushel of Dressed Corn. F: Produce of second 10 yrs. over or under first 10 yrs.

-----------------------------+--------+------+----+----+----+-------- Manures per Acre. | A | B | C | D | E | F -----------------------------+--------+------+----+----+----+-------- |bushels.| cwts.|lbs.| |lbs.|per cwt. | | | | | | Unmanured | 20 |11-3/4|2454|86·6|52·3|- 23·6 Mixed cinerials | 27-1/2 |14-3/8|3162|96·4|53·4|- 20·2 Ammonium salts, 200 lbs. | 32-1/2 |18-1/2|3919|89·2|52·1|- 9·7 Ammonium salts, 200 lbs., and| | | | | | alkali salts | 35 |20-3/4|4317|86·3|52·8|- 5·3 Ammonium salts, 200 lbs., and| | | | | | superphosphate | 47 |27-5/8|5760|86·8|53·5|+ 2·7 Ammonium salts, 200 lbs., and| | | | | | cinerials | 46-1/4 |28-1/2|5817|83·2|54·0|- ·3 Rape cake (mean 1300 lbs.) | 45-1/4 |26-7/8|5571|87·3|53·8| Farmyard manure, 14 tons | 48-1/4 |28-1/4|5933|88·5|54·3|+ 14·8 -----------------------------+--------+------+----+----+----+--------

The authors direct attention to the results obtained by using the cinerial manure alone, as illustrating the unsoundness of the old “mineral theory,” according to which plants were supposed to possess a sufficient source of nitrogen in the atmosphere. They found a greater crop yielded by barley than wheat, when no manures were employed, as well as when cinerials were employed, a fact which they attribute to barley being better able than wheat to supply itself with nitrogen, notwithstanding the deeper roots of the latter. They state that with both wheat and barley the produce is slowly falling off under these circumstances. With ammonium salts alone, and with nitrate of sodium alone, there is much less falling off than when no nitrogenous manure is used. The falling off was least with the nitrate. The nitrate gives a rather larger crop for the same amount of nitrogen supplied, and they found this to hold when both nitrate and ammonia are applied with cinerials. The addition of superphosphate to ammonium salts or sodium nitrate greatly increases the produce; the further addition of potassium, sodium, and magnesium salts they found almost without effect.

The inference was that the barley had obtained an ample supply of potash from the natural soil, but an insufficient supply of phosphoric acid.

When ammonium salts are used alone, and the quantity of ammonia does not exceed 50 lbs. per acre, 3·68 lbs. of ammonia will yield an average increase of 1 bushel of corn and 63 lbs. of straw——total, 115 lbs.; the extremes in 20 years were 2·25-18·05 lbs. When ammonium salts are applied with superphosphate, 2·21 lbs. of ammonia will produce the same result; the extremes were 1·47-5·36 lbs.

Silicate of sodium had been applied for eight years and a half to half the barley plots receiving ammonia; no increase has resulted where ammonia and superphosphate are employed; but on the other three plots an increase had taken place, which, in the case of the plot receiving only ammonia and alkali salts, is very considerable.

The authors think this irregular reaction seems to show that the silicate has not produced its effect by furnishing silica to the crop, but by some reaction upon the plant-food of the soil. The rape cake supplied much more nitrogen than the ammonium salts, and also some phosphates and potash. Rape cake alone gives a better return than either ammonium salts or sodium nitrate applied alone; but when the three manures are mixed with superphosphate, the results for equal amounts of nitrogen show the rape cake to be decidedly inferior. From the above experiments it is inferred that a supply of carbonaceous matter does not increase the crop of barley.

A farm-yard manure containing about 0·64 per cent. of nitrogen supplied far more plant food than any of the other manures. On an average of twenty years it was found that about 8 lbs. of ammonia in the form of dung would produce a bushel of barley, with its equivalent of straw.

In all cases which were comparable it was found that barley appropriates more of the nitrogenous manure than wheat, save with farmyard manure. A large amount of nitrogen applied by manure is not taken up by the crop. Experiments in the barley field proved that large residues from ammonium salts and sodium nitrate show a small but distinct effect upon succeeding crops, the influence extending over many years. From an examination of the drainage waters from lands dressed with the nitrates of ammonium and sodium, the authors conclude that ammonium salts, as well as sodium nitrate, will be more economically applied in the spring than in the winter. Manures containing organic nitrogen are clearly not so liable to loss from drainage.

Experiments were made on the growth of barley after turnips, and also in an ordinary four-course rotation. After growing turnips ten years consecutively with purely cinerial manures, and carting off the produce, the yield of barley was much smaller than in the experimental field, where barley was grown after barley. The turnips, though very small crops, had exhausted the soil of nitrogen to a greater extent than corn crops would have done. On one plot where rape cake had been applied to the turnips, the produce of barley was 8-1/4 bushels more than when none had been used. In the rotation experiments barley was grown after turnips (carted off), and was followed by beans and wheat. In one series all the crops were unmanured; in another the turnips received superphosphate; in a third the turnips received an abundant cinerial and nitrogenous manure.

The mean produce of the six crops of barley obtained in twenty-four years of rotation was as follows:

------------------------------------------------ |Dressed | Straw and Character of Rotation. | Corn. | Chaff. --------------------------+---------+----------- | bushels.| cwt. Unmanured continuously | 38-3/8 | 21-3/4 Superphosphate for turnips| | only | 29-3/8 | 16-1/2 Mixed manure for turnips | | only | 44-3/8 | 25-1/4 --------------------------+---------+----------- Mean produce of unmanured |} | barley in barley |} 21-1/2 | 12-1/8 field during the same |} | season |} | ------------------------------------------------

The unmanured turnips were so very small in quantity, that the barley in the first series was practically grown after a fallow; this barley, however, was a much larger crop than that grown after turnips manured with superphosphate only, the available nitrogen of the soil in this case being exhausted by the turnips.

In the last series the residue of the abundant manure applied to the turnip crop suffices to produce a good crop of barley.

Qual., Uses, &c. Its employment and value as food, and in the manufacture of malt, are well known. It forms good wholesome bread well adapted for persons who live luxuriously; but which, for the abstemious and the delicate, is inferior to that made of wheat, as it is rather less nutritious, and less easy of digestion, and commonly proves laxative to those unaccustomed to its use. Barley-flour and barley-meal are also more perishable than wheat-flour; being very apt to acquire a hot nauseous taste, which even the heat of the oven does not remove. In a medical point of view, barley is regarded as the mildest and least irritating of the cereals. It has always been in high estimation as a demulcent and emollient. The decoction (BAR′LEY-WATER), made with pearl barley, is a common and useful drink in inflammatory diseases, particularly in those of the chest and urinary organs. Among the Ancients, decoctions of barley (κραθη) were the principal aliments and medicines employed in acute diseases.

Barley was extensively cultivated by the Romans and many other nations of antiquity, as well as by the ancient inhabitants of Gaul. The Greeks are said to have trained their athletes on it.

The best tests of the genuineness of barley are its colour, freedom from dust, grit, and insects. The microscope will lead to the detection of any cheaper grains if mixed with it. It is rarely adulterated, although it is said to be extensively used for the purpose of sophisticating wheat, annatto, and roll liquorice.

=Barley, Cau′stic.= Sabadilla.

=Barley, Pat′ent.= Syn. FARI′NA HOR′DEI, L. Pearl barley reduced to fine powder by grinding in a mill.

=Barley, Pearl.= Syn. PEARL′ED BARLEY*; HOR′DEUM DECORTICATUM (B. P.), L.; ORGE PERLÉ, Fr.; PERLENGRAUPEN, Ger. The seeds of hordeum distichon deprived of the husks. That of commerce is usually made by steaming spring-barley, to soften the skin, then drying it, and grinding it in a mill with the stones set wide apart, so as to round and polish the grains, and to separate the whole of the husk except that left in the furrow of the seed. SCOTCH PEARL-BARLEY and FRENCH BARLEY resemble the last, but are smaller, being generally made from winter-barley or bigg. FARO DE ORZO is another variety made from sprat-barley. See BARLEY (above).

=Barley, Scotch.= Syn. HULLED BARLEY‡, POT-B.‡; HOR′DEUM MUNDA′TUM, L.; ORGE MONDÉ, Fr.; GERSTENGRAUPEN, GRAUPEN, Ger. The grains deprived of the husk by a mill, as noticed above, but less completely, and without rounding them.

=BAR′LEY SUGAR.= See CONFECTIONERY, and SUGAR.

=BARM.= See YEAST.

=BAROM′ETER= (baros, weight; metron, measure). Syn. WEATHER-GLASS‡; BAROM′ETRUM, L.; BAROMÈTRE, Fr.; BAROMETER, WETTERGLAS, Ger. An instrument for measuring the weight or pressure of the atmosphere. It was invented by Torricelli, of Florence, A.D. 1643.

The barometer is made of several forms, but the principle of its construction, with the exception of the aneroid barometer, is the same in each, and essentially consists of a column of fluid (usually mercury) supported in vacuo, in a glass tube, by the pressure of the atmosphere on its surface. The annexed figures exhibit the principal varieties at present known; several of which have been proposed with the view of improving the original instrument, either by increasing its range, or its portability. None, however, equal in simplicity, cheapness, and usefulness, the old forms proposed by Torricelli, and represented by the figs. 1 & 2. To avoid confusion, the graduated scales and cases of the instruments are not shown.

The construction of a barometer requires the utmost skill and care of a practised artist, and will therefore be seldom undertaken by the amateur or experimentalist——a fact which renders it unnecessary for us to enter into the details here. In the choice of his instrument the purchaser must greatly depend on the known experience and integrity of the manufacturer; as nothing but lengthened use, and frequent comparisons with other instruments, can possibly prove its excellence. An ordinary barometer, however carefully made, is found to suffer gradual deterioration, from the external air insinuating itself between the mercury and the glass tube, by which the perfection of the vacuum is destroyed. Various plans have been proposed to remedy this inconvenience and source of error. Prof. Daniell forms the bottom part of the tube, to the extent of about 1/3rd of an inch, of solid platinum, welded to the glass. This plan has proved completely satisfactory. Dr Ure proposes the use of platinum-foil for the same purpose. Before purchasing an instrument it is as well to ascertain that this has been done. In those called ‘STANDARD BAROMETERS’ the scale is movable and adjustable by a delicate screw, so as to enable the observer to bring the lower point or zero (0) of the scale coincident with the surface of the mercury in the cistern. Exact contact is readily effected by making the point, and its image as seen by reflection from the surface of the mercury, to coincide. In this case the cistern is made of glass. Provided the ivory scale be connected with the zero-point with a strip of brass, correction as to temperature is very nearly effected by this simple adjustment. The WHEEL-BAROMETER is chiefly serviceable as a domestic or land weather-glass.

Of the many forms of mercurial barometer, that perhaps known as Fortin’s is the best. In this instrument the cistern and the lower portion of the tubes is shown in the annexed figure.

“The cistern is made of boxwood, with a movable leather bottom b b, and a glass cylinder, b, is inserted into it above, all except the glass being encased in brass. In the bottom of the brass box a screw, C, works on the upper end of which the leather rests, so that by elevating or depressing this screw, the bottom of the cistern, and with it the cistern level of the mercury, can also be raised or depressed at pleasure. A small ivory pin, p, ending in a point is fixed to the upper frame of the cistern, and when an observation is made, the surface of the mercury is made to coincide with the point of the pin as the standard level from which the barometric column is to be measured. The tube of the barometer, the upper part of which is shown in the lower figure, is enclosed in one of brass, which has two directly opposite slits in it for showing the height of the column, and on the sides of these the graduation is marked. A brass collar, d, d, slides upon the tube with a vernier, v, v, marked on it for reading the height with the greatest exactness and in which two oblong holes are cut, a little wider than the slits in the brass tube. When a reading is taken the collar is so placed that the last streak of light is cut off by the two upper edges of the holes or until they form a tangent to the convex mercurial curve. By this means the observer is sure that his eye is on a level with the top of the column and that the reading is taken exactly for this point. Fortin’s barometer is generally arranged so as to be portable, in which case the screw, c, is sent in until the mercury fills the whole cistern, by which the air is kept from entering the tube during transport, the leather yielding sufficiently at the same time to allow for expansion for increase of temperature. It packs in a case which serves as a tripod when the instrument is mounted for use. On this tripod it is suspended about the middle, swinging upon two axles at right angles to each other, so that the cistern may act the part of a plummet, in keeping the tube vertical——the position essential to all measurements.”[107]

[Footnote 107: Chambers’s ‘Encyclopædia.’]

How to Manage a Barometer.——It is of the first importance to have the instrument hung perfectly perpendicular. This is best effected by means of a plummet line. It should be placed in a good light, but protected from direct sunlight and also from rain. If air should accidentally find its way into a common cistern barometer, it may be got rid of by first fixing the ivory piston, so as to prevent the escape of the mercury, then by means of the screw raising the mercurial column nearly to the top of the tube, then by slowly inverting the instrument and tapping the cistern gently, the air may then perhaps ascend to the cistern and thus escape. In transporting a barometer from place to place it is best to carry it by hand; and if packed it is almost needless to say that the float must be firmly fixed and the mercurial column raised by means of the screw, so as to prevent any escape of the metal.

Reading the Barometer.——The mercury in the cistern must first be brought by means of the screw to the ‘zero,’ and then the vernier must be screwed up so that its horizontal edge forms a tangent to the mercurial curve. The vernier is an instrument for reading off the graduated scale of the barometer correctly to 1/100th or 1/500th of an inch.

Buchan gives the following description of the vernier and of the method of using it: “It consists (see figures a and b) of a piece similar to the scale of the barometer along which it slides. It will be observed from figure a that ten divisions of the vernier are exactly equal to eleven divisions of the scale, that is, to eleven tenths of an inch. Hence each division of the vernier is equal to a tenth of an inch, together with a tenth of a tenth, or a hundredth, or to ten hundredths, and one hundredth, that is, to eleven hundredths of an inch. Similarly two divisions of the vernier are equal to twenty-two hundredths of an inch, which expressed as a decimal fraction is 0·22 inch, three divisions of the vernier is 0·33 inch, &c. Suppose the vernier set as previously described——that is, having the zero line of the vernier a tangent to the convex curve of the mercury in the column. If the vernier and scale occupy the relative positions as in figure a, then the height of the barometer is 30·00 inches, but if they stand as in figure b, we set about reading it in this way: (1) The zero of the vernier being between 29 and 30, the reading is more than 29 inches, but less than 30 inches, and we obtain the first figure 29 inches. (2) Counting the tenths of an inch from 29 upwards we find that the vernier indicates more than seven tenths and less than eight tenths, giving the second figure seven tenths or 0·7 inch. (3) Casting the eye down the scale to see the point at which a division of the scale and a division of the vernier lie in one and the same straight line, we observe this to take place at line 9 of the vernier; this gives this last figure nine hundredths or 0·09 inch, and placing all these figures in one line we find that the height of the barometer is 29·79 inches. This sort of vernier gives readings true to the hundredth of an inch. If the inch be divided into half tenths or twentieths, and twenty-five divisions of the vernier equal twenty-four divisions of the scale, it follows that the difference of these divisions is two thousandths of an inch.”

A still more divided vernier is always used with the best barometers, and though a little troublesome to read at first, yet if the method of reading the simpler one just described be understood, the difficulty will be easily overcome.

Uses, &c. The barometer is employed for ascertaining the amount of atmospherical refraction in astronomical calculations, for measuring altitudes, and in prognosticating the weather. For the last purpose, on land, it sometimes proves a false prophet; but at sea, its monitions are highly trustworthy. As a mere weather-glass, the indications, as read off from the scale of the instrument, are generally sufficiently accurate; but in all observations connected with meteorology, altitudes, astronomy, &c., certain corrections must be made; the height of the mercury being influenced both by the size of the tube and by the temperature of the air by which it is surrounded, as well as by variations in the weight or pressure of the atmosphere. (See below.)

Barometrical Corrections:——

1. As to CAPILLARITY:——This applies to all cistern-barometers formed of tubes of very small diameters, owing to the mercury assuming a convex surface in the tube. As the tube increases in diameter, so the depression of the mercury lessens. Hence, the “interior diameter” of a barometer “should, in every case, exceed one-fourth of an inch.” (Brande.) Syphon barometers that have each of their legs of equal size, require no correction, as the depression is equal at both ends.

TABLE of Barometrical Corrections for CAPILLARITY, from the ‘Encycl. Brit.’

--------------------+------------------ Diam. of Tube. | Depression. --------------------+------------------ ·10 inch. | ·1403 inch. + ·15 ” | ·0863 ” ·20 ” | ·0581 ” ·25 ” | ·0407 ” ·30 ” | ·0292 ” ·35 ” | ·0211 ” ·40 ” | ·0153 ” ·45 ” | ·0112 ” ·50 ” | ·0083 ” ·60 ” | ·0044 ” ·70 ” | ·0023 ” ·80 ” | ·0012 ” --------------------+------------------

2. As to TEMPERATURE:——These depend on the expansion of the mercury, and of the scale on which the divisions are marked. The rule for reducing an observed height to the corresponding height at the freezing-point, or 32° Fahr., the usual standard temperature, is——Subtract 1·10000th part of the observed height of the barometer for every degree of Fahr. above 32° at the time of the observation. Or——

(obs. t. - 32) × obs. h. × ·0001 = corr. req.

Measurement of Heights by the Barometer.——When a barometer is at the foot of a mountain, the pressure it sustains is greater than that to which it is subjected at the top, by the weight of the column of air intervening between the top and the bottom.

The height can be obtained from the following table by calculating the number of feet which must have been ascended to cause the observed fall; and then making a correction for temperature by multiplying the number obtained from the table, which may be called A, by the following formula: t is the temperature of the lower and t′ of the upper station:——

1 × ((t + t′ - 64) / ·900) × A.

To lower the barometer from 31 in. to 30 = 857 feet must be ascended. ” ” ” 30 ” 29 = 886 ” ” ” ” ” 29 ” 28 = 918 ” ” ” ” ” 28 ” 27 = 951 ” ” ” ” ” 27 ” 26 = 986 ” ” ” ” ” 26 ” 25 = 1025 ” ” ” ” ” 25 ” 24 = 1068 ” ” ” ” ” 24 ” 23 = 1113 ” ” ” ” ” 23 ” 22 = 1161 ” ” ” ” ” 22 ” 21 = 1216 ” ” ” ” ” 21 ” 20 = 1276 ” ” ” ” ” 20 ” 19 = 1341 ” ” ” ” ” 19 ” 18 = 1413 ” ”

A very complex formula is given by mathematicians for finding very nearly the true height of a mountain from barometrical and thermometrical observations made at its base and summit. The following rule by Mr Ellis will be found to give very nearly the same results:——Multiply the difference of the barometric readings by 52,400, and divide by the sum of the barometric readings. If the result be 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, or 5000, add 0, 0·2, 6, 14, respectively. Subtract 2-1/3rd times the difference of the temperature of the mercury. Multiply the remainder by a number obtained by adding 836 to the sum of the temperatures of the air and dividing by 900. A correction must also be given for latitude, which can be done by the annexed table.

---------+--------++---------+--------- Latitude.| Factor.||Latitude.| Factor. ---------+--------++--------+---------- 80 | 0·99751|| 35 | 1·00090 75 | 0·99770|| 30 | 1·00265 70 | 0·99797|| 25 | 1·00170 65 | 0·99830|| 20 | 1·00203 60 | 0·99868|| 15 | 1·00230 55 | 0·99910|| 10 | 1·00249 50 | 0·99954|| 5 | 1·00261 45 | 1·00000|| 0 | 1·00265 40 | 1·00046|| | ---------+--------++---------+---------

Fortin’s and Gay-Lussac’s barometers are employed for measuring heights. The aneroid can be used for altitudes reaching to 5000 feet. A delicate instrument will register for as small an ascent as 4 feet.

The Barometer as a Weather-glass.——Generally speaking when the mercurial column in the barometer falls, ‘rain’ is indicated, and ‘fair weather’ when it rises. When it continues steady, a continuance of the weather at the time is regarded as the forecast; when low, the weather is generally broken or bad; and when high, it is fair and settled. A storm is usually preceded by a sudden fall in the mercurial column, the violence of the storm being in proportion to the suddenness of the fall. An unsteady barometer indicates an unsettled condition of weather, whilst a gradual change in it indicates the approach of some permanent condition of it. The state and direction of the wind has also to be taken into consideration when studying the changes of the barometer, and forms an important element in the calculations of the meteorologist, each different wind indicating variations of weather. The connection between changes of weather and the pressure of the atmosphere does not seem to have been satisfactorily established.

One of the reasons assigned for the mercurial column in the barometer being lower in wet than in fine weather is that so long as aqueous matter remains in the air in the form of elastic vapour, its tension assists in supporting the barometric column, but that when this aqueous vapour is precipitated in the form of rain, this tension is lost or removed, and the column therefore falls.

The correspondence between wet and fine weather and an elevation and depression of the barometer seems, however, equally, if not more, dependent on the nature of the winds than on the preceding cause. “In western Europe, the south and south-western winds, which are the rain-bringing winds, are warm winds. Now, a column of warm air to be of the same weight as one of cold air must necessarily be higher, but this cannot well be the case in the atmosphere, for no sooner does the warm column rise by its lightness above the surrounding level of the upper surface of the aërial ocean, than it flows over and becomes nearly of the same height as the cold air around it. The interchange taking place less interruptedly, and consequently less slowly, in the higher strata than in those near the ground, it is some time before the equilibrium, thus disturbed, is restored; and meanwhile the barometer keeps low under the pressure of a rarer atmospheric column. On the other hand, the northerly and easterly winds, being comparatively cold and dry, are accompanied by fair weather and a high barometer. It is thus to the warmth, and not to the moisture of these winds, that the pressure is to be ascribed.”[108]

[Footnote 108: Chambers’s ‘Encyclopædia.’]

=Barometer, An′eroid.= An instrument invented, or at least perfected, by M. Vidi, of Paris, in which the pressure of the atmosphere is measured without the employment of a fluid, as in the ordinary barometer.[109] Externally, it somewhat resembles in appearance a carriage clock or a ship’s chronometer; internally, it consists of a small air-tight cylindrical box, formed of thin corrugated copper plates, and partially exhausted of air, the sides of which yield to the pressure of the atmosphere; the effect being regulated by a spring, multiplied by a system of levers, and ultimately recorded by the index on a graduated dial. Compensation for changes of temperature are self-effected, with almost perfect accuracy, by the elastic force of the spring being so adjusted to that of the air in the cylinder, that the loss of force in the one and the increased expansive force of the other shall, independently of changes of atmospheric pressure, preserve the lever in equilibrio.

[Footnote 109: An instrument founded on the same principle, and of nearly similar construction was described by M. Conté, in 1798, in the ‘Bull. des Sci. Nat.,’ t. i, No. xiii, p. 106.]

The indications of the aneroid barometer closely correspond to those of the mercurial barometer at ordinary ranges; the differences never exceeding ·01 of an inch. It is so extremely sensitive that an ascent or descent of only a few feet is distinctly indicated by it; whilst its portability adapts it for service in situations for which an ordinary barometer is unfitted. On the other hand, it is liable to move by jerks, and the elasticity of the spring, and consequently the zero-point of the scale, has been found to be sometimes affected by time and a rough journey. On this account it is necessary to compare it occasionally with some standard mercurial barometer, to determine its amount or rate of variation, if any.

=Barometer, Phi′al.= This amusing philosophic toy is made by cutting off the rim and part of the neck of a common glass-phial with a file. The phial is then nearly filled with water, either pure or tinged blue or red; and the finger being placed on its mouth, it is inverted, and suspended in a vertical position by means of a piece of twine or wire, when the finger is withdrawn. (See engr.) In dry weather the under surface of the water remains level with the neck of the bottle, or even concave; in damp weather, on the contrary, a drop appears at the mouth and continues enlarging until it falls, and is then followed by another in the same way.

=Barometer, Fitzroy.= This, which is a very cheap instrument, is made on the syphon principle, but the cistern is formed by the lower limit, which is blown into a bulb.

=Barometer, Port′able.= The most accurate are those of Gay-Lussac and Bunten, and after them the aneroid. They should be set on universal joints, and well balanced. The common instrument made with a box and leather cistern seldom continues long correct.

=Barometer, Wheel.= The common form of the instrument having a dial-face and hands.

[For further information in connection with the above subject the reader is referred to the ‘articles’ ANEROID, ATMOSPHERE, GAS, HEIGHTS, STEAM, STORM-GLASS, VAPOUR, WEATHER, &c.]

=BAR′OSCOPE=† (-skōpe). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. BAROSCO′PIUM, L. A barometer; sometimes applied to the wheel-barometer of Hooke.

=BAR′RAS.= The concrete resinous exudation from the bark of fir-trees. That from pi′nus marit′ima is called GALIPOT.

=BARSE.= [Provincial.] The common perch.

=BAR′WOOD.= A red dye-wood imported from Angola and other parts of Africa. It closely resembles cam-wood and sanders-wood in its colouring matter being of a resinous nature, and scarcely soluble in water. In dyeing this difficulty is obviated by taking advantage of the strong affinity existing between it and the proto-salts of tin and iron. Thus, by strongly impregnating the goods with protochloride of tin, either with or without the addition of sumach, according to the shade of red desired, and then putting them into a boiling bath containing the rasped wood, the colour is rapidly given out and taken up, until the whole of the tin in the fibres of the cloth is saturated, and the goods become of a rich bright hue. In like manner the dark red of bandana handkerchiefs is commonly given by a mordant of acetate of iron followed by a boiling bath of this dye-stuff. See DYEING, MORDANTS, &c.

=BASALT′= (bă-sŏlt′). [Eng., Ger.] Syn. BASAL′TES (-săl′-tēz), L.; BASALTE, Fr. In geology, &c., a species of trap-rock, essentially composed of the minerals felspar and augite. It is of a fine compact texture, of a dark-green, grey, or black colour, and usually occurs in regular columns, of which the Giants’ Causeway and the Island of Staffa furnish magnificent examples. It is fusible; and when rapidly cooled forms a dark brittle glass; but when slowly cooled retains its original beauty and hardness almost unimpaired. Messrs Chance, Brothers, of Birmingham, have availed themselves of this property to apply it to decorative and ornamental purposes. Their process is to melt the material[110] in a reverberatory furnace, and, when sufficiently fluid, to pour it into red-hot moulds of sand encased in iron boxes. The corresponding adj. is BASALT′IC (-sōlt′-; BASAL′TICUS, -săl′-, L.; BASALTIQUE, Fr.).

[Footnote 110: Rowley-rag is used by the Messrs C.; as beside ordinary basalt, greenstone, whinstone, and other similar minerals, possess the same property.]

=BASE.= [Eng., Fr.] Syn. BA′SIS (pl., ba′ses), L., Gr.; GRUND, GRUNDFLÄCHE, Ger. In chemistry it was formerly, and is now occasionally, applied to metallic oxides which possess the property of forming salts with acids. The alkaloids are also designated organic bases. In pharmacy, the characteristic or principal ingredient in any medicine or compound preparation; or that on which its qualities or efficacy depends.

=BAS′IL= (-băz′-). Syn. SWEET BAS′IL, CIT′RON B.; BASIL′ICUM, L.; BASILIC, Fr.; BASILIKUM, Ger. The oc′ymum (ŏs′-) basil′icum (Linn.), an annual aromatic herbaceous plant, of the nat. ord. Labiatæ (DC.). It is a native of India, but is largely cultivated in every part of Europe as a pot-herb. Leaves strong-scented; popularly reputed emmenagogue; much used to flavour salads, soups, &c., especially in French cookery. Mock-turtle soup derives its peculiar flavour from this herb; as also did the original Fetter-lane sausages, once so highly esteemed by cockney gourmands. In India it is commonly employed as an anodyne in childbirth.

=Bas′il= (băz′-). Syn. BAS′AN; BASANE, Fr. A sheep-skin, tanned; particularly one dressed on the grain side, for book-binding.

=BASIL′ICON.= See CERATES and OINTMENTS.

=BAS′KET= (băs′-). Syn. COPH′INUS (kŏf′-), L.; PANIER, CORBEILLE, &c., Fr.; KORB, Ger. BASKETS are generally STAINED or COLOURED with the simple liquid dyes used for straw or wood; and that, for variegated work, the twigs, after being carefully peeled, washed, and wiped dry or slightly air-dried, are stained before being woven. See OSIERS, &c.

=BASS‡.= [Provin.] The linden-tree; also a hassock or mat made of its inner bark. See BAST.

=Bassia butyracea.= A tree growing in the sub-tropical Himalayas. The seeds yield by expression a concrete oil, known by the name of Fulwa Butter, which does not become rancid by keeping. It is held in high esteem in India as an external application in rheumatic and other painful maladies.

=BAS′SORIN= (-rĭn). Syn. BASSORI′NA, L. A substance first noticed, by Vauquelin, in Bas′sora-gum. See GUM, INSOLUBLE, TRAGACANTHINE, &c.

=BAST= (băst). Syn. BASS (which see). The inner bark of the linden tree or tiel tree; also matting, &c., made of it.

=BAS′TARDS= (-tărdz). Syn. BAS′TARD SUG′AR (shŏŏg′-), PIECES, &c. In sugar-refining, impure or damaged sugar resulting from the heat and chemicals used in the process of manufacture, and which will not pay for purifying.

=BA′′SYL= (bāse′ĭl). In chemistry, any simple or compound body, acting as a basic radical.

=BATATA= [Convolvulus batatas, or SWEET POTATO]. This is a native of the East Indies, but is now cultivated in all tropical and sub-tropical countries for the sake of its tubers, which are highly esteemed as an article of food. They are eaten either roasted or boiled, and are sweet, wholesome, and nutritious, although somewhat laxative.

In some parts of America the Batata, next to maize, forms the principal diet of the poorer classes. The plant was introduced into England by Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Hawkins; but they do not bear the cold of our winters, and if grown here are raised in hot-houses, where they may be obtained without difficulty varying from 1 lb. to 2 lbs. in weight. They thrive better in the south of Europe. The tubers contain about 32 per cent. of solid matter, 16 of which is starch, 10 sugar, 1·5 albumen, 1·1 gum, 0·3 fat, 2·9 mineral matter. The leaves are used as a boiled vegetable.

=BATH= (bahth). Syn. BAL′NEUM, L.; BAIN, Fr.; BAD, Ger., Sax. A place for bathing; a vessel or receptacle, natural or artificial, containing or adapted to contain water, and used to bathe in. In architecture and hygiene, a building fitted up for and appropriated to bathing.

Constr., &c. Here one of the first subjects which must engage our attention is the selection of the material of which the bath is to be formed. For FIXED BATHS polished white marble has always been in favour, owing to its cleanliness and beauty. For this purpose, slabs of sufficient thickness and free from flaws or cracks should be chosen; and they should be securely and properly bedded in good water-tight cement, in a well-seasoned wooden case. The objections to marble, independent of its costliness, are, that it is apt to get yellow or discoloured, and to lose its polish, by frequent and careless use; and that the restoration of its surface to its original purity, is a matter of considerable expense and difficulty. It is also only fitted to contain water with, at the most, soap, weak alkalies or alkaline carbonates, aromatics, or neutral organic principles; and cannot be employed with water medicated, however slightly, with acids, sulphurets, iodine, chlorine, salines (others than those just named), or calorific substances. As a cheaper material thick slabs of Welsh slate are often substituted for marble; but even this substance is attacked by chemicals, though much more slowly. A lining of large Dutch tiles is sometimes used: but here the joints are very apt to leak. For baths adapted to all the requirements of health and disease, and which are at the same time durable and comparatively inexpensive, we must, therefore, seek further. Porcelain, glass, and hard glazed stone-ware have been proposed, and are even sometimes used for baths; but they possess the disadvantages of being fragile, and very liable to crack when filled with hot water in cold weather. Wedgewood-ware is very beautiful and durable; but is expensive, and baths formed of it can only be obtained on special order. Stourbridge-ware, as produced of late years, is the only product of the potter’s art that appears entirely to meet the case; but even this yields in durability to enamelled iron as a material for baths adapted to all liquids and temperatures, and to rough or careless usage. (See engr. 1.) The better qualities of PORT′ABLE BATHS (see engr. 2) are generally made of copper. Stout tinned or galvanised iron, and even stout block-tin thickly covered with waterproof paint or japan, are also employed; but though less expensive than copper, they have the disadvantage of being much less durable. All these substances are, however, readily acted on by chemicals. A durable and cheap portable bath, adapted to all purposes, must, therefore, like a fixed one, be made of one or other of the materials already noticed. For MED′ICATED BATHS large wooden troughs are frequently employed, particularly for acidulated, ioduretted, and sulphuretted baths.

The arrangements for supplying cold and hot water must necessarily greatly depend on circumstances, and the quantity required. For a single fixed bath, or even for two or three of them, the common circulating water-heater or boiler, placed in some apartment on a rather lower level than the bath, is, perhaps, the most convenient; but where this is not attainable the water may be run, by means of a pipe, from a boiler situated on a somewhat higher level. In either case a supply of cold water must also be at hand, and conveyed in a like manner, to enable the bath to be reduced to any required temperature. On the large scale, as in our public baths, where numerous baths are in constant use during the day, the hot water is best supplied from a large cistern somewhere above the level of the bath-rooms, and which is heated by a coil of pipe supplied with high-pressure steam from a boiler situated on a lower level, as the ground floor or basement. The hot and the cold water, conveyed by separate pipes of about 1-1/2 inch diameter, unite in a two-way cock close to the bath, so as to enter it together, by which only one aperture in the end of the bath is required for the purpose. The bath is emptied, and excess of water removed, by a grated aperture in the bottom, also stopped by a cock which, like the former, has handles or keys so placed as to be accessible to the attendant outside the bath-room, as well as to the bather, whilst the danger of overflowing is obviated by a two-inch waste-pipe, opening into the bath at about two inches from the top.

For heating portable baths, so many plans are in use, and have been suggested, and even patented, that the reader cannot possibly be at a loss for one to suit his particular case. A small grate for burning charcoal is the one most commonly adopted; but where attainable, a ring or cross of small inflamed gas-jets, is more cleanly and manageable.

When the bath consists of a wooden tub, or any other deep vessel, a simple and inexpensive apparatus brought out in America, under the title of the ‘ITAL′IAN BATH′-WARMER’ (see engr. 3), and made of thin sheet-iron, will occasionally be found useful.[111]

[Footnote 111: A small cast-iron ‘horse’ with three legs (not shown in the engr.) to support the ‘warmer’ about 2 inches above the bottom of the bath-tub, and to keep it steady and upright, is usually sold with it.]

This situation and the minor details connected with the comfort and convenience of the bath, must greatly depend on the character of the building, and the sum to be devoted to the purpose. When possible, the bath-room should always be on the same floor as the bedrooms, of easy access to them, and so situated and arranged, that a plentiful and constant supply of pure water can be ensured, and the waste water removed without trouble or inconvenience. The basement story should always be avoided; for, as observed by Dr Ure, there is a coldness and dampness belonging to it, in almost all weathers, which is neither agreeable nor salubrious.

The ranges of the temperature of water appropriate to the respective baths, according to the common nomenclature, are shown in the following Table:——

------------------------------------ Name. | Temperature. Fahr. ------------------------------------ Cold bath | 33° to 75° Temperate bath | 75 ” 82 Tepid bath | 82 ” 90 Warm bath | 90 ” 98 Hot bath | 98 ” 112 ------------------------------------

Concluding Remarks. The importance, and indeed the absolute necessity of frequent personal ablution, has been already insisted on and explained. But however important and beneficial the use of water in this way may be, the effects arising from the immersion of the body in that liquid, as in the practice of bathing, are far more extensive and complete. What the one does usefully but not completely, the other accomplishes readily, satisfactorily, and perfectly. There is no absolute succedaneum for the entire bath. Its physiological effects are peculiar to itself, and of the utmost importance in pathology and hygiene. The practice of wearing flannel, the daily use of clean linen, the mere washing of the more exposed parts of the body, are but poor attempts at cleanliness, without the occasional, if not frequent, entire submersion of the body in water. Nor should the action of judicious bathing in the promotion of personal comfort and personal beauty be forgotten. Intellectual and moral vigour are also gradually, but materially, influenced and promoted by the beneficial action of bathing on the system; for mind and conscience being linked to matter in the ‘house we live in,’ become perturbed, or lethargic, in almost exact accordance with the fluctuations of our physical health. The neglect of bathing in this country is, to us, an absolute enigma. We are always talking about health, and continually professing to be seeking it; but the practical applications of the principles which we advocate, and the doctrines which we teach, are, unfortunately, the exceptions and not the rule.

Our recommendation of bathing applies chiefly to the warm bath and the tepid bath, which are alike adapted to the delicate and the robust, and to every condition of climate and season. Cold bathing, in this climate, is only suited to the most healthy and vigorous, and can only be safely practised during the warmer months of the year, and in a mass of water sufficient to permit of the heat of the body being maintained by swimming or other active exercise. The plunge and shower baths are partial exceptions to these remarks; whilst sea-bathing, for the reasons given elsewhere, comes under another category. This last, “on account of its stimulative and penetrating power, may be placed at the head of those means which regard the care of the skin; and it certainly supplies one of the first wants of the present generation, by opening the pores, and thereby re-invigorating the whole nervous system.” “Besides its great power in cases of disease, it may be employed by those who are perfectly well, as the means most agreeable to nature for strengthening the body and preserving the health.” Another important advantage which sea-bathing has over bathing in fresh water is, that persons seldom take cold from indulging in it.

For old people, or those of middle age, the cold bath is not to be recommended, or if taken, considerable caution is required in using it. By such persons, also, bathing in very hot weather, or in the sea, should likewise be prudently practised. For these, the warm or tepid sponge-bath will be found the much safer method.

It sometimes happens that, both with the old and young, the cold bath gives rise to headache, palpitation, shortness of breath, loss of appetite, or great languor. Whenever any of these effects are produced, the bath should be at once given up.

The best time for taking a cold hath or for swimming is in the morning, not too early, but when the sun is well up. Immersion is best practised after a light meal, but not immediately following one. After breakfast, from 10 a.m. to noon, are the preferable hours. Should the bather be unable to swim, when going into the sea or into a river, he should keep briskly moving all the time his body is immersed in the water. If in a room bodily friction must be substituted for exercise. A desirable glow may often be produced by rubbing the body with either a rough towel, a flesh-brush, or a pair of horsehair gloves.

The above remarks are meant to apply only to persons in average health.

Weakly and delicate persons, even without any disease about them, would always do well to consult their medical adviser before taking to cold bathing.

We may add, that for bathing to produce its best effects the water should be soft and pure, and good soap sparingly, but regularly, employed whenever the skin requires it. See ABLUTION and WASH-HOUSES.

The medical and hygienic properties of baths are noticed below, under their respective names:——

=Bath.= In chemistry, &c., a vessel or apparatus containing some medium in which the vessel holding the substance to be heated is immersed, instead of being exposed to the direct action of the fire; by which means a limited and uniform temperature may be ensured.

The highest temperature that can be given to any substance contained in a vessel placed in another of boiling water, is about 205° or 206° Fahr.; but by adding 1/5th part of common salt to the bath, a heat of fully 212° may be obtained. Baths of fusible metal, saturated solutions of salt, sand, and (on the large scale) steam, are also used for the same purpose. A bath of oil may be safely heated to about 500° Fahr. without suffering decomposition, and will be found an exceedingly appropriate and convenient source of heat in many processes. The simplest and most convenient form of water bath is that afforded by raising water to the boiling point in a copper basin placed over a gas lamp, and supporting the vessel to be heated over the basin, by means of a circular hoop of copper resting on the top of the basin. By this means the lower surface of the dish or vessel to be heated is brought in contact with the steam. Copper basins, fitted with a series of concentric copper rings, so as to render the basin capable of supporting dishes of different sizes, are made for this purpose.

For drying many substances an air bath is required. The accompanying cut represents a convenient form of air bath. It consists of a cylindrical copper vessel (A), the cover of which is moveable, and has two apertures, the middle one (E) serving for the escape of vapour, and the lateral one (C) for the insertion of a thermometer. The vessel holding the substance to be heated rests on a ring within the box, supported on a tripod.

A larger air bath, by means of which several small vessels can be heated at once, is seen below.

Air-baths are sometimes surrounded with a jacket, and may be converted into water or oil baths, according as the jacket is filled with either of the fluids. For a Table of Boiling-points, see EBULLITION.

An air-bath of constant temperature between 100° and 200° C. has been contrived by Sprengel. It consists of an ordinary hot-water oven made of sheet-lead autogenously soldered, and filled with dilute sulphuric acid boiling at the required temperature.

In order that the temperature may remain constant, the water which distils from the dilute sulphuric acid is condensed and allowed to flow back again into the bath by means of a worm of lead cooled by the atmosphere, or a long vertical metal or glass tube.

=Bath.= In medicine, the medium in which the body, or a part of it, is bathed or immersed, for some object beyond that of mere personal cleanliness or enjoyment; the composition, use, or temperature of the medium being generally indicated by some epithet, as in the instances below. When only the last is pointed out, pure water is, of course, intended to be used.

Baths are divided by medical writers into classes, and even minor subdivisions, in a manner which is more ingenious than useful. They are said to be SIMPLE when water or its vapour forms the bath; and COMPOUND when the water or vapour is medicated by the addition of other substances (COM′POUND BATHS; BAL′NEA COMPOS′ITA, L.). The latter class is also subdivided into THERAPEU′TIC BATHS (MED′ICATED BATHS; BAL′NEA MEDICA′TA, B. THERAPEU′TICA, L.); and NUTRIT′IVE BATHS (B. NUTRIEN′TIA, B. NUTRI′′TIA*, B. NUTRITO′′RIA*, L.). Thus, besides the ordinary water and vapour baths, the medical uses of which are hereafter noticed, we have WINE′-BATHS, MILK′-BATHS, SOUP′-BATHS, &c. (used to convey nourishment, or to sustain the body, as in occlusion of the œsophagus, certain diseases of the stomach, &c.); CHLO′′RINE BATHS, SUL′PHUROUS B., MERCU′′RIAL B., &c. (used in skin diseases, syphilis, &c.); AROMAT′IC and CHALYB′EATE BATHS (employed as tonics); and ACID BATHS (sometimes used to remove the effects of mercury).

On the Continent a variety of substances are employed to medicate baths, which are seldom or never so used in this country.

The quantity of any medicinal substance used to medicate a bath, for an adult, may be, in general, for each gallon of water employed, about the same as that which is used to form a half-pint lotion of medium or rather weak strength. Thus; taking the quantity of bichloride of mercury to form the lotion at 5 gr., and that of sulphurated potash at 1/2 dr., the quantity required for a bath of 30 to 40 galls. will be about 2-1/2 dr. of the first, and about 1-3/4 oz. of the second of these substances. Much, however, depends on the nature of the case, the length of the immersion, the periods of recurrence, and the intended number of repetitions. In the case of very active remedies it will be safest and best to begin with less than (say 1/4 to 1/3) the quantity thus indicated.

Medicated baths are, in nearly all cases, taken warm or fully tepid.

⁂ In the following baths the quantity of the ingredients ordered, when not otherwise indicated, is that proper for an ordinary full-sized bath for an adult; viz., from 40 to 60 galls. Those which do not contain volatile substances may be used more than once; and many of them several times by adding a small quantity of fresh ingredients to keep up their strength.

=Bath, Acid= (ăs′-). Syn. BAL′NEUM AC′IDUM (ăs′-), L. See HYDROCHLORIC, NITRIC, NITRO-HYDROCHLORIC, and SULPHURIC ACID BATHS (below). Enamelled, hard-glazed, or wooden vessels must be used with all of them.

=Bath, Air.= Syn. BAL′NEUM PNEUMAT′ICUM, L.:——a. (Cold.) Simple exposure of the body, in a state of nudity, for a short time to the atmosphere. Tonic, anodyne, and sedative; in febrile excitement, nervous irritability, and restlessness accompanied by a quick or full pulse, &c. Safe and often very effective. It will frequently induce sleep when all other means fail.

b. (Hot:——ASSA, A. SUDA′TIO, L.) An apartment to which dry heated air is admitted. Sometimes the arrangement is such that the air is not inhaled. Stimulant; sudorific; more so than even the vapour bath; produces copious perspiration, being, indeed, the most powerful and certain diaphoretic known. It has been advantageously employed in cholera (for which its advocates state that it is almost a specific), congestive fevers, chronic rheumatism, contractions, stiff joints, paralysis, scaly skin-diseases, dropsical swellings, and most of the cases in which the vapour bath is usually employed. The temperatures are——as a sudorific, 85° to 105° Fahr.; as a stimulant, 100° to 130°. When not inhaled it may be often raised, with advantage, 15° to 25° higher. See BATH, TURKISH.

c. (Compressed.) Recommended, by M. Tarberie, in aphonia, &c. It has recently been employed in asthma, phthisis, and some other like diseases, with extraordinary success, at Ben Rhydding.

d. (Rarefied.) Applied locally. Revulsive; resembles CUPPING, DRY (which see).

=Bath, Al′kaline.= Syn. AL′KALISED BATH; BAL′NEUM ALKALI′NUM, B. ALKALIZA′TUM, L. Carbonate of potash (salt of tartar), 3/4 lb. In itch, prurigo and chronic skin diseases accompanied with dryness and irritation, acute gout, lithic gravel, scurvy, diarrhœa, &c. Scotch soda, 1 lb., is sometimes substituted for the ‘potash’; but is less effective, and is theoretically objectionable.

=Bath, Al′um.= Syn. BAL′NEUM ALU′MINIS, L. Alum (in powder, or previously dissolved in hot water), 3/4 lb. to 1-1/2 lb., or even 2 lbs. In troublesome excoriations, extensive burns, obstinate vesicular eruptions, diarrhœa, &c.; also in obstinate piles and prolapsus ani. See BATH, ASTRINGENT.

=Bath, Ammoni′acal.= See HYDROCHLORATE OF AMMONIA BATH (below).

=Bath, Animal.= Syn. BAL′NEUM ANIMA′LE, L. The skin or any part of an animal just killed, wrapped round the body or a limb. Once much esteemed; now, happily, disused in this country.

=Bath, Antimo′′nial.= Syn. BAL′NEUM ANTIMONIA′LE, L. Tartar-emetic, 1 to 2 oz. (Soubeiran.) In lumbago and certain skin diseases; also as a counter-irritant.

=Bath, Antipso′′ric.= Syn. BAL′NEUM ANTIPSO′′RICUM, L. See BATH, SULPHURETTED (also others).

=Bath, Aromat′ic.= Syn. BAL′NEUM AROMAT′ICUM, L. Balm, chamomile, lavender, mint, rosemary, sage, thyme, with any other like aromatic herbs (at will), of each a handful, mixed together and steeped in a (covered) pail of boiling or very hot water, for an hour, and then strained, with pressure, into the bath. Sometimes 2 or 3 oz. of sal-ammonia, a 1/4 lb. of alum, or 1 lb. of common salt, is also added. Occasionally used in cutaneous affections, chronic rheumatism, diarrhœa, dyspepsia, stiff-joints, &c.; also in debility arising from loss of blood, spermatorrhœa, suppressions, hysteria, hypochondriasis, &c.

The AROMATIC VAPOUR BATH is made by causing the vapour to pass through the herbs.

=Baths, Aromatic Malt= (J. Hoff, Berlin). Wittstein says these consist of coarsely crushed barley malt at six times its selling value.

=Bath, Astrin′gent.= Syn. BAL′NEUM ASTRIN′GENS, L. Prep. (Most.) Alum (2 to) 4 lbs.; dissolve in boiling water; and add, whey, 6 or 8 pailfuls, or q. s. In extensive burns, piles, prolapsus ani, &c. See BATH, ALUM, BATH, OAKBARK, &c.

=Bath, Balsamic.= Syn. BAL′NEUM BALSAM′INUM, L. Bordeaux turpentine and tar, of each 2 lbs. (or of tar alone, 3 to 4 lbs.); hot water, 6 or 7 galls.; stir continuously until nearly cold, then add the clear portion to water q. s. to form a bath. In mumps, pruriginous diseases of the skin, eczema, impetigo, &c.

=Bath, Barèges= (Factitious). Syn. BAL′NEUM BARETGINEN′SE (Factitium), L. Prep. 1. Crystallised sulphide of sodium, 3-1/2 oz.; chloride of sodium, 1-1/2 oz.; gelatine (dissolved), 4 oz.

2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Dry sulphide of potassium, 4 oz.; water, 16 oz.; dissolve, and add the solution to the bath; then further add, of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, 1/2 oz., previously diluted with water, 8 oz. In itch, moist skin diseases, chronic diarrhœa, chronic rheumatism, lead colic, &c. See BALLS, WATERS, &c.

=Bath, Benzo′ic.= Syn. BAL′NEUM BENZO′ICUM, L. 1. Benzoin (in powder), 1/2 lb.; water (at 90°) q. s. In irritations, hysteria, hypochondriasis, &c. It is also reputed to be feebly aphrodisiac. 2. A common warm bath, with a little powdered benzoin laid on a heated plate near the bather, so that the fumes may be inhaled. Slightly soothing or anodyne; in chronic laryngitis, relaxed uvula, &c.

=Bath, Bichlo′′ride of Mer′cury.= See BATH, MERCURIAL.

=Bath, Bran.= Syn. BAL′NEUM FUR′FURIS, L. Bran, 5 to 7 lbs.; boiling waters, 2 or 3 galls.; digested together for an hour, or boiled for 15 minutes; the strained liquid being added to the bath. Emollient; in dry and scaly skin disease, and to allay itching and surfacial irritation; also to promote suppuration, &c.

=Bath, Bromine.= The saline waters of Kreuznach contain bromides. The salts derived from the evaporation of these waters are imported into this country, and are employed in baths. Or the following substitute may be used:——Artificial sea-salt, 11 lbs.; bromide of potassium, 4 oz.; mix, and let the above be added to a bath containing sufficient water for immersion. The bromine bath is more especially used for tumours of every kind. It requires to be continued in for a long time. When the patient does not possess the conveniences for taking the bath, flannels dipped in a strong solution of the salt and wrung out may be applied wet to the abdomen for some hours daily.

=Bath, Cam′phor.= Syn. BAL′NEUM CAM′PHORÆ, B. CAMPHORATUM, L. Camphor, 3 or 4 dr., coarsely powdered, and placed on a plate heated by boiling water, in the bathroom. Anodyne, anaphrodisiac, and diaphoretic; in spasmodic asthma, chronic cough, relaxation of the uvula, ardor urinæ, nervous irritability, &c.

=Bath, Carbon′ic.= Syn. CARBON′IC ACID BATH; BAL′NEUM CARBON′ICUM, B. AC′IDUM CARBONICUM, L.

1. Carbonic acid gas applied, by means of a suitable apparatus, to prevent its being respired. Antiseptic, diaphoretic, and excitant to the vascular system; in amenorrhœa, chlorosis, hysteria, scrofula, cancerous and other ulcers (particularly foul ones), &c.

2. Water, at 50° Fahr., charged with the gas. Powerfully antiseptic and sedative; in foul ulcers, gangrene, &c.

=Bath, Chlo′′ride of Ammo′′nium.= Syn. BAL′NEUM AMMO′′NII CHLORI′DI, B. AMMO′′NIÆ HYDROCHLORA′TIS, L. Sal-ammoniac, 2 to 3 lbs., or even 4 lbs. In chronic inflammations, glandular enlargements and indurations, chronic rheumatism and affections of the joints, leucorrhœa, chilblains, frost-bites, &c.

=Bath, Chlo′′ride of Soda.= Solution of chlorinated soda, 1-1/2 lb.; water, 30 galls.

=Bath, Chlo′′rine.= Syn. BAL′NEUM CHLORIN′II, B. CHLORINA′TUM, L. Tepid water to which a little chlorine has been added. Antiseptic, stimulant, and subsequently sedative and antiphlogistic; in itch, foul and gangrenous ulcers, chronic liver affections, &c. Chloride of lime is commonly substituted for chlorine.

2. (Magendie; Wallace.) Chlorine gas (obtained from salt, 1-1/2 oz.; oil of vitriol and water, of each 1 oz.; and black oxide of manganese, 1/2 oz. to 1 oz.) diluted with air, at a temperature of 104° to 150° Fahr., and applied, by means of a suitable apparatus, for 10 minutes to 1/2 an hour; every possible precaution being taken to prevent it being inhaled. In chronic liver affections, gradually and cautiously increasing the ingredients to three times the above quantity, and decreasing the dilution with air until the gas is used nearly pure.[112]

[Footnote 112: A dangerous remedy in careless or unskilful hands; and even with the experienced not always free from danger. The writer of this article once nearly lost his life from a single inspiration of the gas which accidentally escaped its proper limits. Terrific spasms of the glottis and a convulsive cough immediately came on, and lasted, with more or less severity, for nearly 14 hours.]

=Bath, Cold.= Syn. BALNEUM FRIG′IDUM (-frĭj′-), FRIGIDA′′RIUM, L.; BAIN FROID, Fr. Water, fresh, saline, or mineral, at a temperature varying from 33° to about 75°; but usually understood to apply to water between 50° and 70° Fahr. When below 50° it is considered very cold. At a temperature ranging from 60° to about 75° it is commonly used by the healthy and vigorous as a luxury, and for cleanliness.

“The immediate effects of the cold bath are a sensation of cold (speedily followed by one of warmth), contraction of the cutaneous vessels, paleness of the skin, diminution of perspiration, and reduction of the volume of the body. Shivering, and, as the water rises to the chest, a kind of convulsive sobbing, are also experienced. Continued immersion renders the pulse small, and ultimately imperceptible, and the respiration difficult and irregular. A feeling of inactivity succeeds; the joints become rigid and inflexible; pain in the head, drowsiness, and cramps, come on; the temperature of the body falls rapidly; and faintness, followed by death, ensues.” “Its primary effects constitute the SHOCK——its secondary effects, the REACTION or GLOW.”[113] Hence it is that immersion of the body in water below about 65° Fahr. cannot be tolerated for any length of time without such a loss of animal heat as frequently to induce highly sedative and depressing effects, from which the constitution does not readily recover. Water at a temperature of below about 50° Fahr. can only be safely used as a plunge-bath. The sedative effects of sea and mineral waters is much than that of pure water, or of spring or river water.

[Footnote 113: Pereira, ‘Mat. Med. and Therap.,’ 4th ed., i, 29.]

The cold bath, medically considered, is tonic, stimulant, and restorative, when judiciously taken, and when not too long continued or too often repeated. When beneficial, the patient feels a pleasant glow on the surface of the body immediately following it. If a sensation of coldness or shivering ensues, it acts injuriously, and should not be repeated. The duration of the immersion may vary from 2 to 15 minutes, the precise time depending upon the temperature of the water and the feelings of the bather; the longer period being only proper in fine weather, and when accompanied by swimming or violent exercise.

As a remedial agent, the cold bath is principally recommended to increase the tone and vigour of the system; and is contra-indicated when there is a tendency to apoplexy, or to chronic affections, functional or organic, of the heart, lungs, or kidneys. It should never be taken when the person feels chilly, languid, or depressed; or if drowsiness and shivering follow it.

The temperature of the water of the rivers and the coasts of England ranges, in summer, from 55° to 70 or 72° Fahr.

=Bath, Creosote.= Creosote, 2 dr.; glycerin, 2 oz.; boiling water, one gall. To be added to 29 galls. of water.

=Bath, Douche.= See BATH, SHOWER, DOUCHE, &c.

=Bath, Dry.= Syn. BAL′NEUM SICCUM, L. The immersion of the body in any dry material, as ashes, salt, sand, &c. EARTH-BATHING, as administered by the once notorious quack, Dr Graham, was of this kind. In the sudatorium or sweating room of the ancients the body was immersed in heated sand.

=Bath, Elec′tric.= Syn. BAL′NEUM ELEC′TRICUM, L. The patient, placed on an insulated stool, is put in contact, by means of a metallic wire, with the prime conductor of an electrical machine in action. The surface of the body is thus rendered electro-positive, and the surrounding air, by induction, electro-negative. It has been recommended in chronic rheumatism, scirrhous tumours, &c.

=Bath, Electro-chemical= (of Dr Caplin). This is founded on the supposition that all diseases arise from the presence of mineral, or other extraneous morbific matter, in some organ, or the whole organism, and which is capable of removal by electrolysis. The patient is placed in an appropriately arranged voltaic bath, and there “saturated with the electric fluid.” This “decomposes everything which is foreign to the organism, the vital parts being protected by the law of conservation belonging to every organic production.” These foreign substances are said to be thus carried out of the system by the electric current, and to be “fixed and plated on the copper in the same way, and according to the same law and principle (only reversed), as in the process of electro-plating.”[114]

[Footnote 114: ‘Hist. Records of the Electro-chem. Bath,’ by Mons. J. F. J. Caplin, M.D. Baillière, 1860.]

=Bath, Fec′ula.= Syn. BAL′NEUM AM′YLI, B. FÆC′ULÆ, L. Potato-starch or wheat-starch, 1 to 4 lbs.; boiling water q. s. to dissolve. Resembles the BRAN-BATH.

=Bath, Ferru′ginous.= Syn. CHALYB′EATE BATH; BAL′NEUM FERRUGIN′EUM, B. CHALYBEATUM, L. 1. Green sulphate of iron, 1 to 2 lbs. A well-tinned copper, wooden, or japanned bath may be used. In general debility when chalybeates are indicated, and the stomach will not bear iron; also in piles and prolapsus. The stains on the towels used to wipe the patient may be removed by at once soaking them in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid.

2. (Ioduretted.) See BATH OF IODIDE OF IRON.

=Bath, Foot.= Syn. PEDILU′VIUM, L. Warm (or hot). Revulsive, counter-irritant; in colds, menstrual and hæmorrhoidal suppressions, rheumatism, stiffness of the ankles, tender feet, &c. A little common salt, flour of mustard, or sal-ammoniac, is often added to render it more stimulant, to prevent ‘taking cold,’ &c. See FEET, &c.

=Bath, Gelat′inous.= Syn. BAL′NEUM GELATINO′SUM, B. GELATIN′II, L. Gelatin or fine Salisbury glue, 3 or 4 lbs.; dissolved in boiling water, 2 galls., or q. s.; and added to a warm bath. At the ‘Hospital for Cutaneous Diseases’ 8 lbs. of patent size are used for a bath of 30 to 35 galls. Emollient; formerly, but erroneously, considered nutritive. Used in skin diseases; generally combined with sulphur. See BATH, BARÈGES.

=Bath, Glyc′erine= (glĭs′). Syn. BAL′NEUM GLYCERIN′II, B. G. COMPOS′ITUM, L. Glycerine, 2 lbs.; gum arabic (dissolved), 1 lb. Used as a soothing emollient, in itching, dryness, irritation, and hardness of the skin, &c. Where expense is an object, 3 or 4 lbs. of good honey, and 1 oz. of salt of tartar, form an excellent substitute for the glycerine.

=Bath, Hem′lock.= Syn. BAL′NEUM CO′NII, L. 1. Dried hemlock-leaves (or herb), 4 to 6 handfuls; water, 1 gall.; infuse 2 hours, and strain. The part to be immersed in, or bathed with, the warm infusion, observing not to apply it if the skin is unsound; or it may be added to the water of a bath in the usual manner. In gout, cancer, chronic rheumatism, and certain skin diseases.

2. (Cut. Hosp.) Extract of hemlock, 2 oz.; starch, 1 lb.; boiling water, 1 gall.; dissolve. For a bath of about 30 galls. As the last.

=Bath, Hip.= Syn. COXÆLU′VIUM, L. Usually warm; sometimes fully warm, or somewhat hot. In inflammatory, spasmodic, and chronic affections of the abdominal and pelvic viscera; in suppressed and painful menstruation, hæmorrhoids, strangury, prolapsus, ischuria, &c.; also as a substitute for a full bath, when this last is contra-indicated by some affection of the lungs, heart, brain, or great vessels. Like full baths, it may be often advantageously medicated. See BIDET.

=Bath, Hot.= Syn. BAL′NEUM CAL′IDUM, CALDA′′RIUM, L.; BAIN CHAUD, Fr. Usual temperature, 98° to 106° Fahr.

The hot bath has a remarkably tranquillising effect upon the nervous system, producing a strong tendency to quietude and sleep. It also acts as a powerful antispasmodic, and by determining the blood to the surface of the body tends to relieve visceral inflammation and congestion. In chronic affections arising from the action of cold and damp and from exhausted energy, in stiff joints, rheumatism, neuralgia, diarrhœa, and numerous other affections, its effects are often rapid and remarkable. At high temperatures it strongly stimulates the arterial system, and arouses nervous energy and vital action, producing excessive excitement and turgescence, followed by copious perspiration, which has been often found successful in cholera, paralysis, &c. If the immersion be too long continued, or the bath be injudiciously employed, lassitude, debility, and somnolency ensue, and the good effect of the bath is more or less lost. In these cases violent throbbing and painful distension of the vessels of the head, with a distressing feeling of suffocation and anxiety, are premonitory symptoms of impending apoplexy, an accident which sometimes, though seldom, follows its improper use.

=Bath, Hydrochlo′′rate of Ammonia.= See BATH, CHLORIDE OF AMMONIUM.

=Bath, Hydrochlo′′ric Acid.= Syn. MURIAT′IC ACID BATH; BAL′NEUM HYDROCHLO′′RICUM, B. ACIDUM H., B. MURIAT′ICUM, &c., L. Commercial hydrochloric acid, 1 to 3 lbs. (in chronic liver affections); or 3 to 6 fl. oz. (in prurigo and lichen).

=Bath, Hydrosul′phuretted.= Syn. BAL′NEUM HYDROSULPHURE′TUM, L.——1. A tepid sulphuretted bath, with the addition of hydrochloric acid, 2 or 3 fl. dr., immediately before immersion. In rheumatism, chronic skin diseases, hooping-cough, and certain forms of paralysis:——2. A tepid bath to which 3 to 6 fl. oz. of (liquid) hydrosulphate of ammonia is added immediately before use. Used as the last. It often acts almost as a specific in hooping-cough and certain breath ailments.

=Bath, I′odine of I′ron.= Syn. BAL′NEUM FER′RI IODI′DI, L. Prep. (Pierquin.) Iodide of iron, 1/2 oz. to 2 oz. In amenorrhœa, leucorrhœa, chlorosis, scrofula, &c.; gradually increasing the quantity of the iodide until 4 oz., or more, is used for a bath.

=Bath, I′odine.= Syn. BAL′NEUM IODIN′II, L.:——1. Iodine, 3 to 5 dr.; dry siliceous sand, 2 oz.; triturated together until reduced to fine powder, and then agitated with the water of a tepid bath for 10 or 15 minutes. 2. (Cutan. Hosp.) Iodine, 4 dr.; liquor of potassa, 4 oz.; water, 2 pints; dissolve; for a bath of 30 galls. In skin diseases complicated with scrofula, glandular enlargements, amenorrhœa, &c.

=Bath, Io′duretted.= Syn. IO′DURATED BATH, I′ODISED B., COMPOUND IODINE-B., &c.; BAL′NEUM IODURE′TUM, B. IODURA′TUM*, B. POTAS′′SII SUPERIODI′DI, &c., L. Lugol, the leading authority on this subject, employs this bath of the different strengths, &c., shown in the following tables:——

a. FOR ADULTS:——

---------+------------+------------+--------------- Degree. | Iodine. | Iodide of | Water for the | | Potassium. | bath. ---------+------------+------------+--------------- | dr. | dr. | gal. ---------+------------+------------+--------------- 1 | 2 to 2-1/2 | 4 to 5 | 50 ---------+------------+------------+--------------- 2 | 2 ” 3 | 4 ” 6 | 60 ---------+------------+------------+--------------- 3 | 3 ” 3-1/2 | 6 ” 7 | 75 ---------+------------+------------+---------------

b. FOR CHILDREN:——

---------+----------+------------+---------- Age. | Iodine. | Iodide of | Water. | | Potassium. | ---------+----------+------------+---------- | gr. | gr. | gal. ---------+----------+------------+---------- 4 to 7 | 30 to 36 | 60 to 72 | 9 ---------+----------+------------+---------- 7 ” 11 | 48 ” 72 | 96 ” 144 | 18 ---------+----------+------------+---------- 11 ” 14 | 72 ” 96 | 144 ” 192 | 31 ---------+----------+------------+----------

⁂ The dry ingredients of the first Table are to be dissolved in a pint of water, and of the second, in 1/2 pint of water, before adding them to the bath.

In scrofulous affections and the other cases in which the external use of iodine or the iodides is indicated. Enamelled ware, stoneware, or wooden vessels must be employed.

=Bath, Lime.= Syn. BAL′NEUM CUM CAL′CE, L. Lime, 3 lbs.; slaked, and added to the bath. In gout, lithic diathesis, itch, &c. See BATH, VAPOUR.

=Bath, Mercu′′rial.= Syn. ANTISYPHILIT′IC BATH; BAL′NEUM MERCURIA′LE, B. HYDRAR′GYRI BICHLORI′DI, B. ANTISYPHILIT′ICUM, &c., L.; BAIN MERCURIEL, B. ANTISYPHILITIQUE, &c., Fr. Bichloride of mercury, in fine powder, 1 to 3 dr., hot water, 1 pint; agitate together until solution is complete, before adding them to the bath, the ‘water’ of which (contained in an enamelled or wooden vessel) must be soft (rain) and pure. At the ‘Cutan. Hosp.’ hydrochloric acid (= 1/3rd the weight of the chloride) is commonly added; and at the ‘Fr. hospitals,’ an equal, or rather more than an equal weight, of sal-ammoniac. These additions facilitate the solution of the chloride, and retard its decomposition by any slight impurity in the water forming the bath.

Uses, &c. In syphilitic affections, either with or without skin disease; in chronic rheumatism, swelled joints, and chronic skin diseases generally, where the use of mercury is indicated, and the remedy is rejected by the stomach; especially in these affections in women and children (for the last, proportionately reduced in strength and quantity). Also used in it, and to destroy pediculi on the body.

=Bath, Met′al.= See BATH (in Chemistry), FUSIBLE METAL, &c.

=Bath, Mud.= Syn. BAL′NEUM LU′TEUM, B. LU′TI, L. Mud-bathing (ILLUTA′TION) was common among the ancients. The slime of rivers, and the mud on the sea-shore, were especially prized for this purpose. The Tartars and Egyptians still employ baths of this description in hypochondriasis, scrofula, and scurvy. At Franzenbad, in Germany, an acidulous species of black bog-earth found there, is beaten up with warm water to a semi-liquid consistence, and used as a bath. This is said to render the skin satin-like and soft; and to be useful in debility, and in paralytic affections of a gouty origin. In France, hot dung (DUNG BATH) is occasionally used in rheumatism; and in Poland, in syphilis. The husk of grapes and the refuse of olives, after undergoing a partial fermentation, have been successfully employed in France against acute rheumatism.[115]

[Footnote 115: Mérat and De Lens, ‘Dict. Univ. de Mat. Méd.’]

=Bath, Muriat′ic.= See BATH, HYDROCHLORIC ACID.

=Bath, Mus′tard.= Syn. BAL′NEUM SINA′PIS, L.:——1. Flour of mustard, 2 lbs.; warm water, 1 gall.; make a thin soup; in fifteen minutes pour it into a coarse linen bag or cloth, and press out the liquid, which is to be stirred up with the bath. In cholera, diarrhœa simulating cholera, &c.; also to cause reaction; the patient remaining in the bath until a somewhat painful sense of burning and irritation is experienced:——2. Flour of mustard, 3 to 8 oz.; as before. Used as a gentle stimulant to excite the skin, and promote its healthy action, &c.

=Bath, Ni′tro-hydrochlo′′ric.= Syn. AC′ID BATH‡ (ăs′-), NITRO-MURIAT′IC B.*, N. A. B.*; BAL′NEUM NITRO-HYDROCHLO′′RICUM. B. AC′IDI (ăs′-), B. A. NITRO-HYDROCHLO′′RICI, B. A. NITRO-MURIAT′ICI*, &c., L.:——1. Water slightly acidulated with the acid, so that its sourness to the taste is about that of common vinegar. According to Ainslie, 1 oz. of acid is sufficient for 1 gall. of water.[116] Other formulæ in use are——

[Footnote 116: ‘Mat. Med. Indica,’ ii, 340.]

2. (Cutan. Hosp.) Nitric acid, 1-1/2 lb.; hydrochloric acid, 1 lb.; for a bath of 60 to 70 galls.

3. (Soubeiran.) Nitro-hydrochloric acid, 4 to 16 fl. oz.; according to the case.

4. (Dr Scott.) Nitric acid, 2 fl. oz.; hydrochloric acid, 3 fl. oz.; water, 5 fl. oz.; mix. 1-1/2 to 2 fl. oz. to each gall. of water for a general bath; 3 fl. oz. to the gall. for a foot, knee, or sponge bath.

Uses, &c. In its weaker forms, in skin-diseases depending on disordered liver; in others, chiefly in liver complaints, and to relieve the pain on the passing of gall-stones. It must be contained in an enamelled or wooden vessel, and may be used as a hip, knee, or foot-bath; a knee-bath being the one generally adopted in England. Dr Scott, of Bombay, who first brought this bath into notice, once plunged the Duke of Wellington up to his chin in one, in India, and thus cured him of a severe hepatic affection. In its stronger form it causes tingling and pricking of the skin, and a peculiar taste in the mouth, and affects the gums and salivary glands, often producing plentiful ptyalism, without which, indeed, its advocates regard its action as incomplete. Time of application, 15 to 20 minutes daily, for a fortnight or three weeks; and afterwards, every second or third day.

=Bath, Oak-Bark.= Syn. BAL′NEUM QUER′CÛS, B. QUER′CI, L. Oak-bark, 3 or 4 handfuls for a child; 10 to 15 for an adult; made into a decoction, and strained with pressure into the bath. In hæmorrhoids, prolapsus, leucorrhœa, hernia, diarrhœa, ill-conditioned and bleeding ulcerations, &c. Drs Elaesser, Eberle, and Fletcher have successfully employed it in the intermittents of infancy and childhood, tabes mesenterica or scrofula, &c. It has also proved useful in phthisis.

=Bath, Oil.= Syn. BAL′NEUM OLEO′SUM, L. Olive or other oil (hot), strongly aromatised with the oils of cassia, cloves, nutmegs, cedron, and juniper; and digested for a week on ambergris and vanilla, of each (bruised), about 10 gr. to the gallon. Used, in the East, to anoint the body, as a preservative against the plague and other contagious diseases; also as a full bath or hip-bath, the immersion being for 15 to 30 minutes.

=Bath, Pneumat′ic.= See BATH, AIR.

=Bath, Saline′= (Gelatinous). Syn. BAL′NEUM SALI′NO-GELATINO′SUM, L.; BAIN DE PLOMBIÈRES, Fr. Prep. Common salt and Flanders glue, of each 2 lbs.; water, 1 gall.; dissolve separately, and add the solutions to the bath. In scrofula, &c.

=Bath, Salt.= See BATH, SALINE, BATH, SEA, &c.

=Bath, Sand.= Syn. BAL′NEUM ARE′NÆ, L.; BAIN DE SABLE, Fr. See BATH (in Chemistry), BATH, DRY, &c.

=Bath, Sea.= Syn. BAL′NEUM MARI′NUM, L.; BAIN MARIN, Fr. Immersion in the sea or in recent sea water (temperate, tepid, warm, or hot). Owing to the saline matter which it contains, it possesses stimulant, alterative, and resolvent properties, superadded to those of pure water at the corresponding temperature. When taken, in summer, on our coasts, the reaction and glow follow more speedily and certainly than after a common water bath; and it may be taken with greater safety, and for a longer period. It often proves very serviceable in diseases accompanied with debility, in phthisis, scrofula, glandular enlargement, &c. A warm or hot sea-water bath is one of the most restorative imaginable; often removing the effects of fatigue and exposure——exhaustion, stiff joints, cramps, rheumatism, &c.——like a charm. Unless under sanction of a medical man, boys and girls should never be allowed to bath in the sea after the end of September. See BATH (above), WATERS, &c.

=Bath, Sea.= (Factitious). Syn. BAL′NEUM MARI′NUM FACTI′′TIUM, L. Artificial sea-water, or rather a substitute for sea-water, for this purpose, is commonly prepared by adding about 3% of common salt to ordinary water.[117] The following are, however, more serviceable imitations:——

[Footnote 117:

Or (say) for small quantities—— 1-1/4 oz. to the quart; 5 oz. to the gallon. And for large quantities, as a full bath—— 2 lbs. to every 7 gallons.]

1. As above, with the addition of 1 dr. of iodide of potassium to every 3 or 4 galls. of water.

2. (Cutan. Hosp.). Common salt, 8 lbs.; sulphate of magnesia, 2 lbs.; chloride of calcium, 1 lb.; water, 50 to 60 galls.

3. Salt, a handful; water, a pailful; flour of mustard, 1 oz. For a foot-bath.

=Bath, Show′er.= Syn. IMPLU′′VIUM, BAL′NEUM PEN′SILE, &c., L.; DOUCHE, Fr. Similar in its effects to the cold bath or plunge-bath; but without many of its advantages. It is less alarming to nervous persons, and less liable to produce cramp, than immersion in cold water; whilst the reaction or glow follows more speedily and certainly. It is considered the best and safest mode of cold bathing, and is often highly serviceable in nervous affections. A good plan is to allow the water to remain in the bedroom all night, by which any undue degree of coldness is removed. Tepid water may be commenced with; and at first, in extreme cases, the patient may stand in hot or warm water at the time of taking the bath. The reaction following its use is greatly promoted by friction of the surface with dry rough towels.

=Bath, Soap.= Syn. BAL′NEUM SAPO′NIS, L. White soap, 2 to 3 lbs.; water, 3 quarts; dissolve by heat, and add it to a warm bath. Detergent, lubricating, and discutient; in itch and other skin diseases, &c.

=Bath, Spon′′ging= (spŭnje′-). This title explains itself. In the sponging bath exercise and ablution are combined, and its employment by persons of sedentary habit is highly advantageous.

=Bath, Sulphur.= Syn. BAL′NEUM SUL′PHURIS, L. 1. Flowers of sulphur, 1/2 to 1 lb.; water, a pailful; mix, agitate occasionally for 12 to 24 hours, and then add the whole to an ordinary bath. Useful in various mild, but obstinate, skin diseases. Its occasional employment, even in health, seldom fails to render the skin soft, smooth, and delicate. Soap may be used with it.

2. (Compound; B. S. COMPOS′ITUM, L.)——a. (Cutan. Hosp.) Precipitated sulphur, 2 lbs.; hyposulphite of soda, 1/2 lb.; water, 1 gall.; dissolve, and add of sulphuric acid, 1 dr. One pint to every 30 galls. of water. In various skin diseases (see below).

b. See BATH, SULPHURETTED.

=Bath, Sul′phurous.= Syn. SUL′PHUROUS ACID BATH; BAL′NEUM SULPHURO′SUM, B. SUL′PHURIS‡, L. From sulphur, 1/2 oz., sprinkled on a hot plate placed under or near the patient; the proper precautions being taken as directed under CHLORINE BATH. In itch, lepra, psoriasis, &c. Cleanly, but seldom used, chiefly on account of the number of baths required to prove serviceable. See BATH, SULPHURETTED.

=Bath, Sul′phuretted.= Syn. BAL′NEUM SULPHURET′UM, B. SULPHURA′TUM, B. SULPHU′′REUM, &c., L.; BAIN SULFURÉ, &c., Fr. 1 Sulphurated potash, 1 oz.; for every 10 or 12 galls. of water employed. Sometimes sulphurated soda, or (in the Ger. hosp.) suphurated lime, is the sulphur-salt employed. 1/2 dr. of sulphuric acid is also occasionally added to the bath; but this increases its fœtor, without adding much, if anything, to its curative power; whilst, without care, the evolved gas may impede respiration.

2. (Gelatinous; GELAT′INO-SUL′PHUROUS B.; B. S. GELATINO′SUM, L.) Flanders glue, 1-1/2 to 2 lbs.; dissolved and added to a ‘sulphuretted bath.’ Recommended, by Dupuytren, as a substitute for the ‘Barèges bath.’

Obs. The sulphur or sulphuretted bath, under any of its forms, is a powerful remedy in almost every description of skin disease. Leprosy, the most obstinate of all, has been completely cured by it; the common itch requires only one or two applications to eradicate it entirely; all the scurfy and moist skin affections, local irritation, pimples, inflammatory patches, &c., speedily yield to its influence; scrofula, and, indeed, all those affections in which the warm or vapour bath is serviceable, also derive powerful assistance from the sulphur bath.

=Bath, Tem′perate.= Syn. BAL′NEUM TEMPERA′TUS*, L.

=Bath, Tep′id.= Syn. BAL′NEUM TEP′IDUM, B. EGEL′IDUM, TEPIDA′′RIUM, L.; BAIN TIÈDE &c., Fr. Approaches the warm bath in its hygiènic and medical properties; and is, perhaps the one best adapted for the mere purposes of personal cleanliness. In the spacious public tepid baths of London, swimming may be safely indulged in even in cold weather.

=Bath, Tum′ble.= An obsolete form of the shower bath.

=Bath, Turk′ish.= Syn. BAL′NEUM TUR′CICUM, L. A hot vapour bath or sweating bath, with massing or shampooing, ending with a warm bath or warm ablutions and friction. The EGYPTIAN, PERSIAN, and RUSSIAN BATHS are essentially similar. In the ANGLO-TURKISH BATH, recently introduced to this country, hot dry air wholly takes the place of vapour. See BATH, AIR (antè).

=Bath, Turpentine.= Syn. BAL′NEUM TEREBINTHINA′TUM, L. Prep. (Dr T. Smith.) Camphine (rectified oil of turpentine), 1/4 to 1/2 pint; Scotch soda, 2 lbs.; oil of rosemary, 1/2 dr.; for an adult. It calms the pulse, softens the skin, and renders the perspiration freer.

=Bath, Va′pour.= Syn. DEW′-BATH*; BAL′NEUM VA′PORIS, B. RO′′RIS†, AS′SA SUDA′TIO, A. VAPORA′TIO, VAPORA′′RIUM*, L.; BAIN DE VAPEURS, Fr. The vapour of hot water, either pure or medicated.

The simplest form of vapour bath is, perhaps, produced by placing some wet cloths, or sprinkling a little water on two or three heated bricks, laid under a chair on which the patient is seated; both the patient and whole apparatus being covered with a sheet or blanket, or, better still, a spacious waterproof cloak, to keep in the heated vapour. A large lump of quick-lime, set in a pan or an old iron pot and sprinkled with a little water, or else wrapped up in a thick coarse towel which has been previously soaked in water, may be substituted for the hot bricks; and often advantageously so. The slaking of the lime and the consequent evolution of vapour may be kept up or renewed, when necessary, by sprinkling on a little more water. This forms the “POOR MAN’S VAPOUR BATH” of the French. Dr Serres has suggested, as something apparently original, that a lump of quick-lime, wrapped in a wet cloth and covered with a dry one, be placed on each side of the patient;[118] and the whole being covered up allowed to remain until copious perspiration is established. It must, however, be recollected that by none of these minor contrivances can the temperature of the vapour, and its supply, be regulated, as in a perfect bath, even a portable one, such as is shown in the engraving.

[Footnote 118: “In bed” (!), says the Dr; but surely one who could only afford such a bath would find it difficult to obtain a fresh, dry bed; whilst it would be equally improper for him to lie in a wet or damp one.]

The following are the temperatures, &c., of this bath:[119]——

[Footnote 119: The temperatures of baths given here, and previously are those now generally adopted in the profession. See Dr Forbes’s ‘Cycl. of Prac. Med.,’ vol. i, 265; Pereira’s ‘Mat. Med.,’ i, 17; &c.]

-----------------+----------------------------- |Temperature of Vapour, Fahr. +-------------+--------------- | Breathed. | Not breathed. Tepid vapour bath| 90° to 100°| 96° to 106° Warm ” ” | 100 ” 110 | 106 ” 120 Hot ” ” | 110 ” 130 | 120 ” 160 -----------------+-------------+---------------

Uses, &c. It is one of the most powerful diaphoretics known, and is almost specific in nearly all those cases wherein warm or hot bathing proves advantageous. It is one of the most certain agents existing in cases of chronic rheumatism, contracted muscles and tendons, stiffness of joints, indurations, dysentery, diarrhœa, suppressions, &c. Instances are numerous in which the lame have thrown aside their crutches and the bedridden have again mixed with the world after a few applications of this bath. It is no uncommon thing to hear a patient start and shriek with agony before entering the bath, and to receive his congratulations and thanks on his coming out. They often exclaim——“It is wonderful. I could not have believed it!”[120]

[Footnote 120: Culverwell ‘On Baths and Bathing.’]

=Bath, Warm.= Syn. BAL′NEUM CAL′IDUM, B. CALID′ULUM, B. THERMA′LE, THERM′A, &c. L., BAIN THERMAL, B. CHAUD, &c., Fr. A bath at a temperature equal, or nearly equal, to that of the human body.

The sensations attendant upon immersion in a warm bath are most delicious. Its first effect is to increase the circulation of the blood, and to determine it to the skin. After a few minutes an agreeable and universal increase of heat is experienced; the face and head are generally soon bedewed with perspiration; a pleasing and prevailing calm, both mental and physical, follows; and after remaining in it some 12 or 15 minutes the effect is of the most refreshing and happy character.

The idea that the warm bath is relaxing is erroneous. It is only so where persons remain in it too long, or take it too frequently. Nor are those who indulge in it more liable to take cold than others. On the contrary, they are less liable, unless they wilfully expose themselves, insufficiently clad (particularly about the neck and chest), to draughts of cold air.[121]

[Footnote 121: We have been for many years accustomed to take baths at 98° to 100° Fahr., in all weathers and seasons, even during our severest winter, and on leaving the bath have often been engaged, for hours, moving about in the open air, even until midnight, without ‘catching cold,’ or the slightest inconvenience. However, we do not recommend others to follow our practice without due care.]

As a remedial agent, the warm bath is adapted to general torpor of the system, liver and bowel complaints, hypochondriasis, hysterical affections, morbid suppressions, dryness of the skin, nearly all cutaneous and nervous diseases, chronic rheumatism, &c. As a tonic or stimulant after excessive fatigue, great mental excitement, or physical exertion, it is unequalled, and furnishes one of the most wholesome, and at the same time luxurious sources of refreshment we are acquainted with. “To those who are past the meridian of life, who have dry skins and begin to be emaciated, the warm bath for half an hour, twice a week, I believe to be eminently serviceable in retarding the advances of age.” (Darwin.) The healthy longevity of the late Duke of Wellington, after a period of exposure and trials equal to the entire life of many individuals, has been by some, and we think correctly, mainly attributed to the free and constant use of the warm bath. A warm bath frequently gives great relief to infants suffering from griping or flatulence. See BATH (antè), &c.

=Bath, Wa′ter.= Syn. BAL′NEUM A′QUÆ, B. AQUO′SUM, B. MA′′RIÆ, B. MA′′RIS, L.; BAINMARIE, Fr. A water bath; in chemistry and cookery, applied to a bath of hot or boiling water. See BATH (in chemistry), BAINMARIE, &c.

=BATH′ING= (bāthé-). See BATH.

=BATH METAL.= A species of brass having the following composition:——

1. Zinc, 3 parts; copper, 16 parts; melted together under charcoal.

2. Fine brass, 32 parts; spelter, 9 parts. See BRASS and ALLOYS.

=BATH PIPE.= See PIPES.

=BATH, VICHY= (ARTIFICIAL). Bicarbonate of soda, 17 oz.; water, 60 galls.

=BATHS= and =WASH′HOUSES=. See BATH.

=BATTER.= Ingredients beaten together so as to form a semi-fluid mass. In cookery, a semi-fluid paste, which becomes hard in dressing, formed of flour, and milk or water, or a mixture of them, enriched and flavoured with eggs, butter, and (frequently) spices, currants, &c., at will. Used for frying vegetables, fillets, &c., and as a material for fritters and pancakes; also to form puddings, which are either baked alone, or under meat; and to cover various articles during the operation of cooking them. Miss Acton gives the following formulæ:——1. (For the Frying-pan.) Butter, 2 oz.; boiling water (nearly) 1/4 pint; mix, and stir in, gradually, of cold water, 3/4 pint; when quite smooth, mix it by degrees, very smoothly with fine dry flour, 3/4 lb.; adding (for fruit) a small pinch of salt (but more for meat or vegetables); just before use, stir in the whites of two eggs (or the white and yelk of one), and fry until light and crisp. In humble cookery the eggs may be omitted.

2. (For Puddings.) Eggs (yelk and white), about 4 in no.; flour, 1/2 lb.; milk, q. s.

Obs. When fruit, &c., are added, the batter must be made thicker than when none is used, to prevent it sinking. When sufficiently dressed it should cut smoothly and not stick to the knife. Eggs increase its firmness.

=BATT′ERY.= In frictional electricity, a series of Leyden jars so arranged as to admit of being charged and discharged together. See ELECTRICITY, &c.

=Battery.= In electro-chemistry, galvanism, &c., a pair, or series of pairs, of ‘excited’ metallic plates, so arranged as to act in unison, producing an electrical current by chemical decomposition.

=BAUME= (Baumé). See AREOMETER.

=Baume Nerval.= See OINTMENTS.

=BAUXITE.= A ferruginous aluminic hydrate containing 55·4 per cent. of alumina and 44·5 of ferric oxide. It is met with in roundish masses in the crystalline limestone of Baux (hence its name) near Arles, in France. Bauxite is one of the sources of alum.

=BAY.= See SWEET BAY.

=BAY ESSENCE.= BAY RUM. This compound, which is largely employed as a perfume in America, and is one of the articles of the United States’ Pharmacopœia, is, when genuine, imported from the West Indies, where it is said to be prepared by distilling rum, with the leaves of the bayberry tree. More than three fourths, however, of the bay rum consumed is undoubtedly an imitation of the imported essence, and is a mechanical mixture of the volatile oil of the bayberry tree, rum, and spirit; sometimes with the addition of aromatic spices and various colouring matters. The volatile oil from which this last preparation is made is frequently adulterated to a large extent.

Mr Rother, an American chemist, states that in one sample alone he found about fifty per cent. of fixed oil. The imported rum is far superior in point of fragrance to the artificial. When mixed with water the genuine essence remains clear, whilst the imitation almost always becomes turbid or milky.

Mr Rother finds the following formula to yield a satisfactory product, and one much stronger in aroma than the imported perfume:

Oil of bayberry tree 1 fl. oz. and m_{l} xx. Jamaica rum 1 pint } Strong alcohol 4 pints } o.m. Water 3 ” }

Mix the rum, alcohol, and water, then add the oil; mix, and filter.

=Bay Rum.= One of the highly valued American head-washes, pleasant in use, cooling and cleansing, and promoting the growth of the hair. It is prepared by distilling rum from the leaves of Myrica acris (called “Bayberry” in America).

=BDEL′LIUM= (dĕl′-yŭm). The commercial name of two gum-resins:——

=Bdellium, Af′rican.= Syn. BDELLIUM, AFRICA′NUM, L. From the heudola′tia africa′na (Guillem.), a terebinthaceous tree, of Senegal.

=Bdellium, In′dian.= Syn. IN′DIAN MYRRH, FALSE M.; BDELLIUM (of Scripture); BDELLIUM IN′DICUM, L. From am′y̆̆ris commiph′ora (Roxb.), or balsamoden′dron Roxbur′gii, a terebinthaceous tree of India.

Prop., &c. Once considered slightly deobstruent; sometimes used as a pectoral and emmenagogue, and, externally, as a stimulant and suppurative. It is now seldom met with in this country.

=BDELLOM′ETER= (dĕl-). Syn. MECHAN′ICAL LEECH; BDELLOM′ETRUM, L.; BDELLOMÈTRE, Fr. In surgery, a contrivance combining the principle of the cupping-glass, scarificator, and exhausting-syringe in one small instrument.

=BEACH’S (Dr) Specific against Hemorrhoids and Stomach Complaints of all kinds.= A tin box containing about 160 grammes of a fine sulphur-yellow powder, and imbedded in it a vial with 40 grammes of a brown clear fluid. The powder is a mixture of 7 parts of washed flowers of sulphur, 2-1/2 parts cream of tartar, 1/6 part of an inferior kind of rhubarb, finely powdered. The drops consist of a solution of brown sugar in strong spirit, with traces of various ethers. (Hager.)

=BEAD= (bēde). Syn. GLOB′ULUS, SPHÆR′ULA, &c., L.; GRAIN (de collier), &c., Fr.; BETHE, PERLE, &c., Ger. A little ball or spheroid pierced for stringing; any very small globular body‡; a bubble (‡ or tech.). A number of the first mounted on a thread or ribbon form a ‘string of beads’ or ‘chaplet.’

Materials, Manufac., &c. Beads are often formed of coral, gems, jet, pearls, porcelain, rock-crystal, &c.; but much more frequently of white and coloured glass. The mode in which these last are produced is as follows:——Glass tubes, appropriately ornamented by colour, reticulation, &c., are drawn out in various sizes, and from 100 to 200 feet in length. These tubes are cut into two-feet lengths, and then, by means of a steel knife, divided into pieces having, as nearly as possible, the same length as diameter. The resulting small fragments or cylinders are next well stirred with a mixture of sand and wood ashes, in order to prevent the closure of the perforations and their adhering together during the subsequent part of the process. They are then placed in a revolving cylinder and gradually heated until they become sufficiently spherical. They are next sifted from the sand and ashes, sorted into sizes, first by means of sieves, and afterwards by hand, and are lastly either put up in weighed parcels or strung by women and children for the market.

The manufacture of coral, gems, jet, and minerals generally, into beads, belongs to the lapidary.

Uses. Chiefly to form necklaces, bracelets, and other articles of personal ornament; by milliners to decorate head-dresses, &c.; and for other like purposes. They are also employed among Catholic and Mohammedan nations for devotional purposes; and among savage tribes in lieu of money. They are still sometimes worn as amulets. See BUGLE, CORAL, GLASS, PASTE, PEARLS, &c.

=Beads, Jum′ble= (bēdz). The dried seeds of a′brus precatōr′ius (Linn.) or Jamaica wild liquorice. Hard and indigestible; accounted cephalic and ophthalmic by the vulgar.

=Beads, Lo′vi’s.= Syn. SPECIF′IC-GRAV′ITY BEADS. Small hollow spheres of glass carefully adjusted and numbered, in sets, intended to supersede the hydrometer in determining the density of fluids. They are used by dropping them into the liquid, in succession, until one is found that exhibits indifference as to buoyancy, and will float under the surface at any point at which it may be placed. The number on this ball indicates, in thousandths, the sp. gr. sought. They are particularly serviceable in the hurry of the commercial laboratory, and have the advantage of being applicable to very small quantities of liquid; but their use, of course, requires the same precautions, and the results obtained the same corrections for deviations from the normal temperature, as with other instruments. See HYDROMETER, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, &c.

=Bead.= Syn. BEAD′ING‡. In architecture, cabinet-work, &c., any small moulding or continued projection of which the vertical section is semicircular.

=Bead= (of Liquors). [Tech.] The small bright iridescent bubbles, possessing some slight degree of permanence, which form on the surface of alcoholic liquors of sufficient strength, when agitated. See ALCOHOLOMETRY, PROOF, &c. (also below).

=BEAD′ING.= In the liquor-trade, anything added to commercial spirits to cause them to carry a ‘bead’ and to hang in pearly drops about the sides of the glass or bottle when poured out or shaken. The popular notion being that spirit is strong in proportion as it ‘beads,’ the object is to impart this property to weak spirit, so that it may appear to the eye to be of the proper strength. Various formulæ are current among the ‘knowing ones’ of the trade, most of which are unscientific, and many of them absolutely ineffective. The following are those now usually employed:——

Prep. 1. Oil of sweet almonds and oil of vitriol, of each 1 oz.; rub them together in a glass, porcelain, or wedgewood-ware mortar or basin, adding, by degrees, of crushed lump-sugar, 1 oz.; continue the trituration until the mixture becomes pasty, then add, gradually, sufficient rectified spirit (strongest) to render the whole perfectly liquid; pour it into a quart bottle, and wash out the mortar twice, or oftener, with a little fresh spirit, until about 1 pint of rectified spirit has been employed, adding the washings each time to the bottle; lastly, cautiously shake the bottle (loosely corked) until admixture appears complete, and then set it aside in a cool place. For use, this compound (after agitation) is thrown into a two-gallon can or measure, which is then filled, from a tap, with the spirit to be ‘beaded,’ when the whole is thrown into the cask, and the measure washed out by refilling it and returning it two or three times; after which the contents of the cask are well ‘rummaged up,’ Gin is usually ‘fined’ a few hours afterwards; but it is better not to add the ‘finings’ for two or three days. Other spirits are allowed to become ‘fine’ by simple repose. According to Mr Hartley, and others, this quantity is “sufficient for 100 galls. of any spirit;” but it is more commonly used for a puncheon of 80 to 85 gallons.

2. Oil of vitriol, 2 to 3 oz.; rectified spirit, (strongest), 1 pint; cautiously agitate them together in a loosely corked quart bottle; in 2 or 3 hours add another pint of rectified spirit, and again agitate. It will be fit for use in a week; as before.

3. Sulphuric ether, 1/2 lb.; strongest rectified spirit, 1 quart; mix. May be used at once, as before; but if otherwise, should be kept, like the last, closely corked, and in a cool place.

4. Soapwort-root (saponaria officinalis), bruised or rasped small, 1 lb.; rectified spirit and water, of each 1/2 gall.; macerate in a corked jar, with occasional agitation, for 8 or 10 days, strain with pressure, and, after a few days’ repose, decant the clear portion. Used as before.

Obs. The above are not injurious when employed for ‘beading,’ since the quantity employed is much too small to injure the wholesomeness of the liquor. The fraud consists in their being used to disguise the presence of 10 to 12% of water, which is thus sold at the price of spirit. Beyond a certain degree of dilution they fail, however, to produce the intended effect, the bubbles becoming ‘soapy,’ and without the requisite permanence. The addition of a little powdered white sugar (1/2 oz. to 1-1/2 oz. per gall.) increases the efficacy of all of them. This may be dissolved in the water, if any is added at the time; but its effect on the hydrometer must be recollected. See ALCOHOLOMETRY, GIN, SPIRIT (Management of), &c.

=BEAK′ER= (bēke′-). Syn. BEAK′ER-GLASS. In chemistry, a beaked cup or glass, more or less of the tumbler-pattern, used to collect precipitates and to heat liquids in.

=BEAL*= (bēle). Syn. BOUTON, PUSTULE, Fr. A pimple or pustule; a small inflamed tumour.

=BEAM= (bēme). See BALANCE, SCALES, &c.

=BEAM′-TREE.= Syn. WHITE BEAM-TREE. The ‘pyrus aria’ or wild pear. Wood, hard, compact, and tough; used for axle-trees, naves and cogs of wheels, &c.

=BEAN= (bēne). [Sax., Eng.] Syn. FA′BA, L.; FÈVE, Fr.; BOHNE, Ger. The general name of leguminous seeds, as also of the plants which produce them; appr., fa′ba vulgār′is (Mönch.[122] vĭcia faba, Linn.) or common GAR′DEN-BEAN, phase′olus multiflōr′us (Willd.) or SCARLET-RUNN′ER,[123] and ph. vulgaris (Sav.), FRENCH BEAN, KID′NEY-B., or HAR′ICOT (-ko),[124] with their varieties, all of which are annuals cultivated in our gardens——the first chiefly for its seeds——the others both for their green pods and ripe seed. The name is also often popularly applied, as an appellative, to the fruit or seeds of other plants which, in size and appearance, resemble common beans, as noticed below.

[Footnote 122: Var. β, HORSE′-BEAN (fa′ba equi′na, f. mi′nor, &c., L.)]

[Footnote 123: Var. α, phase′olus coccin′eus (red-flowered); β, ph. albiflor′us (white flowered).]

[Footnote 124: Var. α, ph. unic′olor (seeds of one colour);——β, ph. fascia′tus (seeds striped) or ZE′BRA-STRIPED BEAN;——γ, ph. variega′tus or SPECK′LED BEAN:——δ, ph. na′nus or DWARF′-BEAN.]

Those principally cultivated in our gardens are the small LIS′BON, SAND′WICH, SPAN′ISH, TOKAY′, WIND′SOR, and MAZ′AGAN (from north Africa), with almost innumerable sub-varieties of each. The exquisite perfume of beans in blossom is referred to by the poet Thomson:——

“Arabia cannot boast a sweeter gale.”

Preparations including their fragrant principle are highly prized in modern perfumery.

Qual., &c. The pods eaten in the green state, properly dressed, are regarded as antiscorbutic and wholesome; but are apt to produce flatulence, unless combined with spices. In the dried or ripe state they are rather difficult of digestion, and very apt to distend the stomach and intestines with wind. This objection does not exist, to the same extent, to their use in the form of flour or meal. The amount of nutritious nitrogenous matter in beans rather exceeds that in wheat, and independently of a disposition to produce constipation in some habits, and being rather less easy of digestion, they must be considered nearly as wholesome as that cereal. The London millers and bakers use immense quantities of bean flour to adulterate their flour and bread.

This sophisticant may be detected by the appearance it presents under the microscope. The meshes of cellulin are very much larger than those of the fourth coat of wheat, with which it has been sometimes confounded, and the starch grains present a totally different appearance. They are oval or reniform, or with one end slightly larger; they have no well-defined hilum or rings, but many have a deep central longitudinal cleft running in the longer axis, and occupying two thirds or three fourths the length, but never reaching completely to the end; this cleft is sometimes a line, sometimes a chasm, and occasionally secondary clefts abut upon it at parts of its course; sometimes, instead of a cleft, there is an irregular-shaped depression. If a little liquor potassæ be added the cellulin is seen more clearly. If the flour be added to a little boiling water, the smell of bean becomes evident.

Green beans (pods or legumes) are cooked by simply throwing them into boiling water, and simmering them until quite tender, taking the precaution of removing the lid of the saucepan, a ‘pinch’ of salt of tartar, or a little common salt, being usually added to preserve their green colour. Young and small ones take from 12 to 18 minutes——large or older ones longer. The first are merely ‘topped and tailed’ with a knife before being dressed; the others require also the ‘side strings’ to be drawn off, and to be cut obliquely into pieces of a lozenge form, or else to be split lengthwise into strips, and then divided once across. Old ones never boil tender. Windsor beans, and other “shelled beans,” take 15 to 30 minutes according to age. These last are sometimes skinned after being dressed. All of them are commonly ‘served up,’ or eaten, with melted butter. Beans, although rich in nitrogenous, are deficient in carbonaceous constituents; hence it is curious to note how almost invariably they are when eaten combined with some substance rich in carbon. The Hindoo, for instance, mixes lentils with rice and ghee or a form of clarified butter. In Yucatan and throughout the whole of central Africa, where a black bean is extensively used as food, they are well boiled in water, and eaten with pepper, salt, and pork. In this country, beans and bacon always appear at table together, and have done so for centuries. See LEGUMINOSÆ, PULSE, &c. (also below).

=Bean, Algaro′ba.= See ALGAROBA.

=Bean, Earth.= American earth-nut.

=Bean, French=; Horse-bean; Kidney-bean; &c. See BEAN (antè).

Composition. (Einhof.)

|---------------------------------------------| | | Kidney | Field | | | beans. | beans. | |--------------------------|--------|---------| | Water | 23·0 | 15·6 | | Albumenoid bodies | 23·6 | 11·7 | | Starch, sugar, gum, &c. | 44·7 | 58·3 | | Oil and fat | 0·7 | 2· | | Husk | 7·0 | 10·0 | | Salts (ash) | 1·0 | 4·4 | |--------------------------|--------|---------| | | 100· | 100· | |---------------------------------------------|

=Bean, St. Ignatius’s.= The poisonous seed of the fruit of Igna′tia amār′a, Linn.; stry̆̆ch′nos Igna′tii, Berg.; a tree indigenous to the Philippine Islands.——Prop., Uses, &c. Similar to those of nux vomica. Contains Strychnine (which see).

=BEAR= (bare). Syn. UR′SUS, L.; OURS, Fr.; BÄR, Ger.; BERA, Sax. In zoology, a Cuvierian genus of the ‘plantigrade carnivora,’ of several species, found both in the Old and New World. Those generally known under the name are omnivorous or frugivorous. The skin of the American black bear (ursus America′nus, Pallas) was formerly highly prized, and fetched an extravagant price. The brown bear (u. arc′tos, Linn.) supplies the Kamschatkans, and some other northern races, with many of the necessaries, and even the comforts of life. The fat or grease (BEAR’S GREASE; AD′EPS UR′SI, L.) of all the common species has long been highly esteemed for promoting the growth of the human hair; but apparently without sufficient reason. The mass of that sold under the name in England is simply hog’s lard or veal fat, or a mixture of them, variously scented and slightly coloured. The quantity annually consumed in Great Britain, and exported, is estimated at many tons; being a larger quantity than all the bears at present procurable in Europe would supply, if slaughtered and stripped of their fat.

=BEAR′BERRY, Bear’s Bil′berry=, &c. See UVA URSI.

=BEAR’S GREASE.= See BEAR (above), HAIR COSMETICS, MARROW, POMADES, &c.

=BEARD= (bēerd). [Sax., Eng.] Syn. BAR′BA, L.; BARBE, Fr.; BART, Ger., Dan.; BAARD, Dut. The hair of the lips and chin; but appr., only the last——that on each lip being distinguished, in toilet-nomenclature, by a separate name. In popular botany and zoology, any beard-like appendage; the ‘awn’ of corn or grass; the ‘gills’ or breathing organs of oysters and other bivalves, &c.

=Beard-cultivating Pomade, Royer’s= (Royer & Co., Berlin). An ointment of 1 part pulv. cinchon. rub., and 1-1/2 parts of a hair pomade containing wax. (Hager.)

=Beard-cultivating Tincture= (Bergmann, Rochlitz). A spirituous extract of some agreeable bark, mixed with a little oil of rosemary and thyme. (Wittstein.)

=Beard-cultivating Tincture, Royer’s= (Royer, Berlin). 10 grammes kitchen salt, 150 grammes French brandy, fictitious and fuselly, and 2 grammes tincture of mace. (Schädler.)

=Beard Tincture, American= (Teinture americaine pour la barbe), for dyeing the beard black. Three fluids. No. 1, nitrate of silver solution; No. 2, tincture of galls; No. 3, sodium sulphide solution.

=BEARD′ED.= Syn. BARBA′TUS, L.; BARBU, Fr.; BARTIG, Ger. In anatomy, botany, and zoology, having a beard, or a beard-like appendage; prickly, barbed, jagged; awned.

=BEA′VER=, (bē′-) Syn. CAS′TOR, L.; CASTOR, BIÈVRE, Fr.; BIBER, Ger. The fi′ber cas′tor (Linn.), an animal belonging to the rodentia of Cuvier, and remarkable for the great ingenuity which it exercises in the construction of its lodges or habitations. Hab. Europe and America. Those of the former are burrowers; those of the latter, builders. The fur has long been employed in the manufacture of the best quality of hats (BEAVER HATS). The fat was officinal in the Ph. L. 1618. Castor (CASTO′′REUM) is obtained from this animal.

=BE′BEERINE= (bēbe′-ĕr-in‡). C_{19}H_{21}NO_{3}. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. BI′BIRINE (bē′-bĕr-ĭn); BEBEERI′NA, BIBIRI′NA, &c., L. A peculiar alkaloid, discovered by Dr Rodie, in the bark and seeds of the beeberu, bibiri, or green-heart tree (nectan′dra Rodiæ′i, Schomb.), of British Guiana; and since minutely examined by Maclagan and Tilley, and by Von Planta.

Prep. 1. That of commerce, which generally contains some sipirine (——? altered bebeerine), and a little lime, is generally first obtained in the form of sulphate, by a process analogous to that employed in the preparation of sulphate of quinine; and from this salt it is precipitated by the addition of ammonia or an alkali.

2. (Pure.) By precipitating the sulphate with ammonia, washing the precipitate with very cold water, and triturating it, whilst still moist, with fresh hydrated oxide of lead; next drying the mixture by a gentle heat, exhausting the residuum with alcohol, distilling off the alcohol, and treating the last residuum with ether; the ethereal solution on evaporation leaves pure bebeerine, under the form of a white or yellowish-white, resinous-looking substance, which is pure white when powdered.

Prop., &c. Amorphous; uncrystallisable; non-volatile; bitter-tasted; inodorous; unalterable in the air; very slightly soluble in water; very soluble in alcohol; less so in ether; reaction alkaline; when quite pure, melts at 355° Fahr., and on cooling forms a vitreous or semi-vitreous mass (Winckler); at a higher temperature it suffers decomposition; ignited on platinum-foil, it burns without leaving any carbonaceous residue; neutralises acids forming uncrystallisable salts, most of which are soluble in water.——Prod. From the bark, 1·5 to 1·75%; dried seed, 2·5% (nearly).

Use, &c. Bebeeru-bark has been proposed and occasionally employed as a substitute for cinchona bark, and bebeerine for quinine, in the usual cases; but whether as a tonic, febrifuge, or antiperiodic, they appear less powerful and certain than these last.——Dose, 2 to 12 gr. or more. (See below.)

=Sul′phates of Bebeerine.= Of these there are two, both of which are obtained in a similar manner to the Ph. E. formula for sulphate of quinine, and merely differ in the amount of acid finally left in combination with the alkali:——

1. =Sulphate.= Syn. NEU′TRAL SULPHATE OF BEBEERINE; BIBIRI′NÆ SUL′PHAS, &c., L. Easily soluble in water. Contains 86·4% of bebeerine, and 13·6% of sulphuric acid.

2. =Subsul′phate.= Syn. BAS′IC SULPHATE OF BEBEERINE, DISUL′PHATE OF B.; BIBERI′NÆ SUBSUL′PHAS, &c., L. Soluble in alcohol; sparingly soluble in water unless acidulated. Contains 90·8% of bebeerine, and 9·2% of sulphuric acid. This is the sulphate of bebeerine of commerce, and the one usually employed in medicine. It is generally met with in thin brownish-yellow scales, which are formed in a similar manner to those of ammonio-citrate of iron.——Dose. As a tonic, 1 to 3 gr.; as a febrifuge or antiperiodic, 5 to 20 gr.; in similar cases to those in which disulphate of quinine is employed.

=BECH′AMEL= (bĕsh′-ă-mĕl‡[125]). Syn. BÉCHAMEL, Fr. In French cookery, a fine white sauce, essentially consisting of concentrated veal gravy or veal consommé and cream, with or without flavouring. See SAUCES.

[Footnote 125: Thus as English.]

=BE′CHIC*= (-kĭk). Syn. BE′CHOUS†; BE′CHICUS (bĕk′-‡), L.; BÉCHIQUE, Fr.; HUSTEND, &c., Ger. In medicine, &c., of or for a cough; pectoral; also subst., applied to remedies (BE′CHICS; BE′CHICA, L.) used to relieve cough.

=BED.= [Eng., D., Sax.] Syn. LIT, COUCHE, Fr.; BETT, &c., Ger.; CUBI′LE, LEC′TUS, LEC′TULUS, GRABA′TUS, &c., L. A couch; that in or on which we sleep; that on which anything is generated, deposited, or rests.

Bed curtains and valances are both unnecessary and objectionable as bed appendages, and as such should be discarded. Before making the bed in the morning the blankets and sheets should be stripped off and allowed to remain for an hour or two in a current of air, on the back of a chair or some other convenient support. If it does not rain, or is not too damp, they are best placed near the window. The night dress which has been slept in should be exposed in the same manner; and on going to bed it would be found a good plan, when removing the inner vest which has been worn during the day, to turn it inside out, and to hang it over the footboard of the bed. Under ordinary conditions the sheets should be changed every week. When it is remembered that on an average a third of a human being’s existence may be said to be passed in bed, the importance of his dormitory being kept scrupulously clean will be self evident. Every bedroom should therefore be well swept out each day, and the floor diligently scrubbed once a week. With the exception of a small strip beside the bed, the room should contain no carpet; a piece of New Zealand matting, being less able to retain dust, is preferable to carpeting. The door and windows of the bed-chamber should be kept more or less open during the day, so as to ensure a thorough draught of air through the room, and all slops and contents of chamber utensils should be immediately removed. No plants should be allowed in the bedroom.

There is no better form of mattress than one made of horsehair, both for children and adults. The pillows should also be made of the same material. Both pillows and mattress should be taken to pieces once a year, and their contents well ventilated by exposure to the air. When a child is ricketty, weak in the neck, inclined to stoop, or at all crooked, a pillow is best dispensed with. Cotton sheets have two advantages over linen ones——they are more absorbent, and feel less cold. In cases of sickness the comfortable construction of the patient’s bed, as well as the adoption of such means as shall ensure as much as possible its efficient ventilation, are matters of primary import. Hence because it permits of a more thorough circulation of air than any other kind, the horsehair mattress calls even more imperatively for adoption than in health. It may be placed upon the feather or wool bed, and should it be found too rough, or causing any discomfort, one or two blankets may be placed over it. The straw palliass should at the same time be removed. Both sheets and pillow cases should be frequently changed, more especially in fevers. If the patient perspire very profusely, fresh sheets and pillow cases should be supplied every twenty-four hours. If soiled by evacuation of any kind, it is most important that they should be changed at once, and so with the night dress. In all cases of eruptive and other fevers, and contagious diseases, all articles of wearing apparel (underclothing, as well as sheets, pillow cases, handkerchiefs, &c.) should when removed be placed in a vessel and covered with water.

In the articles on “air” and “vitiated air” the evil effects of ill-ventilated dormitories have been adverted to. Every bedroom should if possible contain an enclosed fireplace having free access to the chimney. Failing this a series of little holes about the size of a shilling should be bored in the lower part of the door, and the upper sash of the window should be opened to the extent of two or three inches.

[On the connection of BEDS and BEDDING with comfort and health, see COTTON, DAMP, FEATHERS, LINEN, SLEEP, VENTILATION, VERMIN, &c.; also below.]

=Bed, Air.= Beds, pillows, cushions, &c., when properly constructed and inflated with air, are clean, luxurious, and healthy substitutes for those in common use. For this purpose the air-proof part should be formed of separate cells or tubes, arranged in ridges (see engr.), or in any similar manner to admit of free ventilation; and in the case of beds, or of cushions for the sick, two or three folds of flannel, or blanket, or of any loose porous fabric, should be placed between them and the under sheet or the person of the sleeper or patient. Without this precaution, discomfort and restlessness, excessive warmth and perspiration and even bed-sores, are apt to follow their use by invalids, when badly constructed. To obviate these objections to articles of this class commonly sold, a new one has been produced under the name of the ‘INCOM′PARABLE BED’ (Aycbourn’s Patent), which is thoroughly applicable to all purposes——domestic, medical, naval, or military——and superior to any feather, flock, or spring bed, however good or carefully made up. This bed consists of an outer case made of ordinary bed-ticking divided internally into numerous separate cells, into each of which is placed a suitably constructed bag, which may be either wholly or partially filled with air or water; the latter either hot or cold. (See engr. 2, 3.) It is incapable of bursting, and is very agreeable to lie on. It retains its shape, saves the time, trouble, and wear and tear ordinarily bestowed or produced by servants in daily tossing about one of down or feathers, is easily washed and kept clean, allows all the ventilation essential to health, and is so portable that it may be easily packed in a carpet-bag. In almost an instant it may be converted into six, or more, separate life-preservers; and what is equally important it will stand any climate. Hitherto the use of air-beds and water-beds has been almost exclusively confined to the upper and wealthy classes, and to hospital practice; but the moderate prices[126] at which Aycbourn’s beds, cushions, &c., are sold, place these luxuries, and in many cases——absolute necessities——within the reach of the masses of the people.

[Footnote 126: These are less than those of feather beds of corresponding dimensions.]

=Bed, Water.= Water-beds, cushions, &c., are chiefly employed for patients labouring under bed-sores, paralysis, spinal affections, &c., or who are the subjects of active surgical treatment in which equable support for the body or a limb is absolutely necessary. Their construction and use are similar to those previously noticed, except that, instead of being inflated with air, they are filled with water, either warm or tepid. For the bedridden, and for long-continued use generally, they are much inferior to air-beds. See AIR-BED (above).

=Bed.= Syn. STRA′TUM, L.; STRATE, &c., Fr.; SCHICHT, &c., Ger. In geology, a mineral layer, seam, or stratum, thick or thin.

=Bed.= In horticulture, a small plot of land, usually raised a little above the general surface, in which flowers, or other plants, are raised or grown.

=BEDDING, PURIFICATION OF.= To be efficiently disinfected, bedding must be taken to pieces and subjected to dry heat. This last condition can only be satisfactorily carried out in large ovens or disinfecting chambers. Any local authority may provide a proper place and necessary appliances for the disinfection of bedding. Any local authority may direct the detention of bedding, clothing, &c., which have been exposed to infection, and may give compensation for the same.

Any person giving, lending, selling, transmitting or exposing bedding, clothing, rags, &c., which have been exposed to infection, is liable to a penalty not exceeding £5.

=Bedding or Litter.= The following is from Col. Fitzwygram’s useful work, ‘Horses and Stables,’ “One great item in a horse’s comfort, and consequently in his aptitude to carry flesh, is a good bed. Every horse should be bedded down at mid-day. As regards economy of straw, it is essential not to give the horse a chance of eating it. With this view no fresh straw should be placed within his reach. The fresh straw should be brought in first, and put not merely at the bottom, but also in rear of the stall; then the old litter should be brought in and put at the top and in front. The horse will not readily eat at, and by the following morning the new straw will have become somewhat tainted, and may then be mixed and dried along with the rest. Again, great care should be taken in the morning to thoroughly shake up and cleanse the bedding from dung; and any parts which may have become rotten should be thrown out. Good straw rapidly deteriorates if these precautions are not taken. On the other hand careless servants often throw away along with the bad parts much good bedding which might be dried and used again. Bedding should be taken up, and turned over at least twice in each forenoon, so as to expose every part to the drying and purifying influence of the sun and air. It is, however, a mistake to expose it over-much to the action of a very hot sun, as it makes it too dry and brittle.” See HORSE.

=BED′EGUAR= (-e-gahr). Syn. BÉDÉGUAR (or GAR, Fr. Sweet-briar sponge (which see).

=BEE= (bē). Syn. HIVE-BEE, HON′EY-B. (hŭn′-), DOMES′TIC B.; A′PIS, L.; ABEILLE, A. MELLIFIQUE, &c., Fr.; BIENE, HONIGBIENE, &c. Ger. The a′-pis mellif′ica (Linn.; Ph. L., E., & D.), one of the hymenop′tera best known and most useful to man. [Those desirous of studying the habits and economy of bees are referred to the works of Huber and Latreille; and for their management to Mr Cobbett’s little book on the subject.] See APIS, HIVE, HONEY, WAX, &c.

=BEE′-BREAD.= The pollen of flowers collected by bees as food for their young.

=BEE′-GLUE=, Syn. PROP′OLIS, L., Fr. The resinous matter with which bees cement the combs to the hives, and close up and repair the cells.

=BEECH= (bēche). Syn. BEECH′-TREE; FA′GUS, L; HÉTRE, H. COMMUN, Fr.; BUCHE, GEMEINE B., Ger. The fa′gus sylvat′ica (Linn.), a magnificent English forest-tree, of the nat. ord. Amentaceæ (DC.). Fruit (BEECH′-MAST, B.-NUTS), used to feed swine, and, sometimes, in obstinate headaches, and in gravel complaints; yields oil by expression; inner bark occasionally used in hectic fevers. Wood (BEECH, B.-WOOD), handsome and very hard, but brittle and perishable, and particularly liable to become worm-eaten; its durability is increased by steeping it, when fresh-hewn, for some time in water; chiefly used by cabinet-makers, coach-builders, millwrights, and turners; and, sometimes, by coopers; also burnt for charcoal.

=BEEF= (bēfe). Syn. CHAIRE DE BŒUF, DU BŒUF, Fr.; RINDFLEISCH, &c., Ger.; BU′BULA, CA′′RO BO′VIS, &c., L. The flesh of bovine animals, generally; but ordinarily only that of the domestic ox, cow, or bull.

Qual. Good beef is highly wholesome and nutritious; and is well adapted to persons of good appetite, or that labour or take much exercise. For the delicate, especially those suffering from debility, partial anæmia, amenorrhœa, and similar ailments, it is, perhaps, superior to every other kind of animal food. If cooked so as to be left full of gravy, it sits lightly on the stomach, and its fat proves even more digestible than that of either veal or mutton.

It has been proved that under-done beef is one of the causes of tapeworm.

Choice. OX-BEEF is known by having a fine smooth, open grain, a lively and agreeable red colour, and a tender texture, with the fat of a pleasing pale whitish-yellow or but slightly yellow, and the suet white and hard. When fine and well fed, the flesh is inter-grained or marbled with fat.——COW-BEEF has a closer grain than ox-beef, and the lean is of a deeper red.——BULL-BEEF is closer still, the fat dark, hard, and skinny, the lean of a deep coarse red, and it has a strong smell and flavour.——HEIFER BEEF resembles ox-beef, except in being smaller, often an advantage; but it lacks the rich flavour of the flesh of full-grown oxen.

Joints, Managem., &c. Beef is CURED, SALTED, and DRESSED, in all the ways common to the other meats; the only care necessary being in the selection of the appropriate joint or part. The ribs, sirloin, rump, and veiny piece are the proper joints for ROASTING or BAKING. The buttock or round, edge-bone, second round or mouse-buttock, brisket, flank, shoulder or leg-of-mutton piece, and the clod, those generally BOILED, STEWED, or SALTED. The choicest STEAKS are cut from the middle of the rump; the next best from the veiny piece, or from the chuck-rib. In summer, excellent ones may also be cut from the shoulder. In France, steaks cut from the sirloin (without bone) are preferred to all others, and are exceedingly delicate and tender. The neck may be either stewed or boiled, and is much used to make soup and gravy. In the country, the round, when fine, and well hung, is also often roasted or baked.

According to Miss Acton, “the finest part of the sirloin is the chump-end, which contains the larger portion of the fillet; of the ribs, the middle ones.”

Beef is in season during the whole year, but is finest——when it is most relished——during the winter months, when, owing to the temperature of the air, it may be ‘hung’ a long time, and thus increased in tenderness and flavour. See OX, BAKING, BOILING, ESSENCES, ROASTING, SALTING, TEA, &c. (also below).

=Beef, Alamode′.= Syn. BŒUF À LA MODE, Fr. The true ‘beef à la mode’ is made as follows; and is not a mere kind of rich stew, such as is daily sold under the name in the ‘cook-shops’ of London:——

1. (M. Alexis Soyer.) Rump, sirloin, or rib of beef (about) 12 lbs.; lard it through with 10 or 12 long pieces of fat bacon; put it into an earthen pan with a calf’s foot, 4 onions, 2 carrots (sliced), a bunch of parsley, 2 bay leaves, 2 sprigs of thyme, 2 cloves, 1/2 teaspoonful of pepper, 1 do. of salt, 4 wine-glassfuls of sherry, 4 do. of water, and 1 lb. of streaky bacon (cut into small squares); place on the cover, make it air-tight round the edges with a little flour-paste, and expose it in a moderate oven for about 4 hours. Dish up with the vegetables and bacon placed tastefully round it, the gravy (skimmed) being poured over all. Or it may be eaten cold, in which case the pan should not be opened until the whole has thoroughly cooled.

2. (Mrs Rundell.) Rump of beef (or any part of the beef which will stew well), 3 or 4 lbs.; trim it, and cut off the fat; add several sorts (according to taste) of sweet herbs chopped very fine, a little shalot, and a great deal of spice (cayenne, white pepper, allspice, cloves, and mace; or mixed spices), and put them, with vinegar, into a saucer that has been rubbed with garlic; add fat bacon cut into long slips; lard the beef regularly on both sides, and rub it over with the herbs and spices; next flour it, and add a small piece of butter, and a pint of water; bake it in an oven until thoroughly ‘done,’ then strain the gravy, and serve it up with pickles on the top. Excellent either hot or cold.

Obs. Miss Acton——a high authority in these matters——tells us, that 7 or 8 lbs. of beef, thus treated, takes 4 to 5 hours to dress it properly; and that if a stew-pan be used, it should be as nearly the size of the meat as possible, the whole being allowed to simmer very gently, and the meat turned when half done. She also states that “veal dressed in this way is even better than beef;” but, of course, it takes less time in cooking.

=Beef, Col′lared.= Prep. 1. (Miss Acton.) The piece of beef is rubbed with a little coarse sugar, and set aside for two or three days; it is then slightly salted (about 1 oz. of salt, containing a little saltpetre, to each lb. of meat); and allowed to rest 8 to 10 days; the bones and tougher skin are next removed, and the under side is sprinkled thickly with parsley and other savoury herbs (shred small), after which it is very tightly rolled up, secured with a cloth, and bound as closely as possible with broad tape. A piece of 8 lbs. will require about 5 hours’ gentle boiling, and should be placed, in the same state, whilst still hot, under a heavy weight, or in a press, for a few hours. The ribs, or (better) the thinnest part of the flank, is generally selected. The last should be ‘hung’ in a damp place for a day or two before curing it.

2. (Mrs Rundell.) From stewed shin of beef and ox-tail, re-stewed with a glassful each of wine and ketchup, and some of the old broth, and then poured into moulds. Sweet herbs, sliced eggs, and pickles, may be added at will.

=Beef, Dutch, Hung Beef.= The round, rump, veiny-piece, or thick flank, cured, for 10 or 12 days, with dry salt to which a little saltpetre and some sugar and black pepper has been added; and afterwards ‘hung’ for use. It eats well if boiled tender with greens or carrots. If to be grated or shred, as Dutch, and eaten as a relish on bread and butter, then cut a lean bit, boil it till extremely tender, and while hot put it under a press. When cold, fold it in a sheet of paper, and hang it in a very dry place. It will then keep two or three months.

=Beef, Pott′ed.= See POTTED MEATS, &c.

=Beef, Spiced= (spīst’). Salted beef when spices (usually black pepper and allspice) have been added to the salt, &c., used in curing it. See BEEF, COLLARED (above).

=Beef Tea.= An extract manufactured at Berlin, which contains the nutritive matter of the flesh in the highest state of potency. A pale blood-red(!) jelly, which will not keep long, and after a time passes into a state of odorous putrefaction. (A. Buchner.)

=BEER= (bēre). Syn. BIÈRE, Fr.; BIER, D., Ger.; BIRRA, It.; CEREVI′′SIA (-vĭzh′-’ă), CERVI′′SIA (Pliny), C. LUPULA′TA* (i.e. hopp′d or modern b.), VI′NUM ANGLIC′ANUM*, V. HORDEA′CEUM* (-sh′ŭm), ZY′THUM* (or -THUS*; ζὑθος, Gr.), &c., L.; BERE, BEERE, Sax.; BIR, W. An aqueous infusion of malted grain which, after being boiled with hops, has undergone the vinous fermentation; malt-liquor. The word BEER is now the common generic term for all fermented malt-liquors, and, indeed, for all other beverages prepared by a process of brewing. Whenever the term is used in a special sense, it is with a descriptive prefix, as, for example, spruce beer, ginger beer, &c.

Hist. Ale and wine are fabled to have been invented by Bacchus; the former, in Egypt, where the soil and climate would not permit of the cultivation of the grape. Herodotus ascribes the origin of the art of brewing to Isis, the wife of Osiris, and notices zythum ζὑθος, a beer obtained from barley. Malt-liquor was undoubtedly employed as a beverage in the fifth century before Christ; and, probably, very much earlier. Xenophon distinctly alludes to it in his famous retreat (B.C. 401). Aristotle speaks of ‘beer drunkenness,’ and Theophrastus calls it ‘barley-wine.’ The Romans learned the art of brewing from the Egyptians, and gave the liquor thus made the appropriate name of cerevisia (quasi Cererisia), from its being the product of corn, the gift of Ceres. The most celebrated beer of ancient times was the Pelus′ian pota′tion, so named after a town at the mouth of the Nile where beer was prepared in great perfection. The use of beer was likewise known to the ancient Gauls and Germans, and probably also to most other ancient nations inhabiting the temperate zone. Pliny says “Zythum is made in Egypt, ce′lia and ce′′ria in Spain, and many other sorts (of beer) in Gaul.” In our own country, ale was early known and valued as a beverage. The art of its preparation appears to have been obtained either from the Romans or the Saxons. According to Verstegan, “This excellent and healthsome liquor, beere, anciently called ale, as of the Danes it yet is, was of the Germans invented and brought into use.” Alehouses are mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of Wessex (A.D. 680). Alebooths were regulated by law, A.D. 728. By the beginning of the 13th century ale was drunk generally in England. By a statute of James III, of Scotland, it was made a capital offence to mix wine with beer (A.D. 1482). In 1492, a licence was granted to a brewer at Greenwich to export 50 tons of that “ale” called “beer” or “bere;” the distinction between the two apparently being, that the latter was flavoured with wormwood or other bitters; whereas ale was not. Ale was originally made from barley-malt and yeast alone, and those who put in anything else were held to sophisticate the liquor. Hops were introduced A.D. 1524; and to this date modern, or hopp′d beer, may be traced.

By statute of James I the “ale” called “bere” was taxed, and “one quart of the best thereof” ordered to be sold for a penny (A.D. 1610). Alehouses were first licensed in 1621, and during the reign of Charles II were, together with all malt-liquor, placed under the control of the Excise (A.D. 1660). By the Statutes 1 & 4 Will. IV (1834), previous enactments respecting malt liquors and their sale were reduced to their present form. Beer is now the common beverage in all European countries where the vine is not a subject of rustic husbandry.

Qual. Pure malt-liquor which has undergone sufficient fermentation is perhaps, when taken in moderation, one of the most wholesome beverages that can be drunk. Ale is the most nutritious variety, and, when moderately mature, is the one best adapted to the debilitated and delicate; but good porter, owing to being less rich in extractive and gummy matter, and from being slightly astringent from high-dried or scorched malt being used in its preparation, occasionally agrees better with bilious constitutions and the dyspeptic. Much, however, depends on acquired taste and habit. The most wholesome, and perhaps the least exceptionable beverages obtained from malt, are those known as East-India, Scotch, and Bavarian ales, when honestly prepared and not highly ‘bittered’ with the hop, as is, unfortunately, now so general. A late writer has described good beer as nutritious, from the sugar and mucilage which it contains; exhilarating, from its spirit; and strengthening and narcotic, from its hops. Pereira says, “Beer is a thirst-quenching, refreshing, intoxicating, and slightly nutritious beverage.” Its effects, when taken injudiciously, or in excess, for the most part resemble those of other intoxicating liquors——disease, misery, and crime; and these in direct proportion as it deviates from the true standard of purity and excellence.

All medical authorities agree in discountenancing the use of beer for infants and children. Water or milk with the child’s meals are the best beverages for them.

Var. The numerous varieties of malt liquor met with in commerce may be resolved into two great classes——ALE and PORTER. ALE of all kinds is brewed chiefly from pale malt, and is generally of a light amber colour. PALE ALE is manufactured from the finest and lightest dried malt, and the choicest hops, the latter in excess. MILD ALE differs from pale ale in being sweeter, stronger, and almost free from the flavour of the hop. BITTER ALE or BITTER BEER has, as a rule, less body than pale ale, and is more highly hopped. TABLE BEER is a weak liquor commonly containing three or four times the proportion of water usually present in ordinary beer or ale. PORTER differs from ale chiefly in its being artificially coloured by the use of roasted malt, which also imparts to it a peculiar bitter flavour. In point of strength it stands about midway between light and strong ales, although frequently brewed of a strength very slightly above that of table beer. STOUT, BROWN STOUT, &c., are simply richer or stronger descriptions of porter, and may be said to have nearly the same relation to the higher qualities of mild ale that porter holds with regard to pale ale or bitter beer. In London, PORTER is called BEER; and, indeed, in all parts of the kingdom, the prevailing beverage of this kind consumed by the masses, of whatever class, commonly goes by the name of beer.

The two great classes of malt liquor above referred to, are, independently of mere differences of strength, excellence, and commercial value, practically subdivided into an almost infinite number of varieties. Every county, every town, and almost every brewer, is distinguished by the production of a different-flavoured beer, readily perceived, and highly appreciated by their respective votaries. These differences may be traced to——variations in the quantity and quality of the materials employed in their manufacture——the temperature of the water used for mashing——the duration of the boiling——the temperature at which the fermentation is conducted, and the extent to which it is carried, together with numerous other circumstances, which, though usually of an accidental and uncertain character, are nevertheless sufficient to affect the flavour and quality of a brewing. Among these, those depending on the condition of the building, the locality, the apparatus, the water, the management, &c., are not the least important. In general, however, when the same quantity and quality of materials are employed, and the same time allowed for the maturation of the liquor, the chief causes of this diversity will be found to depend on the water used in the brewing, and the method followed in the preparation of the malt. Thus, Bavarian, Scotch, and Burton ales differ in style from other ales chiefly from being fermented at a lower temperature, and from the water employed in the brewing being that usually denominated ‘hard,’ whilst porter and stout differ from all these because they are brewed from a mixture of pale and roasted malt. It is from causes like these, though apparently trivial, that the many varieties of malt liquor met with, at the present day, originate.

The per-centage in English beers of malt extract (dextrin and sugar glucose) is least in bitter, and highest in the sweet ales. The hop extract (lupulin and hop resin) is in much smaller amount.

The alcohol varies considerably, as does also the free acidity.

The albuminous matter in most beers does not average more than 0·5 per cent.

The salts, which consist of alkaline chlorides and phosphates, and some earthy phosphates, average 0·1 to 0·2 per cent. Ammoniacal salts are found in small quantities. Caramel and assamar are found in the dark beers and porters. Carbonic acid is always more or less present. The average is 0·1 to 0·2 parts by weight per cent., or about 1-3/4 cubic inches per ounce. Volatile and essential oils are also present.

PARKES says, “Adopting means numbers; one pint (20 oz.) of beer will contain——

Alcohol 1 ounce. Extractive (dextrin), sugar, &c. 1·2 ” (534 grains). Free acid 25 grains. Salts 13 ”

The following beer analyses are given by Professor WANKLYN:

Bass’s bottled bitter ale contains in 100 cubic centimètres:

5·3 grams of alcohol. 5·52 ” organic residue. 0·36 ” ash.

A sample of draught ale, costing 2d. per pint in London, contained in 100 cubic centimètres:

4·7 grams of alcohol. 5·8 ” organic residue. 0·32 ” ash.

A sample of London porter in 100 cubic centimètres contained:

3·3 grams of alcohol. 3·45 ” organic residue. 0·30 ” ash.

“A large number of analyses recently made show that in the various classes of malt liquor sold in London there is a variation in the amount of alcohol contents from 3·87 to 8·41 per cent. of absolute alcohol by weight, these two extremes corresponding to ·98 and 2·18 fluid ounces of absolute alcohol in the pint of beer. The amount of extract varies from 2·16 to 13·32 per cent. by weight, or from ·73 to 2·77 ounces per pint of beer, as will be seen from the accompanying table.

----------------------+---------+----------------------+---------+-------+------------------------ | | Per-centage of | | | Con. vols., per pint. | |----------------------|Original |Malt, |------------------------ Kind of Malt Liquor. | Specific|Alcohol|Extract|Acetic|Gravity |per |Alcohol,|Extract|Acid, | Gravity.| | |Acid. |of Wort. |barrel.|fl. oz. |ounces.|grains. ----------------------+---------+-------+-------+------+---------+-------+--------+-------+------- Burton ale (Allsopp’s)| 1040·38 | 8·25 | 13·32 | ·32 | 1121·63 | 4·50 | 2·16 | 2·77 | 29·12 Bass’s barley wine | 1032·31 | 8·41 | 11·75 | ·23 | 1114·78 | 4·25 | 2·18 | 2·42 | 20·77 Edinburgh ale | 1006·63 | 4·41 | 3·58 | ·19 | 1048·38 | 1·77 | 1·12 | ·72 | 16·73 Guinness’s stout | 1015·51 | 6·81 | 6·17 | ·24 | 1078·06 | 2·88 | 1·74 | 1·25 | 21·32 Truman, Hanbury, | | | | | | | | | & Co.’s porter | 1013·16 | 4·02 | 5·12 | ·24 | 1051·33 | 1·90 | 1·03 | 1·01 | 21·27 Whitbread’s porter | 1014·04 | 4·28 | 5·15 | ·18 | 1054·11 | 2·00 | 1·09 | 1·03 | 15·97 Hoare’s porter | 1012·99 | 4·18 | 5·04 | ·18 | 1052·42 | 1·94 | 1·06 | 1·03 | 15·95 Perry’s ale | 1006·48 | 3·87 | 3·65 | ·14 | 1045·82 | 1·69 | 0·98 | 0·73 | 7·97 ----------------------+---------+-------+-------+------+---------+-------+--------+-------+-------

“The relative proportions of alcohol and extract in beer will also have some influence on its fitness in a medical point of view for certain persons; and in some instances thin dry beer, that has had the fermentation carried so far as to reduce the amount of extract to a minimum, may be very preferable to beer containing a larger amount of extract. In this respect some samples of the Prestonpans’ beer are remarkable for the small proportion of extract they contain.

“In regard to the nutritive value of beer, over and above the stimulant and tonic actions due to the alcohol and to the bitter principle of the hop, it is worth notice that a pint of pale ale contains from 1/2 an ounce to an ounce of solid extract, while mild and old ale contain from 1-1/10 to 2-3/4 ounces in the pint.

“The amount of free acid in British beer appears to be uniformly larger than in the Viennese and Bavarian beer recently introduced here, and sometimes it is very much larger. This free acid is represented in the tables as acetic acid; but there is reason to believe that beer probably contains lactic acid or other fixed acids, together with a substance analogous to glucic acid, which, according to Graham, Hoffmann, and Redwood, appears to be produced in the fermentation of beer wort, as practised in this country.

“There appears to be great differences in the quality of beer sold by publicans at a given price. Thus, for instance, the variation in the pale ale sold at fourpence per pint is from 4·08 to 7·10 per cent. of alcohol, and from 3·22 to 7·53 per cent. of extract; in the mild ale sold at twopence per pint it is from 4·43 to 5·62 per cent. of alcohol, and from 5·01 to 5·56 per cent. of extract; and in old ale sold at fourpence per pint it is from 6·20 to 8·31 per cent. of alcohol, and from 4·56 to 6·2 per cent. of extract. These differences represent respectively 1·58, ·27, and ·49 bushels of malt per barrel of beer. From the great alcoholic strength of some kinds of old ale they partake more of the nature of wine than of beer, in the usual sense of this term. They are, in fact, quite equal in that respect to most of the cheaper wine imported from the Continent, while in flavour and general character old ale, such as that brewed at Burton-on-Trent and in Scotland, is far superior to any wine of the kind referred to, which can be sold here at a price even double that of the best old ale. This kind of ale, however, is but rarely sold by publicans.”——Dr PAUL.

Materials, Manuf., &c. See MALT, HOPS, BREWING, &c.

Purity. The leading characteristics of good beer are transparency, a fine colour, an agreeable semi-vinous flavour, and the property of remaining for several hours exposed in a glass or cup without becoming ‘flat’ or insipid. If the materials used were good, if the brewing was skilfully conducted, if the liquor has been carefully stowed in perfectly sweet casks or vessels, in a suitable cellar, for a sufficient time, and has not been tampered with, this will almost always be the case. Hence colour, transparency, and flavour, and the power of resisting exposure, are tests of the purity and quality of beer, which should not be lightly treated. There are none more simple and effectual; and, together with a good ‘palate,’ and a close observance of its effects on the head and on the stomach, will readily distinguish pure and wholesome beer from ‘doctored’ and inferior liquor. If, therefore, we find a sample of beer possessing the above qualities and in good condition, and on testing it for its alcohol and saccharine matter, find these substances in such quantities as fairly to represent the amount of malt which should have been used in the brewing of such a liquor, we may, in the absence of proof to the contrary, infer it to be pure; because the object for which adulteration is practised——the saving of malt and hops——did not exist in this case. To demonstrate the purity of beer requires an elaborate and troublesome analysis, which can only be performed by those accustomed to chemical operations. Good and pure beer should contain nothing but what exists in the malt, the hops, and the water, from which it is brewed, or which is produced from them in the processes of ‘mashing,’ ‘fermentation,’ and ‘maturation.’

Adulteration. Until the year 1862 nothing was allowed to enter into the composition of beer but malt and hops; and the Act 56 Geo. III, cap. 58, imposes a penalty of £200 on any “brewer, dealer, or retailer of beer,” who “shall receive, or have in his possession, or use, or mix with, or put into any worts or beer any molasses, honey, liquorice, vitriol, quassia, cocculus indicus, grains of paradise, Guinea-pepper, or opium, or any extract or preparation of these substances, for, or as a substitute for, malt or hops;” and a further penalty of £500 on any “druggist, or vender of, or dealer in drugs, or chemist, or other person whatever,” who shall “sell, send, or deliver to any licensed brewer,” &c., any of the above materials. However, by the Act 25 Vic., cap. 22, s. 20, so much of the above is repealed as relates to hops. This Act provides that——

“On and after the 16th Sept., 1862, so much of an Act passed in the 56th year of the reign of King George the Third, cap. 58, and of an Act passed in the 7th and 8th years of the reign of King George the Fourth, cap. 52, and of any other Act relating to the revenue of excise, as imposes any excise penalty upon any brewer of, or dealer in, or retailer of beer, for receiving into, or having in his possession, or using or mixing with any worts or beer, any article for, or as a substitute for hops, or as prohibits the sale of any such article to the said persons, shall be, and is hereby repealed: provided always, that nothing herein contained shall be construed to extend to repeal any such penalty or prohibition so far as regards any article which may be used as a substitute for malt, notwithstanding that it may be also a substitute for hops.”

Prior to this an Act (10 Vic., c. 5) had been passed allowing brewers to use sugar under certain restrictions.

As the law now stands, a brewer may use hops, quassia, wormwood, gentian, or any other simple bitter; but he is forbidden to use any substitute for malt, such as unmalted grain, sugar in a liquid state, molasses, or any substance which would give pungency or intoxicating properties to the beer, such as cocculus indicus, grains of paradise, tobacco, &c. It is a well-known and authenticated fact, that beer is commonly and sometimes dangerously adulterated. The cupidity of fraudulent brewers and publicans frequently induces them to introduce other ingredients than malt and bitters into their liquors, with a view of giving them a false appearance and strength. Thus, to give pungency——capsicum, grains of paradise, ginger, &c., have been added; to give intoxicating properties——opium, cocculus indicus, tobacco, &c.; as a substitute for malt——molasses, treacle, colouring, honey, &c.; to impart a false appearance of age——sulphuric acid, alum, green vitriol, glycerin, mustard, &c.; to remove acidity——pearlash, soda, chalk, &c.; and to impart a frothy head——alum, foots, table-salt, &c.

The publicans generally ‘reduce’ their strong beer with water (which they call ‘liquor’), and add treacle, together with a mixture of copperas, salt, and alum (termed ‘heading’), to make it bear a frothy head. The cheap beer sold in many of the low taverns of London is made by dividing the contents of two butts between three butts, filling them up with water, and adding a bladder of porter-extract (technically termed ‘P. E,’) to each. This ‘P. E,’ is a mixture of powdered cocculus, Spanish juice, caramel, capsicum, &c., boiled up with treacle and water to the consistence of a thin extract, and then put into bullocks’ bladders.

Exam., Tests, &c. The analysis of beer, both qualitative and quantitative, as already noticed, is a matter of considerable difficulty. We shall therefore defer its consideration until we come to the article PORTER, as that description of beer, on account of its colour, is not only the one most difficult to examine, but also the one most frequently adulterated. See ALE, BREWING, HOPS, MALT, PORTER, &c.

=Beer, Am′ber.= Syn. AMBER. A liquor, formerly much drank in London, brewed from a mixture of 3 parts of amber malt, and 1 part of pale malt, with about 6 lbs. of hops to the quarter. It was generally ‘tapped’ within a few days after it had done ‘working,’ and was chiefly used mixed with bitters, or made into ‘PURL,’

=Beer, Wheat′en=, Wheat′-malt Beer. See MUM.

⁂ Besides malt liquor, or BEER properly so called, a somewhat similar beverage, though of inferior quality, may be prepared from any vegetable substance rich in starch and sugar, as noticed in our article on BREWING. Certain summer beverages also pass under the name; but in both the cases referred to, the name of the characteristic ingredient, or that of the vegetable employed, is always conjoined; as in pea-shell beer, potato-beer, ginger-beer, &c. Examples of some of these are given below:——

=Beer, Gin′ger.= Syn. CEREVIS′IA (-vĭzh′-) ZINGIB′ERIS, C. ZINGIBERA′TA*, C. CUM ZINGIB′ERE* (-ĕr-e), L. Prep. 1. Lump-sugar, 1 lb.; good unbleached Jamaica ginger (well-bruised), 1 oz.; cream of tartar, 3/4 oz. (or tartaric acid, 1/2 oz.); 2 or 3 lemons (sliced); boiling water, 1 gall.; macerate, with frequent stirring, in a covered vessel, until barely lukewarm, then add of yeast, 1-1/2 or 2 oz. (about 2/3rds of a wine-glassful), and keep it in a moderately warm place, to excite a brisk fermentation; the next day rack or decant the liquor, and strain it through a jelly-bag or flannel; allow it to work for another day, or two, according to the weather; then skim it, again decant or strain, and put it into bottles, the corks of which should be ‘wired’ down.

2. Good white sugar, 18 to 24 lbs.; lemon-juice or lime-juice, 1 quart; finest Narbonne honey, 1 or 2 lbs.; bruised Jamaica ginger, 1-1/2 lb.; pure soft water (that has been boiled, and then allowed to settle), q. s. Boil the ginger in 3 galls. of the water for half an hour; then add the sugar, the juice, and the honey, with sufficient water (see above) to make the whole measure 18-1/4 galls., and strain the mixture as before. When the liquor has become almost cold, add the white of 1 egg, and 1/2 fl. oz. of essence of lemon, and strongly agitate the cask or vessel for about half an hour. After standing 3 to 6 days, according to the state of the weather, bottle it, and place the bottles on their sides in a cellar, just as is done with wine or beer. It will be ready for use in about 3 weeks, and will keep good for several months. If wanted for immediate use, about 1/2 pint of yeast may be added, as in formula 1; but then it will not keep so well, or be quite so transparent and free from deposit. The lemon juice and essence of lemon may be replaced, at will, by cream of tartar (in powder) or tartaric acid, 4 oz.; and lemons (sliced) 1-1/2 to 2 doz.; added with the sugar, &c.; but the original formula is preferable.——Prod. 18 galls. = 24 doz. 1/2-pint bottles, or 30 doz. ordinary sized ones.

3. EXTEMPORANEOUS:——a. Into each bottle put concentrated essence of ginger, 1 drop; simple syrup or capillaire, 1/2 oz. (or in lieu of them, syrup of ginger and simple syrup, of each a dessert-spoonful); and fill with aërated soda-water at the ‘bottling machine,’ in the usual way. Very superior.

b. Into each bottle put two or three lumps of sugar, fill them to the proper height with pure water, throw in (quickly) an effervescing ginger-beer powder, and instantly cork the bottle, and secure the cork with wire.

Use. As a cooling and refreshing drink in warm weather; and as a restorative after hard drink, fatigue, &c.

Obs. The products of all the above formulæ, if well managed, are excellent; those of No. 2, and 3_a_., of the very finest description, much stronger and superior to nine tenths of that sold for the best in the shops. They are often called, by way of distinction, LIMO′′NIATED GINGER-BEER, IMPERIAL G.-B., &c. Cheaper articles are made by omitting some of the ingredients, and particularly a portion of the sugar. The ginger-beer vended at 1_d._ and 2_d._ a bottle, with that known as GINGER POP, IMPE′′RIAL POP, &c., are generally made with moist sugar (1/2 to 3/4 lb. to the gall.), and merely flavoured with a little coarse ginger. No. 2, made with 2 lbs. of sugar to the gall. may be kept 2 years, if not bottled for six months, and well-stored; and with 3 lbs. to the gall., for 4 years, when it forms a splendid article (GINGER-CHAMPAGNE).

=Beer, Pine.= See, BEER SPRUCE.

=Beer, Spruce.= Syn. CEREVIS′IA (-vĭzh′-) ABI′ETIS, C. ABIETI′NA, C. ABIET′ICA*, L. Prep. 1. Sugar, 1 lb.; essence of spruce, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 gall.; mix well, and when nearly cold, add of yeast 1/2 a wine-glassful; and the next day bottle like ginger-beer.

2. Essence of spruce, 1/2 pint; pimento and ginger (bruised), of each 5 oz.; hops, 1/2 lb.; water, 3 galls.; boil the whole for 10 minutes, then add of moist sugar, 12 lbs. (or good treacle, 14 lbs.); warm water, 11 galls.; mix well, and, when only lukewarm, further add of yeast, 1 pint; after the liquid has fermented for about 24 hours, bottle it.

Prop., Uses, &c. Diuretic and antiscorbutic. Regarded by some persons as an agreeable ‘summer-drink,’ and often found useful during long sea-voyages. When made with lump-sugar it is called WHITE SPRUCE-BEER; when with moist sugar or treacle, BROWN SPRUCE-BEER. An inferior sort is made by using less sugar, or more water. If made with 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 lb. of lump-sugar per gall., and without yeast, in a similar manner to that described under GINGER-BEER (No. 2), it may be kept a twelvemonth or longer in a moderately cool place.

=Beer, Sugar.= Syn. CEREVIS′IA (-vĭzh′-) SAC′CHARI, L. From moist sugar (1 to 2 lbs. to the gall.) and a little hops; as treacle-beer.

=Beer, Trea′cle= (trē′kl-). Syn. CEREVIS′IA FÆ′CIS SAC′CHARI, &c., L. Prep. 1. From treacle or molasses, 3/4 to 2 lbs. per gall. (according to the desired strength); hops, 1/4 to 3/4 oz.; yeast, a table-spoonful; water, q. s.; treated as below.

2. Hops, 1-1/2 lb.; corianders, 1 oz.; capsicum-pods (cut small), 1/2 oz.; water, 8 galls.; boil for 10 or 15 minutes, and strain the ‘liquor’ through a coarse sieve into a barrel containing treacle, 28 lbs.; then throw back the hops, &c., into the copper, and reboil them, for 10 minutes, with a second 8 galls. of water, which must be strained into the barrel, as before; next ‘rummage’ the whole well with a stout stick, add of cold water 21 galls. (sufficient to make the whole measure 37 galls.), and, after again mixing, stir in 1/2 a pint of good fresh yeast; lastly, let it remain for 24 hours in a moderately warm place, after which it may be put into the cellar, and in two or three days ‘bottled,’ or ‘tapped’ on ‘draught.’ In a week it will be fit to drink. Very superior.——Prod. 1 barrel, or 36 gallons. For a stronger beer, 36 lbs., or even 1/2 cwt., of treacle, may be used. It will then keep good for a twelvemonth.

Obs. A wholesome drink; but one apt to prove laxative when taken in large quantities. See BREWING, BEER, GINGER, POWDERS, &c.

=BEERS.= (In pharmacy.) Syn. CEREVIS′IÆ (-vĭzh′-e-ē) MEDICA′TÆ, L. The general nature and preparation of these articles have been already noticed.[127] They are little employed in this country. The ingredients should be so proportioned that from 1/4 to 1/2 a pint may form the proper dose. The following are examples:——

[Footnote 127: See ALES (Medicated).]

=Beer, Antiscorbu′tic.= Syn. CEREVIS′IA ANTISCORBU′TICA, L.; SAPINETTE′, Fr. Prep. 1. (P. Cod. 1839) Scurvy-grass and buds of the spruce-fir, of each 1 oz.; horse-radish root, 2 oz. (all fresh, and bruised or sliced); new ale or beer, 3-1/2 pints (say, 1/2 gall.); macerate 4 days, press, and strain for use.

2. (Ph. Castr. Ruth. 1840.) Horse-radish (fresh), 4 lbs.; juniper berries, 3 lbs.; root of calamus aromaticus and buds of pinus abies, of each 1 lb.; ginger, 1 oz.; syrup (of brown sugar), 6 lbs.; beer, 120 lbs. (say, 12 galls.); macerate 4 days, or until it ferments, then decant, strain, and add of cream of tartar, 1/2 lb.; tincture of mustard (flour of mustard 2 oz., to proof spirit 12 oz.), 5 lbs. (say, 1/2 gall.). In scurvy, &c.

=Beer, Cincho′na.= Syn. A′GUE-BEER, BARK′-BEER; CEREVIS′IA CINCHO′NÆ, &c., L. Prep. 1. Bruised cinchona-bark, 1 oz.; proof spirit or brandy, 2 oz.; mix; the next day add of new beer, 1 quart, and in 3 days decant or filter.——Dose, 2 or 3 wine-glassfuls.

2. (Mutis.) Cinchona, 4 oz.; sugar, 2 lbs.; boiling water, 5 pints; when lukewarm, ferment with a little yeast, as for ginger-beer.——Dose, 1 or 2 wine-glassfuls.

3. (Ph. Ferrara.) Bruised Peruvian bark, 1-1/2 oz.; cinnamon, 2 dr.; nutmeg (rasped), 7 dr.; sugar, 25 oz.; yeast, 2 oz.; water, 5 pints; mix, ferment, decant, and strain, as before.——Dose, 3 or 4 wine-glassfuls. They are all administered during the intermission of ague.

=Beer, Pipsissewa.= Syn. CERVIS′IA CHIMAPH′ILE, &c., L. Prep. (Dr J. Parrish.) Pipsissewa (chimaphila umbellata), 1/2 lb.; water, 1 gall.; boil, strain, add of sugar, 1 lb.; powdered ginger, 1/4 oz.; yeast, q. s.; and ferment, stain, and bottle, as for ginger-beer. In scrofulous affections; especially of the joints.——Dose. Half a tumblerful. It is a favorite remedy with some American practitioners.

=Beer, Sarsaparil′la.= Syn. LIS′BON DI′ET-BEER, SPAN′ISH JARAVE; CEREVIS′IA SAR′ZÆ, C. SARSAPARIL′LÆ, INFU′SUM S. PARA′TUM FERMENTATIO′NE, &c., L. Prep. 1. Compound extract of sarsaparilla, 1-1/2 oz.; hot water, 1 pint; dissolve, and when cold, add of good pale or East-India ale, 7 pints.

2. Sarsaparilla (sliced), 1 lb.; guaiacum-bark (bruised small), 1/4 lb.; guaiacum-wood (rasped), and liquorice root (sliced), of each 2 oz.; aniseed (bruised), 1-1/2 oz.; mezereon root-bark, 1 oz.; cloves (cut small), 1/4 oz.; moist sugar, 3-1/2 lbs.; hot water (not boiling), 9 quarts; mix in a clean stone jar, and keep it in a moderately warm room (shaking it twice or thrice daily) until active fermentation sets in, then let it repose for about a week, when it will be fit for use.

Obs. It is said to be superior to the other preparations of sarsaparilla as an alterative or purifier of the blood, particularly in old affections. That usually made has generally only one half the above quantity of sugar, for which treacle is often substituted; but in either case it will not keep well; whereas, with proper caution, the products of the above formulæ may be kept for one, or even two years. No yeast must be used.——Dose. A small tumblerful 3 or 4 times a day, or oftener.

=Beer, Stomach′ic.= Syn. MED′ICATED PURL; CEREVIS′IA STOMACH′ICA, L. Prep. (Dr Quincy.) Centaury-tops and Roman wormwood, of each 4 handfuls; gentian root (bruised), 2 oz.; the yellow peels of 6 Seville oranges; Spanish angelica-root and Winter’s lard, of each (bruised) 1 oz.; new ale, or beer, 3 quarts (say, 1 gall.); digest for a few days, as before. One or two wine-glassfuls early in the morning, and an hour before a meal.

=Beer, Sulphu′′ric Acid.= Syn. SULPHURIC LEMONADE; CEREVISIA ACIDI SULPHU′′RICI, C. ANTICOL′ICA, L. Prep. 1. Treacle beer, or other weak mild beer or ale, to which a little concentrated sulphuric acid has been added, in the proportion of about 1 dr. to every 8 or 10 pints; the whole being well agitated together, and allowed a few hours to settle.

2. Treacle, 14 lbs.; bruised ginger, 1/2 lb.; coriander, 1/2 oz.; capsicum and cloves, of each 1/4 oz.; water, 12-1/2 galls.; yeast, 1 pint; proceed as for ginger-beer, and when the fermentation is nearly over, add of oil of vitriol, 1-1/2 oz. (diluted with 8 times its weight of water), and of bicarbonate of soda, 1-1/2 oz. (dissolved in a little water). It is fit to drink in 3 or 4 days.

Uses, &c. It is taken with great benefit by workers in lead, especially by those employed in white lead works; also in cases of lead colic, poisoning by lead or its salts, &c. A tumblerful twice or thrice daily. It is both harmless and wholesome.

=Beer, Tar.= Syn. CEREVIS′IA PI′CIS, C. P. LIQ′UIDÆ, L. Prep. (Duhamel.) Bran, 2 pints; tar, 1 pint; honey, 1/2 pint; water, 6 pints; mix, and gently simmer together for 3 hours; when lukewarm add of yeast, 1/2 pint; let it ferment for 36 hours, and strain. Pectoral, anti-asthmatic, anti-phthisic, &c.——Dose. One wine-glassful before each meal, in bronchial and chest diseases, and incipient consumption. See BEERS (In Pharmacy; above).

=BEES′WING.= The second or pseudo-crust so much admired in port and a few other wines, and which forms in them only when kept for some time after the first or true crust has formed. It consists of minute, glittering, floating particles or lamellæ of tartar, purer, and freer from astringent matter, than that deposited in the first crust. See CRUST, WINES, &c.

=BEET= (bēte). Syn. BE′TA, L.; BIET, D.; BETTE, Fr.; BEETE, MANGOLD, M.-KRAUT, Ger.; BIETOLA, It. The common name of plants of the genus ‘beta,’ and the nat. ord. Chenopodæ (DC.). There are said to be only two distinct species cultivated——beta vulgār′is and b. horten′sis——each of which occurs in several varieties; those of the first, and which we have chiefly to consider, producing a large fleshy root (BEET′-ROOT, MAN-GOLD-R.; RA′DIX BE′TÆ, L.; BETTERAVE, Fr.; ROTHE RÜBE, &c., Ger.), which is both sweet and succulent; those of the other, only succulent leaves. The varieties most useful, and now the most extensively cultivated in England, are of comparatively recent introduction; field-beet, the mangold-wurzel of the Germans, having been only brought under the notice of our agriculturists towards the end of the last century.

=Beet, Field.= See BEET, HYBRID (below).

=Beet, Hy′brid.= Syn. COMMON BEET, FIELD′-B.; BE′TA HY′BRIDA, B. VULGAR′′IS, H.; L.; BETTE COMMUNE, BETTERAVE C., RACINE D’ABONDANCE, R. DE DISETTE, &c., Fr.; MANGOLD, M.-WURZEL, MANGEL-W., &c., Ger. A variety of beta vulgaris (Linn.), and that usually cultivated by English farmers. Root red on the outside, white inside; chiefly grown as winter-food for cattle, being vastly superior to turnips. It has been used in Germany as a substitute for bread in times of scarcity. Leaves dressed and eaten like spinach.

=Beet, Red.= Syn. CU′LINARY BEET, GARDEN B., BEET′-RADISH, BEET′-RAVE, &c.; BE′TA RU′BRA, B. VULG′′ARIS R., L.; BETTERAVE, &c., Fr.; ROTHE RÜBE, &c., Ger. Root tender, well-flavoured, and of a rich red colour throughout, and hence much used in salads, pickles, and cookery; also made into a conserve, jam, or confection. The kinds most esteemed for salads are the small red and the yellowish-red varieties of Castelnaudari.

=Beet, Sea.= Syn. BE′TA MARIT′IMA, L. Said to be the best variety for dressing as spinach.

=Beet, White.= Syn. BE′TA AL′BA, B. VULGA′′RIS A., B. CI′CLA, L.; BETTE BLANCHE, POIRÉE, &c., Fr. A sub-variety of the red beet. Root white, and hence preferred for making sugar; that with a purple crown being the most esteemed.

Obs. The preceding varieties of beet resemble each other in their general properties. They are all antiscorbutic, detergent, emollient, and nutritious; and their roots contain about 8% of sugar, which, by proper treatment, may be obtained from them of excellent quality. The grated root is sometimes used to dress blisters and foul ulcers. When sliced, and dried in a malt-kiln, a very palatable beer may be brewed with it. The leaves of each variety are dressed and eaten like spinach. The roots, for the table, after being carefully washed, are dressed whole——neither scraped nor cut——and, according to their size and age, require from 1 to 4 hours’ simmering or baking. They are mostly served in slices, cold, intermingled with other winter salad vegetables. See BREWING, CATTLE, SALADS, SUGAR, &c. (also antè).

=BEET ROOT.= See BEET.

=BEE′TLE= (bē′tl). Syn. SCAR′AB†*, SCAR′ABEE†* (-bē); SCÄRABÆ′US, L.; ESCARBOT, SCARABEÉ, Fr.; KÄFER, Ger.; BETEL, Sax. In zoology, the common name of an extensive genus of insects (scarabæ′us, Linn.), of numerous species. It is also popularly applied to all coleopterous insects, or such as have hard or shelly wing-cases, especially to those of a dark or obscure colour. The common pests of our kitchens and basement floors which pass familiarly under the name of beetles, black beetles, or cockroaches, belong to the order orthoptera, and not to the coleoptera or beetle tribe, as the name implies. See INSECTS, &c.

=Black Beetle=; Domes′tic beetle. See BLATTA, COCKROACH, &c.

=Blis′tering Beetle.= See CANTHARIDES.

=BELL.= Syn. CAMPA′NA,[128] CAMPAN′ULA,[129] NO′LA*,[130] TINTINNAB′ULUM,[131] L.; CLOCHE, CLOCHETTE,[132] GRELOT,[133] Fr.; GLOCKE, SCHELLE, &c., Ger.; BELL, BELLA, BELLE, Sax. A hollow vessel or body, usually of cast metal, with a wide cup-like mouth expanding outwards, so formed as to emit sound when suspended and struck with a hard substance. The word is also applied, either alone or in composition, to substances having the figure of a bell; as bells (of flowers), bell-animal, b.-flower, b.-glass, &c.

[Footnote 128: Appropriately, a large bell suspended or adapted for suspension; as that of a church, &c.]

[Footnote 129: A small bell.]

[Footnote 130: Id.]

[Footnote 131: Id.; appr., one suspended as a door-bell, servants’ bell, &c.]

[Footnote 132: A little bell, a hand-bell.]

[Footnote 133: A little round-bell.]

Form, Manuf., &c. Bells of “the common and well-known shape, with a thick lip or sound-bow, are the most effective known instruments for producing a loud and musical sound, such as you want when you erect a large public clock, or put up a peal of church-bells.” “After trying a number of experiments, at Messrs Warner’s, I am quite satisfied that there is nothing to be gained by deviating materially from the established proportions of the best old bells.”[134] This view is borne out by the researches of the Government commissioners[135] who visited the Paris Exhibition, who report, that among the ‘founders’ of France and Belgium, there are no traditions of the art, nor any discoveries or appliances of modern science, tending to the improvement of bells, or to provide efficient substitutes for them; nor is there any known improvement on the established mode and usual material (BRONZE or BELL-METAL) for casting them. Sir C. Barry, indeed, according to Mr Dennison, “seemed rather impressed with the merits of cast-steel bells;” but both Prof. Wheatstone and Mr Dennison differ from him in opinion. Undoubtedly some cast-steel bells, of small size, have been produced, capable of yielding sounds of extraordinary clearness and richness, but, in most cases, owing to the difficulty in giving the peculiar molecular condition to the metal essential to a high degree of sonorousness, their tones are comparatively harsh and disagreeable. Well-annealed glass offers a cheaper and better material than steel for large bells up to a certain size, whilst its tones are exquisite. As the depth of the tone of a bell depends chiefly upon the dimensions and weight of the sound-bow, it appears likely that by directing our experiments to the increase of these, and the diminishing of the thickness of the metal in the other parts, the quantity of metal required to produce large bells might be very greatly reduced. The sound of an Indian gong that may be easily held suspended by the hand is always rich and usually as loud and deep as a bell of ordinary construction which it would take several men to lift. The Chinese often use bells made of porcelain. Small hand-bells for the toilet and boudoir are often made of silver, and then yield tones which are remarkably soft, clear, and pleasing. The tongue, clapper, or hammer, of bronze bells should be of iron; and steel bells, of bronze. Glass and porcelain bells require the striking part of the tongue to be of box-wood, the proper weight being given by a ball of iron cast on the rod immediately above it, and a similar one screwed on the end of the rod immediately below it. In all cases the hammer-head, preferably globular, should strike the bell near the verge, and should be free from projections or asperities.

[Footnote 134: Lecture on the ‘Form of Bells,’ deliv. at the Royal Institution, by Mr B. Dennison, to whom the Government intrusted the construction of the ‘great bells’ for the New Houses of Parliament.]

[Footnote 135: Prof. Wheatstone and Sir Charles Barry.]

The casting, &c., of bells is essentially similar to that of other articles in bronze, of corresponding size, and particularly of cannon. See BELL-METAL, BRONZE, &c.

=BELL′-METAL.= Syn. ÆS CAMPANA′′RUM, L.; MÉTAL DE CLOCHE, Fr.; GLOCKENGUT, GLOCKENSPEISE, Ger. The alloy, usually bronze, of which bells, &c., are made.

The composition of bell-metal varies considerably, as may be seen below:——

1. (Standard.) Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts;[136] fused together and cast in the manner described under BRONZE. The most sonorous of all the alloys of copper and tin. It is easily fusible, and has a fine compact grain, and a vitreous-conchoidal and yellowish-red fracture. According to Klaproth, the finest-toned Indian gongs have this composition.

[Footnote 136: The resulting alloy probably contains 7 Cu + Sn.]

2. (Founder’s Standard.) Copper, 77 parts; tin, 21 parts; antimony, 2 parts.[137] Slightly paler and inferior to No. 1.

[Footnote 137: More antimony, or some other metal, is often added, as subsequently noticed; but always to the injury of the alloy as bell-metal.]

3. Copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts.[138] Very deep-toned and sonorous. Used in China and India for the larger gongs, tam-tams, &c.

[Footnote 138: Equal to about 8 Cu + Sn. In some gongs the proportion of tin is so low as 22, or even 20 parts, to 100 parts of copper.]

4. Copper, 78 to 80 parts; tin, 22 to 20 parts. Usual composition of Chinese cymbals, tam-tams, &c.

5. Copper 75 (= 3) parts; tin, 25 (= 1) parts.[139] Somewhat brittle. In fracture, semi-vitreous and bluish-red. Used for church and other large bells.

[Footnote 139: Nearly equal to 6 Cu + Sn.]

6. Copper, 80 parts; tin, 10-1/4 parts; zinc, 5-1/2 parts; lead, 4-1/4 parts. English bell-metal, according to Thomson. Inferior to the last; the lead being apt to form isolated drops, to the injury of the uniformity of the alloy.

7. Copper, 68, parts; tin, 32 parts.[140] Brittle; fracture conchoidal and ash-grey. Best proportions for house-bells, hand-bells, &c.; for which, however, 2 of copper, and 1 of tin, is commonly substituted by the founders.

[Footnote 140: Equal to about 4 Cu + Sn.]

8. Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26-1/2 parts; iron, 1-1/2 part. Used by the Paris houses for the bells of small clocks or pendules.

9. Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 parts; zinc, 2 parts. Used, like the last, for very small bells.

10. Copper, 70 parts; tin, 26 parts; zinc, 2 parts. Used for the bells of repeating watches.

11. Melt together copper, 100 parts; tin, 25 parts. After being cast into the required object, it should be made red hot, and then plunged immediately into cold water in order to impart to it the requisite degree of sonorousness. For cymbals and gongs.

12. Melt together copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. When cold it has to be hammered out with frequent annealing.

13. Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts. This is superior to the former, as it can be rolled out. For tom-toms and gongs.

14. Melt together copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 to 56 parts; iron, 1·44 part. Used in making the bells of pendules or ornamental Parisian clocks. For clock-bells.

Concluding remarks. Castings in bell-metal are all more or less brittle; and, when recent, have a colour varying from a dark ash-grey to greyish-white, which is darkest in the more cupreous varieties, in which it turns somewhat on the yellowish-red or bluish-red. The larger the proportion of copper in the alloy, the deeper and graver the tone of the bells formed of it. The addition of tin, iron, or zinc, causes them to give out their tones sharper. Bismuth and lead are also often added to modify the tone, which each metal affects differently. The addition of antimony and bismuth is frequently made by the founder to give a more crystalline grain to the alloy. All these additions are, however, prejudicial to the sonorousness of bells, and of very doubtful utility. Rapid refrigeration increases the sonorousness of all these alloys. Hence M. D’Arcet recommends the ‘pieces’ to be heated to a cherry-red after they are cast, and after having been suddenly plunged into cold water, to be submitted to well-regulated pressure by skilful hammering, until they assume their proper form; after which they are to be again heated and allowed to cool slowly in the air. This is the method adopted by the Chinese with their gongs, &c., a casing of sheet-iron being employed by them to support and protect the pieces during the exposure to heat. In a general way, however, bells are formed and completed by simple casting. This is necessarily the case with all very large bells. Where the quality of their tones is the chief object sought after, the greatest care should be taken to use commercially pure copper. The presence of a very little lead or any similar metal greatly lessens the sonorousness of this alloy; whilst that of silver increases it. This last metal has been detected in many old church bells remarkable for the richness of their tones——articles of silver plate having been cast into the crucibles of the founders, as votive offerings, by the pious Christians of former ages.

The specific gravity of a large bell is seldom uniform throughout its whole substance; nor can the sp. gr. from any given proportion of its constituent metals be exactly calculated owing to the many interfering circumstances. The nearer this uniformity is approached, or in other words, chemical combination is complete, the more durable and finer toned will be the bell.

In general it is found necessary to take about 1-10th more metal than the weight of the intended bell, or bells, in order to allow for waste and scorification during the operations of fusing and casting. See BELL, BRONZE, COPPER, &c.

=BELLADON′NA= (-dŏn′ă), [It., Sp., Port.; Eng., L., Ger.;[141] B. P.] Syn. DEAD′LY NIGHT′SHADE, DWALE; BELLEDAME, BELLADONNE, &c., Fr.; TÖDTLICHER NACHTSCHATTEN, TOLLKERSCHE, TOLLKRAUT, WOLFSKIRSCHE, &c., Ger.; AT′ROPA LETHA′LIS*, SOLA′NUM FURIO′SUM*, S. LETHA′LE*, S. MANIA′CUM*, S. MELANOCER′ASUS†, &c., L., Bot. var. Literally, fair lady; in materia medica, botany, &c., the usual name (adopted from the Ital.) of at′ropa belladonn′a (Linn.), an indigenous, poisonous, perennial, herbaceous plant, of the nat. ord. Solanæ (DC); Solanaceæ, Endl., (Lind.). It flowers in June and July, and its drooping, purple blossoms are common ornaments of our hedges and wastes where the soil is calcareous. It is supposed to be the ‘insane root’ of Shakespeare.[142]

[Footnote 141: As a borrowed word.]

[Footnote 142: ‘Macbeth,’ Act I, Scene 3.]

The parts of this plant used in medicine and pharmacy are the “fresh leaves and branches to which they are attached; also the leaves separate from the branches, carefully dried, of atropa belladonna; gathered, when the fruit has begun to form, from wild or cultivated plants in Britain” (B. P.).

Prop., Uses, &c. Every part of this plant contains ATRO′PIA, and is consequently highly poisonous. Every part, except the berries, is fœtid when bruised, and of “a dark and lurid aspect, indicative of its deadly narcotic quality.”[143] Its berries, which are of a glossy violet-black, and of the size of a small cherry, are sweet-tasted, and not at all nauseous. Children and tired travellers and soldiers, allured by their beauty and the absence of disagreeable flavour, have frequently been induced to eat them; but in all cases poisoning, often fatal, has followed the indulgence.[144] Belladonna is, however, in qualified hands a safe and most valuable medicine. Its chief use is as an anodyne, antispasmodic, sedative, and discutient, and particularly to diminish sensibility and allay pain and nervous irritation in a variety of diseases——neuralgia, arthritic and migratory rheumatic pains, painful ulcers, cancer, spasmodic rigidity, strictures, and contractions (especially of the bladder and uterus), angina pectoris, iritis, epilepsy, chorea, hooping-cough, hysteria, mania, fevers, phthisis, asthma, &c.; also as a prophylactic of scarlet-fever,[145] hydrophobia, and salivation, as a resolvent in enlarged and indurated glands (particularly when painful), as an agent to produce dilation of the pupil during surgical examinations and operations, &c., &c. It is employed both internally and externally, and in various forms, as is noticed under its ‘preparations’ elsewhere. Dose. Of the powder, 1/2 to 1 gr. twice a day, gradually and cautiously increased until dryness of the throat or dilation of the pupil occurs, or the head is affected.

[Footnote 143: Pereira, 4th ed., vol. ii, 545.]

[Footnote 144: One hundred and fifty French soldiers were thus poisoned at Pirna, near Dresden. (Orfila, ‘Tox. Gén.’)]

[Footnote 145: Of 2027 persons who took it, and were exposed to the contagion of scarlet fever, 1948 escaped. (Bayle, ‘Bibl. Thérap.,’ t. ii. p. 504.) Of 1200 soldiers who took it only 12 became affected. (Oppenheim, ‘Lond. Med. Gaz,’ vol. xiii, 814.) In this country, however, except among homœopaths, it has not found much favour as a prophylactic.]

Pois., &c. Belladonna and its preparations are poisonous to all animals, but very much more so to the carnivora than to the herbivora. It also acts as a poison on vegetables.

Treatm. Ant., &c. These may be the same as those employed in poisoning by aconite, atropia, and opium. The stomach must be cleared as soon as possible, followed by active purgation. Unfortunately emetics have scarcely any action, and, therefore, must be given in large doses, assisted by tickling the fauces, &c. If copious vomiting does not rapidly follow, the stomach-pump may be had recourse to. When the poison has been removed from the stomach, copious and continued draughts of astringent vegetable solutions (weak decoction of galls or oak-bark, or strong coffee or green-tea), should be persisted in for some time; followed by like draughts of water soured with any mild vegetable acid (as vinegar, lemon-juice, citric or tartaric acid, &c.) Detec. The contents of the stomach or vomited matter may be searched for the berries, leaves, seed, or portions of the root; all of which are easily recognisable. The usual physiological and chemical tests of atropia may also be applied to these and to the organic liquids supposed to contain the poison. See ALKALOID, ATROPIA, EXTRACTS, OINTMENTS, TINCTURES, VEGETABLE JUICES, &c.

=BELLADONNINE.= Syn. ATROPIA, which see.

=BELL′Y= (-e). The abdomen (which see).

=BELTS.= In their connection with health and disease, see BANDAGE, DRESS, STAYS, &c.

=BENEDICTINE’S HEALING-PLASTER= (Hauber). 35 grammes of a dark brown plaster, prepared by digesting together 1 part litharge with 2 parts olive oil until they become blackish-brown, then adding 4 parts yellow wax, containing the heat for a short time, and then pouring out. (Wittstein.)

=BENGAL′= (-gawl′). A thin fabric of silk and hair interwoven, originally from Bengal.

=Ben′gal Light.= A firework used as signals. See FIRES (coloured).

=Ben′gal Stripes.= Cotton cloth, woven with coloured stripes, orig. from Bengal; gingham.

=BEN′JAMIN†*.= Benzoin.

=BEN′ZENE.= See BENZOL.

=BEN′ZINE= (-zĭn). Benzol.

=BEN′ZOATE= (-zo-āte). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. BEN′ZOÄS, L. A salt in which one atom of benzoic acid is replaced by a metal or other basic radical. The benzoates may, in general, be easily prepared by either neutralising the acid with the base, or by double decomposition. Most of them are more or less soluble in water, and crystallisable. Those of the alkalies and ammonia are very soluble, and rather difficult to crystallise. See BENZOIC ACID and the respective bases.

=BEN′ZOENE*.= See TULUOLE.

=BENZO′IC ACID= (-zō′-ĭk). HC_{7}H_{5}O_{2} Syn. FLOWERS OF BENZOIN′; HY′DRATED BEN′ZOYL; ACIDUM BENZO′ICUM (B. P.); ACIDE BENZOÏQUE, FLEURS DE BENJOIN, &c., Fr.; BENZOESÄURE, &c., Ger. A substance which is commonly stated to be the characteristic constituent of the two balsams. Pure oil of bitter almonds suffers gradual conversion into this acid by exposure to the air.

Prep. The acid of commerce is principally obtained from gum-benzoin, either by sublimation (dry way), or by dissolving it out by means of an alkali, or an alkaline earth in the form of a salt (moist way); but chiefly by the first method.

1. By SUBLIMATION:——

a. Good benzoin, crushed small or in the state of coarse powder, is placed in a cylindrical iron pot with a flat bottom, and from 8 to 9 inches in diameter, so as to form a layer of from 1 to 2 inches deep. The open end of the pot is next covered with a sheet of soft and loose blotting-paper,[146] which is attached to the rim with paste. A cone, cap, or cylinder formed of strong thick paper (cartridge paper), open at its lower end, is then placed over the top of the pot, including the blotting-paper; and this is also attached with paste and string. The apparatus, thus prepared, is then placed on a sand bath,[147] and exposed for 4 to 6 hours to a gentle and uniform heat. It is next removed from the sand bath, and, when it has sufficiently cooled, inverted, and the string detached, when crystals of benzoic acid are found in the paper cone. If, owing to want of care in manipulating, the product is either coloured or empyreumatic, it must be enveloped in several folds of bibulous paper, then submitted to powerful pressure, and afterwards resublimed. The simple form of apparatus figured in the engraving answers well on the small scale, and is that recommended by Dr Mohr.

[Footnote 146: Felt——Liebig.]

[Footnote 147: On an iron plate on which sand has been spread——Ph. Bor.]

b. (Ph. D. 1850.) The subliming pot is ordered to be of sheet-iron. It is to be fitted into a circular hole in a sheet of pasteboard, and a collar of tow interposed between it and the flange, so as to produce a nearly air-tight junction. The paper receiver or cap is to be cylindrical, open at one end and about 18 inches high, with a diameter at least twice that of the pot; and it is to be secured in an inverted position on the pasteboard, and fastened to it by slips of paper and flour-paste. A couple of inches of the pot is to be passed through a corresponding hole in a plate of sheet-tin, which is to be kept from contact with the pasteboard by the interposition of a few corks; and a heat[148] only just sufficient to melt the benzoin is to be applied for at least six hours.

[Footnote 148: That of a gas-flame is recommended. A ring of very small gas-jets answers better.]

c. (Process adopted at Apothecaries’ Hall, London.) The best gum-benzoin is put into an iron pot, set in brickwork over a suitable small fire-place (or flue),[149] and communicating by a conical metal neck, with a wooden box (technically termed a ‘house’) lined with white blotting-paper, as a receiver for the flowers. A piece of fine muslin, or of bibulous paper, is interposed between the top of the subliming-pot and the receiver, to prevent the sublimate falling back into the former. The sublimation is conducted rather rapidly, and the acid condenses in beautiful white, soft, flexible crystals, which are at once ready for the market. When the process is conducted more slowly, the product is proportionately scaly.

[Footnote 149: A pan with a steam-jacket answers well, and is very manageable.]

Obs. Good samples of benzoin yield from 10 to 12%, or even 12-1/2%, of ‘flowers’ or ‘acid of the first sublimation.’ This, after being pressed in blotting-paper and again sublimed, gives 8-1/2 to 10% of nearly pure benzoic acid. The loss arising from a second sublimation is thus so great that the utmost care should be taken to avoid its necessity.

2. In the MOIST WAY:——

a. (Ph. D. 1826; Scheele’s Process.) Equal parts of benzoin and hydrate of lime, in fine powder, are intimately mixed together and boiled for about an hour, with 40 parts of water; the liquor, after filtration, is evaporated to 1/5th, and the lime saturated with hydrochloric acid; the benzoic acid crystallised out as the liquor cools, and is then either washed with very cold water, and dried by a gentle heat, or it is dried and sublimed in the manner already explained. The product of the sublimation is extremely white and pure.

Obs. An economical and productive process; but, to ensure success, a perfect mixture of the dry ingredients must be first made; as otherwise the benzoin runs into a solid mass in the boiling water, and the operation fails. Prod. “1 lb. of (gum) benjamin yields 1 oz. 6 dr. 2 scr. of flowers.” (Gray.)[150]

[Footnote 150: A quantity which, in our own experiments, we were never able to obtain.]

b. (Process of Stoltze.) The benzoin is dissolved in 3 times its weight of alcohol, the solution introduced into a retort, and a solution of carbonate of soda in weak spirit-and-water, is gradually added, until all the free acid present is neutralised; water, equal to about twice the weight of the benzoin employed, is next poured in, and the alcohol removed by distillation. The floating resin is now skimmed off the residual liquid and washed with a little water, and the washings added to the contents of the retort, which will deposit crystals of benzoate of soda on cooling, and more by subsequent evaporation. From this salt the benzoic acid is obtained by saturating the alkali with an acid (as the hydrochloric), and by subsequent sublimation of the crude precipitated crystals.

3. Other Methods:——

a. Ordinary hippuric acid is very gently boiled, for about 15 minutes, in nitric acid[151] (sp. gr. 1·42); water is then added, and the solution allowed to cool and crystallise. The crystals are collected on a filter, washed with a little very cold water, dried by pressure in bibulous paper, and lastly, purified by sublimation, as before.

[Footnote 151: Hydrochloric acid as well as sulphuric acid also convert hippuric acid into benzoic acid; as does likewise a sufficient degree of heat. See HIPPURIC ACID.]

b. From the urine of horses, cows, and other graminivorous animals, in a similar way to that by which hippuric acid is obtained, only allowing the urine to acquire a slight degree of putridity before evaporation, which last should be effected by a heat slightly under that of ebullition. The crude acid thus obtained is purified as previously directed.

Obs. Large quantities of benzoic acid are said to be obtained in this way on the Continent; but, owing to the process being clumsily conducted, it is generally of inferior quality, and hence unsaleable. It may, however, by skilful purification, be rendered quite equal to that obtained from gum benzoin.[152]

[Footnote 152: “A manufactory of sal-ammoniac, near Magdeburgh, which uses urine, is able to supply flowers of benjamin by the cwt.” (Gray.)]

Prop. When obtained by sublimation benzoic acid forms soft, light, feathery, white, flexible crystals, which are transparent or semi-transparent, with more or less of a mother-of-pearl lustre; when by slowly cooling its aqueous solution, or by precipitation from a solution of a benzoate, it forms either thin plates or scales, or a dazzling white crystalline powder. It is inodorous when cold,[153] but acquires a faint balsamic odour when gently warmed; fuses at about 212° Fahr., and begins to sublime freely at a temperature a little above it, but does not boil until heated to about 460°; burns with a bright yellow flame; is very soluble in alcohol, dissolves in about 200 parts of cold water, and about 25 parts of boiling water; resists the action of ordinary nitric acid even when boiling; and forms salts (BEN′ZOATES) with the bases. Sp. gr. 0·667. Its vapour, which is very suffocating and irritating, has a density of 4·27. Added to fat and fatty substances it either prevents, or greatly retards, the accession of rancidity.

[Footnote 153: That of the shops usually smells slightly of benzoin, owing to the presence of a trace of volatile oil.]

Test, &c. It may be recognised——1. By its physical properties (appearance, fusibility, volatility, odour, &c.) already enumerated:——2. By its ready solubility in solutions of the alkalies; and by being precipitated from these solutions, on the addition of one of the stronger acids, under the form of a dazzling white powder, which is only sparingly soluble in cold water:——3. By its neutral salts with the alkalies, or its neutral solution in an alkali, giving a bulky, flesh-coloured precipitate with perchloride of iron, which is insoluble in water:——4. By its solution not being precipitated by acetate of lead until after neutralisation with a fixed alkali, when the acetate produces a white, flocculent precipitate:——5. By a mixture of alcohol, ammonia, and solution of chloride of barium, neither disturbing a solution of the free acid, nor that of one of its salts with the alkalies.

It is chemically distinguished from cinnamic acid by not yielding essential oil of almonds when it is distilled with oxidising agents, as chromic acid or a mixture of bichromate of potassium and sulphuric acid; and from succinic acid, by its different deportment with sesquichloride of iron (Test 3, antè), and with a mixture of alcohol, ammonia, and solution of chloride of barium (T. 5, antè).

Estim.——1. By weighing it as benzoic acid, obtained either by precipitation, or by very careful sublimation in a glass apparatus:——2. By neutralising its alcoholic or aqueous solution, by the usual method of acidimetry:——3. By precipitating its neutral solution with acetate of lead, or with sesquichloride of iron, and weighing the carefully washed and dried precipitate either as benzoate of lead, or as ferric benzoate.

Pur., &c. White crystalline silky plates and needles, have an aromatic odour. Solubility in cold water, 1 in 300; in boiling water, 1 in 12; in spirit, 1 in 4. Also soluble in caustic alkalies and lime. Borax considerably increases its solubility in water; 1 of benzoic acid and 1 of borax are soluble in 100 of water. It sublimes without residue when heated. It is sometimes met with adulterated with hippuric acid, which may be easily detected by its altered form, by its diminishing solubility in cold water, and by its exhaling an odour of tonquin-beans, and afterwards of hydrocyanic acid, when sublimed. The presence of succinic acid may be readily detected by its greatly increased solubility in cold water; that of sugar, not only by its increased solubility, and partial volatility, but also by the odour of caramel being evolved on the application of sufficient heat, and the residuum being black and carbonaceous; that of camphor, by its peculiar odour when gently heated. Spermaceti, specially prepared for the purpose, is also an occasional adulterant, easily detected by its insolubility and other well-known properties. All these substances either destroy or lack the proper crystalline form of benzoic acid, which is one of the best proofs of its purity. They also greatly increase its sp. gr.

Uses, &c. Its chief use in medicine is as a stimulant and expectorant. It is an ingredient in the compound tincture of camphor (paregoric elixir) of the pharmacopœia.——Dose, 10 to 30 gr., dissolved in water by the aid of a little ammonia or potassa; in old coughs, &c.

=BENZOIC AL′COHOL.= A peculiar oily fluid, discovered by M. Cannizzaro, and obtained by the action of an alcoholic solution of potassa on pure oil of bitter almonds.

=BENZOIN′=, B. P. (-zoyn′; zō′-ĭn). Syn. GUM-BENZOIN*‡, BEN′JAMIN†*, GUM-B.†*; BENZÖI′NUM, L., B. P.; BENJOIN, Fr.; BENZÖE, Ger. The balsamic resin exuded from incisions made in the stem of the styrax benzoin, a native of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Laos, and Siam. Several varieties of benzoin are in the market; two only, however, are chiefly used in medicine, one in agglutinated masses, the other (from Siam), in tears, being the purer and having the stronger odour.

Prop., &c. Odour agreeable, and somewhat like that of vanilla, but more balsamic; fracture conchoidal; lustre greasy; sp. gr. 1·063 to 1·092. It fuses at a gentle heat and exhales white fumes, which, on condensation, are found to be benzoic acid contaminated with a little volatile oil. Alcohol dissolves the larger portion of it, ether much less, and the volatile and fixed oils only a little. It contains from 9% to 18, or (occasionally) nearly 20%, of benzoic acid, according to the quality. It burns with an agreeable odour. The resin and its alcoholic solution strike a bright red colour with oil of vitriol, and a green colour with chloride of iron.

Benzoin has occasionally been sold by fraudulent dealers after its benzoic acid has been removed by the wet method. When the gum has been thus treated it will not show the agglutinated tears, upon fracture, which commonly distinguishes it when intact.

Uses, &c. It is chiefly employed in perfumery, and as an ingredient in incense, fumigating pastilles, &c.; also in court-plaster, in certain cosmetics, and to scent the varnish used for snuff-boxes, walking-sticks, &c. As a medicine, its general effects resemble those of the other true balsams, and of benzoic acid.——Dose, 5 or 6 to 20, or even 30 gr., in powder, and usually in combination with some other remedy; chiefly in chronic pulmonary and bronchial affections, when occurring in torpid habits, and unaccompanied by inflammatory symptoms or gastric irritation. Also as a fumigation in the same diseases, hooping-cough, &c. Like benzoic acid, it is used to prevent rancidity in ointments, pomades, and other fatty preparations.

=BENZOINUM.= See BENZOIN.

=BEN′ZOL= (-zōle). C_{6}H_{6}. [benz(oin)-oleum.] Syn. BEN′ZENE*, BEN′ZĬNE, BEN′ZŌLE*, HYDRĬDE OF PHE′NY̆̆L*, PHE′NE†, &c.; BENZO′LEUM, L.; BENZINE, Fr.; BENZÖL, Ger. A peculiar ethereal hydrocarbon discovered, by Faraday, among the products of the destructive distillation of whale oil and other organic substances (A.D. 1825); and subsequently shown, by Mitscherlich, to form the principal ingredient in the distillate procured by the action of heat on a mixture of benzoic acid and hydrate of lime. In 1849, Mr C. B. Mansfield[154] discovered its presence in coal-tar naphtha, from which the benzol of commerce is now chiefly, if not wholly, obtained.

[Footnote 154: This unfortunate chemist lost his life (Feb. 25, 1855), in consequence of being severely burned whilst experimenting on benzol.]

Prep. 1. PURE:——a. A mixture of benzoic acid, 1 part; fresh-slaked lime, 3 parts; is submitted, in a coated glass or earthenware retort, to a heat slowly raised to redness; the oily portion of the resulting distillate is then separated from the water, and carefully rectified, with the proper precautions, at a temperature not exceeding 190° Fahr. The product is usually stated to be pure benzol; but to ensure this it may be submitted to one refrigeration and rectification, in the manner and at the temperature noticed below.

b. From good commercial benzol, agitated with 1-4th or 1-5th of its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, and, after repose and decantation, rectified at a temperature under 195° Fahr.; the resulting distillate is exposed to a temperature below[155] 32° Fahr., and the mass of crystals that form are thrown on a funnel, kept at the same temperature, to drain, after which they are pressed between folds of bibulous paper,[156] and then allowed to liquefy by simple exposure, in a close vessel, to the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. The product, after rectification at a temperature not exceeding 190,° is nearly pure benzol. It may be rendered absolutely pure by repeating the refrigeration a second and a third time, followed by a final rectification at 180-185° Fahr.

[Footnote 155: Preferably considerably below. If the distillate be not rich in benzol, a temperature so low as 8 or 10°, or even 4-5°, Fahr. may be necessary or, at all events, advantageous.]

[Footnote 156: Filtration under pressure is thought by some chemists to be preferable. For this purpose a ‘Beart’s Coffee-pot’ (or a similarly constructed apparatus), was often employed by Mansfield, and is recommended by Prof. Muspratt.]

2. COMMERCIAL:——By submitting light coal-tar naphtha to distillation, either at once, or after it has been agitated with a little oil of vitriol, and decanted, care being taken that the temperature does not exceed 200° Fahr.

A drawing and description of the apparatus invented by Mansfield for the preparation of benzol from coal-tar naphtha is given below.

A is the still placed on a furnace R; C is filled with cold water. As soon as the oil in the still boils, the vapours are condensed in B, and flow back into A; this continues until the water in C has been heated to a certain temperature, when the vapours are condensed in the cooler D, the liquid flowing at n into the carboy S. As soon as the water in C begins to boil, all the substances contained in the coal-tar naphtha and volatile at 212° Fahr. are condensed and collected in S. A very pure benzol is obtained by this apparatus. By opening the tap m, the hydrocarbons which boil over 212° Fahr. can be rectified. The stopcock i is used for opening the still.

In the benzol works the apparatus shown below is employed.

A is the still, B the condenser, C a water-tank. At the commencement of the operation the water in C is heated by means of the steam-pipe D which communicates with the steam boiler. The tube G is attached to the still; i is a contrivance for filling, b for emptying it. The condensed water is carried off by means of H. By freezing benzol and pressing the solid substance obtained, it may be rendered quite pure.

Prop. Pure benzol is a clear, colourless, very mobile liquid, having a strong, characteristic, and rather agreeable ethereal odour. It is neutral to test-paper; exceedingly volatile at all temperatures; insoluble in water; miscible with alcohol and with ether; highly inflammable; burns with a brilliant flame, emitting clouds of smoke, which rapidly condense and fall as a shower of fine sooty, carbonaceous matter; boils at 176° Fahr.;[157] solidifies, at 32°, to a snowy white camphor-like mass, or when very slowly refrigerated, to beautiful transparent cruciform leaflets, which aggregate together into forms resembling fern-fronds; remelts at 40-1° Fahr.; and when solidifies burns, like camphor, without previous fusion. Sp. gr. ·850;[158] sp. gr. of vapour, 2·770.[159] It is unaffected by the ordinary hydrated acids, and has no action on the alkaline metals. Highly concentrated nitric acid readily dissolves it, and from this solution nitrobenzol is precipitated on the addition of water. Its vapour is dangerously inflammable, and, when mixed with the air, is highly explosive. Its solvent power extends over a numerous list of substances. Commercial benzol has a less agreeable odour, and not unfrequently a slight colour, with other modifications of the properties just enumerated, depending on the relative amount of impurities contained in it.

[Footnote 157: Fownes, Mansfield, Muspratt, and others; 186°——Mitscherlich 187°——Mr C. G. Williams (in Ure’s ‘Dict. of A. M., & M.,’ 5th ed.). (See next note.)]

[Footnote 158: Williams, Ure, Muspratt; ·885——Fownes, Mitscherlich. The different sp. gr. and boiling-points assigned to benzol, by authors, can only be accounted for by samples of different degrees of purity having probably been examined. The numbers given in the text are those not usually adopted; but we are not prepared to say, that they are definitely settled. On the contrary, we think it not unlikely that further investigations may show that the apparently greater levity of the benzole obtained from naphtha may arise from the presence of some other hydrocarbon which has hitherto escaped detection.]

[Footnote 159: Theoretically, 2·738.]

Pur.——1. It should be colourless, without action on either litmus or turmeric paper, and have the boiling-point, sp. gr.,[160] &c. already indicated:——2. A few drops thrown on a slip of glass or a piece of white paper should rapidly and entirely evaporate by simple exposure to the air without leaving a stain behind, or evolving any disagreeable or foreign odour:——3. Agitation with a little sulphuric acid should not discolour it:——4. It should not perceptibly lose weight or volume by agitation with a little cold water.

[Footnote 160: If it has a less sp. gr. than ·850, it is probably adulterated with the naphtha obtained from the Torbane-hill mineral or Boghead-coal, of which the sp. gr. is only ·750.]

Detec.——1. From the physical and other properties already enumerated:——2. By converting it into aniline and then testing it accordingly. For this purpose a little of it is dissolved in concentrated nitric acid, and the nitrobenzol thus formed is precipitated by the addition of water. The fluid is then agitated with ether, to dissolve out the nitrobenzol, and the resulting ethereal solution is mixed with an equal bulk of alcohol and hydrochloric acid and a little granulated zinc at once added. Hydrogen is evolved, and by its action the nitro-compound is converted into aniline. The liquid is next alkalised with potassa in excess, and the alkaline fluid agitated with ether. The ethereal solution, on evaporation, leaves a residue (aniline), which, after the addition of a little water, may be tested with a few drops of solution of chloride of lime, when a characteristic purple colour will be developed, provided the original liquor was benzole, or contained it. In this way very minute traces of benzol may be detected.

Uses, &c. In its impure or commercial form, chiefly as a solvent for gutta percha and india rubber; but it leaves the first in a spongy, friable state, and the latter glutinous or sticky, unless heat is applied to it for some time; also as a solvent in the manufacture of varnishes, as a diluent in lieu of oil of turpentine, for oil-paints, as a material for the production of artificial light, &c., &c. In the pure or nearly pure form it is largely employed in the laboratory and in chemical analysis as a solvent of many resins,[161] mastic, wax, camphor, fat, the fixed and essential oils, sulphur, phosphorus, iodine, several of the alkaloids,[162] &c., &c. Under the name of BENZINE and BENZINE-COLLAS it has been recently extensively vended for the removal of spots of grease, paint, &c., from woven fabrics, which it does most readily and completely, without detriment to the material. As a source of artificial light it has been the subject of innumerable applications and patents. It may be burned in a ‘wickless’ lamp, provided a proper cap-burner be employed. Alcohol or pyroxilic spirit containing 1-3rd, or even 1-4th of it, burns with a rich white flame. Air driven through it becomes sufficiently inflammable to serve as illuminating gas; whilst ordinary coal-gas by merely passing over it yields a flame of greatly increased brilliancy; but in all these applications the greatest possible care is necessary to prevent accidents.[163] See NAPHTHA (Coal-tar).

[Footnote 161: Anime and copal are scarcely affected by it in the fluid state, but readily dissolve in its vapour at the point of condensation.]

[Footnote 162: Particularly quinine, which it dissolves readily, but not cinchonine. Hence it is invaluable for the separation of them. It may be economically and conveniently substituted for ether in the preparation of many alkaloids, with the advantage of being applicable in many cases in which ether cannot be employed.]

[Footnote 163: Workmen constantly exposed to the vapour of benzol are very subject to nervous irritability, and, where the apartment is ill-ventilated, even fits of nervous prostration and trembling, of a truly alarming character. In two or three cases which we have seen, the symptoms, to the inexperienced eye, closely resembled those occasionally resulting from the long-continued use of very minute doses of strychnia, or of the alcoholic extract of nux vomica.]

=Benzol, Nitrate of.= See NITRO-BENZOL.

=BENZOLINE.= A product of the fractional distillation of American rock oil. If used for burning purposes, care should always be taken to use a sponge lamp, so as to ensure the benzoline vapour (which is extremely inflammable) being well diluted with air when burnt.

=BENZOYL.= C_{7}H_{5}O. The radical of an extensive series of compounds, of which the hydride, C_{7}H_{5}OH (essential oil of bitter almonds), and benzoic acid, HC_{7}H_{5}O_{2} are the most important members.

=Benzoyl, Hy′dride of.= C_{7}H_{5}OH. Syn. ESSENCE OF BITTER ALMONDS, ESSENTIAL OIL OF BITTER ALMONDS, VOLATILE OIL OF BITTER ALMONDS.

Prep. 1. The crude oil of bitter almonds is agitated with a moderately dilute solution of protochloride of iron which has been previously mixed with fresh hydrate of lime in excess, and the whole, after having been placed in a retort connected with a suitable receiver, is subjected to distillation. The oil passes over mixed with water, from which it is easily separated after repose. By subjecting it to a second agitation and distillation with a fresh mixture of the protochloride and hydrate, and, after careful separation from the water which distils over with it, allowing it to remain for some hours in contact with fragments of fused chloride of calcium, to free it from all traces of adhering water, the product will be nearly chemically pure, provided the whole process has been conducted with as little access of air as possible.

2. (Liebig.) Agitate the crude oil of bitter almonds with mercuric oxide in slight excess, and, after a few days’ contact, rectify the oil from a little fresh oxide. The product is quite pure when the process is properly managed. The bicyanide of mercury thus formed may be either employed as such, or reconverted into oxide of mercury and hydrocyanic acid.

Prop., &c. A rather thin, colourless liquid, of great refractive power and characteristic and agreeable odour; soluble in 35 parts of water; miscible in all proportions with alcohol and ether; it boils at 356° Fahr.; on exposure to the air it rapidly absorbs oxygen, and becomes converted into a mass of crystallised benzoic acid; heated with solid hydrate of potassa hydrogen is evolved, and benzoate of potassium formed; with the alkaline bisulphites it forms beautiful crystalline compounds. Its flame, and that of its vapour, is bright but very smoky. Sp. gr. 1·043. It differs from the crude or common oil of bitter almonds chiefly in the absence of hydrocyanic acid, and consequently in not being poisonous. It has hence been proposed as a substitute for the crude oil as a flavouring ingredient in cookery, confectionery, liqueurs, &c.; but is unfitted for the purpose, owing to the rapid deterioration it suffers unless it be kept absolutely excluded from the air.

Formiate of Hydride of Benzoyle. See FORMOBENZOIC ACID.

=BER′BERINE= (-een).[164] C_{20}H_{17}NO_{4}. [Eng., Fr.] Syn. BAR′BERĬNE*, BER′BERITE* (of Thomson); BERBERI′NA, L. A substance discovered by Buchner and Herberger in the root of the common barberry shrub (ber′beris vulga′ris, Linn.); and subsequently, by Bödecker, in calumba-root; and more recently by Mr Perrins, in the calumba-wood (menispermum fenestratum) of Ceylon, which contains a considerable quantity of it.

[Footnote 164: This substance must not be confounded with BEEBERINE or BIBERINE (which see).]

Prep. 1. A soft watery extract of the root, or of the wood, is digested in rectified spirit, with trituration, as long as anything is taken up; the resulting tincture, after repose, is filtered, and the alcohol gradually distilled off until the residuum has the consistence of a thin syrup. The crystals which form as the liquid cools are drained in a funnel, washed with a few drops of ice-cold water, pressed dry in bibulous paper, and then purified by solution and crystallisation, first in rectified spirit, and next in distilled water.

2. By digesting the root, or the wood (coarsely powdered) in rectified spirit, and then proceeding as before.

Prop. Berberine may be classed with the azotised colouring substances; or, from its composition and its possessing feeble basic properties, with the alkaloids. It crystallises in fine needles, or in stellated prisms, which are yellow, odourless, very bitter-tasted, neutral to test-paper, and contain 12 equiv. of water. At 212° Fahr. it acquires a red colour; but recovers its normal yellow on cooling. A much higher temperature decomposes it, yellow vapours being evolved. It is freely soluble in boiling water and in alcohol, from either of which solutions it may be readily obtained in crystals. It requires 500 parts of water at 60° to dissolve it, and very much more at lower temperatures. Its solutions are yellow; that in alcohol appears green by reflected light. The concentrated mineral acids destroy it. Its salts are more or less soluble.

Uses, &c. Chiefly in medicine, in similar cases to those in which the use of calumba-root is indicated. It has been highly recommended in dyspepsia and heartburn, in disturbed action of the liver, and, combined with iron (lactate, phosphate, or hyposulphite), in chlorosis, anæmia, &c. According to M. Altin, it is an effectual remedy for the mucal, colourless diarrhœa, and the derangement of the urinary secretions which commonly follow cholera.——Dose, 3 to 10 gr.; in larger doses it proves laxative. See CALUMBA, &c.

=BERENIZON= (Dr Charles Wortley). A preparation for promoting the growth of the hair. Balsam of Peru 3 grammes, castor oil 3 grammes, tinct. cinchona 4 grammes, spirit 85 grammes, rosewater 40 grammes. (Schädler.)

=BERG′AMOT.= Syn. BERGAMO′TA, L.; BERGAMOTE, Fr.; BERGAMOTTE, Fr., Ger. The bergamot-lemon, or fruit of cit′rus ber′ga′mia; also sometimes, colloquially, the fragrant oil obtained from its rind. See OILS (Volatile).

=BERGBALSAM——MOUNTAIN BALSAM= (of G. Schmidt, Berlin). Recommended for hemorrhoids, want of appetite, headache, constipation, &c. Rhubarb 2 parts, cortex frangulæ 10 parts, milfoil flowers (Achillea millefolium) 1 part, tansy 1 part, crystallised soda 1-1/2 parts; be digested for some hours in warm water, the fluid expressed made up to 26 parts, 30 parts of sugar dissolved in it, and lastly mixed with 17 parts of rectified spirit. (Hager.)

=BER′RY= (bĕr′-re). Syn. BAC′CA (pl. bac′cæ, -sē), L.; BAIE, Fr.; BEERE, Ger. Any small succulent or pulpy fruit containing several naked seeds or granules. In botany, an indehiscent pericarp or seed-vessel, pulpy, many-celled, and many-seeded, the seeds being naked, and for a time connected by a slender membrane, from which they become detached at maturity, and then remain dispersed through the pulp. It is distinguished by its figure, &c., into several varieties.

The leading berries employed in domestic economy and the arts are noticed in their alphabetical places (which see).

=BER′YL= (bĕr-rĭl). Syn. AQUAMARINE′ (rēne); A′QUA-MARI′NA, BERYL′LUS, L.; AIGUE-MARINE, BÉRIL, Fr.; BERYLL, &c., Ger.; SMARAGD, It. A beautiful mineral, which, in its richer forms, is classed with the gems. It is usually of a green colour of various shades, passing into honey-yellow and sky-blue. It is allied in composition to the emerald; but occurs in much larger crystals than that gem, and owes its colour to oxide of iron instead of oxide of chromium. According to Gmelin its composition is——Silica, 68·7%; alumina, 17·6%; glucina, 13·4%; red oxide of iron, ·24%. Other (previous) authorities state that it contains fully 14% of glucina, 2% of lime, and 1% of oxide of iron.

The finest beryls come from Dauria on the frontiers of China, from Siberia, and from Brazil. Some of gigantic size have been found in the U.S., at Ackworth and Grantham, New Hampshire, and at Royalston, Mass. One of these measured 32 × 22 × 15 inches, and weighed 2900 lbs.; another, 12 × 24 × 45 inches, and weighed 1076 lbs.

Apatite or Saxony beryl, chrysolite or pierre d’asperge, coloured fluor-spar, and even natural crystals of phosphate of iron, are often worked up by the lapidaries and passed off as beryls, or false beryls, emeralds, topazes, &c. See GEMS, PASTES, &c.

=BERYL′LA*.= See GLUCINUM, OXIDE OF.

=BERYL′LIUM*.= See GLUCINIUM.

=BETAINE.= C_{5}H_{11}NO_{21}. An alkaloid occurring in the juice of the mangold-wurzel. Scheibler prepares it as follows:——The expressed juice of the mangold-wurzel, strongly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, is mixed with a solution of sodium phosphotungstate;[165] the resulting precipitate containing albumen, colouring matter, woody fibre, and a small quantity of the base, is filtered as quickly as possible, and the filtrate, mixed with a fresh quantity of the precipitant, is left to itself for eight or ten days. It then gradually deposits on the bottom and sides of the vessel a crystalline precipitate, which is rinsed with a little water and treated with milk of lime, whereby insoluble calcium phosphotungstate is produced, while the betaine remains in solution. The filtered liquid freed from lime by carbonic acid, and evaporated, leaves impure betaine, which may be purified by recrystallisation from alcohol, with help of animal charcoal.

[Footnote 165: Prepared by dissolving sodium bitungstate in ordinary phosphoric acid, adding hydrochloric acid, and decanting the clear solution from the precipitate thereby produced.]

A hydrochlorate, a sulphate, an aurochloride, and a platinic chloride of betaine have been prepared.

=BE′TEL= (bē′tl). [Eng., Ger.] Syn. BE′TLE, BE′TEL-TREE, B. PEPPER-TREE; BÉTEL, Fr.; WASSERPFEFFER, &c., Ger.; PI′PER BE′TEL (Linn.), CHAVICA BETLE (Miquel), L. A climbing plant of the nat. ord. Piperaceæ, common in India and the East. Its leaves, which somewhat resemble those of the citron, are bitter, stomachic, tonic, stimulant, and sialogogue.

=Betel.= A common masticatory in the East, where it is chewed in the same way as tobacco is by Europeans and Americans, but much more generally, being regarded by the Malays, Sumatrans, &c., as an absolute necessary of life. It is commonly formed by dividing areca-nuts[166] into four or six equal parts or slices, one of which is rolled up, with a little chunam,[167] in a sirih or leaf of the piper-betel,[168] and then constitutes a ‘quid’ ready for use.

[Footnote 166: In many cases suitable pieces of the whole fruit, including the husk, are used; and in others only the husk (PINANG); there being different strengths and qualities of ‘betel’ employed.]

[Footnote 167: Lime made by burning shells.]

[Footnote 168: In some cases, the leaf of chavica siriboa (Miq.), which possesses similar properties, is employed.]

Prop., &c. Betel, in those accustomed to its use, produces a species of pleasing excitement or intoxication, stimulates the action of the salivary glands, stomach, and kidneys, corrects acidity, diminishes cutaneous perspiration, restrains excessive discharges, increases the power of physical exertion and endurance, moderates the effects of climate, and appears to act as a general tonic on the system. It darkens the teeth, and tinges the saliva as well as the mouth and lips of a bright red colour. In those unhabituated to its use it causes giddiness, astringes and excoriates the mouth and fauces, and temporarily deadens the sense of taste. The Indians conceive that it preserves and fastens the teeth, cleanses and strengthens the gums, sweetens the breath, cools the mouth, assists respiration, and acts as a general aphrodisiac on both sexes. Peron states that he preserved his health during a long and very trying voyage by the habitual use of betel, whilst his companions, who did not use it, died mostly of dysentery.[169]

[Footnote 169: ‘Voyage aux Terres Australes.’]

=BE′TEL-NUT.= Syn. ARE′CA-NUT; NUX ARE′CÆ CAT′ECHU, N.-BE′TEL, &c., L. The seed of the catechu-palm (are′ca, cat′echu, Linn.), divested of the husk or fibrous pericarp. The whole fruit (ARECA-NUT of commerce) is about the size of a small egg; the husked nut is of the size of a large nutmeg. The whole fruit is remarkable for its narcotic or intoxicating power. It has, however, been thought doubtful whether its intoxicating effect is not owing to the piper-leaf in which it is wrapped when eaten (chewed), rather than to any special property of its own. See ARECA CATECHU.

=BETTNASSEN, Remedy for Incontinence of Urine= (prepared by Dr Kirchhoffer, in Kappel by St. Galle). Thirty powders, each consisting of 2 grammes ferri carbonas, 4 grammes ergotæ pulv., ·03 grammes extract. sem. strychni. aquos. The prescription for the embrocation runs——Spirit serpylli 120 grammes, tinct. sem. strychni. 60 grammes, liq. ammon. 15 grammes. (Hager.)

=BET′ULINE= (-ū-lĭn; bē-tū). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. BETULI′NA, L. A crystalline substance obtained from the bark of the white birch (be′tŭla al′ba, Linn.).

=BE′ZOAR= (-zōre). [Eng., L. indecl.; prim. Pers.[170]] Syn. BE′ZOAR-STONE; BEZOÄR′DUS, LA′PIS BEZOÄR′DICUS, &c., L.; BÉZOAR, BÉZOARD, Fr.; BEZOARSTEIN, Ger. The name of preternatural concretions found in the stomach, intestines, &c., of certain animals, and formerly supposed to possess the most extraordinary antidotal power and medicinal virtues. So far, indeed, did this belief extend, that other substances regarded as antidotes were called BEZOAR′DICS†, or otherwise named after them; whilst the adj. BEZOAR′DIC† (bĕz-) and BEZOAR′TICAL† (bézoardique, Fr.; bezoar′dicus, L.), came to be synonymous with antidotal. Certain bezoars were once valued at even ten times their weight in gold. They were not only taken internally, but also worn as amulets. They have, however, long since fallen into disuse in this country.

[Footnote 170: Some authorities derive this word from badzahr or pazahar, Persian compounds implying ‘antidote to poison,’ others, from paseng, or pasahr, the name of the goat in Persia. Mayne’s notation——bez oar, is unusual; and several of his analogues, synonymes, &c., are incorrectly given (? misprinted).]

Among the leading bezoars of old medicine are——

=Bezoar, Ger′man.= Syn. BE′ZOÄR GERMAN′ICUM, B. CAPRI′NUM, L. From the Alpine goat.

=Bezoar, Hu′man.= Syn. B. HOM′INIS, L. Falsely stated to be found occasionally in man.

=Bezoar, Microcos′mic.= Syn. B. MICROCOS′MICUM, L. Human urinary calculi.

=Bezoar, Mon′key.= Syn. B. SIM′Æ, LA′PIS S., L. From certain species of ape or monkey, obtained by giving an emetic.

=Bezoar Occiden′tal.= Syn. WEST′ERN B.; B. OCCIDENTA′LE, L. Found in the fourth stomach of the chamois or wild goat of Peru, &c.; or, according to others, of a species of antelope.

=Bezoar, Orien′tal.= Syn. EAST′ERN B.; B. ORIENTA′LE, LAPIS B. ORIENTA′LIS, L. From the fourth stomach of ca′pra æga′grus, a species of goat inhabiting the mountains of Persia, &c.

=Bezoar, Ox.= Syn. B. BOVI′NUM, L. From the ox, and other bovine animals.

=Bezoar, Por′cupine.= Syn. B. HYS′TRICIS, B. HYS′TRICUS, LA′PIS H., L. PORCI′NUS, &c., L. Said to be found in the gall-bladder of the Indian porcupine. Chiefly from Malacca. Has an intensely bitter taste, which it imparts to water.

=Bezoar, West′ern.= See OCCIDENTAL BEZOAR (antè).

Of the preceding, those from the stomach of ruminants vary in size from that of a bean to that of a hen’s egg, and have a composition and appearance closely imitated by the following formula, the product of which is commonly sold for them:——

=Bezoar, Facti′′tious.= Prep. From pipe-clay, or clay and chalk, equal parts, made into a stiff paste with ox-gall; a little hair or wool being added, and the resulting mixture pressed by the hands into small masses of a flattened spheroidal or egg-like form. These give a yellow tint to paper rubbed with chalk, and a green one to quick-lime, which tests are used for genuine bezoars. Like the latter, they are antacid or absorbent, which is probably the only virtue they possess.

Amongst ‘chemical bezoars’ now obsolete even on the Continent were——

=Bezoar, Ar′gentine†=; B. LUNA′′RE, L. Made by distilling butter of antimony with a solution of nitrate of silver. Once highly esteemed in epilepsy and head diseases.

=Bezoar, Min′eral=; B. MINERA′LE, L. Powder of algaroth deflagrated with nitre in a red-hot crucible, and then well washed with water. Once used as a diaphoretic. Other similar preparations were B. JOVIA′LE (from tin), and B. MARTIALE (from iron).

=Bezoar, Sat′urnine=, B. OF LEAD; B. SATUR′NI, L. Made by distilling a mixture of oxide of lead, butter of antimony, and nitric acid. Once highly esteemed in diseases of the spleen.

=BHAURTA.= In Indian cookery, a dish made of mashed potatoes and onions, strongly spiced with capsicum, and sometimes also with curry-powder, shaped in a mould, and then slightly baked.

=BIBAS′IC.= Syn. BIBAS′ICUS, L.; BIBASIQUE, Fr. In chemistry, having two bases, or two atoms of the base or basic radical in its composition. See ACID, NOMENCLATURE, SALT, &c.

=BIB′ERON= (bĭb′-rōn_g_). [Fr.] A sucking-bottle or ‘artificial mother.’ See BOTTLES.

=BI′BIRINE= (bē′-). See BEBEERINE.

=BIB′ULOUS= (-ū-). Syn. BIB′ULUS, L.; SPONGIEUX, Fr. Absorptive; spongy.

=BICAR′BONATE.= A salt in which only half the hydrogen in (hypothetical) carbonic acid (H_{2}CO_{3}) is replaced by a metal, e.g. bicarbonate of sodium, NaHCO_{3}.

=BICE= (bīse), Syn. BLUE BICE. See BLUE PIGMENTS.

=Bice, Green.= See GREEN PIGMENTS.

=BICKEL′SCHER THEE=, for constipation, flatulence, hemorrhoids, loss of appetite, stomach complaints, and similar diseases. Cassia lignea and anise, of each 3 parts; cumin and fennel seed, each 4 parts; senna leaves, 20 parts; to be bruised together. (Selle and Hager.)

=BI′DERY= (bē′-). Syn. VI′DRY. An alloy of which the chief seat of the manufacture is the city of Bider′, near Hyderabad, India. It was first brought under the notice of the British public at the International Exhibition of 1851, where many articles made of it were greatly admired for the elegance of their forms, and the gracefulness of their engraved and enchased patterns.

Prep. 1. Zinc, 31 parts; copper and lead, of each 2 parts; melted together, with the usual precautions, under a mixture of resin and beeswax, to prevent oxidation.[171]

[Footnote 171: These are very nearly the proportions which Dr Hamilton says he saw used in India.]

2. (Dr Heyne.) Copper, 8 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 1 part; melted together, as before. For use, the resulting alloy is remelted, and to every 3 parts of it 16 parts of zinc are added.

Prop., &c. Colour between that of pewter and zinc; does not corrode by exposure to air or damp; yields little to the hammer, and can only be broken by extreme violence. It possesses a convenient degree of fusibility, above that of zinc and tin, but much lower than that of copper. For the turner it is usually cast in moulds of baked clay; but otherwise in moulds of iron or other hard metal. The beautiful black colour which the finished articles possess is imparted by dipping them into a solution of sal-ammoniac, saltpetre, sea-salt, and blue vitriol. See BRASS, BRONZE, PEWTER, &c.

=BIDET′= (bĭd-ĕt′; -ā′——Fr.). An article of bedroom furniture conveniently formed for laving the lower part of the body. Besides the value of its use as an instrument of personal cleanliness and health, it offers a ready means of medicating the parts, often highly serviceable in piles, prolapsus, affections of the scrotum and prostate gland, strangury, ischuria, suppressed or difficult menstruation, &c. See ABLUTION, BATHS, &c.

=BIELEFELDER TROPFEN——BIELEFIELDER DROPS= (Bansi). A spirituous extract of wormwood, unripe oranges, rhubarb, cascarilla, cloves, and gentian. (Hager.)

=BIEN′NIAL= (bī-ĕn′-y′ăl). Syn. BIEN′NIS, L.; BIENNAL, BISANNUEL, DE DEUX ANS, Fr.; ZWEIJÄHRIG, Ger. Occurring once in, or lasting, two years. In botany and gardening, applied to plants that do not produce flowers and seed until the second year or season of their growth, and which then die; subst., a biennial plant.

The existence of the biennials, like that of the annuals, may be prolonged by art; indeed, many of them, by carefully removing the flowers ere the seed-vessels begin to form, may be made to bloom a second season, and even for several seasons following, like perennials. See ANNUALS, FLOWERS, PLANTS, &c.

=BIFF′IN.= A baked apple, flattened by pressure.

Prep. The apples are placed in a cool oven 6 or 7 times in succession, and flattened each time by gentle pressure, gradually applied, as soon as they are soft enough to bear it; after which they are taken out, and as soon as cold put on clean dishes or glass plates. The sour or tart variety of apples is the best for baking. If the process be well managed, the appearance of the prepared fruit is very rich and the flavour delicious.

=BIL′BERRY.= The whortleberry.

=Bilberry, Bear’s.= Uva ursi.

=BILE.= Syn. BI′LIS,[172] CHO′LE,[173] FEL,[174] L.; BILE, FIEL, GALLE, Fr.; GALLE, &c., Ger. A bitter fluid secreted by the liver, from venous blood; in part flowing from the intestines, and in part regurgitating into the gall-bladder. Its composition is of a very complex character; and its uses in the animal economy appear to be——to separate the chyle from the chyme, to promote the digestion and assimilation of oleaginous substances, and to assist in exciting the peristaltic action of the intestines. The fæces appear to owe their colour chiefly to the presence of bile; as, without it, they possess a dirty pipe-clay colour. Several of the substances which enter into its composition, or which are formed from those which do so, are noticed elsewhere, under their respective names. Its analysis, detection, and uses in the arts are given under GALL.

[Footnote 172: Properly, the ‘gall’ after it leaves the ‘gall-bladder’——a sense retained in its English analogue.]

[Footnote 173: Χολη, Gr.]

[Footnote 174: Strictly, the gall-bladder with the gall.]

=Bile= (of Animals). See GALL.

=BILE, Bil′iousness.= Under these terms are popularly included all those slight affections of the stomach usually accompanied with derangement of the head and bowels, apparently arising from excess of bile. Persons subject to attacks of this description should be particularly careful to avoid excess in both eating and drinking, and should more especially shun those articles of food and those liquors which, from experience, they find are apt to disagree with them. A mutton chop, slightly under-dressed, is an excellent article for the breakfast, or the lunch, of bilious patients; and good beef or mutton, either broiled or roasted, so that the gravy be retained, is better for dinner than many dishes apparently more delicate. These, with fresh game and venison, form a good variety from which to choose a bill of fare. New beer and porter should be particularly avoided, as well as boiled meat, stews, soups, greasy or rich puddings, much butter or fat, and most articles of pastry, as they are very indigestible, and, by overtasking the powers of the stomach, very apt to derange it. Strong cheese,[175] salads (particularly cucumbers), over-ripe or unripe fruit, new bread and rolls, cabbages and green vegetables, and especially peas, beans, nuts, almonds, and the like, are also objectionable for parties with delicate stomachs or a bilious tendency. The bread eaten by such persons should be perfectly free from alum, and preferably prepared with meal retaining the whole of the bran in it; and should be two days, or at the least one day old. The quantity of animal food per day, except for the laborious, should be limited to from 6 or 8 to 12 oz.; and warm slops of all kinds, except moderately strong tea and coffee, should be taken as seldom as possible, and, in general, avoided altogether. Even cocoa and chocolate prove injurious to the delicate and bilious. Out-door exercise and plenty of fresh air are essential to the health of such persons. Those who indulge in them freely are never attacked with affections of this kind, unless it be after gluttonising or heavy drinking. Above all things heavy and late suppers should be abandoned; indeed, the better plan is to take nothing more than a hard biscuit, or dry crust, after tea.

[Footnote 175: Rotten cheese is absolute poison to the bilious.]

In general, attacks of bile may be prevented by the exercise of moderate judgment and temperance in living; and in those hitherto subject to them by the occasional use of an aloetic, mercurial, or saline aperient; and they may be generally rapidly removed by an emetic, followed by a dose of castor oil, Epsom salts, or Seidlitz powder. A tumbler of pure cold water taken on retiring to rest, and another (or even two) on rising in the morning, will often remove both the tendency and the fit, when all the usual remedies have failed. See ABERNETHY MEDICINES, ANTIBILIOUS, DYSPEPSIA, STOMACH AFFECTIONS, &c.

=BILHARZIA HÆMATOBIA.= A fluke-like parasite. It is bisexual. The body of the male is thread-shaped, round, white, and flattened anteriorly. The female is thin and delicate. This creature was discovered in the portal vein and bladder of man by Bilharz, of Cairo, after whom it was named. It is especially prevalent in those who dwell by the banks of the Nile, and is also very frequently met with amongst the inhabitants of the Cape of Good Hope. It is the cause of very serious disturbance in the human economy, and not infrequently of death.

The main symptoms of the disease this dangerous parasite sets up are those which point to derangement of the urinary organs; but its effects are not confined to these, since there seems little room to doubt that it is the chief cause of the dysentery so prevalent in Egypt, the eggs of the diatoma being found deposited within the intestinal vessels, or beneath the exudations of the swollen mucous membrane. Dr Harley has found the ova in the urine of persons affected with hæmaturia at the Cape of Good Hope. When death ensues from the presence of this parasite the post-mortem appearances are various. In the bowels, congestion, deposits upon the mucous membrane, and extensive ulcerations, degeneration and atrophy of the kidneys, dependent upon an infiltrated state of the ureters, and blocking of the portal vein, due to the presence of myriads of the parasites, are some of the most important pathological changes.

=BIL′IARY AFFECTIONS= (-yăr-e). See BILE (antè), CALCULI, JAUNDICE, LIVER, &c.

=BI′LINE= (-lĭn). Syn. BILI′NA, L. This name has been loosely applied to two substances:——1. Bile, or pure bile, freed from the mucus of the gall-bladder, and gently evaporated to dryness. A gummy pale yellow mass, white when powdered:——2. Tauro-cholalic or choleic acid. See GALL, &c.

=BIL′IOUS= (-yŭs). Syn. BILIO′SUS, L.; BILIEUX, Fr.; GALLIG, GALLICHT, &c., Ger. Pertaining to, caused by, full of, or having excess of bile. See BILE, BILIOUSNESS.

=BILIPH′EINE= (-e-ĭn). Cholepyrrhine.

=BILIV′ERDINE= (-dĭn). A green colouring matter, identical with chlorophyll, found in bile, and in the green dejections of children.

=BILL OF FARE.= In cookery, domestic economy, &c., a list of things ready dressed or prepared for the table (CARTE, C. D’UN RESTAURANT, MENU, &c., Fr.); also a list of articles of food in season. For Tables of the latter, see FOOD.

=BI′NARY.= Syn. BINA′′RIUS, L.; BINAIRE, Fr. Consisting of two parts. In chemistry, compounded of two elements, or of two bodies performing the function of elements.

BINOC′ULAR (-ū-). Having two eyes. In optics, of or with two eyes, as binoc′ular vĭ′′sion; or formed with two eye-pieces or tubes, so as to be used with two eyes, as a b. mi′croscope, b. tel′escope, &c.

=BIRCH.= Syn. BE′TULA, L.; BOULEAU, Fr.; BIRKE, Ger. The common name of trees of the genus be′tula; appr., b. al′ba (Linn.), or white birch; also its wood. See BETULINE, and below.

BIRCH, BLACK. Syn. CHER′RY B., SWEET B., MOUNT′AIN MAHOG′ANY; BETULEN′TA, L. A forest tree of N. America. Wood used for cabinet work; bark yields a volatile oil similar in odour and taste to that of gualtheria; juice obtained by tapping, saccharine, and yields BIRCH-SUGAR.

=Birch, White.= Syn. BIRCH, (or) COMMON B.; BE′TULA, L. A tree found in the woods of England. Wood neither very hard nor durable; leaves formerly used in itch and dropsy; bark febrifuge, yields a pyroligneous oil by distillation. See OILS (and above).

BIRD[176] [Eng., Sax.] Syn. A′VIS, L.; OISEAU, Fr.; VOGEL, Ger. Any fowl or animal of the feathered kind. In fashionable and gourmandic cant, appr. a partridge. See BIRDS (below).

[Footnote 176: Properly, a ‘chicken’ or ‘young flying animal,’——It is remarkable, as observed by Webster, that a nation should lay aside the proper generic name of flying animals——‘fowl’ (fugel, fugl, Sax.; vogel, Ger., Dut.; fugl, Dan.; fogel, Sw.; from the root of the Lat., fugio, fugo), and substitute the name of the young of those animals as the generic term.]

=BIRD′LIME.= Syn. VIS′CUS, L.; GLU, Fr.; VOGELLEIM, Ger. Prep. The middle bark of the holly (gathered in June or July) is boiled for 6 to 8 hours in water, or until it becomes quite soft and tender; the water is then drained off, and it is placed in a heap, in a pit underground (commonly on layers of fern), and covered with stones. Here it is left to ferment for 2 or 3 weeks, and watered, if necessary, until it assumes a mucilaginous state. It is next pounded in a mortar until reduced to a uniform mass, which is then well kneaded with the hands in running water, until all the refuse matter is worked out. It is, lastly, placed in an earthen vessel, and covered with a little water; in which state it may be preserved from season to season. In about a week it is fit for use.

Prop. Greenish coloured: very gluey, stringy, and tenacious; when air-dried, brittle and pulverisable, but capable of gradually assuming its previous viscosity when moistened.

Uses. To cover twigs to catch birds, and other small animals. It is said to be discutient, but is now never employed in medicine.

Obs. Birdlime may also be made from mistletoe berries, the young shoots of the elder, the bark of the wayfaring-tree, and some other vegetables, by a similar process to that above described. Should any of it stick to the hands it may be removed by means of a little oil of turpentine.

A kind of factitious birdlime is made by boiling linseed oil either with, or without, a little yellow resin, until it forms a viscid, stringy paste when cold. This is chiefly used, spread on paper or cloth, to catch insects. See FLY-PAPERS, &c.

=BIRDS.= Syn. A′VES, L. Birds, besides their value as food, play an important part in the economy of organic nature, and particularly in that of the vegetable kingdom. They are the best friends of the agriculturist and the gardener; and their presence, in numbers, appears essential to keep down the innumerable races of insects that prey upon our cereals, fruits, and culinary vegetables. M. Florent Prevost, who has for fifty years presided over the Natural History Museum of Paris, and who has, like the ancient Roman augurs, examined the entrails and stomach of fowls with scientific curiosity, avers, as the result of his long experience, that birds, of whatever sort, are an unmitigated blessing to the farmer, and that the detritus and organic particles found by inspection of them in whole hecatombs, which, by the assistance of the Royal Forest Rangers, he has sacrificed on the altar of utility, show an immense preponderance of insect corpuscula in their digestive organs, whilst the traces of cereal or other valuable products are infinitesimal in comparison. It is found that even sparrows, rooks, and owls——three of the feathered tribe the most persecuted by the farmer——are, in reality, the faithful and vigilant conservators of his fruits and crops. In one of the smaller states of Germany, where, owing to public rewards being given to their destroyers, the whole race of sparrows were exterminated, the crops failed to such an alarming extent that it became necessary to offer large premiums for the reintroduction of these useful birds from other parts. In some of the agricultural districts of France, where the destruction of small birds has been carried on with relentless activity for years, insects have so prodigiously multiplied as to attack everything green around them. Even the forest trees are, in many cases, denuded of leaves by them, and are rapidly perishing. Venomous species of caterpillars, previously scarcely known except to entomologists, have now become common; and cases of children losing their lives from attacks of them whilst birdnesting have been published in newspapers.[177] In our own country the extension of sparrow-clubs——associations disgraceful to the boasted intelligence of the nineteenth century——threatens similar results. Already the gardener finds his fruit-crops lessening year by year; and that many of them, particularly of the smaller and sweeter fruits, have become so precarious, that they now scarcely pay for cultivation. In our own neighbourhood, where small birds have for some years been destroyed by bushels at a time, it is almost impossible to raise a currant, gooseberry, cherry, or plum; whilst seedling flowers and culinary vegetables often entirely disappear on the first night after being planted, or are so completely deprived of the succulent portion of their leaves and stems, that the remaining skeleton of network in a few days withers and dies. But this is not all——the columns of our diurnals bring us continual reports of failing grain-crops in the neighbourhoods in which these bird-clubs have existed for any length of time, and that even on land previously remarkable for its fertility.[178] Did this loss fall only on the benighted beings who so wilfully cast back the blessings of an all-wise protecting Providence, it would be a just retribution; but, unfortunately, it affects the whole nation, and threatens, ere long, unless arrested by legislation, to prove a national calamity. The only apparent remedy for the evil, at present, is the diffusion of information tending to show that the farmer and the gardener, in destroying small birds, destroy their best friends.

[Footnote 177: A striking fatal case of this description is given in the ‘Times’ of June 12, 1862.]

[Footnote 178: See the ‘Times’ and other leading ‘journals’ for 1862.]

[For further information respecting birds, see AVES, BIRD (antè), GAME, GERMAN PASTE, NESTS (Edible), POULTRY, PUTREFACTION, TAXIDERMY, TRUSSING, &c.]

=BIRKENBALSAM——BIRCH BALSAM= (Dr Friedreich Lengiel). A cosmetic against wrinkles, small-pock marks, freckles, mole spots, red noses, acne, &c. 5 grammes water glass, 2 grammes potash, 1 gramme soap, 5 grammes gum arabic, 10 grammes glycerin, 400 grammes water. (Schädler.)

=BIS′COTIN.= [Fr.] A small biscuit. In cookery, &c., a species of confection made of eggs, flour, marmalade, and sugar, variously compounded and flavoured according to the taste of the operator.

=BIS′CUIT= (-kĭt). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. BUCCELLA′TUM, PA′NIS BIS COC′TUS, L.; SWIEBACK, Ger.; BISCOTTO, It.; BIZCOCHO, Sp. Literally, ‘twice-baked,’ appr., a well-known variety of hard, dry, unleavened bread, made in thin flat pieces. Those prepared for seamen (SEA′-BISCUITS, CAP′TAIN’S B.[179]) are composed of flour and water only. When made of fine flour and a few caraway seeds are added, they are commonly called AB′ERNE′THY BISCUITS. Fancy biscuits generally contain a little sugar and butter, to which almonds, caraways, mace, ginger, lemon, and other articles, technically called ‘flavourings,’ are frequently added.

[Footnote 179: A captain’s biscuit differs from a common ‘sea biscuit’ in being made of finer flour.]

Prep. On the small scale, biscuits are made by forming the flour and water into a dough by the common process of hand-kneading, occasionally assisted with a lever, as in making ordinary bread. The dough is then rolled into a sheet, and cut into pieces of the desired size and form. These, after being stamped, are exposed to the heat of a moderately quick oven, when a few minutes (12 to 18, according to their size) are sufficient to bake them.

On the large scale, the whole manual process, from preparing the dough to the point at which the newly-made biscuits are ready for baking is now generally performed by machinery. The articles so prepared are commonly known in trade as ‘MACHINE-MADE BISCUITS,’ and are not only much cheaper, but of fully equal quality to those ‘made by hand.’ In the bakehouses of her Majesty’s Victualling Yards at Deptford, Gosport, and Plymouth, the ingenious machinery invented by Mr T. T. Grant is employed. These establishments are said to be capable of producing annually above 8000 tons of sea-biscuits, at a saving of upwards of 12,000_l._ a year, from the cost that would have been incurred for the purpose on the old system. Under the latter it is stated that wages, and wear and tear of utensils, cost about 1_s._ 6_d._ per cwt. of biscuit; whilst under the new system the cost is only 5_d._

The allowance of biscuit to each seaman in the royal navy is 1 lb. per day; or, on the average, six biscuits.

=Biscuits Depuratifs= (Olivier) are made with meal, milk, and sugar. Each biscuit contains 1 centigramme corrosive sublimate. (Foy.)

=Biscuits, Fancy.= The varieties of these are almost innumerable. In a printed list now before us we observe the names of upwards of one hundred different kinds. These are produced by varying the number and proportions, of the ingredients used in their composition, and the form and size in which they are turned out of hand. They are further modified by the relative heat of the oven, as well as the length of time they are allowed to remain in it. It would, therefore, be waste of space to give particular directions for the preparation of each. The proportion of butter and sugar, or either of them, may be from 1 oz. and upwards, to flour, 1 lb.; according to the degree of richness desired. In a few cases milk, or eggs, or both, are introduced. The ‘flavourings’ embrace a wide range of substances——bitter almonds, caraways, cassia, cinnamon, ginger, mace, nutmeg, lemon, orange-peel, orange-flower water, essence of peach kernels, vanilla, &c., &c.; many of which give their name to the biscuit.——AR′ROW-ROOT BISCUITS are usually made of equal parts of arrow-root and flour; MEAT′-BISCUITS, from about 1 part of lean meat (minced small and pulped) beaten to a dough with about 2 parts of flour, and a little seasoning, no water being added;[180] SODA BISCUITS, by adding 1 to 2 dr. of carbonate of soda to each lb. of flour. In most other cases, the mere inspection of the biscuit will convey to the experienced biscuit-baker and cook sufficient information to enable him to produce an exactly similar one, or at least a very close imitation. The richest kind of SPONGE-BISCUITS, as we are informed, are made as follows:——Add the whites and yelks of 12 eggs, previously well beaten, to 1-1/2 lb. of finely powdered sugar, and whisk it until it rises in bubbles, then add 1 lb. of the finest pastry-flour, and the grated rind of 2 lemons. Put it into ‘shapes,’ sift a little sugar over them, and bake them in buttered tin moulds, in a moderately quick oven, for nearly half an hour.[181]

[Footnote 180: For the MEAT-BISCUITS used in the navy, and by travellers, see MEAT.]

[Footnote 181: A few fancy biscuits will be found noticed in their alphabetical places. See CRACKNELS, MACAROONS, &c.]

=Biscuits Purgatifs= (Caroz). Each biscuit contains 2 decigrammes scammony. (Reveil.)

=Biscuits Purgatifs= (Sulot). Each biscuit contains 6 decigrammes scammony.

=Biscuits Purgatifs et Vermifuges= (Ferd. Gräf, Aschbach) contain 1/4 gramme resina scammonii in each.

=Biscuits Purgatifs et Vermifuges au Calomel= (Sulot). There are 3 decigrammes of calomel in each. (Reveil.)

=Biscuits Vermifuges à la Santonine= (Sulot.) Each biscuit contains 5 centigrammes of san tonin. (Reveil.)

BISCUITS, DEV′ILED, in cookery, are captain’s biscuits (or any similar kind) buttered on both sides, peppered well, and then covered on one side with a slice of good cheese formed into a paste with made mustard; the whole being seasoned with a little cayenne pepper is, lastly, grilled. Chopped anchovies, or essence of anchovies, is a good addition.

=BISMUTH.= Bi. BISMUTH, ETAIN DE GLACE, Fr.; BISMUTH, WISMUTH, W.-METALL, Ger. One of the metals.

[Footnote 182: Several of these tubes are usually set side by side together.]

[Footnote 183: Usually one to each eliquation-tube.]

Sources. Bismuth occurs in the mineral kingdom in the metallic state (NA′TIVE BISMUTH), and in combination with sulphur (BIS′MŬTHĬNE), and with oxygen (B. O′CHRE, &c.). That of commerce is mostly imported from Saxony, where it is chiefly obtained from native bismuth by the simple process of eliquation. The ore, sorted by hand from the gangue, and broken into pieces of about the size of nuts, is introduced into the ignited iron pipes of the furnace (see engr.) until these latter are filled to about one half their diameter and to three fourths of their length. From these the liquefied metal is allowed to flow into iron pans containing some coal-dust, and from these into a trough of water, in which it is granulated and cooled. It is subsequently remelted and cast into moulds so as to form ‘bars’ varying in weight from 25 to 56 lbs. each. In this state it usually contains a small admixture of arsenic, iron, lead, and sulphur; from the first of which it may be freed by exposure for some time, under charcoal, at a dull red heat. It is best obtained in a pure condition by heating to redness, in a covered crucible, a mixture of oxide, or subnitrate of bismuth, with half its weight of charcoal.

Prop. Colour greyish-white with a reddish tint; crystalline; very brittle (may be powdered); melts at about 480° Fahr., and does not re-solidify until cooled to 6 or 7° below this point; it volatilises at a strong heat, and, in close vessels, the fumes condense unchanged in crystalline laminæ; little acted on by the air, but when exposed to it at a high temperature burns with a faint blue flame, emitting yellow fumes which condense into a yellow pulverulent oxide; when slowly cooled, in large masses, it forms large cubic crystals or octahedrons of great beauty; nitric acid, somewhat dilute, dissolves it freely. It is highly diamagnetic. Sp. gr. 9·8 to 9·83, which, by careful hammering, may be increased to 9·8827. A bar of bismuth, when heated from 32° to 212°, expands exactly 1/710 in length.

Uses, &c. Bismuth enters into the composition of STEREOTYPE-METAL, SOLDER, PEWTER, FUSIBLE METALS, and several other alloys. Added to other metals it renders them more fusible. An alloy of tin, nickel, bismuth, and silver is said to hinder iron from rusting. A mixture of bismuth, lead, and tin is much employed for taking impressions from dies, forming moulds, and for other purposes.

Bismuth salts are usually insoluble, or decomposed by any quantity of water into free acid and a basic salt. They are nearly all colourless, and, except the chloride, more volatile. They are easily recognised by the following reactions:——

Their saturated or concentrated solutions giving a white precipitate on dilution with water:——Sulphuretted hydrogen blackens them, or gives a black precipitate:——The nitric solution is unaffected by the addition of sulphuric acid:——Chromate of potassium gives a yellow precipitate, which differs from that from lead, by being soluble in nitric acid, and insoluble in potassa.

Von Kobbell takes a mixture of potassium iodide and flowers of sulphur in equal proportions, and heats the whole on charcoal before the blowpipe; the production of bright scarlet, very volatile bismuth iodide ensues, even when only traces of bismuth are present.

For a method of volumetrically estimating bismuth, consult a paper by Mr Pattison Muir, in the ‘Journal of the Chemical Society,’ April, 1876.

=Bismuth, Car′bonate.= (Ph. B.) Mix nitric acid, four fluid ounces, with three fluid ounces of distilled water, and add in successive portions purified bismuth, in small pieces, two ounces. When effervescence has ceased apply for ten minutes a heat approaching ebullition; then decant the solution from any insoluble matter. Evaporate to two fluid ounces, and add this in small quantities at a time to a cold filtered solution of six ounces of carbonate of ammonia, in two pints of distilled water, constantly stirring. Collect precipitate on a calico filter; wash till washings pass tasteless. Remove water by slight pressure of the hands, and dry at a heat not exceeding 150°.——Dose, 5 to 20 grains.

=Bismuth, Chlorides of:=

=Basic Chlo′′ride.= Bi_{3}Cl_{8}. Syn. SUBCHLO′′RIDE OF BISMUTH, PEARL′-POWDER; BISMU′THI SUBCHLORI′DUM, L. Prep. A dilute solution of hydrochloric acid is dropped into another of bismuth (prepared by dissolving that metal in nitric acid); and the resulting precipitate, after being well washed in pure water, is dried in the shade.——Prop., Uses, &c. Similar to those of the subnitrate.

=Chlo′′ride.= BiCl_{3}. Syn. TERCHLO′′RIDE OF BISMUTH. Prep. A mixture of corrosive sublimate, 2 parts; bismuth, 1 part; (both in powder) is exposed to heat until all the ‘mercury’ present is expelled, after which it is at once put into bottles. A greyish-white, granular substance.

=Bismuth, Nitrates of=:

=Basic, Nitrate.= BiONO_{3}. Syn. PEARL-WHITE, BISMUTH SUBNITRATE; BISMUTHI SUBNITRAS, B. BISMUTHI NITRAS, L.; BLANC DE FARD, B. D’ESPAGNE*, &c., Fr.; PERLWEISS, SCHMINKWEISS, &c., Ger. Prep. Bismuth, 1 oz.; nitric acid, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; distilled water, 3 pints; mix 1 fl. oz. of the water with the acid, and dissolve the bismuth in the mixture; throw the solution into the remainder of the water, and, after repose, pour off the supernatant liquor, drain the powder that has subsided on a linen cloth, wash it with distilled water, and dry it with a gentle heat.

Prop. A pearly white, inodorous powder, insoluble in water, but freely soluble in nitric acid; long exposure to a strong light turns it greyish. When prepared from a neutral solution, it consists of very fine microscopic crystalline laminæ; but when prepared from acid solutions, with less water, the crystals are acicular, and more silky and lustrous. When moistened it exhibits an acid reaction with litmus paper.

Pois., &c. Like the other salts of bismuth, it causes vomiting, purging, giddiness, cramp, insensibility, &c. No certain antidote is known. The treatment may consist of an emetic, followed by the copious use of emollient drinks, as weak broth, barley water, milk and water, &c.; and subsequently, when necessary to prevent inflammation, by a low diet and aperients.

Uses, &c. In medicine, as a sedative, an astringent, or tonic, and an antispasmodic, in chronic affections of the stomach unaccompanied by organic disease of that organ, and apparently of a nervous character; particularly in gastrodynia, troublesome sickness and vomiting, pyrosis or waterbrash, and generally in gastro-intestinal affections attended with fluxes; also in intermittent fever, spasmodic asthma, &c.——Dose, 5 to 10, or even 20 gr.

Externally, made into an ointment with 4 parts of lard, it has long been employed in certain chronic skin diseases. Under the name of PEARL-WHITE it is commonly used by ladies as a cosmetic; but it is stated that it injures the skin, producing, after a time, paralysis of its minute vessels, rendering it yellow and leather-like——an effect which, unfortunately, it is usually attempted to conceal by its freer and more frequent application. In very large doses it is poisonous.

Both the basic nitrate and the basic chloride of bismuth pass under the names of PEARL-WHITE and PEARL-POWDER, owing to their extreme whiteness and beauty. That of the druggists, however, is usually the former; that of the perfumers usually the latter, but not unfrequently both.

=Bismuth Powder=, for beautifying the skin and removing freckles. (From North America.) Consists of calcium carbonate, with much clay, and is free from injurious metals. (Chandler.)

=Bismuth, Purified.= (Ph. Br.) Put bismuth, 10 ounces, and 1 ounce of powdered nitrate of potash, into a crucible, and heat them until both are fused. Continue the heat, constantly stirring, for fifteen minutes, or till the salt has solidified into a slag above the metal. Remove the salt, add nitrate of potash, 1 ounce, to bismuth in crucible, and repeat the process. Pour the fused bismuth into a suitable mould, and let it cool.

=Nitrate.= Bi(NO_{3})_{3}. Syn. NEUTRAL NITRATE, TERNITRATE. Purified bismuth (in small fragments), 2 oz.; nitric acid, 6 oz.; dissolve with heat, adding more acid, if necessary, to effect entire solution of the metal; to the resulting solution add half its volume of distilled water, filter through powdered glass, and evaporate until crystals form.

Use. Chiefly in chemistry, and as a source of the pure oxide and the subnitrate.

=Bismuth Oxides=:——

=Bismuthous Oxide.= Bi_{2}O_{3}. Syn. TEROXIDE OF BISMUTH, PROTOXIDE OF BISMUTH. From either the neutral or the basic nitrate, by exposure, in a crucible, to gentle ignition. Pure. A straw-yellow powder, of rather difficult solubility.

HY′DRATED:——By gradually dropping an acid solution of bismuthous nitrate into a concentrated solution of potassium hydrate perfectly free from carbonic acid, and washing and drying the resulting precipitate. Pure. A rich-looking white powder.

Prop., &c. Fuses at a high temperature, and then acts as a powerful flux on siliceous matter without itself imparting colour, a property of which the enameller and gilder has long availed himself. Like the basic nitrate, it has been used as an antispasmodic and as a cosmetic. Sp. gr. 8·211 to 8·355.

=Bismuthic Oxide.= Bi_{2}O_{5}. Syn. BISMUTHIC ANHYDRIDE, BISMUTHIC ACID. Suspend teroxide of bismuth in a strong solution of potassa, and pass chlorine through the mixture until decomposition is complete; treat the powder with dilute nitric acid (to remove any undecomposed teroxide), after which wash it in cold water, and dry it.

Prop., &c. A reddish powder, soluble in water. Its salts, of which little are known, are called BIS′MUTHATES. When heated it loses oxygen, and a bismuthate of bismuth is formed.

=Bismuthous Sulphide.= Bi_{2}S_{3}. This compound occurs native (BIS′MŬTHĬNE), and may be easily prepared artificially by either fusing its elements together, or by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of nitrate of bismuth.

=Bismuthous Valerianate.= Syn. BISMU′THI VALERIA′NAS, L. Prep. An acid solution of nitrate of bismuth is decomposed with a solution of valerianate of soda in water containing a little free valerianic acid; the precipitate is carefully washed in distilled water, and dried in the shade. Recommended as superior to the subnitrate in some forms of gastrodynia, dyspepsia, intermittents, &c.——Dose, 2 to 6 gr., or more.

=BIS′TRE= (-ter). [Eng., Fr.] Syn. BISTER, Ger. Prep. 1. The most compact, best coloured, and well-burnt portions of the soot of beechwood, or of peat,[184] are selected, reduced to powder and sifted through a very fine lawn sieve. It is then digested in clear warm water for several hours, with frequent stirring; after which it is allowed to settle, when the liquid portion is decanted from the sediment. This process is repeated a second, and even a third time. The paste is next poured into a tall narrow vessel, which is then filled with pure cold water, and well agitated. The grosser parts only are now allowed to subside,[185] and the supernatant liquor, containing the finer portion of the BISTRE in suspension, is poured off into another vessel, where it is left to deposit its contents. The deposit is next collected, and carefully dried and powdered; or it is only partially dried, and at once made into cakes with gum-water or isinglass-size, and then allowed to dry and harden for sale.

[Footnote 184: The first is usually employed in England.]

[Footnote 185: Two or three minutes suffice for this purpose.]

2. (Dr MacCulloch.) The tar-like liquid obtained from the dry distillation of wood is again carefully distilled until all volatile matter has passed over, and a brittle, pitch-like residuum is obtained, which is either brown or black according to the time and temperature employed; after which the heat is still further prolonged, but with increased care, until the brittle substance becomes pulverulent and carbonaceous. It is then ground and elutriated with pure cold water, as before.

Uses, &c. As a water colour to tint drawings, in the same way as Indian ink, to which it is esteemed superior when the subjects are intended to be afterwards tinted with other colours. It occupies the same place among water colours that brown-pink does in oil.

According to Dr MacCulloch, bistre from wood-tar, when carefully prepared, has great depth and beauty of colour, with all the fine properties of sepia; but that if the whole of the oils and acids have not been removed by the process, it is apt to collect in little flocks which interfere with its use.

=BITES= and =STINGS=. Syn. MOR′SŪS (-SŪS, sing.) ET IC′TŪS (-TŬS, s.), L. The treatment of the bites of non-venomous and non-rabid animals is the same as that of ordinary lacerated or punctured wounds, as the case may be; that of the bites and stings of venomous and rabid animals, serpents, insects, &c., often require, in addition, the use of special antidotes to destroy the virus or to prevent its absorption, or to neutralise its effects when absorbed and to promote its elimination from the system.

The bites and stings of ANTS, BEES, WASPS, HORNETS, and similar insects common to this climate may be treated by washing the part with spirit of hartshorn or dilute liquor of ammonia or eau de luce, or a weak solution of chloride of lime. Should considerable inflammation ensue, and the part become much swollen, a thing that rarely occurs, leeches may be applied, and a cooling purgative given. The stings of venomous reptiles may be similarly treated, excepting that the strength of the solutions of ammonia, chloride of lime, &c., should be stronger than in the former case, so as to produce some pain and smarting. In cases where the venom is of a very poisonous description, the wound should be first well washed with water of ammonia, and afterwards seared with lunar caustic in every part, including the interior and deep-seated portions. In extreme cases the surface of the wound, both internal and external, may be removed with the knife; or, in the case of a small joint, as a finger, the injured portion may be amputated. Prior to the use of the washes or caustic, dry-cupping or suction with the mouth may be had recourse to with great advantage. A ligature placed on the limb, above the wound, as soon as possible after the accident, will impede the absorption of the poison whilst the other treatment is in progress. A similar plan may be followed after the bite of a dog supposed to be mad. It has, indeed, been lately asserted by one of our most celebrated veterinarians that he and his colleagues have been repeatedly bitten by dogs that have afterwards been proved to be mad, but from having fearlessly applied caustic to the parts they have escaped uninjured.

The poison inserted by the stings and bites of several venomous reptiles is so rapidly absorbed, and of so fatal a description, as frequently to occasion death within a very short space of time, and before any remedy or antidote, under ordinary circumstances, can be applied. But even in these extreme cases it is probable that absorption, and consequently the rapidity of the action of the poison, might be considerably impeded or lessened by the immediate application of a ligature above the part, as before described, the patient accompanying the treatment by swallowing a large quantity of liquid, by which partial plethora would be produced, and the functions of the absorbents for a time nearly-suspended. A few minutes thus gained would permit of the application of appropriate antidotes, by which the poison might be neutralised before it would become necessary to remove the ligature, whilst the kidneys would be in full action. Unfortunately, these wounds are generally inflicted in parts of the world where precautionary measures are seldom thought of, and generally at times when people are least prepared to meet them, as well as so suddenly and unexpectedly as to stagger even those observers who may be in no absolute danger themselves. Such is the bite of the East Indian CO′BRA DI CAPEL′LO, against which two Asiatic (arsenical) pills are often prescribed by the Hindoos; but which are generally scarcely swallowed before the poison of the serpent has rendered the patient a stiffened corpse. Eau de luce, a favorite remedy in India, when liberally employed both internally and externally, is said to prove sometimes more successful. The bite of the PUFF-ADDER is of a similar, or even a more fatal description than that of the cobra. When the venom of any of these animals or of a rabid dog is once fully absorbed into the system, there appears to be no treatment that can save the patient. A bottle of Madeira wine or 1/2 a pint of brandy or rum diluted with twice its weight of water, drank in two doses about 3 or 4 minutes apart, is a popular remedy in India in such cases. Its effect is to impede absorption.

The secret antidote so long successfully employed by Mr Underwood, the ‘snake-king’ of Australia, for the bites of the WHIP-SNAKE and the DIAMOND-SNAKE, two of the most venomous of that region, is now positively asserted to be the common male fern (polypo′dium fi′lix mas, Linn.). Of the powdered root, or preferably, of the green leaves of this plant nearest the root, he prepares a sort of decoction, or broth, which he takes or administers liberally. A more convenient preparation would, perhaps, be a tincture prepared by digesting 1 oz. of the dried, or 3 oz. of the fresh leaves (bruised), in a pint of proof spirit or strong brandy or rum for a fortnight; as in this state it could be kept for any length of time, if well corked, without deterioration.

For HORSES AND CATTLE. Mr Finlay Dun recommends ammonia solution; solution of caustic potash; carbolic acid; prussic acid and chloroform.

[See HYDROPHOBIA, POISONS, SNAKE-BITES, STINGS, VENOM, WOUNDS, &c.[186]]

[Footnote 186: Notices of several chemical and neurotic antidotes, of great promise, will also be found in different parts of this volume. The names of the respective animals may likewise be referred to.]

=BITT′ER.= [Eng., Ger.] Syn. AMA′′RUS, L.; AMER, Fr. Tasting like wormwood, quassia, or other similar vegetables; subst., a bitter plant, bark, or root (= AMA′′RUM, L.; see below).

=Bitter App′le‡.= Colocynth.

=Bitter Cup.= A cup or tumbler formed by the turner out of quassia wood. Liquor, by standing in it a short time, becomes bitter and stomachic. They are now common in the shops.

=Bitter Earth*.= Magnesia.

=Bitter Herbs.= See BITTERS (infrà) and SPECIES (Bitter).

=Bitter Salt†=, Bitter Pur′′ging-salt. Sulphate of magnesia.

=Bitt′er-sweet.= Woody nightshade.

=Bitt′er-wort‡= (-wŭrt). Gentian.

=BITT′ERN.= The ‘mother-water’ or ‘bitter liquor’ of salt-works from which the chloride of sodium (sea-salt) has been separated by crystallisation.

=Bittern.= An intoxicating poisonous mixture sold by the brewers’ druggists, composed of 1 part each of extract of quassia and powdered sulphate of iron, with 2 parts of extract of cocculus indicus, 4 parts of Spanish liquorice, and about 8 parts of treacle; the liquorice being first boiled with a little water until dissolved, and the solution evaporated to a proper consistence before adding the other ingredients. Used by fraudulent brewers and publicans to impart a false bitter and apparent strength to their liquors.

=BITT′ERS= (-ĕrz). Syn. AMA′′RA, &c., L. Vegetable bitters are commonly regarded as tonic and stomachic, and to improve the appetite when taken occasionally and in moderation. The best time is early in the morning, or half an hour or an hour before a meal. An excessive, or a too prolonged use of them, tends to weaken the stomach, and to induce nervousness. They should not be taken for a longer period than about 8 or 10 days at a time, allowing a similar period to elapse before again having recourse to them.

Among the most useful and generally employed bitters are——calumba, cascarilla, chamomiles, gentian, hops, orange peel, quassia, and wormwood.

=Bitters.= In the liquor-trade, a compound prepared by steeping vegetable bitters, and some aromatics as flavouring, in weak spirit, for some 8 or 10 days; a little sugar or syrup being subsequently added to the strained or decanted tincture. In that of the taverns and gin-shops the menstruum is usually gin, or plain spirit reduced to a corresponding strength. BRAN′DY-BITTERS and WINE′-BITTERS are prepared in a similar way with common British brandy, or some cheap white wine (Cape or raisin), as the case may be. Each maker has usually his own formulæ, which he modifies to suit the price and the palate of his customer.——This class of liquors has been justly charged with being the fertile cause of habitual intemperance, of disease, and even of death! Their occasional use as tonics or stomachics is also objectionable, owing to the trash, and even deleterious substances, which so frequently enter into their composition. See LIQUEURS.

=BITU′MEN.= [Eng., L.] Syn. BITUME, Fr.; ERDPECH, ERDTHEER, &c., Ger. A term of a very comprehensive character, and, in general, very loosely applied, including a variety of inflammable mineral substances, consisting of varying proportions of hydrocarbons, having a strong smell and differing in consistence, all the varieties being found in the earth, of which asphaltum, naphtha, and petroleum may be mentioned as examples.

Asphalt is very extensively disseminated throughout Europe, Asia, and America. Considerable quantities are exported from the West Indian Islands, and from the Dead Sea, in Judæa; hence its commercial name, ‘Jewish bitumen,’ or ‘Jew’s pitch.’ The different kinds vary greatly in quality, according to the amount of earthy matter and other impurities contained in them; they may all, however, be reduced to a state of equal purity by boiling or macerating them in hot water, by which means the earthy and siliceous matters are more or less completely removed. These latter fall to the bottom of the vessel, and the bitumen rises to the surface, or forms clots on the sides of the boiler, when it is skimmed off, and thrown into a large cooler, where more water separates. At the Seyssel and Bechelbronn bitumen works the bitumen so obtained is thrown into large cauldrons and boiled for some time, by which means the volatile products and water accompanying it are driven off, and the remaining sand and impurities fall to the bottom of the cauldron, leaving the purified asphalt in the form of a thick fatty pitch, in which state it comes into the market or is applied to various purposes. In the following table we give the composition of a few bitumens:

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent.

Viscous bitumen of Bechelbronn 88·0 12·0 —— ——

Virgin bitumen of Bechelbronn 88·0 11·0 —— 1·0

Liquid bitumen from Hatten, Lower Rhine 88·0 11·6 —— 0·4 |_______________| Solid bitumen of Coxatambo, | near Cuença, in Peru 88·7 9·7 1·6

Annexed is a table of the analysis of several asphalts, centesimally represented:——

Bitumen of Bitumen of Bitumen of Pont de Chateau, Bitumen of Monastier, Bastennes. Auvergne. Abruzzi. Haute Loire.

_______|_______ _______|_______ | | | | Crude. Pure. Crude. Pure.

Oily matters } {20·0 —— —— —— —— 7·0 Carbon } Bitumen { 3·7 76·13 77·5 77·64 81·8 3·5 Hydrogen —— 9·41 9·6 7·86 8·4 —— Nitrogen —— } { 12·4 1·02 1·0 —— Oxygen —— } 12·66 { 0·5 8·35 8·8 —— Water —— —— —— —— —— 4·5 Gas and vapour —— —— —— —— —— 4·0 Quartz sand and mica } { —— —— —— —— 60·0 Clay } 76·3 { —— —— —— —— Ferrug. 21·0 Ashes —— 1·80 —— 5·13 —— —— ————— ————— ————— ————— ————— ————— 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0

The solid bitumens are now extensively employed in the manufacture of bituminous mastic or cement and similar compositions, which are used for the lining of water-cisterns, and for various other hydraulic purposes; as also for roofs, floors, roads, pavements, &c. For the last purpose the native varieties of ‘asphaltic rock,’ consisting of a mixture of bitumen and calcareous earth, when tempered with a proper quantity of crushed granite, or calcareous sand or gravel, is found to be the most substantial and durable. The plan followed in laying down such pavements in Paris, where they have been the most extensively adopted, is——The ground having been made uniformly smooth, is edged, in the usual manner, with curb-stones rising about 4 inches above its level, and then covered, to the depth of 3 inches, with concrete (made with about 1-6th part of good hydraulic lime), which is well pressed upon its bed, the surface being subsequently smoothed over with a very thin coating of hydraulic mortar. On this, when perfectly dry,[187] the ‘bituminous mastic,’ rendered semi-fluid by being cautiously heated in a suitable iron cauldron,[188] is evenly spread over so as to form a layer three quarters of an inch, or for less solid work, half an inch thick. Some coarse sand is lastly sifted over and pressed down on the surface, when the work is complete; and in a few days the pavement becomes sufficiently compact and solid to be thrown open to foot passengers.

[Footnote 187: On this point depends the success of the work. Absolute dryness is a sine quâ non in the process. The mastic must also be laid down in dry weather. If laid in wet, damp, or even foggy weather, it will be liable to separate from its bed, and gradually to break up. This is why so much of the asphalt and bituminous pavement laid down in London has proved a failure.]

[Footnote 188: It is here that the mixture of the bitumen (previously crushed sufficiently small to pass through meshes 10 to the inch) is made with the sand or gravel; a small portion of mineral tar or coal-tar (3 to 7 or 8%) being commonly added to promote their fusion and complete union.]

An important precaution to be observed in making asphalt pavements or roads is to boil the bitumen which is employed thoroughly, so as to expel the water and volatile oils, which if allowed to remain are found to render the mastic more liable to be affected by the extremes of heat and cold, as well as less able to stand the wear and tear of traffic.

Claridge’s Process. This consists in fusing the blocks of mastic in a suitable boiler, similar to that seen in fig. 1, and in adding a quantity of mineral tar, in the proportion of 1 lb. to every cwt. of the mastic. The tar is first fused in the boiler, 56 lbs. of the mastic are then introduced, and the whole repeatedly stirred so as to prevent the formation of a deposit. When the contents of the boiler are melted, the cauldron is covered over for a quarter of an hour, after which the remainder of the mastic is added, and its fusion proceeded with as before, the process being repeated until the boiler is full, allowing an interval of from ten to fifteen minutes between each operation.

When the mastic is sufficiently fluid it will drop freely from the stirrer, and jets of light smoke are observed to issue from it. If stiff mastic be required, the proportion of tar is lessened, and a quantity of coarse grit or river sand, to the amount of 20 or 30 lbs. to the cwt., is added.

In laying the asphalt the greatest attention and care must be paid to the preparation of a solid and dry foundation.

This is usually accomplished by removing or ramming the loose earth, and placing upon the bed a layer of coarse sand mixed with powdered limestone, in the proportion of seven parts of the former to one of the latter, and the whole is pressed or beaten solid; upon this a second layer of finer materials is laid compacted and levelled; the bed thus prepared is allowed to dry before coating it with mastic.

Fig. 2 shows the manner in which ordinary asphalting is laid down. In this figure C is the bed of coarse concrete, B the second and finer layer of the same material, and A the superior layer of asphalt.

The base or concrete must be perfectly dry when the mastic is poured on, or the work will be a failure, for the moisture will be converted into steam, which, issuing through the fluid mastic, will cause the formation of holes in the latter or blister it, and ultimately the surface will crack. To counteract in some measure the evil arising from the formation of steam, fine cinder dust is sifted over the bed of concrete previous to the application of the mastic.

When asphalting suspension bridges, a sheet of canvas is usually spread over the concrete.

In asphalting damp places, such as cellars and foundations, a brick invert is always laid in asphalt beneath the concrete. This is done by placing the bricks in rows, at the proper depth and slope, and pouring a coating of asphalt about a quarter of an inch thick upon them. Before the mastic solidifies, the bricks are separated a little by passing a knife between them, thus affording the mastic an opening by which to seal up more thoroughly the connection. The concrete is afterwards laid upon this bed, and the layer of mastic upon this in the usual way. The thickness of the layer of mastic varies according to the attrition to which it is to be subjected; but the usual depth is from a quarter to one and a quarter inch.

Artificial Asphalt. This is prepared from coal tar by distilling off the volatile oils which hold the tar in solution, the result being that a kind of fatty pitch is left, which must be boiled until a sample, when cooled, becomes nearly solid. The operation may be accomplished in the open air, but if this means of evaporation be adopted, the process is attended with a very unpleasant odour, and the volatile oils are dissipated. These volatile oils are used for the preparation of varnish, for lubricating machinery, and for the manufacture of a superior kind of lampblack. They have also been employed to increase the illuminating power of coal-gas, which purpose they accomplish by imparting their vapours to gas passed over them when they are placed in shallow vessels. Various forms of patent apparatus have been designed for this purpose.

When it is required to collect the oils, the coal tar is placed in a retort made of sheet iron, with a convex bottom, which is placed immediately over a fire. The products of the combustion after striking the bottom of the retort circulate round it, then proceed under a second boiler to heat the tar contained in it, and from which the retort is replenished when necessary. This vessel, when three quarters full, contains nearly 24 cwts. of tar; it should be perfectly embedded in masonry; the capital itself by which the volatile products escape should be surrounded with materials that are bad conductors of heat, such as ashes. But for this precaution the volatile oils would become condensed, and fall back into the evaporating vessel.

The volatile oils are collected by being made to pass through a tube cooled by a current of water, this tube running in a direction the reverse of that pursued by the vapours, and terminating in a closed vessel, which acts as the receptacle for the oils. A tube branching from the boiler conducts the uncondensed products outside the building in which the distillation is conducted.

When the tar has been boiled sufficiently long to give it the requisite consistence, it is removed by means of a pipe into a third hemispherical boiler of cast-iron. To prepare the bituminous mastic directly from this fatty pitch, the latter is kept in a state of fusion, and chalk in sufficient quantity is then added. If the chalk be previously heated, ground to a coarse powder, and sifted, the mixture is effected more rapidly and satisfactorily.

The asphalt becomes the more solid the greater the proportion of chalk added; on the other hand, it becomes less elastic and more brittle. The asphalt is moulded as follows:——A long table is covered with cast-iron plates, surrounded with a framework, which is subdivided into eight or ten equal compartments by means of rules of about six inches in height, introduced vertically into grooves formed at equal intervals in the long sides of the frame. The eight or ten moulds obtained by this means are coated internally with a paste composed of sixty parts of water and forty of chalk. This compound prevents the mastic adhering to the sides of the mould, and ensures its being easily detached.

Two barrels, or 9 cwts. of tar, lose by distillation one fourth of their weight, the loss consisting of 1 cwt. 3 qrs. 15 lbs. of volatile oils, and 1 qr. 13 lbs. of water.

Sometimes ground or fine sand enters into the composition of asphalt in proportions equal to the chalk; but in some cases only half as much sand as chalk is used.

In the manufacture of asphalt it is very important that the contents of the cauldron should be stirred during fusion, not only to prevent the tar adhering to the bottom, and so getting burnt, but to ensure the ingredients being brought into intimate combination, and a homogeneous and smooth compound being produced.

As soon as the whole is thoroughly incorporated, the proper consistence attained, and the vapours of the volatile oils and water come off in very minute quantities, the asphalt is run off into the moulds before described, and when sufficiently set may be removed, and is ready for use.

Dr G. H. Smith has patented a process for making artificial asphalt, waterproof concrete, &c., which promises to become of great value in the construction of sea walls, docks, and harbour works, &c. Dr Smith’s invention consists in filling up the interstices of any porous substance, such as brick, burned or unburned clay, soft stones, plaster of Paris, &c., with pitch or tar which has been boiled to such a consistence that the pores or cells of the material used are completely filled with solid matter when cold.

Other hydrocarbons, resins, or gums may be used instead of pitch or tar; but it is essential that the saturating substances, though naturally fluid or semifluid, can be so changed by boiling that they lose their fluidity when cold; or they must be, though hard under all ordinary temperatures of the atmosphere, capable of reduction by heat or otherwise to a fluid condition, so that they will penetrate the porous materials.

The asphalto-bitumen mine of the Val de Travers, in the Canton of Neufchâtel, is said to be the richest and most extensive in the world of its particular class. The calcareous bitumen which it yields contains 20% of nearly pure bitumen, and 80% of carbonate of lime; and it has a sp. gr. (2·115) approaching that of ordinary bricks.

The ‘Val de Travers Company,’ and the ‘Bastenne and Gaujac Company,’ are, it is said, those which have hitherto been the most successful in laying down asphalto-pavements. See ASPHALTUM, PETROLEUM, &c.

=Bitumen, Elastic.= Syn. MIN′ERAL CAOU′TCHOUC (kōō′-chŏŏk), EL′ATERITE. A rather rare species of bitumen, differing chiefly from the other solid varieties in being elastic.

=Bitumen, Liq′uid.= Petroleum.

=BITU′MINOUS.= Syn. BITUTMĬNO′SUS, L.; BITUMINEUX, Fr.; ERDPECHIG, Ger. Of bitumen, or resembling or containing it.

=BIX′EINE= (-e-ĭn). The red colouring-principle of annotta. It is obtained by treating bixine with liquid ammonia, with subsequent free contact of air.

Prop., &c. When pure, a rich deep-red powder, soluble in alcohol and in alkalies, and turned blue by sulphuric acid. It appears to be oxidised bixine.

=BIXIN.= The red resinous colouring matter of annatto. Bolley and Mylius prepare it by digesting the dried alcoholic extract of annatto with ether; repeatedly treating the least soluble portion (which contains the greater part of the colouring matter) with hot ether; dissolving the remainder in alcohol; precipitating the alcoholic solution with lead acetate; decomposing the washed precipitate with sulphuretted hydrogen; extracting the colouring matter therefrom by hot alcohol; and precipitating the alcoholic solution with water.

=BIX′INE= (-ĭn). The yellow colouring-principle of annotta.

Prep. A solution of annotta is precipitated with a solution of acetate of lead; the precipitate, after having been washed in cold water, is decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen; the decanted liquor or filtrate yields crystals by cautious evaporation.

Prop., &c. Yellowish white, turning full yellow by exposure to air; soluble in water, and freely so in alcohol and in alkaline solutions; by oxidation it is converted into bixeine. For a correct knowledge of both of these substances we are indebted to M. Preisser.

=BLACK.= Syn. A′TER,[189] NI′GER, L.; NOIR, Fr.; SCHWARZ, Ger.; BLAC, BLÆC, Sax. In dyeing, &c., of the colour of lamp-soot, or of night; subst., a black colour.

[Footnote 189: Black, deep black; as opposed to albus, white.]

=Black Ash.= The waste lye of the soapmakers is evaporated in large iron boilers, the salt separated as it falls down, and then heated in a reverberatory furnace, until it is partially decomposed and fused, when it is run into iron pots to cool. It is used in the manufacture of alum and common soap.

=Black Col′ours= (kŭl′-). See BLACK PIGMENTS.

=Black Draught.= See MIXTURE, SENNA (Compound).

=Black Drop.= See DROPS, PATENT MEDICINES, &c.

=BLACK DYE.= Syn. TEINTE NOIRE, Fr.; SCHWARZE FARBE, Ger. The following are the processes and materials now commonly employed in dyeing black:——

a. For COTTON:——

1. The goods, previously dyed blue, are steeped for about 24 hours in a decoction of gall-nuts or sumach, then drained, rinsed in water, and passed through a bath of acetate of iron for a quarter of an hour; they are next again rinsed in water, and exposed for some time to the air; after which they are passed a second time through the bath, to which a little more iron-liquor is previously added. The whole process is repeated, if necessary, according to the intensity of the shade of black desired.

2. The goods are steeped in a mordant of acetate of iron, worked well, and then passed through a bath of madder and logwood for 2 hours. Less permanent than No. 1.

Obs. About 2 oz. of coarsely powdered galls, or 4 oz. of sumach, are required for every pound of cotton, in the process of galling. The first should be boiled in the water, in the proportion of about 1/2 gal. of water to every lb. of cotton. The sumach-bath is better made by mere infusion of that dye-stuff in very hot water.

3. (For 10 lbs. of cloth.) The goods are put into a boiling bath made of 3 lbs. of sumach, and allowed to steep, with occasional ‘working,’ until the liquor is perfectly cold; they are next passed through lime water, and, after having drained for a few minutes, immediately transferred to and worked for an hour in a warm solution of 2 lbs. of copperas; after free exposure to the air for about an hour they are again passed through lime water, and, after draining, ‘worked’ for an hour in a bath made with 3 lbs. of logwood, and 1 lb. of fustic; they are then ‘lifted,’ and 1/4 lb. of copperas being added, they are returned to the bath, ‘worked’ well for about 30 minutes, and finished. Good and deep.

Obs. Instead of copperas iron-liquor may be used, observing to take 1-1/2 pint of the latter (of the ordinary strength) for every lb. of the former ordered above.

b. For FLAX and LINEN:——

This, for the most part, closely resembles that employed for cotton; but, in some cases, a mordant of iron-liquor, or of copperas, followed by passing the goods through lime-water, and exposure to the air, precedes the dye-bath.

c. For SILK:——

Silk goods are dyed much in the same way as woollens, but the process is conducted with less heat:——

1. A bath of nut-galls is given for 12 to 36 hours, occasionally working the goods therein; they are next taken out, rinsed, and well aired, after which they are passed for a few minutes through a bath containing sulphate of iron, and are then again drained, rinsed, and aired. The steep in the nut-gall bath may be repeated, if necessary, followed, as before, by the iron-bath previously replenished with a little fresh copperas. The whole quantity of galls to be taken for 1 lb. of silk varies with their quantity from 1/2 to 3/4 lb., that of the copperas (for the first bath), from 3 to 4 oz.

2. (For 1 cwt. of silk.) Boil 22 lbs. of bruised Aleppo galls, for 2 hours, in 90 to 100 galls. of water, observing to add boiling water from time to time, to compensate for that lost by evaporation; to the clear bath add 32 lbs. of copperas, 7 lbs. of iron-filings, and 21 lbs. of gum; digest with agitation for 1 hour, and when the ingredients are dissolved, pass the silk (previously prepared [‘galled’] with 1/3rd of its weight of gall-nuts) through the bath for about an hour; then rinse and air it well; next leave it in the dye-bath for 6 to 12 hours; and this immersion or steep may be repeated, if necessary, at will. This is said to be the process commonly adopted for velvet at Genoa and Tours.

3. (For 5 lbs. of silk.) Turn the goods for an hour through a mordant formed of 1 lb. of copperas and 2 oz. of nitrate of iron (dyer’s), with sufficient water; after rinsing in cold water and airing them, ‘work’ them for an hour in a decoction made of 5 lbs. of logwood and 1 lb. of fustic; then lift them from the bath, add 2 oz. of copperas, reimmerse, and ‘work’ them well for 10 or 15 minutes longer; lastly, rinse, air, and finish. A full deep black.

4. (For 5 lbs.) For the mordant use 1/2 lb. of copperas; rinse, and air; for the ‘dye-bath,’ a decoction of 4 lbs. of logwood to which 1/2 pint of stale urine has been added; after ‘lifting’ the goods add 2 oz. more of copperas to the bath, and work for 15 minutes, as before. A good black. By adding 2 oz. of dyer’s nitrate of iron to the mordant the same ingredients will give a deep black; and by substituting a little white soap for the urine, and omitting the addition of copperas to the logwood-bath, it will give a blue-black. The last may also be produced by first dyeing the goods deep blue as with ‘prussiate,’ and omitting the urine and soap, in which case one half only of the logwood will be required.

d. For WOOL:——

To produce a good permanent black on wool or woollen goods, they must be first dyed of a deep blue in the indigo-vat, or, more cheaply, by the Prussian-blue process. When the goods are coarse or common, and price is an object, they are generally ‘rooted’ instead of being ‘blued.’ This consists in giving them a dun or brown colour with the husks of walnuts or the roots of the walnut-tree, or with other like cheap astringent substances.

1. (For 1 cwt. of wool.) Good logwood-chips, 20 lbs., and Aleppo-galls, 18 lbs.; are inclosed in a coarse bag, and boiled with water, q. s., for 5 or 6 hours; 1/3rd of this decoction is then transferred into another copper, with verdigris, 2 lbs., and a sufficient quantity of water having been added, the goods (previously dyed dark blue) are passed through the liquor for two hours, at a heat slightly below the boiling-point. The goods are next lifted and drained, another 1/3rd of the decoction of logwood and galls, with copperas, 9 lbs., added to the boiler, after which the fire is lowered, and as soon as the copperas is dissolved, the cloth is returned to the bath, and again well ‘worked’ for at least an hour. It is then taken out, thoroughly aired, and the remaining 1/3rd of the decoction added, with sumach, 20 lbs. The whole is then brought to a boil, and sulphate of iron, 2 lbs., together with a pailful of cold water, thrown in; after which the goods are put in a third time, and ‘worked’ for one hour; they are then taken out, rinsed, aired, and again passed through the bath for another hour. After being thoroughly rinsed, the goods are at once either ‘fulled,’ dried, and folded, or are further softened and beautified by passing them for 15 minutes through a hot weld-bath (not boiling), when they are rinsed, &c. (but not ‘fulled’), as before. A beautiful though expensive dye. With management the above quantities of the ingredients will dye 1-1/4 or even 1-1/2 cwt. of wool.

2. (For 1 cwt.) The cloth (previously dyed blue) is ‘galled’ with 5 lbs. of nut-galls, and then dyed in a bath made with 30 lbs. of logwood, to which about 5 lbs. of copperas has been added; after which it is rinsed, aired, and ‘fulled,’ as before. This is said, by Lewis, to be the usual proportions and plan adopted by the English dyers.

3. (For 1 cwt.) Make a bath, as before, with fustic, 2 lbs.; logwood, 5 lbs.; and sumach, 10 lbs.; work the (blued) cloth for 3 hours at the boiling heat, or near it; lift it out, add sulphate of iron, 10-1/2 lbs., and when dissolved, pass the cloth through it for 2 hours; rinse, air well, and again pass the goods through the bath for an hour; lastly, rinse until the water runs clear. Inferior to the last, but less expensive.

4. (For 1 cwt., without previous blueing or ‘rooting,’)——a. Work the goods at about 200° Fahr. for 1 hour, in a bath made with 6 to 7 lbs. of cam-wood; lift, add 6-1/2 lbs. of copperas, and again work the goods for an hour, after which withdraw the fire, and allow them to steep for 10 or 12 hours; next drain and rinse them, and work them in a second bath made with 60 lbs. of logwood for 1-1/2 hour; lift, add 3 lbs. of copperas, and again work for an hour; lastly, rinse, air, and finish:——b. The goods are first worked, for about two hours, in a bath of 3 lbs. of fustic, in which 5 lbs. of bichromate of potash and 4 lbs. of alum have been dissolved; after exposure to the air for about an hour and thorough rinsing they are worked for a second two hours in a bath made with 45 lbs. of logwood, 3-1/2 lbs. of barwood or cam-wood, and 3 lbs. of fustic; they are then lifted, and 3 lbs. of copperas having been added to the bath, are again immersed and worked for half an hour to an hour.

5. (For 10 lbs. of wool or w. cloth.) Work the goods for 1/2 an hour in a bath of 1/2 lb. of cam-wood; lift, add 7 or 8 oz. of copperas, and after working them for 20 minutes, withdraw the fire, and leave them in the liquor for 10 or 12 hours; next rinse them in cold water, drain, and then work them for an hour in a bath made with 5 lbs. of logwood, to which 1 pint of urine has been added; lift, add 4 oz. of copperas, work them for half an hour longer, and, lastly, wash and dry them.

6. (For 7 lbs.) Take of galls (bruised), 1/4 lb.; logwood chips, 1-1/2 lb.; for the bath; boil or work the goods for 2 hours, take them out, add of copperas, 1/4 lb.; and when it is dissolved, work the goods through the liquor for at least 2 hours, keeping the bath nearly boiling; again take them out, wash, and air; then add 1 oz. more of copperas to the bath, and pass the cloth through it for another hour; lastly, air, rinse, and finish.

7. (For 5 lbs.) For the first bath——bichromate of potash, 8 oz.; alum, 6 oz.; fustic, 4 oz.; for the second bath——logwood, 4 lbs.; barwood and fustic, of each 4 oz.; to which add, after the lift, copperas, 4 oz.; the process being conducted as in 4, b. This, as well as the two formulæ immediately preceding it, is particularly suited to articles of dress dyed in the small way, at home. When the articles are only re-dipped, as it is called, a proportionately smaller quantity of the ingredients may be taken.

Concluding Remarks. In dyeing black, particularly on wool, it is absolutely necessary to take the goods out of the dye-bath several times, and to expose them to the air. This is called “airing” them, and is done to allow the oxygen of the atmosphere to act upon the ingredients of the dye, and especially on the iron; as without this action of the air a good colour cannot be produced. The usual proportions employed by the dyers of England are 5 lbs. each of galls and copperas and 30 lbs. of logwood for every cwt. of cloth; but these weights are frequently increased for choice goods, just as they are always lessened for common ones. The other astringent substances used as substitutes for galls in dyeing black are taken in quantities proportionate to their respective strengths, that of good Aleppo gall-nuts being referred to as a standard.

The German wool-dyers usually commence their process with a mordant of Salzburg vitriol (3 parts) and argol (1 part); and after exposure of the goods in a cool place for 24 hours, work them in a bath of logwood (5 to 6 p.) and fustic (2 p.); after which the bath is restored by the addition of verdigris (1/4 p.) dissolved in vinegar and the goods again worked through it for about 1/2 an hour. This is for 20 parts weight of wool or cloth.

Black marinos are usually mordanted (hot) with about 1/10th of their weight of copperas, and then aired for 24 hours; after which they are dyed in a boiling bath made with about 1/2 their weight of logwood with the addition of about 2% of argol or tartar.

As black is the shade most commonly attempted by amateur dyers, it may be here necessary to call their attention to what is said on mixed fabrics in our article on DYEING; since an inattention to this point will inevitably cause the failure of their efforts.

According to Muspratt, a mixed fabric of silk and woollen may be dyed black by one process, as follows:——Work the goods an hour in a solution of 8 oz. each of tartar and copperas, and wash out; work for 15 minutes in a decoction of 4 lbs. of logwood; lift, add 1 oz. of bichromate of potash, work for 1/2 an hour, and dry. And a mixed fabric of cotton, silk, and woollen:——Steep for six hours in a bath made of 2 lbs. of sumach; then work for an hour in a solution of 6 oz. each of tartar, sulphate of copper, and copperas; wash, and work 1/2 an hour in a decoction of 4 lbs. of logwood; lift, add to the bath 1 oz. of copperas; work ten minutes, wash, and dry. If a very deep black be required, 1 lb. of bark is to be added with the logwood. See DYEING, MORDANTS, &c.

=BLACK JACK.= This term is applied to burnt sugar, which is used to colour beverages, and more particularly for the adulteration of coffee. It is also known under the name of “coffee refined,” and as such is vended in tin canisters. It is moreover employed to give colour to vinegar, brandy, and rum. Butter, with which water has been largely incorporated, is also known as “Black Jack.” See CARAMEL.

=BLACK LEAD= (lĕd). See PLUMBAGO.

=BLACK PIG′MENTS.= Syn. PIGMEN′TA NI′GRA, L. The principal black pigments of commerce are obtained by carbonising organic substances (particularly bones), by exposure to a dull red heat, in covered vessels out of contact with the air; or by collecting the soot formed during the combustion of unctuous, resinous, and bituminous matters. Artists and amateurs also prepare, on the small scale, a variety of blacks, many of which are not procurable at the colour-shops. This they effect either by the carbonisation of substances not usually employed for the purpose, or by simply reducing to powder certain mineral productions selected on account of the peculiar shades of colour which they respectively possess. Some of the last might, however, be more appropriately classed with browns. The following list embraces most of these articles:——

=Black, An′imal.= Bone-black.

=Black, Aniline.= See TAR COLOURS.

=Black, Beech′.= Carbonised beech-wood.

=Black, Blue′.= Vine-twigs dried and then carefully carbonised, in covered vessels, until of the proper shade. That of the ancients was made of wine-lees. Pit-coal, carefully burnt at a white heat, then quenched in water, dried and well-ground, forms a cheap, good, and durable blue-black, fit for most ordinary purposes. See FRANKFORT-BLACK.

=Black, Bone′.= Syn. I′VORY-BLACK (of commerce); CAR′BO OS′SIS, OS US′TUM NI′GRUM, E′BUR U. N. (vena′le), &c., L.; NOIR D’OS, &c., Fr.; KNOCHENSCHWARTZ, &c., Ger. Carbonised bones reduced to powder. That of commerce is usually the residuum of the distillation of bone-spirit. Inferior to true ivory-black; having a slight, but peculiar reddish tinge, from which the latter is quite free. Besides its use as a pigment, it is extensively employed in making blacking, as a material for the moulds of founders, as a clarifier and bleacher of liquids, &c. See IVORY-BLACK and CHARCOAL, ANIMAL.

=Black, Cas′sel=, Cologne′-Black. Ivory-black.

=Black, Coal′.= See BLUE-BLACK and NEWCASTLE-BLACK.

=Black, Composi′′tion= (zĭsh′-ŭn-). The selected portion of the residuum of the process of making prussiate of potash from blood and hoofs. Used both as a pigment and to decolour organic solutions, which it does better than bone-black.

=Black, Cork′.= Spanish-black.

=Black, Flo′′rey=, FLORÉE D’INDE. The dried scum of the dyer’s wood-bath. A superior blue-black.

=Black, Frank′fort=, NOIR DE FRANCFORT. From vine-twigs dried, carbonised to a full black, and then ground very fine. An excellent black pigment; also used by the copper-plate printers to make their ink. See BLUE-BLACK.

=Black, Harts′horn.= Resembles ivory-black, which is now usually sold for it. It was formerly prepared by carbonising the residuum of the distillation of spirit of hartshorn.

=Black, I′vory.= Syn. CAR′BO EB′ORIS, E′BUR US′TUM NI′GRUM, L.; NOIR D′IVOIRE, &c., Fr.; ELFENBEINSCHWARTZ, KOHLE VON ELFENBEIN, Ger. From waste fragments and turnings of ivory, by careful exposure in covered crucibles, avoiding excess of heat or over-burning. The whole having been allowed to become quite cold, the crucibles are opened and their contents reduced to fine powder. For the first quality only the richest coloured portion of the charcoal is selected, and this, after being powdered, is ground with water on porphyry, washed on a filter with warm water, and then dried. A very rich and beautiful black. It is brighter than even peach-stone black, and is quite free from the reddish tinge of bone-black. With white-lead it forms a rich pearl-grey. See BONE-BLACK.

=Black, Jamai′ca= (-mā′-). Sugar-black.

=Black, Lamp′.= Syn. FULI′GO LUCER′NÆ, F. PI′NEA, &c., L.; NOIR DE FUMÉE, &c., Fr.; KIENRUSS, &c., Ger. Prep. 1. (On the small scale.) A conical funnel of tin-plate furnished with a small pipe to convey the fumes from the apartment, is suspended over a lamp fed with oil, tallow, coal-tar, or crude naphtha, the wick being large and so arranged as to burn with a full smoky flame. Large spongy, mushroom-like concretions of an exceedingly light, very black, carbonaceous matter, gradually form at the summit of the cone, and must be collected from time to time. The funnel should be united to the smoke-pipe by means of wire, and no solder should be used for the joints of either.

2. (Commercial.) On the large scale, lamp-black is now generally made by burning bone-oil (previously freed from its ammonia), or common coal-tar, and receiving the smoke in a suitable chamber. In the patented process of Messrs Martin and Grafton the coal-tar is violently agitated with lime-water until the two are well mixed, after which it is allowed to subside, and the lime-water having been drawn off, the tar is washed several times with hot water. After subsidence and decantation it is put into stills, and rectified. The crude naphtha in the receiver is then put into a long cast-iron tube furnished with numerous large burners, underneath which is a furnace to heat the pipe to nearly the boiling point. Over each burner is a sort of funnel which goes into a cast-iron pipe or main, which thus receives the smoke from all the burners. From this main the smoke is conveyed by large pipes to a succession of boxes or chambers, and thence into a series of large canvas bags arranged side by side, and connected together at top and bottom alternately. Fifty to eighty of these ‘bags’ are employed; the last one being left open to admit of the escape of the smoke, which has thus been made to traverse a space of about 400 yards. As soon as the bags contain any considerable quantity of black they are removed and emptied. The black deposited in the last bag is the finest and best, and it becomes progressively coarse as it approaches the furnace.

Obs. The state of minute division in which the carbon exists in good lamp-black is such as cannot be given to any other matter, not even by grinding it on porphyry, or by ‘elutriation’ or ‘washing over’ with water. On this account it goes a great way in every kind of painting. It may be rendered drier and less oily by gentle calcination in close vessels, when it is called burnt lamp-black, and may then be used as a water-colour; or its greasiness may be removed by the alkali-treatment noticed under Indian ink. It is the basis of Indian ink, printer’s ink, and most black paints.

Russian lamp-black is the soot produced by burning the chips of resinous deal. It is objectionable chiefly from being liable to take fire spontaneously when left for some time moistened with oil.

=Black, Manganese′= (-nēze′-). Native binoxide of manganese. Durable and dries well.

=Black, New′castle.= From the richer-looking varieties of pit-coal by grinding, and elutriation. Brown black or, in thin layers, deep brown. It is, perhaps, “the most useful brown the artist can place on his palette; being remarkably clear, not so warm as Vandyke-brown, and serving as a shadow for blues, reds, and yellows, when glazed over them. It seems almost certain that Titian made large use of this material.” See BLUE-BLACK (antè).

=Black, Opor′to.= Carbonised wine-lees.

=Black, Pa′ris=, NOIR DE PARIS. From turner’s bone-dust, treated as for ivory-black. Works well both in oil and water. It is commonly sold for real ivory-black, and for burnt lamp-black.

=Black, Peach-stone.= From the stones or kernels of peaches, cherries, and other similar fruits, treated as for ivory-black. A bright, rich black; works well with oil; with white-lead and oil it makes old grey.

=Black, Pit′coal.= Newcastle-black.

=Black, Prus′′sian= (prŭsh′-ăn). Composition-black.

=Black, Rice′.= Rice-charcoal. Inferior.

=Black, Rus′′sian.= See LAMP-BLACK.

=Black, Soot′= (sŏŏt′-). The soot of coal-fires, ground and sifted. Used in common paint, and to colour whitewash; with Venetian-red and oil, it makes chocolate-colour; also used to make grey mortar.

=Black, Span′ish.= From cork-cuttings carbonised, as bone-black. Resembles Frankfort-black, but works softer.

=Black, Sug′ar= (shŏŏg′-). Carbonised moist sugar. Has little body, but for washing drawings is equal in mellowness to Indian ink and bistre.

=Black, Sun′derland.= Newcastle-black.

=Black, Tur′ner’s.= Paris-black.

=Black, Vine′-twig.= Frankfort-black.

=Black Wheat′= (hwēte′-) Carbonised wheat. It has a good colour, a full body, and dries hard and quickly with oil.

=BLACK′BERRY.= The popular name of ru′bus frutico′sus (Linn.) or the common ‘bramble.’ Fruit (BLACK′BERRIES; MÛRES DE RONCE, Fr.), antiscorbutic and wholesome, but in excess apt to sicken; twigs used in dyeing black; root astringent, formerly used in hooping-cough.

=Blackberry, Amer′ican.= The ru′bus villo′sus (Ait.). Root astringent and tonic; officinal in the Ph. U. S.

=BLACK PUDDING.= A pudding made of the blood of the pig, mixed with groats and fat. It contains about 11 per cent. of nitrogenous matter.

=BLACK′ING.= Syn. CIRAGE (des bottes), NOIR (pour les souliers), Fr.; SCHWÄRZE, SCHUHSCHWÄRZE, Ger. An article too well known to require description.

Hist., &c. Blacking, and other polishes for leather, were undoubtedly in common use among the ancients; but the compound to which we now more particularly apply the name is of comparatively modern invention. The latter appears to have been first introduced into England from Paris, during the reign of Chas. II, but was not in common use among the masses of our population much before the middle of the 18th century.

The general and still increasing use of blacking as a polish for boots and shoes by all classes of the inhabitants of civilised countries, has given an extent and importance to its manufacture which a stranger to the subject would scarcely be led to suspect. The princely establishments of some of the firms who compound this sable article cannot fail to have arrested the attention of the passenger through the streets of this great metropolis; whilst the enormous fortune acquired by one of their late members, and, for the most part, bequeathed by him for purposes of charity and philanthropy, has invested both the donor and his craft with an interest and notoriety which they did not previously possess. At the present time the consumption of blacking is greater than at any former period; and of this, as of many other articles, England is the principal manufactory for the world, alike distinguished for the extent of her trade and the excellent quality of this product of her industry. In truth, England excels all other nations in the manufacture of common shoe-blacking; and perhaps in no other country is an equal attention paid to the cleanliness and appearance of the external clothing of the feet.

Prep. I. LIQUID BLACKING:——

1. Take of bone-black, 16 parts; treacle, 12 parts; oil of vitriol, 3 parts; sperm oil,[190] 2 parts; gum-arabic, 1 part; strong vinegar, or sour beer, 48 to 50 parts[191] (all by weight); place the bone-black in a capacious wooden, stone-ware, or enamelled iron vessel,[192] add the oil, and rub them well together; next gradually add the treacle, and actively and patiently grind or rub the mass, after each addition, until the oil is perfectly killed, and finally for some time afterwards, to ensure complete admixture; then cautiously dilute the vitriol with about three times its bulk of water, and add it, in separate portions, to the former mixture, observing to stir the whole together, as rapidly as possible, on each addition of the acid, and for some minutes after the whole is added, so as to render the mass thoroughly smooth and homogeneous; let it stand, covered over, for two or three days, or longer, stirring it, in the mean time, for 15 or 20 minutes daily; lastly, having dissolved the gum in the vinegar, add the solution gradually to the rest, and stir the whole together briskly for some time, and again daily for 3 or 4 days. It may be further diluted, at will, with a little more vinegar or beer, or with water; but unnecessary or excessive dilution should be avoided, as the richness and quality of the blacking become proportionately reduced. If all the ingredients (except the vitriol) be made hot before admixture, the shining quality of the product will be greatly improved, and the process may be shortened.[193]

[Footnote 190: Sperm oil is commonly regarded as the best for blacking; but pale seal oil is thought by some to be quite as good. The cod-liver oil of the curriers, if clear, is less expensive, and probably better than either of them. Common olive oil, and refined rape oil, are, however, those most generally used by the blacking-makers.]

[Footnote 191: That is, 3 to 3-1/2 times the weight of the ivory-black.]

[Footnote 192: Metallic vessels must be avoided.]

[Footnote 193: By taking the ‘parts’ ordered in this and the other formulæ as so many 1/4 lbs., lbs., 1/4 cwts., or cwts., the proportions of each ingredient for any quantity of blacking, from a 1/4 of a lb., or a 1/4 pint, up to 2 tons, or nearly 450 galls., will be at once seen; and so on of even larger quantities. See Concluding Remarks (infrà).]

2. Ivory-black, 16 parts; treacle, 8 parts; oil of vitriol, 4 parts; (diluted with) water, 2 parts; oil, 2 parts; gum-arabic, 1 part; soft water (for the final dilution, instead of vinegar), 64 parts; mixed, &c., as before. Excellent.

3. As the last; but taking only 6 parts of treacle, 1 part of oil, and omitting the gum-arabic. Good. A commoner article of liquid blacking does not sell.

4. (Bryant and James’s INDIA-RUBBER LIQUID BLACKING. Patent dated 1836.) Take of india rubber (in small pieces), 18 oz.; hot rape oil, 9 lbs. (say 1 gall.); dissolve; to the solution add of ivory-black (in very fine powder), 60 lbs.; treacle, 45 lbs.; mix thoroughly; further add of gum-arabic, 1 lb., dissolved in vinegar (No. 24), 20 galls.; reduce the whole to a perfect state of smoothness and admixture by trituration in a paint-mill; throw the compound into a wooden vessel, and add, very gradually, of sulphuric acid, 12 lbs.; continue the stirring for 1/2 an hour, repeating it daily for 14 days; then add of gum-arabic (in fine powder), 3 lbs.;[194] again mix well, and repeat the stirring for 1/2 an hour daily for 14 days longer, when the liquid blacking will be ready for use or for bottling. The quality is very excellent; but this, probably, does not depend on the presence of the india rubber, but on the general correctness of the proportions, and the care and completeness with which they are mixed.

[Footnote 194: This should be gently rubbed through a sieve, held over the blacking by one person, whilst another stirs the mass assiduously with the spatula.]

5. (Without Vitriol.) Take of ivory-black (in very fine powder), 2 lbs.; treacle, 1-1/2 lb.; sperm oil, 1/4 pint; mix, as before; then add of gum-arabic, 1 oz.; (dissolved in) strong vinegar, 1/2 pint; mix well; the next day further add of good vinegar, or strong sour beer, 3 to 4 pints (or q. s.); stir briskly for a 1/4 of an hour, and again once a day for a week. Excellent. A cheaper, but inferior article, may be made by the reductions and omissions noticed above.

6. From paste-blacking (see below), by reducing it with sufficient vinegar, sour beer, or water, to give it the liquid form.[195]

[Footnote 195: It is sometimes convenient to prepare liquid blacking in this way from a stock of ‘paste-blacking’ already on hand.]

II. PASTE BLACKING:——

1. Qualities from good to super-excellent may be made from any of the preceding formulæ, by simply omitting the final dilution with the vinegar, sour beer, or water, therein ordered at the end of the process.

2. (Bryant and James’s INDIA-RUBBER PASTE BLACKING.——Patent dated 1836.) Of india-rubber oil, ivory black, treacle, and gum-arabic, the same as for their liquid blacking (see I, 4, above), but dissolving the last in only 12 lbs. (say 5 quarts), instead of 20 galls. of vinegar; grinding to a smooth paste in a colour-mill, and then adding of oil of vitriol, 12 lbs. as before. The mass is to be stirred daily for a week, when it will be fit for use, or potting.[196] Excellent.

[Footnote 196: The final addition of the 3 lbs. of powdered gum, ordered in the formula of their liquid blacking, is not mentioned by the patentees; and we therefore presume they do not intend it to be made. If made, it should be at the end of the week, and the daily stirring must then be continued for another week. This addition, or omission, enables us to produce two qualities from the same formula.]

3. Ivory-black, 1 cwt.; treacle, 28 lbs.; rape oil (or other cheap oil), 1 gall.; mix, as before; then add of oil of vitriol, 21 lbs.; (diluted with) water, 2 galls.; mix them quickly and thoroughly by forcible stirring with a strong wooden spatula, and as soon as admixture is complete, but whilst still fuming, put the cover on the tub, and leave it till the next day, when (without further stirring) it will be fit for use or sale.[197] Good ordinary. Used for packets and tins.

[Footnote 197: The object here is to make the product as spongy and light as possible, so that the purchaser may fancy he has a great deal for his money.]

4. As the last; but adding with the ivory-black, &c., 14 to 28 lbs. of coal-soot[198] (sifted), omitting one half of the oil, and diluting the vitriol with an extra gall. of water. Inferior. Chiefly used for 1_d._ and 1/2_d._ packets.[199]

[Footnote 198: This is also to give bulk.]

[Footnote 199: A still more common article is vended in the north of England, and in Scotland, in which the oil is omitted altogether. The sale of such blackings (?) is disreputable, when it is remembered that a really good article may be made for 2_d._ to 2-1/2_d._ per lb.]

5. (GERMAN BLACKING). Ivory-black, 1 part; treacle, 1/2 part; sweet oil, 1/8 part; mix, as before; then stir in a mixture of hydrochloric acid, 1/8 part; oil of vitriol, 1/4 part (each separately diluted with twice its weight of water before mixing them). This forms the ordinary paste-blacking of Germany, according to Liebig.

6. (Without Vitriol.) As I, 5 (antè); but with the omission of the last 1/2 gall. of ‘vinegar.’

Concluding Remarks.——To produce a first-rate article of blacking it is absolutely necessary that the ingredients be of the best quality, and used in the proper proportions; and that the order of their admixture, and the general manipulations, be conducted under ordinary circumstances, in the manner described in the first of the above formulæ. The proportions of the treacle and the oil (the most expensive of the ingredients) should not be stinted; and, indeed, that of the latter may be safely increased in quantity, without materially affecting the polish, and with manifest advantage as far as the softness and durability of the leather to which it is applied is concerned. The manipulations required in the manufacture of both paste-blacking and liquid blacking are essentially the same; the difference between the two articles, when the same materials are used, depending entirely on the quantity of liquid added. Thus, as noticed before, by diluting paste-blacking with water, vinegar, or beer-bottoms, it may be converted into liquid blacking of a nearly similar quality; and, by using less fluid matter, the ingredients of liquid blacking will produce paste blacking. One thing must, however, be observed, and that is, that the ivory-black used for liquid blacking should be reduced to a much finer powder than for paste blacking; as, if this is not attended to, it is apt to settle at the bottom, and to be with difficulty again diffused through the liquid. Persons who object to the use of blacking containing oil of vitriol may employ formula I, 5, or II, 6 (above). The vitriol, however, greatly contributes to promote the shining properties of the blacking; and, in small quantities, or in the proper proportion, is not so injurious to the leather as some persons have represented; as it wholly unites itself to the lime of the bone-phosphate contained in the ivory-black, and is thus neutralised, insoluble sulphate of lime, and an acid phosphate or superphosphate, being formed. It is the latter that gives the acidity to a well-made sample of blacking, and not the sulphuric acid originally added to it. In this way the larger portion of the ivory-black is reduced to a state of extremely minute division, and with the other ingredients forms a strongly adhesive paste, which clings to the surface of the leather, and is susceptible of receiving a high polish by friction when in a scarcely dry state. This is the reason why lamp-black should never be employed for blacking to the exclusion of the necessary proportion of bone-black, as it has no earthy base to absorb or neutralise the acid, which, if left in a free state, would prove very hurtful to the leather. Oil of vitriol is now employed in the manufacture of all the more celebrated and expensive blackings; and that simply because no other substance is known so efficient, and so little injurious to the leather. In the common blackings of Germany, hydrochloric acid is often used to the entire exclusion of oil of vitriol; but blacking so prepared possesses several disadvantages from which that of England is free. In the best German blackings only a small portion of this acid is used, as may be seen by reference to formula II, 5 (above). The addition of white-of-egg, isinglass, and similar articles[200] to blacking, always proves injurious, as they tend to stiffen the leather and to make it crack, without at all improving its polishing properties. Even gum-arabic, in quantity, is on this account objectionable. Oil has an opposite tendency, and, as already stated, the quantity commonly used may be increased with advantage. Resin oil should be particularly avoided.

[Footnote 200: In Scotland, flour-paste soured by keeping is often substituted for part of the treacle in the common blackings; with the effect, however, of greatly impairing their polishing qualities, and causing the leather to rapidly become stiff and to crack. Further, such blacking will not keep, often growing mouldy and hard in two or three weeks.]

Dr Ure has recommended the use of a little copperas[201] in blacking; with the object, we presume, of striking a black with the tan in the leather; but except with new, or nearly new leather, this effect would not occur, whilst its presence, if not objectionable, would otherwise be useless.

[Footnote 201: The proportion recommended by Dr Ure is 1/4 oz. to each lb. of bone-black, dissolved in 10 parts of water, and to be added with the vitriol.]

The only improvement that has been introduced in the manufacture of blacking since the early days of the celebrated Day & Martin is, a few hours after the conclusion of the mixture of the ingredients (but before adding the vinegar, if any), to simmer the whole very gently, for about 8 or 10 minutes, observing to stir it assiduously all the time. The fire must then be withdrawn, and the pan covered over until it is quite cold, when half an hour’s lusty stirring will finish the process.[202] In this way a degree of maturity and brilliancy will be imparted to the product, which, without the application of heat, it would take months to acquire, if, indeed, it ever reached it.

[Footnote 202: A capacious enamelled cast-iron boiler, with a concave bottom, should be used for this purpose; in which case the ingredients can be mixed in it, and thus the trouble of removal avoided. If a common copper or cast-iron boiler be employed, the blacking must not be allowed to remain in it longer than necessary to give it the ‘simmer,’ at the conclusion of which it should be turned out into a wooden tub or vat to cool.]

As it is generally more convenient to measure than to weigh liquids, it may be useful to remind the reader that, in round numbers,

1 gal. of oil weighs 9-1/4 lbs. 1 ” sour beer ” 10-1/4 ” 1 ” vinegar } ” 10 ” 1 ” water }

We may here further remark that the blackings of different houses vary considerably in some of their properties; as also do those of even the same maker by age. Some blackings dry off rapidly and give a very brilliant polish with very little labour; whilst others take a little longer to ‘dry off,’ and somewhat more labour to polish them. The former are best adapted to hasty use, and when a very brilliant surface is desired; the latter when depth of polish, without extreme brilliancy, satisfies the wearer. The first best meets the requirements of fashionable life; the last those of the middle classes and pedestrians exposed to dirt, mud, and the various vicissitudes of travelling and weather. To the one belong the ‘blackings’ of Everett, Day & Martin, &c.; to the other, those of Warren, Bryant & James, and most of the smaller manufacturers, with nearly all the paste-blacking of the more respectable shops. Time, however, equalises the qualities of these two classes. Blackings which are crude, moist, and oily lose these properties, and become drier and more brilliant by age. The practice of several of the first-class West-end boot and shoe makers is never to use a blacking which they have not had in their stock at least a twelvemonth.

Blacking, both liquid and paste, should be stored in a cool and moderately dry cellar; and when in use should be kept corked or otherwise excluded from the air. Exposure or desiccation destroys most of its best qualities.

The present annual value of the blacking consumed in the United Kingdom is estimated at 562,500_l._, or about 4-1/2_d._ per head for the whole population; while the collective yearly value of that exported is about 35,000_l._

[See BALLS, BLACKING, BONE-BLACK, BOOTS AND SHOES, LEATHER, SULPHURIC ACID, &c.; also below.]

=Blacking, Automat′ic.= Syn. SELF-SHI′′NING BLACKING, SPAN′ISH JAPAN, &c. Prep. 1. Gum-arabic, 4 oz.; treacle or coarse moist sugar, 1-1/2_oz._; good black ink, 1/4 pint; strong vinegar, 2 oz.; rectified spirit of wine and sweet oil, of each 1 oz.; dissolve the gum in the ink, add the oil, and rub them in a mortar or shake them together for some time, until they are thoroughly united; then add the vinegar, and lastly the spirit.

2. Lamp-black, 3/4 oz.; indigo (in fine powder), 1 dr.; put them in a mortar, or basin, and rub them with sufficient mucilage (made by dissolving 4 oz. of gum in 1/4 pint of strong vinegar) to form a thin paste; add very gradually of sweet oil, 1 oz.; and triturate until their union is complete, adding toward the end the rest of the mucilage; then further add of treacle, 1-1/2 oz.; and afterwards, successively, of strong vinegar, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 oz.; lastly, bottle for use.

3. Mix the whites of 2 eggs with a table-spoonful of spirit of wine, 2 large lumps of sugar (crushed), and sufficient finely powdered ivory-black to give the required colour and thickness, avoiding excess.

Obs. The above are chiefly used for dress boots and shoes. The first two are applied to the leather with the tip of the finger, or a sponge, and then allowed to dry out of the dust. The third is commonly laid on with a sponge or soft brush, and when almost dry or hard may have its polish heightened with a brush or soft rubber, after which it is left for a few hours to harden. It may also be used to revive the faded black leather seats and backs of old chairs. They all possess great brilliancy for a time; but are only adapted to clean, dry weather, or indoor use. They should all be applied to the leather as thinly as possible, as otherwise they soon crack off.

=Blacking, Har′ness.= Good glue or gelatine, 4 oz.; gum-arabic, 3 oz.; water, 3/4 pint; dissolve by heat; add of treacle, 6 oz.; ivory-black (in very fine powder), 5 oz.; and gently evaporate, with constant trituration, until of a proper consistence when cold; when nearly cold put it into bottles, and cork them down. For use, the bottle may be warmed a little to thin it, if necessary. Does not resist the wet.

2. Mutton suet, 2 oz.; bees-wax (pure), 6 oz.; melt, add of sugar candy (in fine powder), 6 oz.; soft soap, 2 oz.; lamp-black, 2-1/2 oz.; indigo (in fine powder), 1/2 oz.; when thoroughly incorporated, further add of oil of turpentine, 1/4 pint; and pour it into pots or tins.

3. Bees′-wax, 1 lb.; soft soap, 6 oz.; ivory-black, 1/4 lb.; Prussian blue, 1 oz.; (ground in) linseed oil, 2 oz.; oil of turpentine, 1/2 pint; to be mixed, &c., as before.

Obs. The above are used by laying a very little of them on the leather, evenly spreading it over the surface, and then polishing it by gentle friction with a brush, or a soft-rubber. The last two are waterproof. Numerous compositions of the class are vended by the saddlers and oilmen, but the mass of them are unchemical mixtures, badly prepared, and cause disappointment to those who use them. Such is not the case with the products of the above formulæ, if we may rely on the statements of those who have employed them for years. The last two are suitable for both harness and carriage leather. See BALLS, HEEL, &c.

=BLADD′ER.= Syn. VES′ICA, L.; VESSIE, Fr.; BLASE, BLATTER, Ger. In anatomy, &c., a thin membranous sac or bag, in an animal, serving as a receptacle for some secreted fluid; appr., the urinary bladder. See CALCULUS, INFLAMMATION, RUPTURE, &c.

=Bladd′ers.= (In commerce.) The better qualities of these articles are prepared by cutting off the fat and loose membranes attached to them, and washing them first in a weak solution of chloride of lime, and afterwards in clear water; they are then blown out and submitted to strong pressure by rolling them under the arm, by which they become considerably larger; they are next blown quite tight, dried, and tied up in dozens. Commoner qualities are merely emptied, the loose fat removed, and then blown out, and strung up to dry. Used chiefly by druggists and oilmen to tie over pots, bottles, and jars, and to contain pill-masses, hard extracts, and other similar substances; also in surgery, to cover wounds, sore heads, &c.——Obs. Bladders should never be purchased unless perfectly dry and air-tight; as, if the reverse be the case, they will neither keep nor prove useful, but will rapidly become rotten and evolve a most offensive odour. If purchased whilst damp, they should be at once hung up in a current of air, so as to dry as soon as possible.

=BLAIN*= (blāne). A boil; a sore; a pustule.

=BLANC= (blŏng). [Fr.] In cookery, a dish which, according to Mrs Rundell, is formed of grated bacon and suet, of each 1 lb.; butter, 1/2 lb.; 2 lemons; 3 or 4 carrots (cut into dice); 3 or 4 onions; and a little water; the whole being simmered for a short time, with or without the addition of a glass of sherry or marsala, before serving.

=BLANCH′ING.= Syn. CANDICA′TIO, DEALBA′TIO, &c., L.; BLANCHIMENT, &c., Fr.; BLEICHEN, &c., Ger. A whitening, or making white; a growing white. In some cases it means decortication. See ALMONDS, BLEACHING, DECOLORATION, &c.

=Blanching.= In cookery, an operation intended to impart whiteness, plumpness, and softness, to joints of meats, poultry, tongues, palates, &c. It is usually performed by putting the articles into cold water, which is then gradually raised to the boiling point, when they are at once taken out, plunged into cold water, and left there until quite cold. They are subsequently removed and wiped dry, ready for being dressed.

Obs. The operation of blanching meat, although it renders it more sightly according to the notions of fashionable life, at the same time lessens its nutritive qualities, by abstracting a portion of the soluble saline matter which it contains, especially the phosphates, and thus deprives it of one of the principal features which distinguish fresh meat from salted meat. Animal food, before being dressed, may be washed or rinsed in cold water without injury, provided it be quickly done; but it cannot be soaked in water at any temperature much below the boiling-point without the surface, and the parts near it, being rendered less nutritious. Washing meat when first received from the butcher is, indeed, a necessary act of cleanliness; but soaking it for some time in water is unnecessary, and for the reasons stated should be avoided.

Strong acetic acid (concentrated vinegar) poured on or rubbed over hard lean meat gradually renders it soft and gelatinous. Ordinary household vinegar has the same effect, but in a less degree. Tough meat thus treated for a short time before dressing it becomes more tender and digestible, though somewhat less nutritious; whilst the taste and flavour of the vinegar is removed by the heat subsequently employed in dressing it.

=BLANCMANGE′.= (blo-mŏn_g_zh′‡.) Syn. BLANCMANGER (blŏn_g_-mŏn_g_-zhā), Fr. Literally, white food; in cookery, a confected white jelly. It is commonly prepared by simmering 1 oz. of isinglass, 2 or 3 oz. of lump sugar, and a little flavouring,[203] in about a pint of milk, until the first is dissolved, when the whole is thrown into a jelly-bag, and the strained liquor is allowed to cool and solidify; it is next remelted by a gentle heat, and, when nearly cold, poured into moulds, which have been previously rubbed with a little salad oil and then wiped out again.

[Footnote 203: This may be 5 or 6 bitter almonds (grated), or a little cinnamon, orange, or lemon peel, &c., at will. Sometimes these are omitted, and a little orange-flower water, rose-water, or essence of vanilla, added to the remelted jelly.]

Obs. Good gelatine, or strong calves’ feet jelly, is often substituted for the isinglass. At other times the jelly is made with about 1/2 pint of water (instead of milk), when 1/2 pint of almond-milk, or of cream, is added to the remelted jelly. Sometimes ground rice or arrow-root is employed in lieu of isinglass, when the product is called RICE-BLANCMANGE, or WEST-INDIAN B., as the case may be. TRANSPA′′RENT BLANCMANGE[204] is merely clarified isinglass-jelly, flavoured. See CREAM (Stone), ISINGLASS, and JELLY.

[Footnote 204: A misnomer of the confectioners and cooks.]

=BLANQUETTE′= (blan_g_-ket’). [Fr.] In cookery, a species of white fricasee. It is also the name of a delicate species of white wine, and of a particular sort of pear.

=BLAST′ING.= In civil and military engineering, the disruption of rocks, &c., by the explosion of gunpowder, or other like material.

=BLAST′ING POWDERS= (Melville and Callow’s). Prep. 1. (POWDER NO. 1.) Chlorate of potassa, 2 parts; red sulphuret of arsenic, 1 part; to be separately carefully reduced to powder, and lightly mixed together, scrupulously avoiding the use of iron instruments, percussion, much friction, the slightest contact with acids, or exposure to heat.

2. (POWDER NO. 2.) Chlorate of potassa, 5 parts; red sulphuret of arsenic, 2 parts; ferrocyanide of potassium (prussiate of potash), 1 part; as No. 1.

3. (POWDER NO. 3.) Chlorate of potassa and ferrocyanide of potassium, equal parts.

Obs. These compounds are not permanently injured by either salt or fresh water, merely requiring to be dried to regain their explosive character. They possess fully eight times the force of ordinary powder. One of their advantages, especially to the underground miner, is the very trifling amount of smoke produced by their explosion. On the other hand, the extreme facility with which they explode by attrition, contact with a strong acid, and a slight elevation of temperature, render them unsuited to most of the purposes of ordinary gunpowder. On this account they should only be prepared in small quantities at a time, and with the utmost caution. Mr Callow, the inventor of them, lost several of his fingers, and was rendered a cripple for life, by an explosion of the kind referred to, which occurred only a few weeks after the sealing of his patent. A straw, or small strip of wood, only slightly wetted with oil of vitriol, and applied to a small heap of the powder, produces instantaneous explosion. Captain Wynand’s ‘Saxifragine’ is composed of nitrate of baryta, 76 parts; charcoal, 22 parts; and nitre, 2 parts. Schultze’s wood-gunpowder is composed of granulated wood treated with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acid, afterwards impregnated with a solution of nitre. M. Bäudish has invented a method by which this wood-gunpowder may be compressed into a solid substance, exerting great power and free from danger by transport. Lithofracteur, a white blasting powder used in Belgium, is a substance similar to gun-cotton.

Messrs Nenmayer and Fehleisen’s haloxylin is composed of charcoal, nitre, and yellow prussiate of potash. See GUN-COTTON, GUNPOWDER, MINING, &c.

=BLATTA ORIENTALIS.= The common cockroach, originally imported from the East, belongs to the family of orthopterous insects; and may be classed amongst the most offensive and objectionable of domestic pests. It is extremely voracious, not only devouring all kinds of provisions, but attacking and consequently destroying silk, flannel, and even cotton fabrics, in the absence of anything more eatable. The cockroach is nocturnal in its habits, and exceedingly active and swift of movement. Its flattened form enables it to insinuate itself easily into crevices, and so to escape detection. The American cockroach (Blatta Americana) is larger than the above. A still larger species (Blatta gigantea) is found in the West Indies where it is known by the name of the drummer. It is so called from the tapping noise it makes on wood, the sound so produced, when joined in by several of the creatures (as it usually is) being sufficient to destroy the slumbers of a household.

Cockroaches may be poisoned by means of wafers made of red lead, or caught by smearing a piece of wood with treacle, and floating it on a broad basin of water. When the fires and lights are extinguished they issue from their holes, and fall into the basin in their efforts to reach the bait. The chinks and holes from which they come should also be filled up with unslaked lime, and some lime should also be sprinkled about the ground.

Old Gerrard says they avoid any place in which the leaves of the mullein are strewn about.

The Blatta Orientalis, which was formerly supposed to possess remedial powers, and was hence employed in medicine by the more ancient therapeutists, has lately found advocates for his readmission into the animal materia medica. He is reported, when made into a tincture, to act as a diuretic, and to yield a crystalline body possessed of similar properties, but in a more concentrated form. Some of the American journals report that he may be given in the form of powder or infusion (from 15 to 30 gr.) 3 or 4 times a day, in dropsy, and to increase the secretion of urine as well as of perspiration.

=BLEACH′ING=, (blēche′-). Syn. DEÄLBA′TIO (-sh′o), INSOLA′TIO,[205] &c., L.; BLANCHIMENT, BLANCHISSAGE, Fr.; BLEICHEN, Ger. The process by which the colour of bodies, natural or acquired, is removed, and by which they are rendered white or colourless. It is more particularly applied to the decolorisation of textile filaments, and of cloths made of them.

[Footnote 205: Bleaching by exposure in the sun.]

Hist. Bleaching is a very ancient art, as passages referring to it in the earlier sacred and profane writers fully testify. It had probably reached a high degree of excellence among the inhabitants of the first Assyrian empire, and was certainly practised in Egypt long before the commencement of written history. We may fairly assume that fine white linen formed part of the “raiment,” which, together with “jewels of gold, and jewels of silver,” and “precious things,” Abraham sent as presents to the beautiful Rebekah and her family,[206] fully three centuries and a half before the Exodus. Subsequently, in Scripture, we have special mention of “fine linen, white and clean.” Herodotus, the earliest Greek historian, tells us, that the Babylonians wore “white cloaks;”[207] and in Athenæus we read of “shining fine linen,” as opposed to that which was “raw” or unbleached.[208] At this early period, and for many centuries afterwards, the operations of washing, fulling, and bleaching were not distinctly separated. The common system of washing followed by drying in the sun, adopted by the ancients, is a process which of itself, by frequent repetition, decolorises the raw materials of textile fabrics, and thus must inevitably have taught them the art of ‘natural bleaching’ of a character similar to that practised in Europe up to a comparatively very recent period. And this appears, according to the authority of ancient authors, to have been the case. Washing or steeping in alkaline and ammoniacal lyes, or in milk of lime, followed by exposure in the sun, formed the chief basis of their system; whilst woollens, then as now, were treated with soap and fuller’s earth, or with potter’s clay, marl, Cimolian earth, or other like mineral. Urine was highly esteemed among them; and we are told that in the time of the emperor Vespasian,[209] and undoubtedly long before it, cloths were sulphured. Indeed, according to Pliny, sulphuring was often had recourse to in ordinary washing, as well as in the bleaching process.[210]

[Footnote 206: Gen. xxiv, 53; B.C. 1857.]

[Footnote 207: Herod., i, 195.]

[Footnote 208: Athen., ix, 77.]

[Footnote 209: ‘Hist. Nat.,’ xxv, 57, &c.]

[Footnote 210: {Transcriber’s note: Footnote omitted by publisher.}]

Bleaching continued to be practised with no essential change of its principles until the discovery of chlorine, to which we shall presently refer. In the last century Holland obtained the best name for bleaching. The process passed then to Ireland and Scotland, and thence into England. It was even customary to send goods from this country to be bleached in Holland. The first attempt to vie with Holland was made, in Scotland, in 1749.

The first steps towards the modern or chemical system of bleaching were the investigations of Berthollet on chlorine, in 1784, but which were not communicated to the French Academy until the year 1787. The knowledge of the use of chlorine as a bleacher was soon afterwards brought to this country by the Duke of Gordon, and by Prof. Copeland of Aberdeen, and through them was practically applied by Messrs Milnes of that place. About the same time James Watt, a correspondent of Berthollet, successfully introduced its use in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, and then generously laid a statement of the results before the Manchester manufacturers. In enforcing the importance of the new substance and process on these gentlemen, he was ably followed and seconded by Dr Henry. In 1798, Mr Charles Tennant, of Glasgow, obtained a patent for a new bleaching liquor prepared by saturating lime water with chlorine; and another, in 1799, for dry chloride of lime, a substance which is still preferred as a bleacher to all other preparations of chlorine. The new or continuous process of bleaching, as it is called, and that which is at present in general use in all the chief bleach-works of Lancashire, was introduced by Mr David Bentley, of Pendleton, and patented by him in 1828.

Proc. Bleaching is commonly said to be natural when exposure to light, air, and moisture forms the leading part of the process; and to be chemical when chlorine, chloride of lime, sulphurous acid, or other like substances are employed. In some cases, as with linen, the two processes are combined. The subject requires to be noticed under separate heads, depending on the material operated on:——

I. BLEACHING of =Cotton=:——Cotton is more easily bleached, and appears to suffer less from the process than most other textile substances. On the old plan it was first (1) thoroughly washed in warm water, to remove the weaver’s paste or dressing; then (2) ‘bucked’ or ‘bowked’ (boiled) in a weak alkaline lye, or in milk of lime, to remove colouring, fatty, and resinous matters, insoluble in simple water; and after being (3) again well washed, was (4) spread out upon the grass, or bleaching ground, and freely exposed to the joint action of light, air, and moisture (technically called ‘crofting’). The operation of ‘bucking’ in an alkaline lye, washing, and exposure was repeated as often as necessary, when the goods were (5) ‘soured’ or immersed in water acidulated with sulphuric acid, after which they (6) received a final thorough washing in clean water, and were (7) dried, finished, and folded for the market. From the length of the exposure upon the bleaching ground this method is apt to injure the texture of the cloth; and from the number of operations required is necessarily expensive and tedious. It is therefore now very generally superseded by the system of chemical bleaching briefly described below.

In the CHEMICAL SYSTEM of bleaching the goods are ‘washed’ and ‘bucked’ as on the old plan, then submitted to the action of a weak solution of chloride of lime, and afterwards passed through water soured with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, when they have only to be thoroughly washed, and to be dried and finished, for the entire completion of the process.

The new or continuous process, before referred to,[211] is the method of chemical bleaching at present in the most general use; and, indeed, it has nearly superseded all other methods. In this system the pieces, previously tacked together endwise so as to form a chain, are drawn, by the motion of rollers, in any direction, and any number of times, through every solution to the action of which it is desired to expose them, and this entirely and completely under the control of the operator.

[Footnote 211: See ‘Hist.’ (antè).]

The following Table exhibits an outline of the several operations in the improved form of the continuous process as practised by Messrs McNaughten, Barton, and Thom, at Chorley, and in most other large bleach-works:——

1. Preliminary operations:——a. The ‘pieces’[212] are separately stamped with the printer’s name, a solution of silver, or sometimes coal-tar, being employed for the purpose.

[Footnote 212: Usually about 30 yards each.]

b. They are tacked together endwise either by hand or a machine, so as to form one continuous piece of 300 to 350 yards in length, according to the weight of the cloth.

c. They are singed.[213]

[Footnote 213: Generally on one side only; but for goods to be subsequently finely printed, on both sides. For very fine printing the nap is sometimes removed by shearing instead of ‘singeing,’ an ingenious and effective machine being employed for the purpose.]

d. They are crushed into a rope-like form by drawing them through a smooth aperture,[214] the surface of which is generally of glass or porcelain——the rope-form being given them to enable the water and other liquids to penetrate the goods more easily, and to allow them to be laid in loose coils in the kiers.

[Footnote 214: Such apertures are also used instead of pulleys, in the transfer of the rope from place to place.]

2. The pieces are bucked or boiled in milk of lime[215] for 12 to 14 hours,[216] followed by rinsing or cleansing in the washing-machine.

[Footnote 215: The common proportions are about 1 lb. of quick-lime slaked and reduced to milk, with 2 galls. of water, for every 14 or 15 lbs. of cloth.]

[Footnote 216: This is done in a large iron boiler furnished with a perforated false bottom of wood, and technically termed a ‘kier.’]

3. They are soured in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid,[217] and again washed; similar machines being employed for each.

[Footnote 217: This dilute acid or acidulated water has usually the sp. gr. 1·010 or 2° Twaddle.]

4. They are bucked or boiled for 15 or 16 hours in a solution of resinate of soda,[218] and then washed as before.

[Footnote 218: Made with about 17 lbs. of soda-ash and 3 lbs. of resin, with water, 50 galls., to every 20 or 21 lbs. of cloth.]

5. They are chemicked by being laid in a wooden, stone, or slate cistern, when a solution of chloride of lime[219] is pumped over them, so as to run through the ‘goods’ into a vessel below, from which it is returned on them by continued pumping, so that the cloth lies in it for 1 or 2 hours; it is then washed.

[Footnote 219: Technically called ‘chemick.’ The strength of the solution is usually of the sp. gr. 1·0025, or 1/2° Twaddle.]

6. They are bucked or boiled, for 4 or 5 hours, in a solution of 1 lb. of crystallised carbonate of soda, dissolved in 5 galls. of water, to every 35 lbs. of cloth; and washed.

7. They are again ‘chemicked,’ as before; and washed.

8. They are soured in very dilute hydrochloric acid;[220] and then left on ‘stillages’[221] for 5 or 6 hours.

[Footnote 220: Sp. gr. 1·0125, or 2-1/2° Twaddle.]

[Footnote 221: Low stools or props to keep them from the ground.]

9. They are, finally, thoroughly washed, well squeezed between rollers, dried over steam-heated tin-cylinders, starched or dressed, and finished.

This is the usual process for good calicos, Muslins, and other light goods, are handled rather more carefully; whilst for commoner ones the sixth and seventh operations are generally omitted. The whole usually occupies 5 days; but by using Mr Barlow’s high-pressure steam kiers, it may be performed in two days. Yarns, &c., may be bleached in a similar manner by first looping the skeins together.

Obs. According to the most reliable authorities, the strength of cotton-fibre is not impaired by its being boiled for two hours in milk of lime, under ordinary pressure, out of contact with the air; nor, according to the bleachers, even by sixteen hours boiling at the strength of 40 lbs. per 100 galls. It is said that lime is less injurious than ‘soda.’

Solution of caustic soda, sp. gr. 1·030, does not injure it, even by boiling under high pressure; but, in practice, soda-ash, or carbonate of soda, is used, and this only in the second bucking, and in the third, if there be one. The strength now never exceeds 25 lbs. of the crystals to the 100 galls., and is usually less.

Experiments have shown that immersion for 8 hours in a solution of chloride of lime containing 3 lbs. to the 100 galls., followed by souring in sulphuric acid of the sp. gr. 1·067, or for 18 hours in acid of 1·035, does not injure it.

By the improved method of previously treating the goods with lime or alkalies, little chloride of lime is required. Indeed, it is said that where 300 lbs. were formerly employed, 30 to 40 lbs. only are now used. At the same time it is right to mention, that though a solution at 1/2° Twaddle is usually regarded as the best and safest strength, yet in some bleach works, particularly for inferior and less tender goods, this is greatly increased, even up to 5°, the period of immersion being proportionately reduced, as it is not safe to expose the goods long to the action of such powerful solutions. With the higher strengths they are passed rapidly through the liquid with the calender, sufficient time only being allowed to soak them thoroughly; then immediately through the acid or souring, followed by washing as before.

In Scotland and Ireland the washing is generally performed by wash-stocks; whilst in Lancashire, dash-wheels, or washing machines with squeezers, are almost always used for the purpose.

Cotton loses about 1-20th of its weight by bleaching.

II. BLEACHING of =Linen=:——Linen may be bleached in a similar way to ‘cotton,’ but the process is much more troublesome and tedious, owing to its greater affinity for the colouring matter existing in it in the raw state. Under the old system, several alternate buckings with pearlash or potash and lengthened exposure on the field, with one or two sourings, and a final scrubbing with a strong lather of soft soap, constituted the chief details of the process. In this way a high degree of whiteness, though not an absolutely pure or snow white, was ultimately produced. Grass-bleaching or crofting is still extensively used for linen; but it is more generally employed only for a limited time, and in combination with a modification of the system at present almost universally adopted for cotton goods; whilst, in some cases, crofting is omitted altogether, and the bleaching conducted wholly by the latter process. The following Tables exhibit the outlines of the new system as at present practised in Ireland and Scotland:——

a. For plain sheetings:——

1. They are bucked for 12 or 15 hours in a lye made with about 1 lb. of pearlash (or soda-ash) to every 56 lbs. of cloth, and washed.

2. Crofted for about 2 days.

3. Bucked in milk of lime.

4. Turned, and the bucking continued, some fresh lime and water being added; and washed.

5. Soured in dilute sulphuric acid at 2° Twaddle.

6. Bucked with soda-ash for about 10 hours, and washed.

7. Crofted, as before.

8. Bucked again with soda-ash, as before.

9. Crofted for about 3 days.

10. Examined, the white ones taken out, and the others again bucked and crofted.

11. Scalded or simmered in a lye of soda-ash of about only 2-3rds the former strength, and washed.

12. Chemicked, for 2 hours, at 1/2° Twaddle, washed, and scalded.

13. Again chemicked, as before.

14. Soured for 4 hours, as in No. 5; washed, and finished.

This occupies 13 to 15 days, according to the weather.

b. For shirtings, &c.:——As the preceding, but with somewhat weaker solutions.

c. For goods to be subsequently printed:——

1. Bucked in milk of lime for 10 or 12 hours.

2. Soured in dilute hydrochloric acid of 2° Tw., for 3 to 5 hours, and washed.

3. Bucked with resinate of soda for about 12 hours.

4. Goods turned, reboiled as before, and washed.

5. Chemicked at 1/2° Tw., for 4 hours.

6. Soured at 2° Tw., for 2 hours, and washed.

7. Bucked with soda-ash for about 10 hours, and washed.

8. Chemicked as in No. 5.

9. Soured, as at No. 6, for 3 hours; washed, and dried.[222]

[Footnote 222: The strengths of the solutions, when not otherwise stated, are about the same as those given under COTTON (antè).]

Obs. The chief difficulty in bleaching linen arises from the fact that its colouring matter is insoluble in acid or alkaline solutions until it has been long acted upon by light, air, and moisture, as in the common process of grass-bleaching. Chlorine hastens the operation; but, unfortunately, it can only be employed towards the end of the process; as when earlier used, the colour of the raw cloth becomes set, and irremovable. To obviate this difficulty Mr F. M. Jennings, of Cork, has lately[223] introduced the joint use of an alkali and an alkaline hypochlorite (chloride) in the place of the ordinary chloride of lime. He prepares a bath of solution of soda at 5° Twaddle, which he raises by the addition of chloride of soda (or of potash) to 6 or 7°, and in this he steeps the cloth (after the first bucking and souring) for some hours, heat, or constant squeezing between rollers, being had recourse to, to facilitate the action. Souring and washing follow, when the goods are again put into the alkaline and chloride bath, as before; after which they are soured, and bucked again with soda. These last three operations are repeated until the cloth is almost white, when crofting for one half to one fourth the time required by the usual method renders it fit for the final bucking, and finishing. Indeed, it is said that if the process be very carefully managed it renders crofting unnecessary.

[Footnote 223: Patent dated 1859.]

Raw linen loses about 1-3rd of its weight in bleaching.

III. =Silk=:——Silk is usually bleached by first steeping it, and then boiling it in solutions of white soap in water, after which it is subjected to repeated rinsings, a little indigo-blue, or archil, being added to the last water to give it a pearly appearance. When required to be very white (as for gloves, stockings, &c.), the goods are cautiously submitted, for 2 or 3 hours, to the action of the fumes of burning sulphur, and then finished by rinsing, as before.

Obs. Boiling or sulphuring is not required for the white silk of China. Raw silk loses from 4 to 5 oz. per lb. by bleaching.

IV. =Wool=:——In bleaching raw wool it is first deprived of the yolk or peculiar natural varnish with which it is covered. For this purpose it is steeped and stirred for about 20 minutes in rather warm water (135°——140° Fahr.), either with or without the addition of 1-4th part of stale urine; after which it is placed in baskets to drain, and soon afterwards thoroughly rinsed in a stream of water, when it is again allowed to drain, and it is hung up to dry. The further operations depend on circumstances, wool being sometimes whitened in the fleece, or in the yarn, but still more frequently and extensively not till woven. When it is intended to send it in the first two forms white to market, it is hung up or spread out, whilst still wet, and sulphured (see below); after which it is either at once rinsed for some time in cold water, or is previously treated with a very weak bath of soft soap.

In the case of woollen fabrics the operations of purifying or whitening the wool, beyond the removal of the yolk, are, for the most part, mixed up with the weaving and working of it. The pieces leave the hands of the weaver of a dingy grey colour, loaded with oil, dirt, and dressing. They then pass to the fulling-mill, where they are treated with fuller’s earth and soap, often preceded with ammonia or stale urine, after each of which they are well washed out or scoured with cold water, and are then ready for the dyer. When it is intended to obtain them very white, or to dye them of a very delicate shade, they are commonly sulphured; after which they are washed or milled in cold water for some hours, a little finely ground indigo being added towards the end, to increase their whiteness; an addition also made when the cloth is sufficiently white without the sulphuring process.

The usual mode of SULPHURING woollen goods is to hang them up on pegs or rails, or, in the case of fleece-wool, to spread it about, at the upper part of a close, lofty room or chamber, called a sulphur-stove. In each corner of this room is set a cast-iron pot containing sulphur, which, after the introduction of the goods, is set on fire, when the door at the lower part of the chamber is shut tight and clayed. This is commonly done over-night; and by the morning, the bleaching being finished, the goods are removed, washed, and azured.

Sulphuring, unless very skilfully managed, imparts a harsh feel to woollen goods, which is best removed by a very weak bath of soap-and-water (lukewarm); but the action of soap in part reproduces the previous yellowish-white tinge. Milling with cold, or lukewarm water, tinged with indigo, is the best substitute.

Obs. Raw wool loses from 35 to 45% of its weight by scouring, and 1 to 2% more in the subsequent operations of the bleacher; the loss being in direct proportion to the fineness of the staple.

⁂The above are the four principal applications of the art of bleaching; but, in technical language, the words bleaching, bleacher, bleachery, bleach-works, &c., when employed alone, are understood to have reference only to cotton and linen. This has arisen from the enormous extent of these manufactures, and from the process of bleaching them forming a business entirely distinct from that of weaving, dyeing, or printing them. The following, with the exception of the first, are of comparatively minor importance and interest:——

V. =Materials for Paper=:——Old rags for the manufacture of paper, and paper-pulp, are now almost universally bleached with chlorine or chloride of lime; the former being generally used in France, and the latter in England. The process usually consists in (1) boiling in an alkaline lye to remove grease and dirt, (2) washing, (3) pressing, (4) deviling or tearing up the pressed cake into fine shreds or pulp, (5) chemicking, with agitation, for about an hour, in a clear solution of chloride of lime,[224] followed by (6) washing, (7) souring with dilute hydrochloric acid at 1 or 2° Tw., or treatment with a solution of some antichlor, or both, and (8) a final washing and pressing. For the common kinds of paper, the operations included in No. 7 are omitted; but unless the whole of the lime-salt be removed from the pulp, the paper made of it is liable to turn brown and become rotten by age. In some cases rags are bleached before being divided and pulped. Cotton-waste is bleached in a similar way to rags.

[Footnote 224: The ‘strength’ varies with the colour and quality of the rags. From 2 to 4 lbs. per cwt. of rags is a common proportion; but for dyed and printed rags as much as 7 or even 8 lbs. per cwt. are often employed. It is better, however, to prolong the process with a weaker solution, than to hasten it by using the chloride in excess. Large rectangular cisterns of wood, or of slate, are commonly employed as the bleach-vessels. Cisterns of wood, or brick-work lined with gutta percha or with asphalto-bitumen, are employed in some paper-mills, and answer admirably.]

In France, the chlorine, in a gaseous form, is passed from the generators into the bleach-cisterns containing the pulp, which in this case must be fitted with close covers.

=VI. Printed Paper=, as Books, Engravings, Maps, &c.——These when stained or discoloured may be whitened by (1) wetting them with pure clean water, (2) plunging them into a dilute solution of chloride of lime, (3) passing them through water soured with hydrochloric acid, and then (4) through pure water until every trace of acid be removed. This process may be further improved by further dipping them into a weak solution of some antichlor, and again washing them, before finally drying them. It is only rare and valuable original works or specimens of art that are worth this treatment, which, owing to the very nature of paper, requires considerable address to manage. In many cases a sufficient degree of renovation may be effected by simply exposing the articles, previously slightly moistened, to the fumes of burning sulphur, followed by passing them through a vessel of pure water.

=VII. Straw, Straw-plait=, and articles made of them, are, on the large scale, usually bleached by (1) a hot steep or boil in a weak solution of caustic soda, or a stronger one of soda-ash, followed (2) by washing and (3) by exposure to the fumes of burning sulphur. To effect the last, the goods are suspended in a close chamber connected with a small stove, in which brimstone is kept burning. On the small scale, a large chest or box is commonly employed. A piece of brick, or an old box-iron heater, heated to dull redness, is placed at the bottom of an iron crock or earthen pan, a few fragments of roll sulphur thrown on, the lid instantly closed, and the whole left for some hours. Care should be taken to avoid inhaling the fumes, which are very deleterious as well as disagreeable and annoying. Straw goods are now also frequently bleached by the use of a weak solution of chloride of lime, or of water strongly soured with oxalic acid or even oil of vitriol, followed by very careful rinsing in clean water; but here, as in the former case, the natural varnish, dirt, grease, &c., must be first removed by alkalies or soap, to enable the chlorine or acid to act on the fibres.

=VIII. Wax.= Wax is bleached by first melting it at a low temperature in a cauldron, from whence it is allowed to run out by a pipe at the bottom into a capacious vessel filled with cold water.

This vessel is fitted with a large wooden cylinder, which turns upon its axis; and the melted wax falls upon this cylinder. The surface of the cylinder being always wet, the wax does not adhere to it, but becomes solid, assuming the form of ribbons as it does so, and in this shape becoming distributed through water in the tub. The wax is then removed and placed upon large frames stretched upon linen cloth, which are supported about 18 inches above the ground, and erected in a situation exposed to the air, dew, and sun. The several ribbons thus placed on the frame should not exceed an inch and a half, and they ought to be so moved about from time to time as that each part may be equally exposed. If the weather be favorable the wax will become white in a few days. It is again remelted, formed into ribbons, and exposed as before. These operations are continued in until the wax is completely bleached, after which it is melted and run into moulds.

Concluding Remarks. The theory of bleaching, notwithstanding the giant strides of chemistry during the last 20 years, remains still unsettled; and hence the processes employed are still, for the most part, empirical. It appears probable that chlorine acts by uniting with the hydrogen of the water, or of other compounds present, or probably with that of both, and that it is the oxygen thus liberated, and whilst in the nascent state, that is the true operative agent. Hence bleaching by chlorine, or by the hypochlorites, may be regarded as an oxidation of the colouring matter; but whether the chlorine or the oxygen effects this oxidation is of little practical importance——the result being the same——the destruction of the compound, and the removal of the colour that depends on its existence. It is doubtful whether the bleaching power of sulphurous acid is due to it as an oxidising or a deoxidising agent; but the last is probably the case, with a like destruction of the compound constituting the colouring matter. It may, however, be supposed that sulphurous acid acts as an oxidiser, as it appears to do when it decomposes sulphuretted hydrogen; or it may act by simply altering the compound by inserting itself, a view receiving some support from the fact that wool whitened by sulphuring may be restored to nearly its previous colour by merely treating it with soap or alkalies.

The bleaching power of light depends on its actinic or chemical rays, which, like chlorine, appear to act as an oxidising agent.

Chlorates, chromates, chromic acid, manganates, &c., have been proposed as bleaching agents for textile filaments and fabrics, but without success or practical advantage. Immersion in water more or less strongly impregnated with sulphurous acid has, however, been successfully substituted for the common sulphuring process, particularly for silk.

To avoid the injury of the goods by sparks, and by drops of water highly saturated with sulphurous acid falling from the roof, Mr Thom has invented a method of passing them rapidly through, or keeping them in constant motion in the sulphuring chamber. His apparatus is constructed on the principle of the washing-machine, the fumes of burning sulphur being used instead of water.

M. Tessie du Motay has proposed a new method for bleaching. He takes about equal parts of permanganate of soda and sulphate of magnesia, and dissolves them in lukewarm water. The tissues, previously freed from grease, are to be plunged into this bath until they are covered with a brown coating. They are then to be placed in a bath of sulphuric acid at 4 per cent., and rinsed after the brown matter is removed. They may be finally passed through sulphurous acid. Mr Ramsay’s method consists in sprinkling with water equal parts of chloride of lime and sulphate of magnesia, when hydrochlorate of magnesia is formed. It may be remarked that none of the more modern methods of bleaching have been found, when reduced to practice, to be cheaper, better, or more advantageous to work than those sanctioned by long experience and use.

[Further information in connection with bleaching will be found under the heads ACTINISM, BLANCHING, CALICO-PRINTING, CHARCOAL, CHLORIDES (Bleaching), CHROMATES, CHROMIC ACID, HYPOCHLORITES, HYPOCHLOROUS ACID, LIGHT, RINSING, SPOTS and STAINS, SULPHURATION, WASHING, &c.; also under BONES, ENGRAVINGS, FAT, FEATHERS, HORN, IVORY, OIL, PAPER, PRINTED BOOKS, RAGS, SPONGE, STRAW-PLAIT, TALLOW, WAX, &c.[225]]

[Footnote 225: An accurate description of the apparatus and machinery employed in bleach-works, with numerous engravings, will be found in Ure’s ‘Dict. of Arts, Manuf. & Mines,’ 5th ed., i, 318-351, &c.]

=Bleaching Liq′uid.= Solution of chloride of lime.

=Bleaching Pow′der.= Chloride of lime.

=Bleaching Salts.= The commercial hypochlorites.

=BLEAR′-EYE= (blēre′-ī). Syn. LIPPITU′DO, L.; CHASSIE, LIPPITUDE, Fr. An exudation of a puriform matter from the margins of the eyelids, which are red, tumid, and painful; and frequently, during the night, glued together by the discharge.

Treatm. Mild astringent collyria, as those of sulphate of zinc or alum (6 or 8 gr. to 1 oz. of water). An ointment formed of 1 part of the ointment of nitrate of mercury (Ph. L.), diluted with 11 parts of sweet washed lard, may be advantageously applied nightly, by means of a camel-hair pencil, the smallest quantity possible only being used. Excess in eating and drinking should be avoided, and some aperient medicine taken.

=BLEAK= (blēke). Syn. BLAY‡, BLEY‡, (blā). The cypri′nus albur′nus (Linn.), a small river-fish, the scales of which are used in making artificial pearls (which see).

=BLEB.= A vesicle or blister. In some states of general derangement of health this arises spontaneously. It should be treated in the same way as scalds.

=BLEED′ING= (blēde′-). In the sense of a flow or loss of blood, see HÆMORRHAGE; in that of bloodletting, see CUPPING, LEECHING, VENESECTION, &c.

=Bleeding Piles.= Take every morning aperient doses of milk of sulphur, then a small teaspoonful of confection of black pepper every day. Wash externally with a sponge and cold water. Apply compound gall. ointment to the piles if external.

=Bleeding from the Air Passages and Lungs.= Let the patient at once go to bed, and keep perfectly quiet, avoiding movement of any kind as much as possible. Administer dilute acids in frequently repeated doses, with five drops of tincture of digitalis. The bowels should be kept open by means of Epsom salts in infusion of roses. Give iced drinks and let solid ice be sucked. Mustard plasters may be applied to the chest. A morphia lozenge may now and then be sucked gradually away, as well as a small piece of sal prunella. The cough must be allayed by the administration of small doses of morphia in gum water or barley water. All food should be taken cold.

The treatment that we have indicated in the last two forms of hæmorrhage is intended for the exclusive guidance of emigrants or of others so placed as to be unable to summon prompt medical aid. Wherever this can be obtained no time should be lost in at once seeking it.

=Bleeding from the Nose.= Apply cold water containing ice, if obtainable. It should be so applied to the nose as to cause a shock. A cold piece of metal, such as a key, placed on the naked back sometimes stops the hæmorrhage. If neither of the above means succeed inject with a syringe a solution of alum or sulphate of zinc (ten grains to the ounce), or snuff up the nostrils some gallic acid, powder of pomegranate, kino, or catechu, mixed with starch. A plug of lint may also be dipped in either of the above solutions, or rolled in the powders, and pushed up the nostrils, or some tincture of perchloride of iron, properly diluted and applied on a piece of lint, may be tried.

=Bleeding from the Stomach.= Syn. HEMATEMESIS. In this case the blood is vomited usually in clots of a dark colour. It should be noticed whether it comes from the back of the nose or throat. The treatment consists in perfect repose in bed, and in the administration of dilute sulphuric acid in infusion of roses, with saline aperients. If these fail to give relief, tannin and krameria may be tried, and small doses of laudanum or five grains of alum may be given every four hours. If in pain, add to it 1/4 grain of acetate of morphia. All food and drinks should be taken cold, the latter iced. Pernitrate of iron in from 10 to 30 minim doses is a valuable remedy.

=BLENDE= (blĕnd). A name applied to several minerals; appr., zinc-blend, or native sulphuret of zinc——the black jack of miners.

=BLIGHT= (blīte). See MILDEW, and PLANTS (Diseases of).

=BLIND′NESS= (blīnd′-). Syn. ABLEP′SIA, CÆ′CITAS, &c., L.; AVEUGLEMENT, CÉCITÉ, Fr.; BLINDHEIT, Ger. Deprivation or want of sight.

Blindness may be congenital, or born with a person; or it may arise from accident, external violence, or disease. In the latter it may frequently be relieved by medical and surgical treatment. See AMAUROSIS, CATARACT, EYES, OPHTHALMIA, VISION, &c.

=Blindness, Day.= Syn. NIGHT′-SIGHT; NY̆̆CTALO′PIA, L. A disease of the eye in which vision is painfully acute or more or less extinct in a strong light, as that of day; but clear and pleasant in the dusk of evening and at night. Its chief causes are excessive exposure of the eyes to the direct influence of very strong or glaring light, or to heat, or both of them together; and is often one of the sequelæ of ophthalmia (which see).

=Blindness, Night.= Syn. DAY′-SIGHT; HEMERALO′PIA, L. An affection of the eye, the reverse of the preceding, in which objects are clearly seen only in broad daylight. In the beginning of the complaint the patient continues to be able to see, though less clearly, for a short time after sunset, and even by moonlight, and perhaps distinctly by bright candle light; but after a short time this power is lost. It most frequently occurs in hot climates, and low latitudes at sea. Its chief causes are fatigue and exposure of the eyes to the glare of the tropical sun, probably coupled with gastric derangement. In some cases it is congenital, and is then generally incurable. The treatment consists in avoiding exciting causes, and endeavouring to restore the tone of the stomach, and the general health, by the usual methods. The eyes at the same time should be topically medicated by the frequent use of cold water, or mild astringent collyria. See OPHTHALMIA (Chronic).

=BLIS′TER.= Syn. PAP′ULA, PUS′TULA, L.; PUSTULE, VESSIE, &c., Fr.; BLASE, BLATTER, Ger. A bladder or vesicle caused by the deposition of serous fluid between the cuticle and the derma or true skin, occasioned by the application of a vesicant, or by a burn, scald, or friction.

=Blister.= Syn. VESICATO′′RIUM, L.; EPISPASTIQUE, VESICATOIRE, Fr.; BLASEN-PFLASTER, B.-STOFF, Ger. A substance which vesicates or raises blisters; in pop. lang., a vesicating plaster or similar application.

The use of blisters is very ancient, and appears to date back long prior to the time of Hippocrates. Indeed, their value as cutaneous stimulants and counter-irritants appears to have been recognised by the medical faculty of all nations down to the present time. It is a principle sufficiently established with regard to the living system, that where a morbid action exists, it may often be removed by inducing an action of a different kind, as a state of excitement or irritation, in the same or a neighbouring part. In this way is explained the utility of blisters in local inflammation and spasmodic action, and it is this principle which regulates their application in pneumonia, gastritis, hepatitis, phrenitis, angina, rheumatism, colic, spasmodic affections of the stomach, &c.——diseases in which they are employed with the most marked advantage. A similar principle exists with respect to pain; exciting one pain often relieves another. Hence blisters frequently give relief in neuralgia, toothache, and other like painful affections. Lastly, blisters, by their operation, communicate a stimulus to the whole system, and raise the vigour of the circulation. Hence, in part, their utility in fevers of the typhoid kind, though in such cases they are used with still more advantage to obviate or remove local inflammation.

Blisters are commonly prepared with cantharides plaster, or with some other preparation of cantharides; and, in the former case, usually have their surface sprinkled over with powdered Spanish fly; whilst the blistering surface is surrounded with a margin spread with common adhesive plaster, for the purpose of causing them to adhere to the part to which they are applied. In order to prevent the action of the cantharides upon the mucous membrane of the bladder, or urinary organs, they are also often sprinkled with a little powdered camphor, or better still, are moistened with camphorated ether, which, on its evaporation, leaves a thin layer of camphor on the surface; but care must be taken that the layer be not too thick, as in that case the plaster would not take effect. With a like object, a piece of thin book-muslin or tissue-paper (silver-paper) is frequently placed between the blistering surface of the plaster and the skin; the efficacy of which may be still further heightened by first soaking the muslin or paper in olive or almond oil.

The usual time an ordinary blister of cantharides plaster is allowed to remain in contact with the skin is from 10 to 12 hours. It is then gently removed. The subsequent treatment depends on the object in view. When it is not wished to maintain a discharge from the blistered surface, the vesicle is cut with the point of a pair of scissors at its most depending part, to let out the fluid which it contains, followed by a dressing of spermaceti or other simple ointment; but when the case requires the blister to be kept open, or to be converted into a perpetual blister, as it is sometimes called, the whole of the detached cuticle is carefully removed with the scissors, and the part is dressed with either the ointment of cantharides or of savine, at first more or less diluted with lard or simple ointment, with an occasional dressing of resin cerate. According to Mr Crowther, the blistered surface is best kept clean by daily fomentation with warm water.

Of late years, to obviate the unpleasant effects occasionally arising from the common blister, various compounds having cantharides for their base, as well as fabrics spread with them, have been brought before the public. These are noticed hereafter. See PLASTER, VESICANTS, &c.

=Blisters, Extempora′′neous.= Among the best of these may be mentioned the following:——

1. A piece of lint dipped in the strongest vinegar of cantharides, and immediately after its application to the skin, covered over with a piece of strapping, or preferably a piece of sheet gutta percha or oiled silk, to prevent evaporation. Raises a blister in from 5 to 8 minutes.

2. Concentrated acetic acid, applied in the same way, has a similar effect.

3. (Dr Darcq.) Into a flat watch glass pour from 8 to 10 drops of highly concentrated liquor of ammonia; cover the liquid with a small piece of linen of rather less diameter than that of the glass, and at once apply this little apparatus to the previously shaved skin. The whole must be kept in its place by means of moderate pressure with the fingers, until a red ring, about 2 centimètres in breadth, is observed round the glass, when it is certain that vesication is effected. Sometimes scarcely 30 seconds are necessary for obtaining the result. The apparatus may then be removed, and the blistered part treated in the usual manner; the dressing being according to the object in view.

4. (Trousseau.) Bibulous paper slightly wetted with a little of the ethereal extract of cancharides, and instantly applied to the skin, the whole being covered with a piece of common adhesive plaster to prevent evaporation.

5. Boiling water applied by means of a suitably shaped tube, the adjacent parts being at the same time protected from injury. Instantaneous.

=Blister, Horse.= See VETERINARY MEDICINES.

=Blister*, Perpet′ual.= See BLISTER (antè).

=BLIS′TERING.= Syn. VES′ICANS, VESICATO′′RIUS, L.; EPISPASTIQUE, VÉSICANT, VÉSICATOIRE, Fr.; BLASENZIEHEND, &c., Ger. In medicine, &c., that vesicates or raises blisters when applied to the skin.

=Blistering Pa′per, Plas′ter, Tis′′sue= (tĭsh-ū), &c. See PLASTERS, VESICANTS, &c.

=BLOAT′ER.= See BLOTE.

=BLONDE.= [Fr.] Syn. BLOND′-LACE. Silk-lace. The name is now also applied to cotton-lace edged with silk. For the mode of cleaning it and getting it up, see LACE and MUSLIN.

=BLOOD= (blŭd). Syn. SAN′′GUIS, L.; SANG, Fr.; BLUT, Ger. The general circulating fluid of animals, and that on which the nourishment and growth of their bodies depend, and from which all the secretions are formed. It is warm and red in vertebrated animals; and, for the most part, cold and white in the invertebrata. In man and all other mammals, and in birds——the two highest classes of the animal kingdom——the blood, though collectively forming but one circulating stream, varies considerably in appearance according to the part or vessels in which it is found. That contained in the left side of the heart, and in the arteries, possesses a very brilliant scarlet colour, and is called arte′′rial blood; whilst that found in the right side of the heart, and in the veins, has a darkish purple colour, and is called ve′nous blood. The two, however, differ little from each other in their chemical properties and composition; the most marked point of difference being that venous blood holds carbonic acid in solution, whilst oxygen predominates in the blood of the arteries. The fibrine of venous blood is also soluble in a solution of nitrate of potassa; whilst that of arterial blood is insoluble in that menstruum.

Comp. Blood consists of a transparent and nearly colourless fluid (plas′ma, se′′rum, sĕralbu′men), in which float about a countless multitude of microscopic round red bodies (blood-discs, blood-corpuscles), to which its colour is due, accompanied by a few colourless globules (white blood-corpuscles) of a somewhat larger size. The red corpuscles are found, on more minute examination, to consist of an envelope containing a solution of hæmatosin.

Prop. These are, for the most part, well known. It has an alkaline reaction, a saline and rather disagreeable sweetish taste, and when newly drawn evolves a peculiar odour or halitus, which almost immediately disappears. As it cools and on repose it coagulates, owing, according to some, to the spontaneous solidification of the fibrine.

The following table, based upon the observations of Schmidt and the analysis of Lehmann, is given by the latter, as representing the average quantitative relation of the principal constituents of normal blood. It will be noticed that the blood is here regarded as composed of two portions, one consisting solely of the red particles, and the other of the liquid, in which these red corpuscles are suspended, termed the liquor sanguinis, which consists of the serum holding fibre in solution:——

Sp. gr. of Blood-corpuscles, 1·0885.

1000 parts blood-corpuscles contain——

Water 688·00 Solid constituents 312·00 consisting of—— Hæmatin (with iron) 16·75 Globulin and cell membrane 282·22 Fat 2·31 Extractive matters 2·60 Mineral substances (without iron) 8·12 Chlorine 1·686 Sulphuric anhydride (SO_{3}) 0·066 Phosphoric anhydride (P_{2}O_{5}) 1·134 Potassium 3·328 Sodium 1·052 Oxygen 0·667 Calcium phosphate 0·114 Magnesium phosphate 0·073

Sp. gr. of Liquor Sanguinis, 1·028.

1000 parts of liquor sanguinis contain——

Water 902·90 Solid constituents 97·10 consisting of—— Fibrin 4·05 Albumen 78·84 Fat 1·72 Extractive matters 3·94 Mineral substances 8·55 Chlorine 3·644 Sulphuric anhydride (SO_{3}) 0·115 Phosphoric anhydride (P_{2}O_{5}) 0·191 Potassium 0·323 Sodium 3·341 Oxygen 0·403 Calcium phosphate 0·311 Magnesium phosphate 0·222

The ash of blood contains about 6·84 per cent. of ferric oxide. (Lehmann.)

The following table gives the results of the average composition of human blood in man and woman, according to the analyses of Becquerel and Rodie:

Male. Female. Specific gravity of defibrinated blood 1·0600 1·0575 ” ” of serum 1·0280 1·0274 Water 779·00 791·00 Fibrin 2·20 2·20 { Serolin } { 0·02 } { 0·02 { Phosphorised fat } { 0·49 } { 0·46 Fatty Matters { } 1·60 { } 1·62 { { Cholesterin } { 0·09 } { 0·09 { Saponified fat } { 1·00 } { 1·05 Albumen 69·40 70·50 Blood-corpuscles 141·10 127·20 Extractive matters 6·80 7·40 ——————— ——————— 1000·10 1000·02 ——————— ——————— { Sodium chloride 3·10 3·90 Salts { Other soluble salts 2·50 2·90 { Earthy phosphates 0·33 0·35 Metallic iron 0·57 0·54 ————— ————— 6·50 7·69

The blood also contains, in solution, oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, as well as a free alkaline carbonate, urea, and small traces of alcohol have also been detected in normal blood.

The following report of a commission composed of MM. Mialhe, Mayel, Lefort, and Cornil, appointed to devise the best method for the examination of blood stains, was published in 1873. The following translation of the report appeared in the ‘Chemical News’ of December 5th, 1873.

1st. When the stain is of recent date, or supposed to be so, the red corpuscles should be particularly examined, and every care taken to preserve them without change. The stains must not be washed with water, so that the hæmatin may not be altered. After insisting on the microscopic characters of the blood stains, isolated or compared with those of various animals, the commission enumerates with care the fluids which are destructive or preservative of blood-corpuscles. Among the first, water, and particularly hot water, acetic, gallic, hydrochloric, and sulphuric acids; and of alkalies, potash and soda, even in weak solution, and ether and chloroform, also many other reagents, so alter the blood-corpuscles as to cause them to entirely disappear. Alcohol, chromic and picric acids, and bichromate of potash, preserve the corpuscles, though they alter their form. The preservative fluids are those whose composition approaches nearest to serum, such as the iodised serum of Schultze, an excellent preparation made with amniotic fluid, to which are added a few drops of the tincture of iodine, so as to give it the colour of white wine; or, better, a fluid composed thus; white of egg, 30 grams; distilled water, 270 grams; and chloride of sodium, 40 grams; or even a fluid containing 0·5 per cent. of chloride of sodium, or 5 or 6 per cent. of sulphate of sodium. If the stains be wetted and softened by these fluids, and then examined, white and red corpuscles and fibroid particles will be observed.

2nd. In more difficult cases, when the microscope, owing to the alterations which time has effected in the hæmatin, can give but vague information, examination by the spectroscope and chemical analysis enables us to arrive at precise results. The use of these means being less known, and also more delicate, requires special study.

1. Spectrum analysis. Colouring matters have the power of absorbing certain coloured rays of white light——the same always for the same substance. This is the principle upon which spectroscopic examination is based. If into any analysing tube filled with water a few drops of solution of hæmoglobin be introduced, till it has the colour of peach-blossoms, the luminous rays of the spectrum passing through this fluid present two bands of absorption, in the lines D and E of Frauenhofer, in the yellow and the green. The same fact would be observed if a few drops of blood were substituted for hæmoglobin in the analysis.

In a case of doubt the hæmoglobin of the blood could be reduced by adding to this latter a reducing body. Destroyed hæmoglobin has a different spectrum from oxygenated hæmoglobin, a single absorption band as large as the two former bands united, and a little to the left of Frauenhofer’s line D.

2. In blood in a state of decomposition, or which has been treated with acids or caustic alkalies, hæmoglobin is changed into a new substance; hæmatin is formed, which, combined with hydrochloric acid, gives definite crystals.

In order to obtain them we must proceed thus:——A small fragment of dried blood is placed on a glass slide; it is dissolved in a drop of water, and a minute portion of sea-salt added. It is covered with a thin slide, and pure acetic acid is made to pass between the two slides, and it is heated over a spirit-lamp to boiling-point; acetic acid is again added, and it is heated afresh; and this is repeated till the crystals are obtained.

They are rhomboidal, of a dirty brown colour, quite characteristic, and require to be seen with a magnifying power of three hundred or four hundred diameters. With the smallest quantity of blood these two reactions can always be produced——the spectrum examination and the crystals of hydrochlorate of hæmatin; and they are so certain that the existence of one alone enables one to affirm the presence of blood.

3. The third process, though not so exact as the preceding, ought, nevertheless, never to be neglected. If to a very small quantity of blood dissolved in a little water be added a few drops of tincture of guaiacum and of binoxide of hydrogen, a persistent blue colour is immediately produced; but this very sensitive reaction can be obtained with other organic matter, such as nasal mucus, saliva, &c.; it therefore only gives a probability. We must proceed in the following manner:——A tincture of guaiacum is prepared with alcohol at 83 degrees, and guaiacum resin; a mixture of sulphuric ether and binoxide of hydrogen is also made, and enclosed in a stoppered bottle, and kept under water in the dark. This preparation is less liable to change than pure oxygenated waters. The object stained with blood, if it be white, is put into a little cup, then moistened with water to dissolve out the blood stain, and washed in distilled water; this water is then submitted to the action of these reagents.

If the thing stained be coloured, and the stain little or not at all visible, it must be moistened, and then pressed between two or three sheets of white blotting-paper, and tried first with the guaiacum. If the stain be of blood a reddish or brown spot will form on the paper.

One of the sheets should be treated with ammonia, and the stain will become crimson or green. A second sheet treated with tincture of guaiacum and ozonised ether will give a blue colour more or less intense, according to the quantity of the blood.

To recapitulate:——1. If the stains or scales of blood appear recent, the corpuscles may, after the necessary precautions, be examined under the microscope, and their presence, diameter, &c. observed, which will enable one to diagnose the origin of the blood, whether human or animal. 2. If the stains be old and the blood changed, the reaction with the tincture of guaiacum would make the presence of blood probable; but its actual presence cannot be affirmed without spectrum examination or the production of crystals of hydrochlorate of hæmatin; one of the two is sufficient. It is unnecessary to add that these reactions do not show whether the blood is human or animal.

Bullocks’ blood has of late years, more especially in France, come into use as a remedy for anæmia and pulmonary phthisis. A correspondent, writing from Paris to the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’ in 1872, says: “It is a curious sight to see the number of patients of both sexes and of all ranks and ages, who flock to the slaughter-house every morning to drink of the still fuming blood of the oxen slaughtered for the table. I was struck with the facility with which young ladies take to it, and I have heard many say that they prefer it to cod-liver oil.”

In a paper read in 1872 before the Academy of Sciences in Paris by M. Boussingault, detailing his researches into the composition of blood, the author expressed his surprise that bullock’s blood was not more generally used as a food, as it contains all the constituents of a perfect aliment. According to the above chemist, of all nutritive substances the blood of animals contains the largest amount of iron. In man, Boussingault found in 100 grammes of blood 51 milligrammes of iron; in that of the ox, 55 milligrammes; of the pig, 59 milligrammes; and in that of the frog, 42 milligrammes. But it was not only in red blood that iron was found, Boussingault detected it in white blood also; and he found the blood of snails to contain as much iron as that of the ox or calf.

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