Cooley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades..., Sixth Edition, Volume I (part 7 of 10)

Cooley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades..., Sixth Edition, Volume I (part 7 of 10)

=DAIR′Y.= The place where milk is kept, and cheese and butter made. The best situation for a dairy is on the north side of the dwelling-house, in order that it may be sheltered from the sun during the heat of the day. Ample means should be provided to ensure ventilation, and at the same time to exclude flies and other insects. The temperature should be preserved, as much as possible, in an equable state, ranging from 45° to 55° Fahr. To lessen the influence of external variations of temperature, the walls should be double, or of considerable thickness, and the windows provided with shutters or doors. In summer the beat may be lessened by sprinkling water on the floor, which will produce considerable cold by its evaporation. Dairies built of mud or ‘cob’ are preferred in the West of England; and this preference arises from the uniform temperature they maintain, on account of the great thickness of the walls, and their being very bad conductors of heat. In large dairy-farms, where butter and cheese are made, the dairy is generally a separate building, and divided into 3 or 4 apartments; one of which is called the ‘milk-room,’ a second the ‘churning-room,’ a third the ‘cheese-room,’ containing the cheese-press, &c.; and a fourth the ‘drying-room,’ where the cheeses are placed to dry and harden. To these may be added a scullery, furnished with boiler, water, &c., for scalding and cleaning the dairy utensils.

Cleanliness is very essential in all the operations of the dairy, and in none more so than in the milking of the cows. The hands and arms of the milkmaid should be kept scrupulously clean, and should be well washed with soap and water after touching the udder of a sick cow, as without this precaution the sores may be conveyed to the healthy ones. The milk-cans should be scalded out daily, and, as well as all the other dairy utensils, should be kept clean and dry. Before placing the milk on the shelves of the dairy it should be strained through a hair sieve or a searce covered with clean cheese-cloth, as by this precaution any stray hairs that may have fallen into the milk-pail will be taken out.

The average produce of a milch cow, supplied with good pasturage, is about 3 gallons daily from Lady-day to Michaelmas, and from that time to February about 1 gallon daily. Cows of good breed will be profitable milkers, to 14 or 15 years of age, if well fed. See BUTTER, CHEESE, CREAM, &c.

=D’ALBESPYRE’S BLISTERING TISSUE.= Lard and ship’s pitch, of each 1 part; resina flav. and yellow wax, of each, 4 parts; finely powdered cantharides, 6 parts; melted together, and spread over taffety.

=DAMAS′CUS BLADES.= See STEEL.

=DAMENPULVER——Ladies’ Powder= (J. Pohlmann, Vienna). A face powder composed of 14 parts white lead, 7 of talc, 1 of magnesia, coloured with carmine and perfumed with volatile oil.

=DAMMAR.= A resin employed in mounting many microscopic objects; such as teeth, hair, hard bone, and most tissues which have been previously hardened by treatment with alcohol and chromic acid. Dammar is prepared for use as follows:——

a. Gum dammar, 1/2 oz.; oil turpentine, 1 oz.; dissolve and filter.

b. Gum mastic, 1/2 oz.; chloroform, 2 oz.; dissolve and filter. Add solution a to solution b. (Dr Klein.)

If allowed to become thick by drying, dammar may be used as luting.

=DAMP=, under any form, should be avoided. A humid atmosphere or situation is one of the commonest causes of agues, asthmas, rheumatism, and numerous other diseases.

=Damp Linen= is very injurious, and should be especially avoided. In travelling, when it is expected that the bed has not been properly aired, a good plan is to sleep between the blankets. To ascertain this point the bed may be warmed, and a cold, dry, glass tumbler immediately afterwards introduced between the sheets, in an inverted position. After it has remained a few seconds, it should be examined, when, if it is found dry, and undimmed by steam, it may be fairly presumed that the bed is well aired; but if the reverse should be the case, it should be avoided. When it is impossible to prevent the use of damp linen, as articles of dress, the best way to obviate any ill effects is to keep constantly in motion and avoid remaining near the fire, or in a warm apartment, or in a draught of cold air until sufficient time has elapsed to allow of the escape of the moisture. The effect of evaporation is the reduction of the temperature of the body; hence the depressing action of damp linen.

=Damp Walls.= Ivy planted against the sound wall of a house is said to exclude dampness. If a wall is already damp, ivy planted against it will, when grown up, cause it to become dry, provided the brickwork is sound and the dampness does not arise from moisture attracted upwards from the foundation. Sometimes, when ivy is propagated from flowering branches, it will not adhere to a wall at all; the way to get over this difficulty is to cut it back to near the surface of the ground. The young wood which will then form will take hold and cling immediately to almost anything.

The following is said to be a good application for damp walls:——Dissolve 3/4 lb. of mottled soap in 1 gallon of water. This composition is to be laid over the brickwork steadily and carefully with a large thick brush, but not in such a manner as to form a froth or lather on the surface. It must be allowed 24 hours to dry on the walls. Now mix 1/2 lb. alum with 4 gallons of water; let it stand 24 hours, and then apply it over the coating of soap. The operation must be performed in dry weather.

=DAM′SON.= A species of small black plum, much used in the preparation of tarts, &c. Damsons are rather apt to disagree with delicate stomachs, and also to affect the bowels. See PLUM.

=DAN′CING.= The practice of dancing as an amusement or exercise must be almost as old as the human race itself. Yet, notwithstanding its antiquity and prevalence amongst all nations, both barbarous and refined, the propriety and advantages of its cultivation are of a very questionable character. In a hygienic point of view it can claim no preference, as an exercise, over the more simple ones of walking and running; whilst, from the associations it frequently induces, and the heated and confined atmosphere in which its votaries commonly assemble to indulge in it, it becomes the fertile parent of immorality and consumption. A celebrated cyclopædist has, perhaps harshly, but truthfully, defined dancing to be “a silly amusement for the idle and thoughtless.”

=DANDELI′ON.= Syn. PISS-A-BED; TARAX′ACUM (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. A common British plant of the natural order Compositæ. It is known among botanists by the names Taraxacum officinale, T. dens leonis, and Leontodon Taraxacum (Linn.). Its root (Taraxaci Radix, B. P.) is employed in medicine, being diuretic and tonic. It is roasted and used as coffee, and when mixed with an equal weight of foreign coffee constitutes the article once so much puffed under the name of ‘dandelion coffee.’ A similar mixture prepared with chocolate forms the ‘dandelion chocolate’ of the shops. The blanched leaves are used in salads, and the inspissated juice, extract, and decoction are employed in medicine, and are considered as detergent, aperitive, and deobstruent. Ground roasted dandelion root cannot now be sold under the name of ‘dandelion coffee’ or mixed with coffee unless it has previously paid the chicory duty. See DECOCTION, EXTRACT, &c.

=DANDRIFF.= This is a scaly disease affecting the head, and giving rise to the formation of the small troublesome particles known as scurf. A serviceable application is two drachms of borax dissolved in a pint of camphor water; the head to be washed with this lotion once or twice a week, or much benefit may also be derived by washing the head with tepid water, agitated with a piece of quillar bark until a strong lather is produced; or with water containing salt of tartar, in the proportion of two drachms of the salt to a pint of tepid water. As a general rule, the use of soap is to be discountenanced.

=DAN′IELL’S BATTERY.= See VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.

=DAPH′NIN.= A peculiar bitter principle, discovered by Vauquelin in the Daphne mezereum or mezereon. It is procured by separating the resin from the alcoholic tincture of the bark by evaporation; afterwards, diluting the residue with water, filtering, and adding acetate of lead. A yellow substance falls down, which, when decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen, yields daphnin, under the form of small, colourless, transparent, radiated needles. It is bitter; volatile; sparingly soluble in cold water; freely soluble in hot water, and in alcohol and ether. It possesses basic properties. See MEZEREON.

=DARNEL.= The powder of the seed of the Lolium temulentum, a poisonous grass, is not unfrequently found mixed with the flour of wheat, oats, and other cereals, and when these latter, under these circumstances, are partaken of as food, they give rise to more or less alarming symptoms of poisoning, which are thus enumerated by Dr Pareira:——Headache, giddiness, languor, ringing in the ears, confusion of sight, dilated pupil, delirium, heaviness, somnolency, trembling convulsions, paralysis, and great gastro-intestinal irritation. One of the most specific signs of poisoning by darnel seeds is said by Seeger to be the trembling of the whole body. Dr Taylor mentions a case in which thirty persons who had partaken of bread containing darnel seeds were violently attacked with the above symptoms; and another case is on record of sixty persons in a prison at Cologne being similarly attacked from the same cause. Hassall states that the flour of the darnel seed presents the following appearance under the microscope:——“The starch corpuscles are polygonal, and resemble in this respect those of rice. They are, however, much smaller, and frequently united into compound grains of various sizes, the larger grains consisting of some fifty or sixty starch corpuscles.” The structure of the testa is very different from that of either rice or oat, or indeed any of the other cereal grains. It is formed of three coats or membranes. The cells of the outer coat form but a single layer, and, contrary to the arrangement which exists in the oat, their long axes are disposed transversely, in which respect they resemble rice. The fibres of the husk of rice and the cells of the testa of Lolium are, however, very distinct in other respects. In the former the cells are long and narrow, forming fibres, while in the latter they are but two or three times as broad.

The cells of the second coat, which are ranged in two layers, follow a vertical disposition, an arrangement which is contrary to that which obtains in all the other cereal grains with the exception of rice. The cells of the third coat form but a single layer, and resemble those of other grains.

=DATU′RA.= Syn. THORN-APPLE; STRAMO′NIUM (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. A genus of plants belonging to the nightshade order, or ‘Atropaceæ,’ The species Datura Stramonium is an important medicinal plant, the leaves and seeds being officinal in B. P. It is anodyne and sedative, but not hypnotic, though it will often induce sleep by relieving pain. It affects the constitution in much the same way as belladonna.——Dose, 1 to 4 or 5 gr., in asthma, gout, headache, neuralgic and rheumatic pains, &c. In spasmodic asthma smoking the leaf often gives instantaneous relief, but must be exhibited with care, as the whole plant is intensely poisonous. No antidote is known. Another species, namely, Datura tatula, is now preferred for cigars or cigarettes. Cigars are made from Datura Stramonium more frequently than from Datura tatula. They are recommended for asthma. See ASTHMA, CIGARS (Stramonium), DATURIA (below).

=DATU′RIA.= Syn. DATU′RINE, DATURIN′A, HYOSCY′AMINE. An organic alkali, discovered by Geiger and Hesse in Datura Stramonium or thorn apple. It occurs also in Hyoscyamus niger or henbane. It is best obtained from the seeds. Daturia dissolves in 280 parts of cold and 72 parts of boiling water; it is very soluble in alcohol, less so in ether. It tastes bitter, dilates the pupil strongly, and is very poisonous. It may be sublimed unaltered, and may be obtained in prismatic crystals by the addition of water to its alcoholic solution. With the acids it forms salts, which are mostly crystallisable.

=DAVIDS-THEE——David’s Tea= (B. Fragner, Prague). Recommended as a domestic remedy for chronic catarrh of the lungs and air passages, and especially for tuberculosis. A mixture of equal parts of great centaury, hyssop, chervil (Scandix odorata), white horehound, milfoil, Iceland moss, and carduus benedictus.

=Davids-Thee, Echter Karolinenthaler——Genuine Karolin’s Dale David’s Tea= (Kràl). Recommended for the same diseases as the preceding. A mixture of white horehound, milfoil, Iceland moss, great centaury, and ground ivy. According to a communication from a Bohemian apothecary the original prescription reads thus:——Herba cerefolii (Scandicis, chervil), hb. centaurii minoris (lesser centaury), hb. marrub. (horehound), flor. millefol. (milfoil flowers), lichen. Isl., of each 6 parts; hb. hyssopi, 3 parts; hb. cardui benedicti, 2 parts. (A. Selle.)

=DEAD, DISPOSAL OF.= As every dead body during the process of the decomposition it undergoes gives rise to products that are not only in the highest degree offensive, but in an especial sense dangerous to the health and lives of a community, the disposal of the dead in a manner best calculated to ensure, with the removal of the corpse from amongst the survivors, the least injurious consequences of its subsequent decay, becomes a problem of supreme importance to the sanitarian.

Probably amongst the nations of antiquity the Romans, with their eminently practical minds, and as we may infer from their other enlightened sanitary arrangements, were the only ancient people who were not guided either by superstitious or religious ideas in the disposal of their dead, at one time burned, but afterwards buried them. The Greeks practised cremation, the Egyptians embalmment (previously disembowelling the body), under the belief that after the lapse of many thousands of years the soul would return to its earthly mansion. The Hebrews sometimes burned their dead, and sometimes interred them. Amongst the ancient Hindoos the body was got rid of sometimes by cremation, sometimes by being cast into the Ganges, or other sacred river, and sometimes by exposure, until eaten by vultures. The Icthyophagi, or fish-eaters, appear to be the only people of antiquity who disposed of their dead by throwing them into the sea.

Amongst modern civilised nations interment is the method almost universally adopted for disposing of the dead.

Embalmment has been of late years occasionally practised in America, and was frequently adopted during the late civil war in many cases, since it afforded the means of sending the bodies of the slain to surviving relatives at long distances. Sir Henry Thompson’s advocacy of cremation was the means of causing the establishment in England a few years back of a society for its introduction; but neither here nor in Germany, where it has occasionally been employed, has the practice being adopted, save in a very few instances, most of which seem to have been merely experimental. In Calcutta cremation is still practised to some extent by the native population; the process being very effectively carried out by a French company, which has been established for some years. We may mention here an important modification of the ordinary form of interment proposed by Mr Sydney Hadden. Mr Hadden’s proposal is to dispense with the coffin, and to place the corpse instead in a large wickerwork receptacle filled with flowers, then inter it.

Of the three modes of disposal of the dead, viz. by burial, by burning, and by consignment to the sea, the first, as we have already said, is the almost invariably prevalent custom amongst civilised communities. That in a sanitary point of view it is less to be commended than either of the other methods is, we think, not difficult of demonstration. When a body is burned the resulting gaseous products of combustion, which most probably consist mainly of carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, and nitrogen, diffuse harmlessly into the atmosphere, and there remains behind only the calcined bones which formed the skeleton. An experiment by Sir Henry Thompson has shown that cremation may be performed without giving rise to odour of any kind at a comparatively small expense, and within a very moderate space of time. He burned a body weighing 227 lbs. in fifty-five minutes by placing it in a cylindrical metallic vessel seven feet long and six feet in diameter, previously heated to incandescence. The evolved gases were made to pass over a large surface of strongly heated fire-bricks, which formed part of the furnace in which the metallic vessel was placed. The furnace and its fittings were designed by Dr Siemens. The remaining ashes weighed about 5 lbs. In his pamphlet ‘On Cremation,’ Sir Henry Thompson has proposed that the custom, if adopted, should be carried out in the following manner: “When death occurs, and the necessary certificate has been given, the body is placed in a light wood shell, then in a suitable outside receptacle preparatory to removal for religious rites or otherwise. After a proper time has elapsed it is conveyed to the spot where cremation is to be performed. There nothing need be seen by the last attendant or attendants than the placing of a shell within a small compartment, and the closing of the door upon it. It slides down into the heated chamber, and is left there an hour until the necessary changes have taken place. The ashes are then placed at the disposal of the attendants.” Sir Henry suggests that, previous to the burning of any corpse, proper officers appointed for the purpose should examine into and certify as to the cause of death, and if satisfied that it has resulted from natural events, that they should give the certificate he alludes to.

Sir Henry Thompson proposes that the functions of the officers appointed for this purpose should be the same as those of the medicins verificateurs, who are medical inspectors appointed by the municipality of Paris and the other large cities, whose duty consists in visiting each house where a death occurs, in assuring themselves that the person is really dead, and that there are no suspicious circumstances attending the demise.

In Paris alone there are more than eighty of such medical functionaries.

Burial by casting the corpse into the depths of the sea possesses the great advantage over ordinary interment of removing it from near the habitation of man, whilst the sea water, by its antiseptic properties, would be as little favorable to the dissemination of noxious putrescent compounds as cremation is. On the contrary, if the dead are disposed of by the ordinary method of burial, the objectionable effects arising from their decomposition in the earth are, under the most favorable conditions, only partially overcome; and the reason is obvious, since whilst deep-sea burial prevents animal decay altogether, and burning destroys the body, which, if not got rid of, would become putrid; burial in the earth permits its slow and lengthened decomposition to go on unchecked, and to thus very frequently become a source of contamination and danger to health.[251]

[Footnote 251: “After death the buried body returns to its elements and gradually, and often by the means of other forms of life which prey on it, a large amount of it forms carbonic acid, ammonia, sulphuretted and carburetted hydrogen, nitrous and nitric acids, and various more complex gaseous products, many of which are very fetid, but which, however, are eventually all oxidised into the simpler combination. The non-volatile substances, the salts, become constituents of the soil, pass into plants, or are carried away into the water percolating through the ground. The hardest parts, the bones, remain in some soils for many centuries, and even for long periods retain a portion of their animal constituents.”——PARKES.]

The atmosphere in the vicinity of graveyards and cemeteries is notoriously unhealthy, whilst water taken from wells situated near them is often so impure as to be wholly unfit for drinking. Several instances are on record in which the disturbance of an old graveyard has frequently been the means of disseminating disease. But although the disposal of the dead by means either of cremation or by consignment of the body to the deep caverns of the ocean are methods, in a hygienic point of view, immeasurably superior to earth-burial, there are, we think, certain obstacles to their adoption, even to a limited extent, by civilised communities, at any rate, for many years to come.

“Both cremation and deep-sea burial are open to the objection, that should the proposed officers appointed to inquire into the circumstances attending death have been mistaken in their verdict, as for instance in overlooking, or not suspecting a case of secret poisoning, not only would the murderer escape detection, but a sense of possible immunity from punishment might act as an encouragement to others who were equally guilty minded. The proposal that the stomach should be preserved, and kept for a certain time, and, in case of suspicion justifying it, examination, would in many instances fail to lead to detection, since, if certain alkaloids had been employed, they would have to be searched for, not in the stomach, but in the tissues of the dead body. Again, an obstacle to the universal adoption of deep-sea burial would be, in the case of vast continents, the difficulty of transmission from their interior, of the corpse, to the shore. But even if these objections against cremation and sea-burial could be overcome (and possibly they may be eventually), there would still remain the invincible repugnance of the survivors to what sentiment and feeling will persist in regarding as cruel indignity and irreverence toward the dead.

“Yet the eventual disposal of our frames is the same in all cases; and it is probably a matter merely of custom which makes us think that there is a want of affection, or of care, if the bodies of the dead are not suffered to repose in the earth that bore them.

“In reality, neither affection nor religion can be outraged by any manner of disposal of the dead which is done with proper solemnity and respect to the earthly dwelling-place of our friends. The question should be placed entirely on sanitary grounds, and we shall then judge it rightly.

“What is the use of preserving for a few more years the remains which will be an object of indifference to future generations? The next logical step would be to enshrine these remains in some way so as to ensure their preservation, and we should return to the vast burial mounds in Egypt.

“At present the question is not an urgent one, but if peace continue, and if the population of Europe increase, it will become so in another century or two.

“Already in this country we have seen, in our own time, a great change; the objectionable practice of interment under and round churches in towns has been given up, and the population is buried at a distance from their habitations. For the present that measure will probably suffice, but in a few years the question will again inevitably present itself.”[252]

[Footnote 252: Parkes.]

Since however, for the reasons above specified, earth-burial seems to be the only means of disposing of the dead likely to prevail for many years to come, the question arises as to how its attendant evils can be as much as possible minimised. The following suggestions, that may assist to effect this, are offered:——As quickly as possible after death the body should be covered with sawdust, to which carbolic acid has been added, a precaution which not only prevents the escape of fetid gases, but also of putrescent fluids from a badly jointed coffin. Charcoal, although an excellent disinfectant, from its colour, could not out of consideration for the feelings of the relatives or friends, be used until the coffin with its contents had been screwed down.

It is always desirable (save for some special reason) that the corpse should be interred within three or four days of the demise. If a body has to be kept above ground for some time, Mr Herbert Barker recommends a thin layer of sawdust and sulphate of zinc to be placed over it, in the proportion of two parts of the former to one of the latter. The coffin should be made of a material impervious to the air, and of such strength as to withstand the pressure of the overlying earth.

Mr Wynter Blyth, in his ‘Dictionary of Hygiène,’ recommends a coffin described by Mr Baker in his evidence before the sanitary commission. “The body being first of all placed in a common shell, this shell is placed in the coffin; the interval between the two is filled with common pitch, and then the outside coffin is coated over with pitch; so that it is as perfectly air-tight as a leaden shell. If desired a glass can be placed so as to leave the face exposed to the view of a jury when necessary with regard to the interment.

“The advantages of deep over shallow burying are obvious. The greater the mass of superincumbent earth into which the gaseous products of decomposition diffuse, the better the chance of their absorption and removal by the soil, and the less risk of their consequent escape into the contiguous atmosphere, as well as of the danger of contamination to the water of wells, &c. The depth of the grave varies in different countries. In Austria it is 6 ft. 2 in.; in Hesse Darmstadt, from 5 ft. 7 in. to 6 ft. 6 in.; Munich, 6 ft. 7 in.; Stuttgard, 6 ft. 6 in.; Russia from 6 ft. 10 in. In our country the practice is generally to make the depth about 6 feet, but then coffins may be placed one on the other, so that, as an actual fact, they often very closely approach the surface. The regulations followed at Stuttgard are much to be commended. In the cemeteries there the space allotted for each grave is an oblong piece of land 10 feet in length and 5 feet broad. In France the graves vary in depth from 1-1/4 metres (4·921 feet) to 2 metres (6·561 feet). They are 8 decimètres (2·264 feet) in breadth, and distant the one from the other from 3 to 4 decimètres (11·911 inches to 1·132 feet.)” (Blyth.)

To render a cemetery therefore as little prejudicial as possible to a community, not alone should deep burial be enforced, but only one body should be permitted to be deposited in a grave, at least, till after the lapse of some years. Some sanitary authorities recommend the use of quicklime or charcoal, advising them to be thrown into the grave previous to its being closed. Of the two, charcoal is the preferable disinfectant, although it does not entirely prevent putrefaction, nor the evolution of bad-smelling gases. No more efficient means of absorbing organic matters, and carbonic acid given off by the decaying corpse in the earth, can be devised than that of rapidly growing trees and shrubs in abundance around the graves.

For the funereal cypress and yew, which are slowly growing trees, why should a needless sentiment prevent the substitution of the much more sanitary and less sombre-looking eucalyptus in countries where this plant will flourish?

Old burial-grounds which have become offensive may be best disinfected by covering the ground with fresh earth to the depth of several inches, and by planting it with trees and sowing it with grass seed. Twenty-six city graveyards covering a superficial area of about 48,000 square yards, and in which, according to moderate calculation, there were not less than 48,000 tons of human remains, were successfully dealt with in this manner.

In the case of church vaults they should be first opened, a quantity of quicklime thrown into them, and thus freely exposed to the external air. The coffins should then be rearranged crossways like bricks in a building, and filled in with dry earth or masons’ rubbish, mixed with about 5 or 10 per cent. of vegetable charcoal. The vaults should next be ventilated by means of an upcast and downcast shaft of the size of a rain-water pipe, and the whole should then be closed in. In 1860, two hundred and fifty vaults in seventy-one city churches were thus disinfected.[253] These vaults contained the coffins and remains of at least 11,000 dead bodies, which, previous to the adoption of the above measures, were very offensive.[253] When bodies are removed from the vaults to other places, Dr Letheby recommends them to be in closed coffins and in cases containing an abundant supply of carbonate of lime powder.

[Footnote 253: Letheby.]

The disposal of the dead frequently becomes a matter of considerable difficulty in time of war or during a siege. Under these circumstances cremation may be found the most desirable method of getting rid of them. If the bodies are buried they should always be at as great a distance as possible from one another, and as deep as they can be. If procurable, charcoal should be thrown over them; if it cannot be obtained sawdust and sulphate of zinc, or carbolic acid, may be employed. Quicklime is also commonly used, but it is less useful.

At Metz, in 1870, the following plan was adopted:——A pit of about 17 feet in depth was filled with dead disposed of as follows:——A row of bodies was laid side by side; above this a second row was placed, with the heads laid against the feet of the first row; the third row were placed across, and the fourth row in the same way, but with the heads to the feet of the former; the fifth row was placed as No. 1, and so on.

Between each layer of bodies about an inch of lime, in powder, was placed. From 90 to 100 bodies were thus arranged on a length of 6-1/2 feet, and reached to about 6 feet to the surface; the pit was then filled up with earth, and though 8400 bodies were put in that pit there were no perceptible emanations at any time.

Around Metz the graves of men, horses, and cattle were disinfected with lime, charcoal, and sulphate of iron. Immense exertions were made to clean and disinfect the camps and battle fields, and in the month of May, 1871, from 1200 to 1600 labourers were employed by the Germans. Wherever practicable the ground was sown with oats or barley or grass. The hillocks formed by the graves were planted with trees.

In many cases at Metz bodies were dug up by the Germans, when there was any fear of water-courses being contaminated, or if houses were near. On account of the danger to the workmen, graves containing more than six bodies were left untouched, and the work was always done under the immediate superintendence of a physician. The earth was removed carefully, but not far enough to uncover the corpse; then one end of the corpse was uncovered, and as soon as the uniform or parts of the body were seen, chloride of lime and sawdust, or charcoal and carbolic acid, put in; the whole earth round the body was thus treated, and the body at length laid bare, lifted and carried away. The second body was then treated in the same way.

Near Sedan, where there were many bodies very superficially buried, burning was had recourse to. Straw mixed with pitch was put into the graves, and was lighted; one ton of pitch sufficed for from 15 to 20 bodies. Opinions as to this practice were divided, and it is not certain how many graves were thus dealt with. It seems probable that only the surface of the body was burnt, and when many bodies were together in the grave, some were not touched at all. On the whole the experiment appears to have been unsuccessful.

The Belgian experience at Sedan was in favour of employing chloride of lime, nitric acid, sulphate of iron, and chlorine gas. Carbolic acid did not answer so well. The sulphate of zinc and charcoal, which Barker found so useful, was not tried.[254]

[Footnote 254: Parkes.]

Various statutes have been framed for the burial of the dead and for the management and selection of the burial-grounds. In the carrying out of these enactments the local authorities have only an indirect voice, exception being made in the case of a local government district in which the vestry determines to appoint a burial board. The vestry then has power to constitute the local board so appointed the burial board of such district or parish, and to rule that the expenses of such burial board shall be met by a rate levied on such parish, after the manner of a general district rate.

Vict. 21 and 22, c. 90, s. 49, enacts that if such parish has been declared a ward for the election of members of the local board, such members are to form the burial board for the parish.

By Vict. 24 and 25, c. 61, s. 21, it is enacted that a sanitary authority may provide a proper place for the reception of dead bodies, as well as for those which are to be subjected to a post-mortem examination.

A sanitary authority is also empowered to make arrangements for interment. Any urban sanitary authority has the power of regulating these matters by by-laws. When once constituted a burial board, a sanitary authority has to see to the carrying out of the Burial Acts, to repair the fences of disused burial grounds, and generally to keep in proper order and regulate all burial grounds within its jurisdiction.

The law enacts that the proper sanitary authority shall close any burial ground which is detrimental to the health of those living in its neighbourhood, or of persons frequenting any church; and throws upon such sanitary body the duty of providing a proper place of interment elsewhere.

It may be well to know that by common law it is incumbent upon any person under whose roof a death has taken place to provide the corpse with interment. Such person may neither cast the body forth, nor carry it uncovered to the grave, but he must give it decent burial. This obligation is imposed upon public bodies as well as on private persons.

Upon presentation of a certificate signed by a properly qualified medical practitioner, a justice of the peace may order, under certain circumstances, the removal of the dead body to a mortuary.

Interment within the walls, or underneath the pavement or floor of any church, or other place of public worship, built in any urban district, has since August 31st, 1848, been interdicted under a penalty of £50.

=DEAF′NESS.= An imperfection or absence of the sense of hearing. When deafness is present in infancy and childhood, it is accompanied with dumbness, or imperfect articulation, in consequence of the impossibility of conveying a knowledge of the sounds necessary for the exercise of the imitative faculty of speech. Deafness frequently arises from some imperfection or obstruction of the passage leading to the membrane of the tympanum or drum of the ear. In some cases this passage is totally closed by a membrane, or some malformation of the tube, which may frequently be removed by a surgical operation. Even instances of partial obliteration of this passage have occurred, which have been successfully treated. The researches of Mr Yearsley have established the fact, that enlarged tonsils are a very common cause of deafness; and when such is the case, their excision will generally effect a cure. To this form of the affection Mr Yearsley applies the term ‘throat deafness.’ Another cause of deafness is the presence of foreign bodies in the aural passages or the accumulation of hardened wax. In these cases the best treatment is to inject warm water into the ear by means of a proper syringe. When deafness arises from imperfection of the tympanum or drum of the ear, the effects of the application of the artificial membrana tympani invented by Mr Yearsley (moistened cotton wool) are generally immediate and truly wonderful. By its aid persons previously so deaf as to be incapable of bearing their share in conversation have been enabled to hear an ordinary whisper. Insects may be destroyed by pouring a spoonful of warm olive oil, or camphorated oil, into the ear over night, retaining it there until the next morning by means of a piece of cotton wool, when it may be washed out with a little mild soap and warm water. When there is a deficiency of the natural secretion of wax, or a dryness of the aural passage, mild oleaginous stimulants may be employed. For this purpose a little olive oil, almond oil, to which a few drops of oil of turpentine, oil of juniper, or camphor liniment, have been added, may be used with advantage. A piece of cotton wool moistened with glycerin is an excellent application in such cases. When deafness is accompanied with continued acute pain, or a discharge of purulent matter, inflammation of the tympanum, or some other portion of the internal ear, probably exists, and medical advice should be sought as soon as possible. The deafness that frequently accompanies a violent cold is generally caused by obstructions in the Eustachian tubes, and goes off as soon as the secretions return to a healthy state. In some forms of deafness blisters behind the ears are useful. A clove of garlic wrapped in cotton or gauze, or a few drops of the juice introduced into the ear, is extremely efficacious in nervous deafness. When imperfect hearing depends upon obtundity of the auditory nerve, or an extensive obliteration or malformation of the internal ear, it scarcely admits of cure.

=Deafness, Taylor’s Remedy for.= Prep. From oil of almonds, 1 lb.; garlic, bruised, 2 oz.; alkanet root, 1/2 oz.; digest for a week, and strain. A little is poured into the ear in deafness.

=DEATH.= In cases of sudden death interment should be deferred till signs of putrefaction begin to appear, especially when no gradation of disease has preceded, as in cases of apoplexy, hysterics, external injuries, drowning, suffocation, &c. No sooner has breathing apparently ceased, and the visage assumed a ghastly or a death-like hue, than the patient, after his eyes are closed, is too often hurried into a coffin, and the body, scarcely yet cold, is precipitated into the grave. So extremely fallacious are the signs of death that the semblance has been frequently mistaken for the reality. By prompt means and judicious treatment, many persons, when in such a condition, have been happily restored to their families and friends. The effects of sound upon animal life is astonishing. The beat of a drum, for instance, has had a very beneficial effect upon persons in a state of suspended animation. At one time a scream, extorted by grief, proved the means of resuscitating a person who was supposed to be dead, and who had exhibited the usual recent marks of the extinction of life. In cases of catalepsy or trance, having the semblance of death, the action of the lungs and heart continues, though in a nearly imperceptible degree. By placing a cold mirror or piece of highly polished metal immediately over the mouth of the patient, symptoms of moisture will appear upon the surface if the most feeble respiration takes place.

=DEBIL′ITY.= Syn. DEBIL′ITAS, L. Weakness; languor; feebleness. When this arises from a diseased action of the stomach, the occasional use of mild aperients, followed by bitters and tonics, may be had recourse to. When from a general laxity of the solids, and there are no symptoms of fever, nor a tendency of blood to the head, a course of chalybeates generally proves advantageous. See ANÆMIA, ATROPHY, &c.

=DECANTA′TION.= The operation of pouring or drawing off the clear portion of a liquid from the impurities or grosser matter that has subsided. It is commonly performed, either by gently inclining the vessel, or by the use of a syphon or pump. In the laboratory it is much resorted to in the purification of precipitates, or other similar operations, where repeated edulcoration or washing is required, for which purpose it is preferable to filtration, from being less troublesome and more economical. In these cases, after a sufficient time having been allowed for the subsidence of the precipitate or powder, or for the clearing of the supernatant fluid, the latter is decanted, and its place supplied by a fresh portion of water, which, after sufficient agitation, is similarly treated, and the whole operation repeated as often as necessary.

=DECANT′ERS.= There is often much difficulty experienced in cleaning decanters, especially after port wine has stood in them for some time. The best way is to wash them out with a little pearlash and warm water, adding a spoonful or two of fresh-slaked lime, if necessary. To facilitate the action of the fluid against the sides of the glass, a few small cinders or pieces of raw potato may be used. A spoonful of strong oil of vitriol will also rapidly remove any kind of dirt from glass bottles. Decanters which have become furred by holding hard water may be cleaned with a spoonful of hydrochloric acid (‘spirits of salt’), diluted with 3 or 4 times its weight of water. See STOPPERS.

=DECARBONISA′TION.= This operation is performed on cast iron, to convert it into soft iron. The articles to be decarbonised are packed in finely powdered hæmatite, or native oxide of iron, to which iron filings are often added, and exposed for some time to a strong red heat, by which the excess of carbon is abstracted or burnt out. The process somewhat resembles annealing or cementation.

=DECAY′.= See EREMACAUSIS.

=DEC′IMALS.= Syn. DECIMAL FRACTIONS. Fractions which have for their denominator 10, or some power of ten; as 100, 1000, &c.; the number of ciphers in the denominator being always equal to the number of figures in the numerator. Thus, ·2, ·25, ·125, respectively represent 2/10, 25/100, 125/1000. The denominator of decimals is never written, the dot placed before the first figure of the numerator expressing its value. Ciphers placed on the right hand of a decimal fraction do not alter its value; for ·5, ·50, ·500, are each equal to 1/2; but ciphers placed on the left hand of a decimal diminish its value in a tenfold proportion; thus, ·3, ·03, ·003, respectively answer to the common fractions 3/10, 3/100, and 3/1000. Every figure on the left-hand side of the dot or decimal sign is a whole number.

ADDITION and SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS are performed in the same manner as with common numbers, care being taken to place the numbers under each other according to their several values; as, tens under tens, hundreds under hundreds, &c.

MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS is performed in precisely the same manner as with whole numbers, merely pointing off as many figures in the product as there are decimals in the multiplier and multiplicand put together.

DIVISION OF DECIMALS. As the last, but pointing off as many figures in the quotient as the decimal places in the dividend exceed those of the divisor. If there are not figures enough in the quotient, the deficiency must be supplied by prefixing left-hand ciphers. Ciphers are also added to the right hand of the dividend, or to a remainder, where there are more figures in the divisor than in the dividend, by which the quotient may be carried on to any extent.

A vulgar fraction is reduced to a decimal by dividing the numerator (increased sufficiently with ciphers) by the denominator. Thus, 1/2 = ·5, 1/8 = ·125, &c.

The value of a decimal, of any denomination, is found by multiplying it by the number of parts in the next less denomination, and cutting off as many places to the right hand as there are decimals, and so on until the terms are exhausted. Thus, ·634 oz. is =

·634 8 ————— 5·072 drachms. 60 ————— 4·320

or, 5 dr. 4-1/3 gr. (nearly).

The constant use of decimals in the laboratory, in the surveys of the Excise, and in numerous chemical calculations, induces us to press the subject on the attention of operatives and others of neglected education. An attentive perusal of the above, and a few hours’ application, will make the matter familiar to them.

=DECOC′TION.= Syn. DECOCT′UM, L. An aqueous solution of the active principles of any substance obtained by boiling; also the process of preparing such solutions.

The effect of decoction in water differs greatly from that of infusion. At the temperature of 212° Fahr., the essential oils and aromatic principles of vegetables are dissipated or decomposed; while by infusion in hot water, in covered vessels, they remain for the most part uninjured. The solvent powers of boiling water are, however, much greater than those of hot water; and many vegetable principles scarcely acted on by the one are freely soluble in the other. This is the case with many of the alkaloids, on which the medicinal virtues of several vegetables depend. On the other hand, the solutions of many substances, though more readily made by boiling, are speedily weakened or rendered inert by ebullition, in consequence of the active principles being either volatilised along with the steam, or oxidised or decomposed by exposure to the atmosphere. This is particularly the case with substances abounding in extractive or astringent matter. When the medicinal properties of vegetables are volatile, or are injured by a strong heat, infusion should be had recourse to, in preference to boiling; but when a solution of the fixed constituents is alone sought, decoction is preferable.

The substances employed for making decoctions should be well bruised, or reduced to a very coarse powder, or, if fresh and soft, they should be sliced small. In the former case, any very fine powder or adhering dust should be removed with a sieve, as its presence tends to make the product thick and disagreeable, and also more troublesome to strain. The vessel in which the ebullition is conducted should be furnished with an accurately fitting cover, the better to exclude the air; and the application of the heat should be so conducted that the fluid may be kept simmering, or only gently boiling, as violent boiling is not only quite unnecessary, but absolutely injurious to the quality of the product. In every case the liquor should be strained whilst hot, but not boiling, and the best method of doing this is to employ a fine hair sieve, or a coarse flannel bag. In general it is found that, as decoctions cool, a sediment is formed, in consequence of the boiling water dissolving a larger portion of vegetable matter than it can retain in solution when cold. This deposit for the most part consists of the active principles of the solution, and, unless when otherwise ordered, should be mingled with the clear liquid by agitation, when the decoction enters into extemporaneous compositions, or when the dose is taken.

The length of time occupied by the ebullition is another point demanding some attention. Long boiling is in no case necessary, and should be avoided, especially in decoctions prepared from aromatic vegetables, or those abounding in extractive. The Colleges, in such cases, direct the ingredients “to be boiled for a short time,” or “for ten minutes;” or they limit the period of the ebullition by stating the quantity that must be volatilised, as——“boil to a pint, and strain.” The last method is generally employed for those substances that do not suffer by lengthened boiling.

In preparing compound decoctions those ingredients should be boiled first which least readily give up their active principles to the menstruum, and those which most readily part with them should be added afterwards. In many cases it is proper simply to infuse the more aromatic substances in the hot decoction of the other ingredients, by which means their volatile principles will be better preserved.

Distilled water, or perfectly clean rain water, should alone be used for decoctions, extracts, and infusions. Spring and river water, from containing lime, have much less solvent matter.

The aqueous solutions of organic matter, from the nature of their constituents, rapidly ferment or putrefy, at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. Neither decoctions nor infusions are fit to be used in dispensing, unless made the same day. They should, consequently, be only prepared in small quantities at a time, and any unconsumed portion should be rejected, as it would be imprudent for the dispenser to risk his own reputation, and the welfare of the patient, by employing an article of dubious quality.

It has of late years become a general practice for the wholesale houses to vend preparations under the name of ‘Concentrated Decoctions,’ which, with the exception of the compound decoction of aloes, are stated to be of 8 times the pharmacopœial strength; so that one drachm of these liquids added to seven drachms of water forms extemporaneous decoctions, professedly resembling those of the pharmacopœia. The decoction of aloes is made of only four times the usual strength, as the nature of its composition would not permit of further concentration. Such preparations are, however, very imperfect substitutes for the freshly made decoctions. The extreme difficulty of forming concentrated solutions of vegetable matter with bulky ingredients too often leads to the omission of a portion of the materials, or to the practice of concentrating the liquid by long evaporation. In the first case the strength is, of course, less than it should be; and in the second, the quality is injured, and perhaps the preparation is rendered nearly inert by the lengthened exposure to heat, and the consequent volatilisation or decomposition of its active constituents. The common practice of adding a considerable portion of spirit to these preparations, which is absolutely necessary to preserve them, is also objectionable, as, in many of the cases in which decoctions are prescribed, this article, even in small quantities, exerts a prejudicial action. Some concentrated decoctions have been recently offered for sale which do not contain alcohol, being preserved by the addition of sulphurous acid, or sulphite of lime.

=Decoction of Alconorque.= Syn. DECOCTUM ALCONORCO. American alconorque bark, 1/2 oz.; water, 16 oz,; boil to 8 oz., and strain.——Dose, 1 oz. two or three times a day, in phthisis.

=Decoction of Alder.= Syn. DECOCTUM ALNI. Bark of common alder, 1 oz.; water, 20 oz.; boil to 16 oz.

=Decoction of Alder, Black.= Syn. DECOCTUM RHAMNI FRANGULÆ. Black alder bark, dried, 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to 1 pint, and strain.

=Decoction of Al′oes.= Syn. COMPOUND D. OF A., BALSAM OF LIFE; BAUME DE VIE, Fr.; DECOCTUM AL′OËS (Ph. E.), D. A. COMPOS′ITUM (B. P. and Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Extract of liquorice, 1 oz.; extract of socotrine aloes, 2 dr.; powdered myrrh and saffron, of each, 1-1/2 dr.; carbonate of potassa, 1 dr.; tincture of cardamoms, 8 oz.; water, a sufficiency. Coarsely powder the extract of aloes and myrrh, and put them, together with the carbonate of potash and extract of liquorice, into a covered vessel, with a pint of distilled water; boil gently for five minutes, then add the saffron; let the vessel with contents cool, then add the tincture of cardamoms, and, covering the vessels closely, allow the ingredients to macerate two hours, finally strain through flannel, pouring as much distilled water over the contents of the strainer as will make the product measure 30 oz.

2. (Ph. E.) Aloes, myrrh, and saffron, of each 1 dr.; extract of liquorice, 1/2 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 40 gr.; water, 16 fl. oz.; boil to 12 fl. oz.; strain, and add of compound tincture of cardamoms 4 fl. oz.

3. (Ph. D.) As No. 1 (nearly), but using hepatic aloes.

A warm cathartic.——Dose, 1/2 to 1-1/2 oz.; in habitual costiveness, dyspepsia, jaundice, &c.

Obs. By boiling the saffron as ordered by the Dublin and Edinburgh Colleges, nearly the whole of its fragrance is dissipated. A better plan is to macerate it in the tincture for a few days, previously to adding the latter to the decoction of the other ingredients. After the tincture has been strained off from the saffron, the latter may be washed with a little water, to remove any adhering colour and odour, and this may be added to the decoction. The addition of the tincture produces a deposit of mucilaginous and feculent matter, which has been dissolved out of the liquorice, for which reason some houses omit the latter altogether, and supply its place with an equal quantity of sugar or treacle, and a little colouring. By this method the liquid, after being once obtained clear, will continue so for any length of time.

4. (Wholesale.) Solazzi juice, 1-1/2 lb.; kali (carbonate of potassa), 4 oz.; hepatic aloes, 5-1/2 oz.; myrrh (small), 5 oz.; water, 4-1/2 galls.; boil to 3 galls., strain through flannel, cool, and add, of compound tincture of cardamoms, 10 pints; previously digested for 10 days on saffron, 2-1/2 oz.; mix well, and add essential oil of nutmeg, 15 drops; oils of cassia and caraway, of each 10 drops; and oils of cloves and pimento, of each 5 drops; in a week decant the clear portion from the sediment, and preserve it in a cool place.

5. (Concentrated; D. A. CONCENTRA′TUM, L.)——a. Lump sugar, 8 oz.; colouring, 1/4 pint; carbonate of potash, 2 oz.; aloes, 3-1/2 oz.; myrrh and saffron, of each 2-1/2 oz.; compound tincture of cardamoms, 1/2 a gall.; water, 3 pints; boil the first five in the water, until reduced to nearly one half; cool, and add the tincture, previously digested for a week, on the saffron; and proceed as above. 14 oz. of extract of liquorice may be used instead of the sugar and colouring.

b. Aloes, myrrh, liquorice, and potassa (all in powder), and saffron as last; compound tincture of cardamoms, 5-3/4 pints; digest a fortnight, and filter. In this way a very odorous and beautiful preparation is produced, which has been much admired. The above are said to possess four times the strength of the College preparation.

=Decoction, Anticol′ic.= Syn. ANTICOLIC AP′OZEM, DEGLAND’S COLIC MIXTURE; APOZ′EMA ANTICOL′ICUM, L. Prep. Senna leaves, 2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; simmer gently to 16 fl. oz.; press out the liquor, add sulphate of soda, 1 oz.; syrup of buckthorn, 2 oz.; and strain through flannel. Used by glassfuls in lead colic, or after poisoning by lead.

=Decoction, Antidar′trous.= Decoction of Bitter Sweet (see below).

=Decoction of Apocynum.= Syn. DECOCTUM APOCYNI. Root of Apocynum cannabinum, 1 oz.; juniper berries, 1 oz.; water, 3 pints. Boil to 2 pints. A wine-glassful frequently. In dropsy.

=Decoction of Ar′nica.= Syn. DECOCTUM ARNICÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Swediaur.) Flowers of Arnica montana, 1 oz.; water, 3 pints; boil to a quart; filter, and add of syrup of ginger, 3 oz.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. oz. every two or three hours; in aphonia, paralysis of the voluntary muscles, rheumatism, &c.; and as a substitute for bark in putrid fever, agues, &c.

2. (Ph. Cast. Aust., 1841.) Arnica root, 2 dr.; water, 9 oz.; boil to 6 oz., and strain.——Dose, 1 oz.; as the last.

=Decoction of Asparagus.= Syn. DECOCTUM ASPARAGI. Roots of asparagus, 1 oz.; water, 2 pints; boil for 10 or 15 minutes; diuretic.

=Decoction, Astrin′gent.= Syn. DECOCTUM ASTRIN′GENS, L. Prep. (Swediaur.) Oak-bark, pomegranate peel, and tormentil root, of each 2 dr; water and milk, of each 1 lb.; boil 12 minutes, add of cinnamon, 2 dr.; boil 2 or 3 minutes longer, and strain.——Dose. A wine-glassful.

=Decoction of Avens Root.= Syn. DECOCTUM GEI. (Dr A. T. Thompson.) Avens root, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil for 15 minutes, and strain.

=Decoction of Baobab Tree.= Syn. DECOCTUM ADANSONIÆ. Bark of the baobab tree, 6 dr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and strain. Used as a substitute for decoction of bark.

=Decoction of Bark.= Syn. DECOCTION OF CINCHO′NA; DECOCTUM CINCHO′NÆ, L. Prep. 1. Ph. L.:——a. (D. OF YELLOW B.; D. CINCHONÆ, B. P.) Yellow cinchona or calisaya bark (bruised), 1-1/4 oz.; distilled water, 1 pint; boil for 10 minutes in a lightly covered vessel; when cold, strain and pour on the marc sufficient water to make up 1 pint.

b. (D. OF PALE B.; D. C. PALLIDÆ, Ph. L.) From pale cinchona or loxa bark, as above (a.)

c. (D. OF RED B.; D. C. RUBRÆ, Ph. L.) From red bark, as above (a).

2. (Ph. E.) Brown, grey, yellow, or red cinchona (bruised), 1 oz.; water, 24 fl. oz.; boil for 10 minutes; when cold filter the liquor, and evaporate it to 16 fl. oz.

3. (Ph. D.) From pale or loxa bark, similar to the ‘Decoctum cinchonæ pallidæ’ of Ph. L. (1. b. above).

Dose, &c. 1 to 2 fl. oz., 3 or 4 times daily, as a tonic, stomachic, and febrifuge, when the stomach will not bear the administration of bark in powder; in fevers, dyspepsia, convalescence, &c. The plan recommended by the Edinburgh College of filtering the decoction when cold is absurd. According to Soubeiran, 146 gr. of the deposit thus removed contained 86 gr. soluble in alcohol, and rich in the cinchona alkaloids. This liquid should, therefore, be well shaken before pouring it out for use, instead of being filtered. The addition of a few drops of either sulphuric or hydrochloric acid to the water greatly increases its solvent power, and also, consequently, the medicinal value of this preparation. (See below.)

=Decoction of Bark (Acid′ulated).= Syn. DECOCTUM CINCHONÆ ACIDULA′TUM, L. Prep. 1. To the water for any one of the above, add dilute sulphuric acid, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; boil 10 minutes, and strain whilst hot.

2. (Sir J. Wylie.) Cinchona bark, 1 oz.; water, 16 fl. oz.; diluted sulphuric acid, 1 dr.; as last.

=Decoction of Bark (Facti′′tious).= Syn. DECOCTUM CINCHONÆ FACTITIUM, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Willow bark and horse-chestnut bark, of each 1/2 oz.; calamus root and cloves, of each 1/4 oz.; water, 16 fl. oz.; boil to one half. Used as a substitute for decoction of cinchona bark, but is vastly inferior.

=Decoction of Bark and Ser′pentary.= Syn. DECOCTUM CINCHONÆ CUM SERPENTA′RIA, L. Prep. (Sir J. Pringle.) Peruvian bark, 3 dr.; water, 1 pint; boil to one half, and infuse in the hot decoction, serpentaria root, 3 dr. As a diaphoretic stimulant, and tonic, in fevers, and as a gargle in sore throat.

=Decoction of Bar′ley.= Syn. BARLEY-WATER; DECOCTUM HOR′DEI (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Pearl barley, 1 oz. (washed clean); boil for 20 minutes in 15 oz. of water, and strain.

2. (Ph. D.) Similar to above. (See Obs. below.)

=Decoction of Barley (Compound.)= Syn. PEC′TORAL DECOCTION, FE′VER DRINK; DECOCTUM PECTORA′LE, PTISAN′A COMMU′NIS, DEC. HOR′DEI COMPOS′ITUM (Ph. L.), MISTU′RA HOR′DEI (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Decoction of barley (simple), 1 quart; figs (sliced) and raisins (stoned), of each 2-1/2 oz.; fresh liquorice (sliced), 5 dr.; water, 1 pint; boil to a quart, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) Pearl barley, 2-1/2 oz.; water, 4-1/2 pints; boil to 3 pints; add figs and raisins, of each 2-1/2 oz.; liquorice root, 5 dr.; water, 1 pint; and boil to 2 pints, as before.

Obs. The above are used as demulcents in fevers, phthisis, strangury, &c., taken ad libitum. They are slightly laxative, and when this would be an objection to their use, a few drops of laudanum may be added. Mixed with an equal quantity of decoction of bark, barley-water forms an excellent gargle in cynanche maligna (ulcerated sore throat), and, with a like quantity of milk and a little sugar, a good substitute for the breast in dry nursing infants. It is, also, often acidulated with lemon juice or sulphuric acid, and sweetened (Decoctum hordei acidulatum). Gum Arabic, 4 dr., and nitre, 1 dr., to each pint, is a common addition in gonorrhœa. Cream of tartar, 1 dr., is occasionally added to render it more aperient.

=Decoction of Bistort.= Syn. DECOCTUM BISTORTÆ. Bistort root, 2 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pints; boil 15 or 20 minutes, and strain.——Dose, 1 oz. to 2 oz.; astringent.

=Decoction, Bit′ter.= Syn. DECOCTUM AMA′RUM, L. Prep. 1. Dried tops of lesser centaury and wormwood, and leaves of germander, of each 3 dr.; water, 1-1/4 pint; boil to a pint.

2. Gentian root, 1/2 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil 10 minutes, take out the root, slice it, and add it again to the decoction with dried orange peel, 1/4 oz.; boil to 1 pint, and strain.

=Decoction of Bitter Sweet.= Syn. ANTIDAR′TROUS AP′OZEM; APOZEMA DULCAMA′′RÆ, L. Prep. (Trousseau and Reveille.) Dulcamara, 1 dr.; water, 16 oz.; boil to 9 oz., and strain. To be taken in three doses during the day. Every other day the quantity is to be increased until 12 dr. or even 2 oz. are taken daily, “so that the patient may begin to feel dryness of the throat, and some disorder of vision and digestion;” and “continue at this quantity for several weeks in succession.” In obstinate skin diseases. See DECOCTION OF DULCAMARA.

=Decoction of Blue Cardinal Flowers.= Syn. DECOCTUM LOBEL′IÆ, D. L. SYPHILIT′ICÆ, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Root of Lobelia syphilitica, 1 handful; water, 12 lb.; boil to 7 lb., and strain.

2. (Swediaur.) Dried root, 5 oz.; water, 12 lb.; as last. Alterative, purgative, and diuretic.

Obs. This decoction was strongly recommended by Swediaur in certain complaints. He gave half a pint at first, twice daily, and afterwards 4 times a day, unless it acted too strongly on the bowels, when the frequency of the dose was diminished, or it was discontinued for 3 or 4 days, and then had recourse to again, until the cure was effected.

=Decoction of Bran.= Syn. DECOCTUM FURFURIS, L. Prep. 1. From bran, 1/4 lb.; water, 1-1/4 pint; boil to a pint. In diabetes; and sweetened with sugar, as a demulcent and laxative in cough and sore throat.

2. Bran, 1 quart; water, 1-1/2 gall.; boil 5 minutes, and add cold water, q. s. to bring it to the proper temperature. As an emollient foot-bath.

=Decoction of Broom.= Syn. DECOCTUM SPAR′TII CACUMIN′IUM; D. SCOPA′′RII (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Broom-tops (dried), 1/2 oz.; water, 1/2 pint; boil 10 minutes, and strain.

2. (Ph. B.) Broom-tops (dried), 1 oz.; distilled water, 1 pint; boil for 10 minutes, and strain. (See below.)

=Decoction of Broom (Compound).= Syn. DECOCTUM SPAR′TII CACUMINIUM C., D. SCOPA′′RII (Ph. E.), D. S. COMPOS′ITUM (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Tops of broom (recent and dried), juniper berries (bruised), dandelion root (bruised), of each 1/2 oz.; distilled water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) Tops of broom and juniper, of each 1/2 oz.; cream of tartar, 2-1/2 dr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, as last. The above are diuretic and laxative.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 wine-glassful, 3 or 4 times a day; in dropsy, especially of the belly (ASCITES).

=Decoction of Buckbean.= Syn. DECOCTUM MENYANTHIS. Buckbean, 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint.

=Decoction of Burdock.= Syn. DECOCTUM ARC′TII, D. BARDA′NÆ, L. Prep. 1. Bardana root, 6 oz.; water, 5 pints; boil to 3 pints, and strain.

2. (Wood.) Dried root, 2 oz.; water, 3 pints; boil to 2 pints, and strain. As an alterative; a pint or more daily, in all those cases in which sarsaparilla is recommended.

=Decoction of Cabbage-tree Bark.= DECOCTUM GEOFFROYÆ (Ph. E. 1817), D. G. INERMIS (Ph. D. 1826). Prep. (Ph. D.) Bark of the cabbage tree (bruised), 1 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to a pint, and strain. Cathartic, narcotic, and anthelmintic.——Dose, 2 to 4 table-spoonfuls for an adult; 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls for a child, followed by demulcents and castor oil; in worms, &c.

=Decoction of Calumba (Compound).= Syn. DECOCTUM CALUM′BÆ COMPOS′ITUM, L. Prep. (Ph. U. S. 1831.) Calumba and quassia, of each 2 dr.; orange peel, 1 dr.; rhubarb, 20 gr.; carbonate of potassa, 30 gr.; water, 20 fl. oz.; boil to 16 fl. oz., strain, and, when cold, add of compound tincture of lavender, 1/2 fl. oz. Bitter, tonic, and stomachic.——Dose, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls 3 or 4 times daily.

=Decoction of Centaury.= Syn. DECOCTUM CIMICIFUGE, F. H. Lesser centaury, 2 oz.; water, 2 pints; boil for a few minutes, and strain.

=Decoction of Cey′lon Moss.= Syn. DECOCTUM FU′′CI AMYLA′CEI, D. PLOCA′′RIÆ CANDI′DÆ, L. Prep. From Ceylon moss, 2 dr.; water, milk, or whey, 1 pint; boil to 16 fl. oz., and strain. It may be sweetened and flavoured. In irritation of the mucous membranes and in phthisis.

=Decoction of Cham′omile.= Syn. DECOCTUM ANTHE′MIDIS, D. CHAMÆMELI, L. From chamomiles, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; digest for 10 minutes, simmer gently for 2 or 3 minutes longer, and strain with pressure. (See below.)

=Decoction of Chamomile (Compound).= Syn. DECOCTUM CHAMÆMELI COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Chamomile flowers (dried), 1/2 oz.; fennel seed, 2 dr.; water, 16 oz.; boil a short time, and strain. Both the above are bitter, stomachic and tonic; the last is vermifuge. They are chiefly used as fomentations and clysters.

=Decoction of Cherry Laurel Bark.= Syn. DECOCTUM LAURO-CERASI CORTICIS. (Dr Kastner.) Cherry laurel bark, 2 oz.; water, 2 pints; boil, and strain.

=Decoction of Chiret′ta.= Syn. DECOCTUM CHIRAYTÆ, L. Prep. From chiretta or chyrata, 5 dr.; water, 1 pint; boil 8 or 10 minutes and strain.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 wine-glassful 2 or 3 times daily, as a stomachic tonic; in flatulency and acidity, especially in the dyspepsia of gouty persons.

=Decoction of Cincho′na.= See DECOCTION OF BARK.

=Decoction of Coffee.= Syn. DECOCTUM CAFFEI. Boil 10 dr. of raw coffee berries in 8 oz. of water to 5 oz. To be given in 3 doses during the intermissions of intermittent fever.

=Decoction of Col′ocynth.= Syn. DECOCTUM COLOCYNTH′IDIS, L. Prep. (Ph. Bat.) Colocynth pulp, 1 dr.; water, 8 oz.; boil 10 minutes, and when quite cold, add of syrup of orange peel, 1 oz.; sulphuric ether, 1 dr.——Dose, 2 to 6 dr., 2 or 3 times a day; in dropsy, &c.

=Decoction of Colts′foot.= Syn. DECOCTUM TUSSILAG′INIS, L. Prep. (Pereira.) Fresh leaves of coltsfoot, 2 oz. (or flowers, 1 oz.); water, 2 pints; boil to a pint and strain. A popular remedy in chronic coughs and chest diseases. It is emollient and demulcent.——Dose. Half a teacupful, ad libitum. (See below.)

=Decoction of Coltsfoot (Compound).= Syn. DECOCTUM TUSSILAGINIS COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. (Taddei.) Coltsfoot flowers, 6 oz.; figs, raisins, and jujubes, of each 2 oz.; water, 12 pints; boil down to 4 pints; add liquorice root, 2 oz.; again boil and strain. As the last.

=Decoction, Com′mon.= See DECOCTION OF MALLOWS.

=Decoction of Cor′sican Moss.= Syn. DECOCTUM HELMINTH′OCORTI, L. Prep. From the moss, 5 dr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint.——Dose. A wine-glassful, three times a day; as a vermifuge. In 1822, Mr Farr brought it forward as a remedy for cancer.

=Decoction of Cot′ton Root.= Syn. DECOCTUM GOSSYP′II, L. Prep. (Dr Bouchelle.) Inner part of the root of the cotton plant, 4 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to a pint.——Dose. A wine-glassful, occasionally, as an emmenagogue; or, every 30 or 40 minutes, to produce uterine contractions, for which purpose it is said to be as effectual as ergot of rye.

=Decoction of Dandeli′on.= Syn. DECOCTUM TARAX′ACI (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Fresh dandelion root (bruised), 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) Herb and root (fresh), 7 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to a pint. Aperient, stomachic, and tonic.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. oz., or more, 2 or 3 times daily.

=Decoction, Diaphoret′ic.= Syn. DECOCTUM DIAPHORETICUM, L. Decoction of bark, 1 pint; liquor of acetate of ammonia, 4 oz.; aromatic confection, 1 oz.——Dose, 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls every 3 hours.

=Decoction of Dog-grass.= Syn. DECOCTUM GRAMIN′IS, L.; PTISANE CHIENDENT, Fr. Prep. From dog-grass root (Triticum repens), 1 oz.; liquorice root, 1/2 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil 20 minutes, and strain. Aperient and pectoral; by cupfuls, ad libitum. (See below.)

=Decoction of Dog-grass (Ioduret′ted).= Syn. DECOCTUM GRAMINIS IODURE′TUM, L. Prep. (Magendie.) Decoction of dog-grass, 32 fl. oz.; syrup of peppermint, 2 oz.; iodide of potassium, 1/2 dr.; mix. By cupfuls, ad libitum.

=Decoction of Dog-wood.= Syn. DECOCTUM COR′NUS FLORIDÆ, L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) Dog-wood bark (bruised), 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil 10 minutes, and strain whilst hot. Tonic and astringent; recommended as a substitute for bark.——Dose. A wine-glassful.

=Decoction of Dulcama′ra.= Syn. DECOCTION OF BITTER SWEET, D. OF WOODY NIGHTSHADE; DECOCTUM DULCAMA′′RÆ (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Woody nightshade or bitter sweet (the new shoots), 10 dr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) Dulcamara (chopped small), 1 oz.; water, 24 fl. oz.; boil to a pint, and strain.

3. (Ph. D.) Twigs of woody nightshade, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil 10 minutes in a covered vessel, and strain. It should measure about 16 fl. oz. Alterative, diaphoretic, and diuretic.——Dose. A wine-glassful, or more, 2 or 3 times a day; in chronic coughs and chronic skin diseases, and in most of those cases wherein sarsaparilla proves useful. See DECOCTION OF BITTER SWEET, also below.

=Decoction of Dulcama′ra (Compound).= Syn. DECOCTUM DULCAMA′′RÆ COMPOSI′TUM, L. Prep. 1. (Augustin.) Dulcamara (bitter sweet), 4 dr.; burdock root, liquorice root, sassafras chips, and guaiacum wood, of each, 2 dr.; water, 2 lbs.; boil to 16 fl. oz., and strain.——Dose, 1 to 2 wine-glassfuls 2 or 3 times a day.

2. (Foy.) As the last, but using dulcamara, 2 oz.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 wine-glassful; in similar cases to those in which the simple decoction is given, especially in chronic rheumatism and venereal affections.

=Decoction of El′der Bark.= Syn. DECOCTUM SAMBU′′CI, D. S. CORTICIS. L. Prep. 1. (Sydenham.) Inner bark of elder, 1 oz.; water and milk, of each 1 pint; boil to one half, and strain.

2. (Collier.) Bark, 1 oz.; water, 16 fl. oz.; boil to 1/2 pint, and strain.

3. (Pereira.) Bark, 1 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to one half.——Dose. One wine-glassful 2 or 3 times a day; as an aperient and resolvent in various chronic disorders, in dropsy, and in certain cutaneous affections; or, 2 wine-glassfuls, as before, as a hydragogue cathartic in dropsies.

=Decoction of Elecam′pane.= Syn. DECOCTUM HELEN′′II, D. INU′LÆ, L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) Elecampane root, 1/2 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil a few minutes and strain. Tonic and expectorant, and, in some cases, diuretic and diaphoretic.——Dose. A wine-glassful every hour or two. (See below.)

=Decoction of Elecampane (Compound).= Syn. DECOCTUM HELENI COMPOSITUM, D. INULÆ C., L. Prep. (Rotier.) Elecampane, 1 oz.; hyssop and ground ivy, of each 2 dr.; water, 1 pint; boil 15 minutes, strain, and add of honey, 2 oz.——Dose, 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls; as the last.

=Decoction of Elm Bark.= Syn. DECOCTUM UL′MI (B. P.), L. Prep. Elm bark (cut in small pieces), 1 oz.; distilled water, 16 oz.; boil to 8 oz., and strain.——Dose, 2 to 4 oz., three or four times a day, as a cheap substitute for sarsaparilla in scaly skin diseases. (See below.)

=Decoction of Elm Bark (Compound).= Syn. DECOCTUM ULMI COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. (Jeffrey.) Simple decoction of elm bark, 8 pints; liquorice root, sassafras and guaiacum chips, of each 1 oz.; mezereon root, 3 dr.; boil for one hour, and strain. More active than the last.

=Decoction of Er′got.= Syn. DECOCTUM ERGOT′Æ, D. SECA′LIS CORNUTI, L. Prep. (Pereira.) Ergot of rye (bruised), 1 dr.; water, 6 fl. oz.; boil 10 minutes, and strain.——Dose. One third at intervals of half an hour, until the whole is taken; as a parturifacient.

=Decoction of Fern Root.= Syn. DECOCTUM FILICIS; D. RADICIS F., L. Prep. (Dr Wood.) Dried fern-root, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil to 16 fl. oz., and strain. By wine-glassfuls, fasting, until it excites slight nausea; as a vermifuge, more particularly for tapeworm.

=Decoction of Figs.= Syn. DECOCTUM FICI, L. Prep. (Cadet.) Figs (chopped), 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil, and strain. Demulcent and pectoral; taken ad libitum. (See below.)

=Decoction of Figs (Compound).= Syn. DECOCTUM FICI COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. (Foy.) Figs and raisins (chopped), of each 2 oz.; liquorice root, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 quart; boil 15 minutes, and strain. As the last.

=Decoction for Ene′mas.= Syn. DECOCTUM PRO ENEMA′TE, L. Barley-water, or thin gruel, is commonly used under this name. See DECOCTION OF MALLOWS, &c.

=Decoction for Fomenta′tions.= Syn. DECOCTUM PRO FOMENTO, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1788.) Dried leaves of southern wood, tops of sea wormwood, and chamomile flowers, of each 1 oz.; laurel or bay leaves (dried), 1/2 oz.; water, 1 pint, boil a few minutes, and strain.

=Decoction of Galls.= Syn. DECOCTUM GAL′LÆ, (Ph. L.) Prep. From galls (bruised), 2-1/2 oz.; water, 1 quart; boiled to one half, and strained. As an astringent, fomentation, enema, or injection, in prolapsus ani, piles, and leucorrhœa.

=Decoction of Guaiac′um.= Syn. DECOCTUM GUAIAC′I (Ph. E.), D. G. COMPOSITUM (Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Guaiacum shavings, 3 oz.; raisins (chopped), 2 oz.; water, 8 pints; simmer down to 5 pints, adding towards the end, sassafras (rasped or sliced), and liquorice root (bruised), of each 1 oz.

2. (Ph. D.) Guaiacum wood, 3 oz.; sassafras, 10 dr.; liquorice root, 2-1/2 oz.; water, 10 pints, as the last; to strain 5 pints.

Obs. The above form the once celebrated ‘Decoction of the Woods,’——Dose. A teacupful 3 or 4 times daily, or oftener, in chronic rheumatism, cutaneous diseases, after a course of mercury, &c. Although its virtues are of a very dubious kind, there is no doubt that it frequently does good, especially when persevered in with a sudorific regimen.

=Decoction of Hairy Horehound.= Syn. DECOCTUM BALLOTÆ LANATÆ, L. Prep. (Rehmann.) Siberian or woolly horehound (Ballota), 1-1/2 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to one half.——Dose. A tumblerful, or more, twice a day; in rheumatic, gouty, and dropsical affections, especially the latter. See DECOCTION OF HOREHOUND.

=Decoction of Harts′horn.= See MIXTURES.

=Decoction of Hel′lebore.= 1. (DECOCTION OF BLACK HELLEBORE; DECOCTUM HELLEBORI NIGRI, L.) Prep. 1. (A. T. Thomson.) Black hellebore root, 2 dr.; water, 1 pint; boil 15 minutes.——Dose, 1 fl. oz., every 4 hours; in dropsy, worms, chronic skin diseases, &c., occurring in non-irritable habits.

2. (DECOCTION OF WHITE HELLEBORE; DECOCTUM VERATRI, Ph. L. & D.) Prep. (Ph. L. 1836.) White hellebore (bruised), 10 dr.; water, 1 quart; boil to a pint, and when cold, add of rectified spirit, 3 fl. oz. Used as a lotion, in itch, lepra, psoriasis, scald-head, &c.; and to destroy pediculi. In most cases it should be diluted with water, and should never be applied to the unsound skin.

=Decoction of Holly Leaves.= Syn. DECOCTUM ILICIS. (Foy.) Holly leaves, 1/2 oz.; water, 16 oz.; boil to 12 oz. For three doses.

=Decoction of Horehound.= Syn. COMPOUND DECOCTION OF HOREHOUND; DECOCTUM MARUBII COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. (Dr R. E. Griffith.) Dried horehound (Marrubium vulgare), 1 oz.; liquorice root and flax seed (bruised), of each 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; macerate for 3 or 4 hours (boil a minute), and strain. An excellent demulcent and pectoral.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. oz., as required, in coughs, &c.

=Decoction of Horse-chest′nut Bark.= Syn. DECOCTUM HIPPOCASTANEI, L. Prep. (Dr Wood.) Horse-chestnut bark (coarsely powdered), 10 dr.; water, 1 pint; boil 10 minutes, and strain. Used for decoction of cinchona bark. A little liquorice root is frequently added. (See below.)

=Decoction of Horse-chest′nut Bark (Compound).= Syn. DECOCTUM HIPPOCASTANEI COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. 1. (Phœbus.) Horse-chestnut bark, 1-1/2 oz.; water, 18 fl. oz.; boil to one half, strain, and when quite cold, add of sulphuric ether, 1 to 2 dr.; syrup of orange peel, 1 oz. To be used during the intermission of an ague in wine-glassfuls at a time.

2. (Spielman.) Horse-chestnut bark and willow bark, of each 1/2 oz.; calamus aromaticus and root of water avens, of each 2 dr.; water, 16 fl. oz.; boil to one half. As the last.

=Decoction of Iceland Moss.= Syn. DECOCTION OF LIVERWORT; DECOCTUM CETRARIÆ (Ph. L.); D. LICHENIS ISLANDICI (Ph. D.); D. LICHENIS (Ph. L. 1824.) Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Liverwort (Iceland moss), 5 dr.; wecm 1-1/2; pint; boil to a pint, and strain.

2. (Ph. D.) Iceland moss, 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil for 10 minutes in a covered vessel, and strain. Nutritious, demulcent, pectoral, and tonic.——Dose, 1 to 4 fl. oz., every 3 or 4 hours; in chronic affections of the chest and stomach, especially pulmonary consumption, old coughs, dyspepsia, chronic diarrhœa, and dysentery. It may be flavoured and sweetened; milk is frequently added to it. The bitter matter may be removed by steeping the moss for some time in pretty warm water, or in cold water, to which a very little carbonate of potash has been added. Without this is done, it is intensely bitter and nauseous.

=Decoction of Indian Ba′el.= Syn. DECOCTION OF ÆGLE MARMELOS; DECOCTUM BAEL, L. From the dried unripe fruit of Ægle marmelos (Indian bael), 2 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil to one third, and strain.——Dose, 2 fl. oz. two or three times a day; in dysentery, diarrhœa, and English cholera.

=Decoction of Indian Pink.= Syn. DECOCTUM SPIGELIÆ, L. Prep. Indian pink root, 5 dr; water, 1 pint; boil 5 minutes; add senna, 4 dr.; digest 15 minutes, strain and add of manna, 1 oz.——Dose. A small teacupful, 3 times a day, for an adult; 1/2 oz. to 1 oz., or less, for children; as an anthelmintic purge.

=Decoction of Indian Sarsaparil′la.= Syn. DECOCTUM HEMEDES′MI, L. Prep. (Pereira.) Root of Indian sarsaparilla (Hemedesmus Indicus), 2 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint. Diuretic, alterative, and tonic.——Dose. By wine-glassfuls, as decoction of sarsaparilla.

=Decoction of I′′rish Moss.= Syn. DECOCTUM CHON′DRI. Prep. (Pereira.) Carrageen or Irish moss, 1 oz.; macerate in lukewarm water for 10 minutes, take it out and drain it, and then boil it in water (or milk), 3 pints, for 15 minutes, and strain through linen.

Obs. If twice the above weight of moss is employed, a mucilage (mucilago chondri) is produced, which may be flavoured with lemon juice, spices, &c., and forms a most nutritious article of spoon diet. It is taken in the same cases as decoction of Iceland moss; and is frequently employed in cookery, as a substitute for animal jelly, in the preparation of blancmanges, soups, &c.

=Decoction of I′′singlass.= See LISBON DIET DRINK.

=Decoction of Jamaica Dogwood.= Syn. DECOCTUM CORNUS FLORIDÆ. (U. S. Ph.) Bark of Jamaica dogwood, 1 oz.; water, 16 oz. o.m.; boil 10 minutes and strain, and make up to 1 pint o.m. As a substitute for cinchona, but is more astringent.

=Decoction of Jujubes.= Syn. DECOCTUM JUJUBARUM. Boil 2 oz. of jujubes (stoned), for an hour, in a sufficient quantity of water to produce 2 pints of decoction.

=Decoction of Ju′niper Berries (Compound).= Syn. DECOCTUM JUNIPERI COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. (St. B. Hosp.) Juniper berries, 2 oz.; cream of tartar, 3 dr.; water, 4 pints; boil to a quart, strain, and add compound spirit of juniper, 2 fl. oz. Diuretic.——Dose, 2 or 3 wine-glassfuls, 3 times a day, warm.

=Decoction of Linseed (Compound).= Syn. DECOCTUM LI′NI COMPOSITUM (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Linseed, 1 oz.; liquorice root (bruised), 1/2 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil for 10 minutes in a covered vessel, and strain whilst hot. Emollient and demulcent.——Dose. A wine-glassful ad libitum; in gonorrhœa, dysentery, pulmonary affections, &c. It may be flavoured with lemon peel, and sweetened. See INFUSIONS.

=Decoction of Liquorice.= Syn. DECOCTUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Liquorice root (sliced), 1-1/2 oz.; water, 16 fl. oz.; boil 10 minutes and strain. A mild demulcent; it is taken either alone, by wine-glassfuls, or is used as a vehicle for more active remedies.

=Decoction, Lisbon.= See LISBON DIET DRINK.

=Decoction of Liv′erwort.= See DECOCTION OF ICELAND MOSS.

=Decoction of Log′wood.= Syn. DECOCTUM HÆMATOXYLI (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Logwood chips, 10 dr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) Logwood, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil to 10 fl. oz., adding towards the last, cinnamon (in powder), 1 dr.

3. (Ph. D.) Logwood, 1 oz.; water, 1/2 pint. Astringent and tonic.——Dose, 1 table-spoonful to a wine-glassful; in diarrhœa, as required.

4. (Ph. B.) Logwood in chips, 1 oz.; cinnamon in coarse powder, 60 gr.; distilled water, 1 pint. Boil for 10 minutes, and strain to make up 1 pint.

=Decoction of Mad′der.= Syn. DECOCTUM RUBIÆ, D. R. TINCTORIÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Dewees.) Powdered madder, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; simmer for 15 minutes, and add of cloves (bruised), 1 dr.; when cold, strain.——Dose. A wine-glassful, 2 or 3 times daily; in amenorrhœa, chlorosis, &c.; or every 3 hours, a short time previous to the expected menstrual discharge.

2. (W. Cooley.) To the last add ammonio-citrate of iron, 3 dr.

3. (St. Marie.) Powdered madder, 1/2 oz.; hops, 1 dr.; English walnut leaves, 3 dr.; water, 1 quart; boil to 1-1/2 pint, strain, and when cold, add of tincture of tartrate of iron, 1 dr.——Dose, 2 fl. oz., night and morning; in scrofula, &c.

=Decoction of Mal′lows.= Syn. COMMON DECOCTION; DECOCTUM COM′MUNE, D. PRO ENEMA′TE (Ph. L. 1787), D. MALVÆ COMPOSITUM (Ph. L. 1836), L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1836.) Common mallows (dried), 1 oz.; chamomile flowers (dried), 1/2 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil 15 minutes, and strain. Used chiefly for fomentations and enemas.

=Decoction of Malt.= Syn. DECOCTUM BI′NÆ, D. BYNES, D. MALTI, L. Prep. (Swediaur.) Ground malt, 3 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to a pint, and strain. An oz. of syrup of lemons, or of saffron, may be added to the cold decoction; or, a little liquorice root, with the malt. Demulcent and laxative. A cupful ad libitum. Infusion of malt (sweet wort) is a more convenient and elegant preparation.

=Decoction of Marshmal′low.= Syn. DECOCTUM ALTHÆ′Æ (Ph. D. 1826 and Ph. E. 1813), L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Dried root and herb of marshmallow, 4 oz.; raisins (stoned), 2 oz.; water, 7 pints (wine measure); boil down to 5 pints, strain, allow it to deposit the sediment and decant the clear liquid. Demulcent.——Dose. A cupful ad libitum, in coughs, colds, calculous affections, and other diseases of the urinary organs. See MIXTURES.

=Decoction of Matico.= Syn. DECOCTUM MATICO′NIS, L. Prep. (Dr Jeffreys.) Matico leaves, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil 12 minutes, and strain. Astringent.——Dose, 1 fl. oz., 2 or 3 times a day; in hæmorrhagic and other discharges.

=Decoction, Mercu′′rial.= Syn. DECOCTUM HYDRARGYRI, D. MERCURIALE, L. Prep. 1. Quicksilver, 4 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil in a glass or earthen vessel for an hour, adding water to replace that lost by evaporation.——Dose. A teacupful.

2. Mercurial pill, 1 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to a pint.——Dose. A wine-glassful. Both were formerly taken for worms and the itch.

3. Corrosive sublimate, 1 gr.; (dissolved in) spirit of wine, 30 drops; extract of sarsaparilla, 3 dr.; decoction of sarsaparilla, 8 fl. oz.; mix.——Dose. One large table-spoonful, 3 times a day; in syphilis and obstinate skin diseases.

=Decoction of Mezere′on.= Syn. DECOCTUM MEZEREI (Ph. E. and Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Root-bark of mezereon, 2 dr.; liquorice root, 4 dr.; water, 1 quart; simmer to 1-1/2 pint, and strain. Stimulant and sudorific.——Dose. A wine-glassful, or more, three or four times a day; in chronic rheumatism, scrofula, secondary syphilis, lepra, and some other cutaneous affections. Much boiling injures the virtues of mezereon. (See below.)

=Decoction of Mezere′on (Compound).= Syn. DECOCTUM MEZEREI COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. (Van Mons.) Mezereon, 2 dr.; bitter sweet, 4 dr.; burdock, 2 oz.; water, 2 quarts; boil to 3 pints, add of liquorice root, 2 dr., and strain. As the last, and in obstinate diseases of the skin.

=Decoction of Mugwort.= Syn. DECOCTUM ARTEMISIÆ VULGARIS. Mugwort root, 1 oz.; water, 24 oz. Boil for half an hour. In epilepsy.

=Decoction of Myrrh.= Syn. DECOCTUM MYRRHÆ. (Ph. D.) Myrrh, 2 dr.; water, 8-1/2 oz.; triturate the myrrh with the water gradually added; then boil for 10 minutes in a covered vessel, and strain.

=Decoction, Narcotic.= Syn. DECOCTUM ANODYNUM, D. NARCOTICUM, L. Prep. (Hosp. Form.) Common nightshade (dried), 1 oz.; poppy heads, 3 in no.; water, 1 pint; boil 10 minutes, and strain. As an anodyne fomentation, used warm.

=Decoction of Ni′tre.= Syn. DECOCTUM NITROSUM, D. NITRATUM, D. POTASSÆ NITRATIS, L. Prep. 1. Nitre, 1/2 oz.; white sugar, 2 oz.; cochineal, 20 gr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil a few minutes, and strain.

2. (Hosp. Form.) Barley-water, 1 pint; nitre, 5 dr.; dissolve. Diuretic, diaphoretic, and refrigerant. A wine-glassful, frequently; in gonorrhœa, sore throat, acute rheumatism, scurvy, &c.

=Decoction of Oak Bark.= Syn. DECOCTUM QUERCÛS (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Oak bark (bruised), 10 dr.; water, 1 quart; boil down to a pint, and strain.

2. (Ph. D.) Oak bark, 1-1/2 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil 10 minutes, and strain. Astringent. Used as a gargle in ulcerated sore throat, relaxation of the uvula, &c., and as a wash, and as an injection in piles, leucorrhœa, hæmorrhages, prolapsus ani, &c.

3. (Ph. B.) Oak bark bruised, 1-1/2 oz.; distilled water, 1 pint; boil for 10 minutes, and strain.

=Decoction of Oats.= Syn. WATER GRUEL; DECOCTUM AVENÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Cullen.) Oatmeal, 1 oz.; water, 3 quarts; boil to a quart, strain, and when cold, decant the clear liquid from the sediment.

2. (A. T. Thomson.) Washed groats, 4 oz.; water, 4 pints; boil to a quart. Nutritious and demulcent. Taken ad libitum, to promote the action of purgatives, and as an enema, either alone, or as a vehicle for more active substances. It is too thin for food. See GRUEL.

=Decoction of Parei′ra.= Syn. DECOCTUM PAREIRÆ (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Pareira brava root (sliced), 10 dr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and strain.

2. (Sir B. Brodie.) Pareira, 4 dr.; water, 3 pints; boil to a pint, as last. The above are given in gonorrhœa, leucorrhœa, and chronic inflammation of the bladder.——Dose. Of the first, 1/2 to 1 wine-glassful, 3 or 4 times a day; of the second, about twice that quantity, or more. It is commonly combined with some tincture of hyoscyamus; and when the triple phosphates are present in the urine, dilute hydrochloric or nitric acid may be added. See PAREIRA.

=Decoction, Pec′toral.= See DECOCTION OF BARLEY.

=Decoction of Pel′litory.= DECOCTUM PYRE′′THRI, L. Prep. (Guy’s Hosp.) Pellitory root, 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and strain. Used as a gastric stimulant, and as a gargle in the relaxation of the uvula.

=Decoction of Pome′granate.= Syn. DECOCTUM GRANA′TI (Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Pomegranate rind (fruit-bark), 2 oz.; distilled water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and strain. Astringent. Used as a gargle and injection, in sore throat, leucorrhœa, &c.; and internally, in diarrhœa, dysentery, &c.——Dose, 1 fl. oz., or more.

=Decoction of Pomegranate Root.= Syn. DECOCTUM GRANATI RADICIS (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Root-bark of pomegranate (sliced), 2 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to a pint, and strain.

2. (Collier.) Bark of the root, 2 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil to one half. This is the common form used in India.

Dose, &c. A wine-glassful, half-hourly, until the whole is taken, a light diet and a dose of castor oil having been taken the day previously. In tapeworm, Dr Collier recommends the whole of the last preparation to be given at 2 doses, at the interval of 2 hours. It purges, and in 5 or 6 hours frequently expels the worm; if this does not take place, it should be persevered in. “Look for the head of the tænia (tapeworm); for if that is not expelled, you have done nothing.” (Collier.) Oil of turpentine and kousso are now more frequently given in tænia in this country.

=Decoction of Poppies.= Syn. DECOCTION OF POPPY-HEADS, FOMENTATION OF P.-H.; DECOCTUM PAPAVERIS (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Poppy-heads (bruised), 4 oz.; water, 2 quarts; boil for 15 minutes, and strain.

2. (Ph. E. & D.) As the last, but using only 3 pints of water. Used as an emollient fomentation, in painful swellings, excoriations, &c. The addition of a 1/4 pint of vinegar is said to promote its efficacy.

3. (Ph. B.) Poppy-heads bruised, 2 oz.; distilled water, 1-1/2 pint. Boil for 10 minutes and strain. The product should measure a pint.

=Decoction of Quas′sia.= Syn. DECOCTUM QUASSIÆ, L. Prep. From quassia chips (small). 1 dr.; water, 1-1/4 pint; boil to a pint, and add syrup of orange peel, 2 oz.——Dose. A wine-glassful, occasionally, as a stomachic tonic. See INFUSIONS.

=Decoction of Quince.= Syn. DECOCTION OF QUINCE SEED, MUCILAGE OF Q. S.; DECOCTUM CYDONII (Ph. L.), L. Prep. From quince seeds, 2 dr.; water, 1 pint; boil for 10 minutes, and strain. Used as an emollient and sheathing application to abraded or wounded surfaces, as cracked lip, nipples, &c.; and to the skin in erysipelas, to painful hæmorrhoidal tumours, and the like. Prepared with a little less water, it is used by the hairdresser as ‘bandoline’ or ‘fixateur.’

=Decoction of Red Gum.= Syn. DECOCTUM GUMMI RUBRI (Mr Squire.) Red gum, 1 oz.; water, 2 pints; boil 10 minutes, and strain.

=Decoction of Rice.= Syn. RICE WATER, RICE DRINK; DECOCTUM ORY′ZÆ, L. Prep. RICE, 2 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to one half, and strain. Demulcent. A good drink in fevers, coughs, &c., either alone or sweetened and flavoured with a little lemon peel.

=Decoction of Sarsaparil′la.= Syn. DECOCTUM SAR′ZÆ (Ph. L. & E.), D. SARSAPARILLÆ (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Sarsaparilla (sliced), 5 oz.; water, 2 quarts; boil to a quart, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) Sarsaparilla, 5 oz.; boiling distilled water, 4 pints; macerate for 2 hours, in a vessel lightly covered, and placed in a warm situation; then take out the root, bruise it, return it again to the liquor, boil down to a quart, and strain.

3. (Ph. D.) Sarsaparilla, 2 oz.; boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; digest an hour, boil 10 minutes, cool, and strain.

4. (Ph. B.) Digest 2-1/2 oz. of Jamaica sarsaparilla cut transversely in 1-1/2 pint of boiling water for an hour, boil for 10 minutes, cool, and strain. Make up to one pint.

Obs. The medicinal virtues of sarsaparilla root reside wholly in the bark, or cortical portion; it is therefore quite unnecessary to bruise it, as directed in the Ph. E. By those houses which do largely in decoction of sarsaparilla, the root is seldom split or cut; the bundles in which it is made up being simply untied and spread open, to allow of the free exposure of every part to the solvent action of the water. By this plan the whole of the soluble portion of the bark is extracted, whilst the feculent matter that pervades the wood is only partially dissolved out. According to Soubeiran, a mere infusion is preferable. The dose is a teacupful to half a pint, 3 or 4 times a day.

An extemporaneous decoction of sarsaparilla is made by dissolving 3/4 oz. of the simplest extract in 1 pint of hot water. See SARSAPARILLA, and below.

=Decoction of Sarsaparilla (Concentrated).= Syn. DECOCTUM SARZÆ CONCENTRATUM, L. Prep. 1. (Wholesale.) Sarsaparilla (Jamaica) 10-1/2 lbs., is placed in a large and well-cleaned copper boiler, and enough boiling water added to cover it; it is then left to macerate, without boiling, for 3 or 4 hours, after which it is boiled for about an hour, and the clear liquor drawn off into another clean copper pan; the root (after it has well drained) is then washed or ‘sparged’[255] with boiling water, until the latter runs off scarcely coloured; the washings are added to the decoction, and the whole evaporated as quickly as possible to 6-1/2 pints; it is then set to cool, and rectified spirit of wine, 1-1/2 pint, further added; after agitation, the whole is set aside in a well-corked bottle, in a cool place, for a week. In a few days it is usually found as clear and brilliant as brandy, with very little sediment, and will keep for any length of time uninjured. Some manufacturers, instead of washing the root, give it a second and third water, boiling it each time and evaporating the mixed liquors.

[Footnote 255: For an explanation of the operation of ‘sparging’ see page 356.]

2. (Extemporaneous.) Extract of sarsaparilla, 6-1/2 oz.; water, 12 fl. oz.; dissolve, add rectified spirit, 2-1/2 fl. oz., and water, q. s. to make the whole exactly measure a pint.

Obs. 1 drachm of this decoction, mixed with 7 drachms of water, forms a similar preparation to the Decoctum Sarzæ of the Ph. L., and is now very frequently substituted for it in dispensing. See SARSAPARILLA, EXTRACTS, and below.

=Decoction of Sarsaparilla (Compound).= Syn. DECOCTUM SARZÆ COMPOSITUM (Ph. L. & E.), D. SARSAPARILLÆ C. (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Decoction of sarsaparilla (boiling), 4 pints; sassafras chips, guaiacum wood (rasped), and fresh liquorice root (bruised), of each 10 dr.; mezereon (root-bark), 3 dr.; boil for 15 minutes, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) As the last, but using 4 dr. of mezereon.

3. (Ph. D.) Sarsaparilla (sliced), 2 oz., sassafras, guaiacum turnings, and liquorice root (bruised), of each 2 dr.; mezereon root-bark, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; digest for an hour, then boil for 10 minutes, cool, and strain.

4. (Extemporaneous.) Compound extract of sarsaparilla, 7-1/2 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; dissolve.

5. (Ph. B.) Jamaica sarsaparilla, cut transversely, 2-1/2 oz.; sassafras, guaiacum turnings, bruised liquorice root, of each 1/4 oz., mezereon root bark 60 grains; digest them with 1-1/2 pint of boiling water in a covered vessel for an hour, then boil for 10 minutes, cool, and strain. Make up to 1 pint.

Obs. This decoction is an imitation of the once justly celebrated ‘Lisbon Diet Drink.’ It is an alterative and diaphoretic.——Dose. A teacupful, or more, 3 or 4 times a day, either along with, or after, a mercurial course; and in syphilis, scurvy, scrofula, chronic rheumatism, lepra, psoriasis, and several other skin diseases, and especially in cachexia, or general bad habit of body. During its use the skin should be kept warm. See SARSAPARILLA and below.

=Decoction of Sarsaparilla (Concentrated Compound).= Syn. DECOCTUM SARZÆ COMPOSITUM CONCENTRATUM, D. SARSAPARILLÆ C. C., L. There is a very considerable trade done in this article, in consequence of compound decoction of sarsaparilla being taken in large doses, both alone and in combination with other remedies, and the pharmacopœial preparation spoiling if kept longer than about 12 hours, in warm weather. Like the concentrated simple decoction, it is said to be of 8 times the usual strength, so that when mixed with 7 times its weight of water, it forms a similar preparation to the Decoctum Sarzæ Compositum,——Ph. L., for which it is very generally substituted in dispensing.

Prep. 1. (Wholesale.) Sarsaparilla (red Jamaica), 96 lbs.; mezereon root (not root-bark), 9 lbs.; liquorice root (bruised), 16 lbs. The mezereon and liquorice are first laid (loosely) on the bottom of a clean copper pan, and the bundles of sarsaparilla (untied and loosened) packed over them, in horizontal layers, alternately at right angles with each other. Three or four boards, with as many iron 1/2-cwt. weights, are next placed on the top of the whole. Water is now run in, to about ten inches higher than the ingredients, and heat is applied until ebullition commences. The materials are now allowed to macerate, without boiling, for 3 or 4 hours, after which the liquor is gently boiled for about an hour, care being taken to add fresh water from time to time, so as to keep the whole well covered. The decoction is next run off, and set evaporating as quickly as possible. The ingredients are then washed with successive portions of boiling water, by allowing it to descend from a species of shower-bath, after the manner of ‘sparging,’ described under BREWING.[256] This is repeated until the water runs off nearly colourless, the smallest quantity being employed that will effect the object in view. The whole of the liquid is now evaporated without delay, until reduced to 8-1/4 galls., when, after cooling, 2 dr. of essential oil of sassafras, dissolved in 2 galls. of rectified spirit of wine, are added, and afterwards 1 pint of essence of guaiacum. The liquid is then placed in a suitably sized barrel, set upon its head, and fitted with a small cock (not placed too near the bottom), and allowed to repose for a week, by which time it becomes clear and brilliant, and fit for sale. This is the form adopted by the large metropolitan drug-houses most celebrated for this preparation. The product that may be drawn off fit for sale is something over 10 galls. The residuum, forming the ‘bottoms,’ consists chiefly of fecula. The latter is well stirred up with 3 or 4 galls. of cold water, and allowed to settle. The clear decanted ‘washings’ are used as water or liquor in making the next batch of decoction.

[Footnote 256: See page 356.]

2. (Extemporaneous.) Compound extract of sarsaparilla, 7-1/2 oz.; boiling water, 12 fl. oz.; dissolve, then add of rectified spirit of wine, 2-1/2 fl. oz.; mix well, and further add of water, q. s. to make the whole measure a pint.

Obs. To conduct this process successfully, several large copper pans are required; one of which (to boil the ingredients in) must be capable of containing from 140 to 150 gallons at the least, and the others must be sufficiently large to receive the liquors as they are drawn off. Those for the evaporation should be very shallow, in order that it may proceed rapidly; and the whole should be heated by steam. An excellent plan is to employ large wooden vats, and to apply the heat by means of pipes laid along the bottom, and supplied with high-pressure steam. This method is less expensive than the use of double steam pans, as above. When essence of guaiacum is not used, 24 lbs. of guaiacum shavings, from which the dust has been sifted, are boiled with the other ingredients, instead. Those desirous of using the proportions of the ingredients ordered by the Colleges may do so by taking eight times the given quantities, and proceeding as above. The following are special preparations:——

FELTZ’S DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA. Syn. AP′OZEM OF FELTZ; DECOCTUM SARZÆ CUM ICHTHYOCOL′LA, L.; PTISANE DE FELTZ, Fr. Prep. From sarsaparilla (sliced), 3 oz.; isinglass and crude antimony (in powder), of each 1/2 oz.; water 5 pints; boil to one half, and strain. Used in skin diseases.

JAUPERAND’S DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA. Syn. DECOCTUM SARZÆ CUM RADICE CHINÂ, L.; PTISANE DE JAUPERAND, Fr. Prep. (Bories.) Sarsaparilla and China root, of each 2 oz.; senna and sassafras chips, of each 1/2 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 1 dr.; water, 2 galls.; simmer, gently, for several hours, and strain 12 pints; when cold, decant the clear.——Dose, 2 fl. oz., two or three times daily; in scrofula, &c.

VINACHE’S DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA. Syn. DECOCTUM SARZÆ CUM SENNÂ, L.; PTISANE DE VINACHE, Fr. Prep. (Foy.) Sarsaparilla, China wood, and guaiacum wood, of each 1-1/2 oz.; crude antimony (tied in a rag), 2 oz.; water, 6 pints; macerate for 12 hours (7 in hot weather), boil to one half, add sassafras chips and senna, of each 1/2 oz., infuse 1 hour longer, and strain; when cold, decant the clear. Recommended in scrofula, secondary syphilis, and various cutaneous affections.

ZITTMANN’S DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA. Syn. DECOCTUM ZITTMANNI, L.; PTISANE DE ZITTMANN, Fr. Prep. 1. (STRONGER DECOCTION; D. Z. FORTE, Ph. Bor. 1847.) Sarsaparilla, 12 oz.; water, 72 lbs. (say 5-3/4 galls.); digest 24 hours, then add (suspended in a bag), white sugar and alum, of each 6 dr.; calomel, 4 dr.; cinnabar, 1 dr.; boil to 24 lbs., adding towards the end of the process, senna, 3 oz.; liquorice root, 1-1/2 oz.; aniseed and fennel seed, of each 1/2 oz.; finally strain, with pressure and after some time decant the clear portion. The formula in the ‘Ph. Suec.’ 1845 is similar; that in the ‘Hamburg Codex’ directs only 24 lbs. of water to be used, and the whole to be reduced to 16 lbs.

2. (WEAKER DECOCTION; D. Z. TENUE.——Ph. Bor. 1847.) Add to the residuum (waste) of the last preparation sarsaparilla, 6 oz.; water, 72 lbs. (say, 5-3/4 galls.); boil to 24 lbs.; adding towards the end of the process, lemon peel, cinnamon bark, liquorice root, and cardamoms (all bruised), of each 3 dr.; press, strain, &c., as before. In the ‘Ph. Suec.’ 1845 double the above weights of lemon peel and liquorice root are ordered, and in the ‘Hamburg Codex’ (1845) 24 lbs. of water only are ordered, and the whole is to be boiled down to 16 lbs.

Obs. Both the above are used in Germany and on the Continent generally, in the same cases as those in which compound decoction of sarsaparilla is administered in England. They may be drunk almost ad libitum. A trace of mercury may be detected in the stronger decoction, when properly prepared. See SARSAPARILLA.

=Decoction of Sen′ega Root.= Syn. DECOCTION OF AMERICAN SNAKE ROOT, D. OF RATTLESNAKE ROOT; DECOCTUM POLYGALÆ, D. SENEGÆ (Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Senega or seneka root, 10 dr.; water, 1 quart; boil to a pint, and strain.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 wine-glassfuls three or four times daily; in humoral asthma, chronic cough, dropsy, &c. It is stimulant, expectorant, and diuretic, and, in large doses, emetic and cathartic. It is frequently conjoined with ammonia. It is the antidote employed by the Senega Indians against the bite of the rattlesnake. (Dr Tennant.)

=Decoction of Simaru′ba Bark.= Syn. DECOCTUM SIMARU′BÆ, L. Prep. (Dr Wright.) Simaruba bark, 2 dr.; water, 24 fl. oz.; boil to one half, and strain. Tonic.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. oz.; in chronic dysentery and diarrhœa.

=Decoction of Squills (Compound).= Syn. DECOCTUM SCILLÆ COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. (Ph. U. S. 1841.) Squills, 3 dr.; juniper berries, 4 oz.; snake root, 3 oz.; water, 4 lbs.; boil to one half, strain, and add of sweet spirits of nitre, 4 fl. oz. In chronic coughs and other chest affections, unaccompanied with active inflammatory symptoms.——Dose, 1 to 3 fl. oz., twice or thrice daily.

=Decoction of Starch.= Syn. DECOCTUM AM′YLI (Ph. L.), MUCILA′GO AM′YLI (Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. (Ph. L. & E.) Starch, 1/2 oz.; add, gradually, water, 1 pint, and boil for a short time. The Dublin preparation is nearly twice as strong. Used as an enema in dysentery, diarrhœa, and excoriations of the rectum.

=Decoction, Sudorif′ic.= Syn. DECOCTUM SUDORIF′ICUM, L. The old name of the compound decoctions of sarsaparilla and guaiacum.

=Decoction of Su′et.= Syn. ARTIFICIAL GOAT’S MILK; DECOCTUM SE′VI, L. Prep. Suet, 1 oz.; tie it loosely in a piece of muslin and simmer it in cow’s milk, 1-1/4 pint; adding towards the last, white sugar, 1/2 oz. In scrofulous emaciation and phthisis; taken ad libitum.

=Decoction of Tam′arinds.= Syn. DECOCTUM TAMARIND′ORUM, L. Prep. Tamarinds, 1-1/2 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil for 5 minutes, and strain. A pleasant drink in fevers, asthma, chronic coughs, &c.

=Decoction of Tamarinds and Sen′na.= Syn. DEC. TAMARINDORUM CUM SENNÂ (Ph. E. 1744), L. Prep. Tamarinds, 6 dr.; cream of tartar, 2 dr.; water, 1-1/2; pint; boil in a glazed earthen vessel until reduced to 16 oz.; then infuse therein for 12 hours, senna, 4 dr.; strain, and add of syrup of violets, 1 oz. A gentle aperient.——Dose. A wine-glassful, or more.

=Decoction of Tar.= Syn. TAR WATER; DECOCTUM PI′CIS LIQ′UIDÆ, L. Prep. Tar, 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2; pint; boil to 1 pint.——Dose. A pint or more daily; in chronic catarrh; and as a wash in chronic skin diseases, especially those of the head, in children.

=Decoction, Ton′ic.= Syn. STRENGTHENING DECOCTION; DECOCTUM ROBORANS, L. Prep. 1. Peruvian bark (bruised), 1/2 oz.; Virginian snake root, 2 dr.; water, 1 pint; boil to one half, strain whilst hot, and add, spirit of cinnamon, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; diluted sulphuric acid, 1-1/2 dr.——Dose, 2 oz. two or three times a day.

2. Decoction of bark, 5 oz.; tincture of bark, 6 dr.; aromatic confection, 1/2 dr.; salvolatile, 1 dr.——Dose, 1 or 2 table-spoonfuls night and morning; especially in diarrhœa.

=Decoction of Tor′mentil.= Syn. DECOCTUM TORMENTIL′LÆ (Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Tormentil root (bruised), 2 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and strain. Astringent.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. oz., in chronic diarrhœa, &c.

=Decoction of Tur′meric.= Syn. DECOCTUM CURCU′MÆ, L. Prep. From turmeric root (in powder), 1-1/2 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil for 5 minutes, and strain. A mild aromatic stimulant and stomachic.——Dose. A wine-glassful ad libitum. It is principally used as a test for alkalies, which turn it brown. Unsized paper dipped into it and dried forms the turmeric test-paper of the chemist.

=Decoction of Verbe′na.= Syn. DECOCTUM VERBE′NÆ, L. From verbena (vervain), 2 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to 1 pint, and strain.

Obs. The Verbena officinalis was formerly highly recommended by Etmuller, Hartman, De Haën, Morley, and others, in scrofula, cephalalgia, &c., but afterwards fell into neglect. More recently, a decoction of the plant has been highly extolled by Boshanov and others as an anti-febrile.

=Decoction, Vul′nerary.= Syn. DECOCTUM VULNERA′′RIUM, L. Prep. From ground ivy and broad-leaved plantain, of each 1/2 oz.; water, 3 pints; boil to 1 quart, strain, and add sugar, 1 oz. A popular pectoral and tonic, especially in old coughs; also to heal wounds.——Dose, 1/2 a teacupful or more twice a day.

=Decoction of Wal′nut Bark.= Syn. DECOCTUM JUGLAND′IS, L. Prep. (Ph. Gen.) Green bark of walnuts, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil for 15 minutes, and strain. As an anti-syphilitic. Before the general introduction of sarsaparilla it was much esteemed in most cases in which that drug is now taken.——Dose, &c. The same as those of comp. dec. of sarsaparilla. Pearson says that “when the putamen (green rind) of the walnut has been omitted, either intentionally or by accident (from Decoctum Lusitanicum), the same good effects have not followed its use as when it contained this ingredient.

=Decoction of Walnut Leaves.= Syn. DECOCTUM JUGLAND′IS FOLIO′′RUM, L. Prep. (Negrier.) Walnut leaves, 1 handful; water, 1 quart; boil 15 minutes, and strain. Detersive, diaphoretic, and alterative.——Dose, &c. As the last, especially in chronic rheumatism, secondary syphilis, &c.

=Decoction of Wa′terdock.= Syn. DECOCTUM RUMI′CIS, D. R. AQUAT′ICI, L. Prep. (A. T. Thomson.) Root of common waterdock (Rumex obtusifolius), 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil for 10 minutes, and strain.

Obs. This decoction is astringent, and was once much celebrated as a remedy for scurvy and some other cutaneous affections. “It is the only remedy which proves efficacious in that disease when the ulcers are healed, and the patient is attacked with asthma.” (Linnaeus, on the Scurvy of the Laplanders.)

=Decoction, White= (Sydenham’s). Syn. HARTSHORN DRINK; MIS′TURA COR′NU USTI. Prep. Prepared burnt hartshorn, 2 oz.; gum Arabic, 1 oz.; water, 3 pints; boil to 1 quart, and strain. Mucilaginous; demulcent. Taken ad libitum.

=Decoction of Whor′tleberry.= Syn. DECOCTION OF BEAR-BERRY, D. OF UVA-URSI; DECOCTUM UVÆ URSI (Ph. L. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Whortleberry leaves, 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and strain.

2. (Ph. D.) Uva-ursi (the leaves), 1/2 oz.; water, 1/2 pint; boil 10 minutes, and strain.

Dose, &c. 1 to 3 fl. oz. two or three times daily; in phthisis and purulent affections of the urinary organs, unaccompanied with active inflammation; especially in chronic affections of the bladder.

=Decoction of Wil′low Bark.= Syn. DECOCTUM SALICIS, D. S. CORTICIS, L. Prep. 1. (Wilkinson.) Willow bark (Salix latifolia), bruised, 1-1/2 oz.; macerate in water, 2 lbs., for 6 hours, then boil for 15 minutes, and strain. Tonic, astringent, and febrifuge.——Dose. A wine-glassful.

2. (Nieman.) Willow bark (Salix alba), 1-1/2 oz.; water, 3/4 pint; boil to one half.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. oz. Both are used as substitutes for decoction of cinchona bark.

=Decoction of Win′ter-green.= Syn. DECOCTION OF PYROLA, D. OF UMBELLATED WINTER-GREEN, D. OF PIPSISSEWA; DECOCTUM CHIMAPHILÆ (Ph. L.), D. PYROLÆ (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Chimaphila (dried herb), 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and strain.

2. (Ph. D.) Winter-green (dried leaves), 1/2 oz.; water, 1/2 pint; boil 10 minutes in a covered vessel, and strain. Tonic, stomachic, alterative, and diuretic.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. oz.; in dropsies, scrofula, debility, loss of appetite, &c.; and in those affections of the urinary organs in which uva-ursi is commonly given.

=Decoction of Worm′seed.= Syn. DECOCTUM SANTONICI, L. Prep. 1. Wormseed, bruised, 2 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil down to 16 fl. oz., and strain.

2. (Dr R. E. Griffith.) Fresh leaves of wormseed(Chenopodium anthelminticum),——Linn.), 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; orange peel, 2 dr.; boil (10 minutes), and strain. The above are bitter, stomachic, and vermifuge.——Dose. A wine-glassful twice a day; in worms. It is also used as an injection against ascarides.

=Decoction of Yar′row.= Syn. DECOCTUM MILLEFOLII, L. Prep. From milfoil or yarrow tops, 1-1/2 oz.; water, 1-1/4 pint; boil to a pint, and strain. Astringent, tonic, and vulnerary.——Dose. A wine-glassful thrice daily; in dropsies, &c. It is also used as a fomentation to bruises, &c.

=Decoction of Black Snake Root.= Syn. DECOCTUM CIMICIFUGE. Black snake root, 1 oz.; water, 16 oz.; boil for 10 minutes.——Dose, 1 oz. to 2 oz. in rheumatism and dropsy.

=Decoction of Stavesacre.= Syn. DECOCTUM STAPHISAGRIÆ. Stavesacre seed, 1 oz.; water, 2 pints; boil for a few minutes, and strain. For external use.

=Decoction of Snails.= Syn. DECOCTUM LIMATUM (MARS MOUCHON). Flesh of vine or garden snails (cleansed from shell and intestines), 5 oz.; water, 2 pints; simmer gently for 2 hours, adding towards the end, maiden hair 2 oz., and strain.

=Decoction of Soapwort.= Syn. DECOCTUM SAPONARIÆ (SWEDIAUR). Soapwort, 2 oz.; water, 4 lbs.; boil to 2 lbs., and strain.

=Decoction of Wood-Soot.= Syn. DECOCTUM FULIGINIS (Dr Neligan). Wood-soot, 4 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint.

=DECOLORA′TION.= The blanching or removal of the natural colour of any substance. Syrups and many animal, vegetable, and saline solutions are decoloured or whitened by agitation with animal charcoal, and subsequent subsidence or filtration. Many fluids rapidly lose their natural colour by exposure to light, especially to the direct rays of the sun. In this way castor, nut, poppy, and several other oils are whitened. Fish oils are partially deodorised and decoloured by filtration through animal charcoal. Cottons and linens are still commonly bleached by the joint action of light, air, and moisture. The peculiar way in which light produces this effect has never been satisfactorily explained. The decoloration of textile fabrics and solid bodies generally is called bleaching. See BLANCHING, BLEACHING, OILS, TALLOW, SYRUPS, SUGAR, &c.

=DECOMPOSI′′TION= (-zĭsh′un). In chemistry, the resolution of compounds into their elements, or the alteration of their chemical constitution in such a manner that new products are formed.

=DEFECA′TION.= The separation of a liquid from its lees, dregs, or impurities by subsidence and decantation. It is commonly employed for the purification of saline solutions and glutinous or unctuous liquids on the large scale in preference to filtration; than which it is both more expeditious and expensive. See CLARIFICATION, DECANTATION, FILTRATION, &c.

=DEFLAGRA′TION.= The sudden combustion of any substance for the purpose of producing some change in its composition, by the joint action of heat and oxygen. The process is commonly performed by projecting into a red-hot crucible, in small portions at a time, a mixture of nitrate of potash, and the body to be oxidised.

=DELIQUES′CENCE.= Spontaneous liquefaction by absorption of the moisture of the atmosphere. Deliquescent salts are those which by exposure gradually assume the liquid state. They should all be kept in well-closed bottles or jars.

=DELIR′IUM TRE′MENS.= [L.] The madness of drunkards; a disease of the brain resulting from the excessive and protracted use of intoxicating liquors, particularly of ardent spirits. The early symptoms are extreme irritability and fretfulness, with unusual mobility of the body. Sleeplessness and unpleasant dreams soon follow. At length frightful dreams and visions harass the patient. He sees remarkable sights, hears extraordinary sounds, and labours under all the strange delusions of insane persons, which, however vague and unfounded, operate on him with all the force of realities till he becomes furiously mad. The fit almost always comes on after hard drinking; and the hands are usually, but not always, tremulous. A similar affection is occasionally produced by the abuse of opium, excessive mental anxiety, night watching, or depletion. According to Dr Armstrong, even respiring the fumes of ardent spirits will, under some circumstances, produce this disease. Persons who have undergone surgical operations under the influence of chloroform are more liable to attacks of this kind than other persons.

The treatment of delirium tremens consists mainly in the judicious use of opium, laudanum, or morphia, in rather large doses, frequently repeated. Thirty to sixty drops of laudanum may be given every hour or two during the fit, its effects being carefully watched. The object is to produce quiet sleep, from which the patient usually wakes free from the worst symptoms of the disease. Diaphoretics and mild aperients may also be given, and a light, nutritious diet adopted throughout. Depletion, especially bleeding, should be particularly avoided. Alcoholic stimulants and wine, in certain cases, have proved useful. Under this treatment, the patient, unless of a very bad habit of body, or much debilitated by previous excesses, usually recovers. He is, however, very liable to relapses and subsequent attacks, which are best prevented by judicious moral management.

The judicious administration of chloral hydrate, in doses of from thirty to sixty grains as well as of bromide of potassium in twenty-grain doses, either alone or combined with the chloral, has lately been had recourse to with the happiest results, for the production of sleep in cases of delirium tremens or in the insomnia of dipsomaniacs.

The repetition of the dose of chloral requires to be regulated with very great caution; and it is only in the case of emigrants and others unable to obtain medical aid that we would recommend it to be given, and then only should opium have failed to produce the desired effect. Not more than sixty grains of the chloral should be administered during the twenty-four hours. The internal administration of tincture of capsicum in moderately large doses, in the intervals of the opiates or chloral hydrate, has lately been tried in the treatment of this disease, it is said, with success.

=DELPHIN′IC ACID.= Syn. PHOCE′NIC ACID. A fatty acid, obtained by saponifying the oil of the delphinus or porpoise. According to recent experiments, it is identical with valeric acid.

=DELPHIN′INE.= Syn. DEL′PHINE, DEL′PHIA, DELPHIN′IA. An alkaloid discovered by Lassaigne and Feneulle in Delphinium staphysagria or stavesacre.

Prep. 1. The husked seeds (in powder) are boiled in a little water, and pressed in a cloth; a little pure magnesia is then added to the filtered decoction, the whole is boiled for a few minutes, and refiltered; the residuum, after being well washed, is digested in boiling alcohol, which dissolves out the alkaloid, and gives it up again by gentle evaporation and cooling.

2. The bruised, but unshelled, seeds are digested in dilute sulphuric acid, the filtered liquor precipitated with carbonate of potassa, and the precipitate digested in alcohol as before.

3. (Parrish.) An alcoholic extract of the seeds is treated with dilute sulphuric acid, precipitated with an alkali, again dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid; the colouring matter precipitated by a few drops of nitric acid, the alkaloid by potassa. The alkaloid is then dissolved in absolute alcohol, and the solution thus formed is evaporated; one pound yields about one drachm.

Prop., &c. A light-yellowish or white, odourless powder; extremely acrid and bitter; scarcely soluble in water; dissolves in ether, and readily in alcohol; and has an alkaline reaction. Its alcoholic solution produces a burning and tingling sensation when rubbed on the skin, and a similar sensation is produced in various parts of the body when it is taken in doses of a few grains. It has been exhibited in neuralgia and rheumatism by Dr Turnbull.——Dose, 1/12 gr. every three hours, made into a pill with 1 gr. each of the extracts of henbane and liquorice. It is also used externally under the form of ointment and lotion.

=DELPHINUM——A Boot Varnish.= Shell-lac, 7·5 grammes dissolved in alcohol, 15 grammes, mixed with 20 drops fish oil, and ·1 gramme lampblack. (Geisse.)

=DEMUL′CENTS.= In medicine, substances which are calculated to soften and lubricate the parts to which they are applied. Though having the same signification as the word EMOLLIENTS, it is desirable to restrict the latter term to such as are intended for external application, and to include under the above head only such as are intended for internal exhibition. The principal demulcents are gum Arabic, gum tragacanth, liquorice, honey, arrow-root, pearl barley, isinglass, gelatin, milk, almonds, spermaceti, almond and olive oils, and most other mucilaginous, amylaceous, saccharine, and oily substances. For use, these are made into MUCILAGES, DECOCTIONS, EMULSIONS, or MILKS, with water, and form suitable beverages in dysentery, diarrhœa, catarrh, diseases of the urinary organs, and all other diseases where diluents are useful. See EMOLLIENTS.

=DENGUE.= This disease is most commonly met with in the East and West Indies, and occasionally as an epidemic in America. In England it rarely shows itself in an epidemic character. The symptoms of dengue appear to combine those of rheumatism and scarlet fever. On the third or fourth day an eruption shows itself, accompanied with pains in the limbs, glandular swellings, and languor. The course of the disease is varied by frequent remissions. It does not come within our design to indicate the treatment, which appears to be the same as that pursued in scarlet fever.

=DENS′ITY.= Comparative masses of equal weights, or the quantity of matter contained in a given space. It is commonly used synonymously with SPECIFIC GRAVITY, which, however, refers to comparative weights of equal bulks. Thus, quicksilver is said to have a density greater than that of copper, and alcohol one less than that of oil of vitriol.

=DENTI′FRICES.= Syn. DENTIFRICIA, L. Substances applied to the teeth, to cleanse and beautify them. The most useful form of dentifrices is that of powder (TOOTH POWDER); but liquids (TOOTH WASHES), and electuaries (TOOTH ELECTUARIES, TOOTH PASTES), are also employed. The solid ingredients used in dentifrices should not be so hard or gritty as to injure the enamel of the teeth; nor so soft or adhesive as to adhere to the gums, after rinsing the mouth out with water. Pumice-stone (in fine powder) is one of those substances that acts entirely by mechanical attrition, and is hence an objectionable ingredient in tooth powder intended for daily use. It is, however, very generally present in the various advertised dentifrices, which are remarkable for their rapid action in whitening the teeth. Bath brick is another substance of a similar nature to pumice, and, like that article, should be only occasionally employed. Cuttle-fish bone, coral, and prepared chalk, are also commonly used for the same purpose, but the last is rather too soft and absorbent to form the sole ingredient of a tooth powder. Charcoal, which is so very generally employed as a dentifrice, acts partly mechanically and partly by its chemical property of destroying foul smells and arresting putrefaction. For this purpose it should be newly burnt, and kept in well-closed vessels, until used, as by exposure to the air it rapidly loses its antiseptic powers. Powdered rhatany, cinchona bark, and catechu, are used as astringents, and are very useful in foulness or sponginess of the gums. Myrrh and mastic are employed on account of their odour, and their presumed preservative action and power of fixing loose teeth. Insoluble powders have been objected to on account of their being apt to accumulate between the folds of the gums and in the cracks of the teeth, and thus impart a disagreeable appearance to the mouth. To remedy this defect, a reddish or flesh-coloured tinge is commonly given to them with a little rose pink, red coral, or similar colouring substance, when any small portion that remains unwashed off is rendered less conspicuous. Some persons employ soluble substances as tooth powders, which are free from the above objection. Thus, sulphate of potash and cream of tartar are used for this purpose, because of the grittiness of their powders and their slight solubility in water. Phosphate of soda and common salt are also frequently employed as dentifrices, and possess the advantage of being readily removed from the mouth by means of a little water. Among those substances that chemically decolour and remove unpleasant odours, the only ones employed as dentifrices are charcoal and the chlorides of lime and soda. The first has been already noticed; the others may be used by brushing the teeth with water to which a very little of their solutions has been added. A very weak solution of chloride of lime is commonly employed by smokers to remove the odour and colour imparted by tobacco to the teeth. Electuaries, made of honey and astringent substances, are frequently employed in diseases of the gums. The juice of the common strawberry has been recommended as an elegant natural dentifrice, as it readily dissolves the tartarous incrustations on the teeth, and imparts an agreeable odour to the breath. See PASTE and POWDER (Tooth), also WASHES (Mouth).

=DENT′INE.= The tissue of which the teeth are composed.

=DENTISTRY.= The art or practice of a dentist. Directions for the extraction of teeth, as well as elaborate details for stopping them, and for the manufacture of artificial ones, are branches of the dentist’s art, which, as they necessitate the exercise of considerable skill and long practice, do not call for notice in a work like the present. We shall confine ourselves, therefore, to that section of dentistry which concerns itself with stoppings for the cavities of decayed teeth, and for the preparation of which we give the following formulæ:——

1. (Soubeiran’s.) Powdered mastic and sandarach, of each 4 dr.; dragon’s blood, 2 dr.; opium, 15 gr.; mix with sufficient rectified spirit to form a stiff paste. A solution of mastic, or of mastic and sandarach, in half the quantity of alcohol, is also used, applied with a little cotton or lint.

2. Sandarach, 12 parts; mastic, 6 parts; amber, in powder, 1 part; ether, 6 parts. Applied with cotton. Or simply a paste of powdered mastic and ether. Or a saturated ethereal solution of mastic, applied with cotton.

3. Taveare’s cement is made with mastic and burnt alum. Bernoth directs 20 parts of powdered mastic to be digested with 40 of ether, and enough powdered alum added to form a stiff paste.

4. Gutta percha, softened by heat, is recommended. Dr Rollfs advises melting a piece of caoutchouc at the end of a wire, and introducing it while warm.

5. (Gauger’s Cement.) Put into a quart bottle 2 oz. of mastic and 3 oz. of absolute alcohol; apply a gentle heat by a water-bath. When dissolved, add 9 oz. of dry balsam of tolu, and again heat gently. A piece of cotton dipped in this viscid solution becomes hard when introduced into the tooth, previously cleansed and dried as above.

6. (Mr Robinson’s.) After washing out the mouth with warm water containing a few grains of bicarbonate of soda, and cleaning the cavity as above directed, he drops into it a drop of collodion, to which a little morphia has been added, fills the cavity with asbestos and saturates with collodion, placing over all a pledget of blotting paper.

7. (Ostermaier’s Cement.) Mix 12 parts of dry phosphoric acid with 13 of pure and pulverised quicklime. It becomes moist in mixing, in which state it is introduced into the cavity of the tooth, where it quickly becomes hard. [In some hands this has failed, from what cause we are not aware.] The acid should be prepared as directed under ACID, PHOSPHORIC.

8. (Silica.) This name has been given to a mixture of Paris plaster, levigated porcelain, iron filings, and dregs of tincture of mastic, ground together.

9. (Wirih’s Cement.) It is said to consist of a viscid alcoholic solution of resins, with powdered asbestos.

10. (Metallic Cement.) Amalgams for the teeth are made with gold or silver, and quicksilver, the excess of the latter being squeezed out, and the stiff amalgam used warm. Inferior kinds are made with quicksilver and tin, or zinc. A popular nostrum of this kind is said to consist of 40 gr. of quicksilver and 20 of fine zinc filings, mixed at the time of using. Mr Evans states that pure tin, with a small portion of cadmium, and sufficient quicksilver, forms the most lasting and least objectionable amalgam. The following is the formula:——Melt 2 parts of tin with 1 of cadmium, run it into ingots, and reduce it to filings. Form these into a fluid amalgam with mercury, and squeeze out the excess of mercury through leather. Work up the solid residue in the hand, and press it into the tooth. Or, melt some beeswax in a pipkin over the fire, throw in 5 parts of cadmium, and, when melted, add 7 or 8 parts of tin in small pieces; pour the melted metals into an iron or wooden box, and shake them till cold, so as to obtain the alloy in a powder. This is mixed with 2-1/2 or 3 times its weight of quicksilver in the palm of the hand, and used as above.

Another cement consists of about 73 parts of silver, 21 of tin, and 6 of zinc, amalgamated with quicksilver. An amalgam of copper is said to be sometimes used. But this class of stoppings is altogether disapproved of by other authorities. Pure leaf-gold seems the least objectionable.

11. (Marmoratum.) Finely levigated glass, mixed with tin amalgam.

12. (Poudre Metallique.) The article sold under this name in Paris appears to be an amalgam of silver, mercury, and ammonium, with an excess of mercury, which is pressed out before using it.

13. (Fusible Metal.) Melt together 8 parts of bismuth, 5 of lead, 3 of tin, and 1-1/2 or 1·6 of quicksilver, with as little heat as possible. (Chaudet.)

14. (Non-expensive Metallic Tooth-stopping.) Take 1 part of sulphate of mercury, 1 part of copper in fine powder; rub them well together with a little warm water; when the amalgam is formed wash well, and remove the surplus of mercury by pressing it through chamois.——Pharm. Journ.

EXPENSIVE METALLIC TOOTH-STOPPING AND MUCH PREFERABLE. Take pure gold, pure gelatin, 1 part of each; pure silver, 2 parts; melt, and when refrigerated, reduce to a powder by means of a file; wash well and dry. In the moment of using it add sufficient mercury to form a plastic paste.——Pharm. Journ.

PASTE FOR DESTROYING THE SENSIBILITY OF THE DENTAL PULP PREVIOUS TO STOPPING. Arsenious acid, 30 gr.; sulphate of morphia, 20 gr.; creasote, q. s. [Unsafe; it is only inserted by way of warning against what may prove an unsuspected cause of mischief.]

PIVOTS FOR ARTIFICIAL TEETH. An alloy of platinum and silver.

SPRINGS FOR ARTIFICIAL TEETH. Equal parts of copper, silver, and palladium. (Chaudet.)

For Cachou Aromatisé, and other compounds for sweetening the breath, see PERFUMERY.

=DENTI′TION.= See TEETHING.

=DEOB′STRUENT.= In medicine, a substance which removes obstructions, and opens the natural passages of the fluids of the body, as the pores, lacteals, and glands. Iodine, mercury, sarsaparilla, and aperients, are deobstruents.

=DEO′DORISER.= Any substance having the power of absorbing or destroying fetid effluvia. Chlorine, chloride of lime, chloride of zinc, nitrate of lead, sulphate of iron, and freshly-burnt charcoal, are the most effective and convenient deodorisers. Peat charcoal has been highly recommended for deodorising manure, &c., on the large scale. When it is mixed with these substances their fetor is immediately destroyed, and a compost produced, which may be substituted for guano for agricultural purposes. ‘Biedermann’s Centralblatt für Agricultur Chemie’ for June, 1877, contains the results of some experiments undertaken by A. Eckstein on the comparative deodorising values of certain substances. Herr Eckstein found that 1 kilo of copperas dissolved in water destroyed the stench of sulphuretted hydrogen in a privy used daily by at least 100 persons. The action ceased after twelve hours. A solution of aqueous sulphate of copper produced a similar result. When 1 kilo of solid copperas was employed the action lasted for two days. The same result was obtained by using 1 kilo of a mixture compound of copperas, sulphate of copper, and carbonate of lime. Liquid sulphurous acid was found to act very rapidly, rendering the atmosphere difficult to breathe for an hour; its action ceased after twenty-three hours. Crude carbolic acid, which was used to the extent of 30 grams, gave so unpleasant a smell for two days as to render the result impossible to be arrived at. One kilo of copperas enclosed in a bag of parchment paper only began to act after two hours, and kept the place odourless for two days. One kilo of good chloride of lime, placed in a similar bag, did not lose its effect for nine days. With 60 grams of permanganate of soda the action commenced immediately, but the effect was over in twenty-four hours; when enclosed in parchment paper it was efficacious for two days. In Herr Eckstein’s opinion the most powerful deodoriser known is chloride of lime along with sulphuric acid. Powdered gypsum is a good absorber of ammonia, and for this purpose may be sprinkled over the floors of stables, manure heaps, &c. See DISINFECTANT.

=DEOX′IDATION.= See REDUCTION.

=DEPIL′ATORY.= A cosmetic employed to remove superfluous hairs from the human skin. Depilatories act either mechanically (MECHANICAL DEPILATORIES), or chemically (CHEMICAL DEPILATORIES). To the first class belong adhesive plasters, that, on their removal from the skin, bring away the hair with them. The second class includes all those substances which destroy the hair by their chemical action.

Lime or orpiment, and generally both of them, have formed the leading ingredients in depilatories, both in ancient and modern times. The first acts by its well-known causticity, and also, when an alkali is present, by reducing that also, either wholly or in part, to the caustic state. The action of the orpiment is of a less certain character, and its use is even dangerous when applied to a highly sensitive or an abraded surface. The addition of starch is to render the paste more adhesive and manageable.

In using the following preparations, those which are in the state of powder are mixed up with a little warm water to the consistence of a paste, and applied to the part. Sometimes soap lye is used for this purpose, and some persons spread the pulpy mass on a piece of paper, and apply it like a plaster. In 12 or 15 minutes, and sooner, if much smarting ensues, the whole should be washed off with warm water, and a little cold cream, lip-salve, or spermaceti cerate, applied to the part. The application of the liquid preparations is generally accompanied with gentle friction, care being taken to prevent them extending to the adjacent parts. All the following effect the object satisfactorily, with proper management; but some are much more effective than others. A small wooden or bone knife is the best for mixing them with. They must all be kept in well-stoppered bottles, and no liquid must be added to them until shortly before their application; and then no more should be mixed than is required for immediate use.

=Depilatory, Arsen′ical.= Orpiment (sulphide of arsenic) forms the principal ingredient in many fashionable depilatories, but its use is not free from danger. The following are well-known preparations:

1. (COLLEY’S D.) From nitre and sulphur, of each 1 part; orpiment, 3 parts; quicklime, 8 parts; soap lees, 32 parts; boil to the consistence of cream. Very caustic.

2. (DELCROIX’S D.; ‘POUDRE SUBTILE,’) Orpiment, 1 oz.; quicklime, 10 oz.; starch, 14 oz.

3. (ORIENTAL D.; ORIENTAL RUSMA.)——a. Quicklime, 3 oz.; orpiment, 1/2 dr.; strong alkaline lye, 1 lb.; boil together in a clean iron vessel until a feather dipped into the liquor loses its flue.

b. From pearlash, 2 oz.; orpiment, 3 dr.; liquor of potassa, 1/2 pint; boil together as before. One of the most caustic and consequently the most certain of depilatory preparations; but, with the rest of its class, open to the objections of containing orpiment. (See No. 7.)

4. (PASTE D.; ‘PÂTE ÉPILATOIRE,’) To No. 1 add of orris root, 3 parts.

5. (PLENCK’S D.; ‘PASTA EPILATORIA,’) Orpiment, 1 part; quicklime and starch, of each 12 parts.

6. (SOAP D.; ‘SAVON ÉPILATOIRE,’) Turkish depilatory and soft soap, equal parts. Must not be mixed until about to be applied. (See No. 7.)

7. (TURKISH D.; TURKISH RUSMA.) Orpiment, 1 part; quicklime, 9 parts. For use, it is mixed up with soap lees, and a little powdered starch.

=Depilatory, Boettger’s.= Powdered sulphydrate of sodium, one part; washed chalk, three parts; made into a thick paste with a little water. Let a layer about the thickness of the back of a knife be spread upon the hairy surface. After two or three minutes the stoutest hairs are transformed into a soft mass which may be removed by water. A more prolonged action would attack the skin.

=Depilatory, Boudet’s.= Prep. Sulphide of sodium (crystallised), 3 parts; quicklime (in fine powder), 10 parts; starch, 10 parts; mix. To be mixed with water, and applied to the skin, and scraped off in 2 or 3 minutes with a wooden knife. Very effective and safe.

=Depilatory, Cazenave’s.= Syn. MAHON’S D.; POMMADE ÉPILATOIRE DE CAZENAVE, Fr. Prep. Quicklime, 1 part; carbonate of soda, 2 parts; lard, 8 parts; mix. Applied as an ointment.

=Depilatory, Chi′nese.= Prep. 1. Quicklime, 8 oz.; pearlash (dry) and liver of sulphur, of each 1 oz.; all reduced to a fine powder; mixed, and kept in a close bottle.

2. (ROSEATE D.) As No. 1., but coloured with a little rose pink or light red.

These preparations are applied in the same manner as Boudet’s Depilatory.

=Depilatory, Colley’s.= See DEPILATORY, ARSENICAL.

=Depilatory, Hydrosulphate of Lime.= Prep. (Beasley.) Mix quicklime and water to a thick cream, and pass into the mixture 25 or 30 times its volume of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. When the gas ceases to be absorbed, stop the process. The pulpy mass is spread on paper, and applied for 12 or 15 minutes. It is very effective, but has a most disgusting smell. Spolasco’s depilatory is a very similar preparation (see below).

=Depilatory, Mechan′ical.= Syn. DEPILATORY PLASTEE. Prep. From pitch and resin, equal parts, melted together and spread on leather. Applied as a plaster.

=Depilatory, Rayer’s.= Prep. Quicklime, 2 oz.; salt of tartar, 4 oz.; charcoal, 1/4 oz. Less active than Chinese Depilatory.

=Depilatory, Redwood’s.= Prep. A strong solution of sulphide of barium, made into a paste with powdered starch, and applied immediately. Mr Redwood says this is “the best and safest depilatory.”

=Depilatory, Ro′seate.= See DEPILATORY, CHINESE.

=Depilatory, Spolasco’s.= Prep. Freshly prepared sulphide of calcium and quicklime, equal parts. Almost equal to Redwood’s (above).

=DEPOSI′TION (of Metals).= See ELECTRO-TYPE.

=DERBY CONDITION POWDERS= (J. Tobias Simpson, New York). Celebrated as a safe, infallible, and speedy remedy for glanders, coughs, colds, over feeding, worms, mouth disease, and loss of horns or hair, in horses and other valuable domestic animals. Tartar emetic, 2 grammes; black antimony, 20 grammes; sulphur, 10 grammes; nitre, 10 grammes; fenugreek, 40 grammes; juniper berries, 20 grammes. (Schädler.)

=DER′BYSHIRE NECK.= See GOITRE.

=DERMASOT= (Apotheker Bertschinger, Baden, Switzerland). For profuse perspiration of the feet. Consists of acetate of alumina, 7·5 grammes; distilled water, 120 grammes; butyric ether, 2 drops; rosanilin to colour it slightly. (Weber.)

=DESBRIERRE’S CHOCOLATE A LA MAGNESIE.= 44 grammes of chocolate paste and 15 grammes of calcined magnesia, made into two tablets. (Reveil.)

=DESIC′CANTS.= Syn. DESICCAN′TIA, L. In pharmacology, substances that check secretion and dry sores of abraded surfaces, without acting as styptics, or constringing the fibres of the parts to which they are applied. See ASTRINGENTS.

=DESICCA′TION.= Syn. EXSICCA′TION. The evaporation or drying off of the aqueous portion of solid bodies. Plants and chemical preparations are deprived of their humidity by exposure to the sun, a current of dry air, an atmosphere rendered artificially dry by sulphuric acid, or by the direct application of heat by means of a water bath, a sand bath, or a common fire. Planks and timber are now seasoned, on the large scale, in this way, by which a condition may be produced, in 2 or 3 days, which on the old system is barely attainable in as many years. “Endeavours were made to enforce the importance and value of the desiccation of woods to the builder, cabinet maker, architect, and civil engineer, so long back as 1843, but without success. Since that period certain persons have availed themselves, commercially, of our ideas and experiments on the subject, without any acknowledgment, either verbal or pecuniary.” (Cooley.)

=DESTEM′PER.= Syn. DISTEMPER. Colours ground up with size, gum, or white of egg, and water, as in scene painting. The art of executing work in distemper is called ‘distemper painting.’

=DETER′GENT.= An agent having the power of removing offensive matter from the skin. The name is now generally restricted to applications that tend to cleanse foul wounds and ulcers.

=Detergent, Collier’s.= Prep. From liquor of potassa, 2 fl. dr.; rose water, 5-1/2 fl. oz.; spirit of rosemary, 1/2 fl. oz.; mix. One of the best applications known to free the head from scurf, when the hair is strong and healthy. The head should be afterwards sponged with clean, soft water.

=DETONA′TION.= See FULMINATING COMPOUNDS.

=DEUTOX′IDE.= See OXIDES.

=DEUTSCHE SIEGESTROPFEN——German Triumphal Drops= (Schmidt). 480 grammes of a brown fluid with an agreeably sweet spirituous and aromatic taste, containing in a hundred parts five parts of the portion soluble in weak spirit of cloves and orange peel, 29 parts sugar, 36 parts alcohol, and 30 parts water. (Wittstein.)

=DEW-POINT.= The temperature at which dew begins to form, as observed by a thermometer. It varies with the humidity of the atmosphere.

=DEX′TRIN.= C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}. Syn. STARCH GUM, DEXTRINA, DEXTRINUM, BRITISH GUM. A soluble substance resembling gum, formed by the action of dilute acids at the boiling temperature, and by infusion of malt, at about 160° Fahr., on starch. It is also formed when potato starch and some of the other farinas are exposed to a heat of about 400°. See DIASTASE and GUM (British).

=DEX′TRO-RACE′MIC ACID.= See RACEMIC ACID.

=DIABE′TES.= See URINE.

=Diabetes (Saccharine).= The symptoms observed in this generally fatal ailment are the passing of an excessive quantity of pale, straw-coloured urine, of high specific gravity, containing more or less grape sugar; great thirst and hunger, obstinate dyspepsia, constipation, an unpleasant odour from the feet, or perspiration of the arm-pits, and bodily debility, and emaciation. All these symptoms vary in intensity according to the course and duration of the disease, which is frequently accompanied with hectic fever, cough, and sometimes carbuncles, and generally ends in consumption or some organic disease. The flow of urine sometimes reaches as much as eight gallons in 24 hours; the average quantity, however, is about two gallons. The specific gravity of the urine varies between 1030 and 1070. The quantity of sugar excreted in the twenty-four hours differs greatly, ranging from half a pound to three pounds.

In the treatment of diabetes, great attention should be paid to diet, which should consist principally of digestible, broiled, or roasted meat, gluten and bran bread (these latter being substituted for ordinary bread, which with sugar must be especially avoided), liquids in moderate quantity, of which the most preferable are weak beef tea or mutton broth. If the thirst is extreme, it is best assuaged by drinking water acidulated with phosphoric acid. Spirituous liquids as well as saline aperients should be eschewed. Claret is, however, a suitable beverage.

Small doses of laudanum, given three or four times a day, have been found of great service.

Dr Watson recommends also the administration of creosote. The bowels must be regulated by means of mild aperients. Warm baths are also of use, as they augment the secretion of the skin. The disease may be kept under by administering from twenty to forty minims of tincture of perchloride of iron, 3 times a day. The above treatment is inserted for the guidance only of emigrants and others unable to obtain professional aid; wherever this can be obtained, no time should be lost in seeking it. This is the more important, since the earlier the patient has recourse to the proper remedies, the greater are the chances of recovery.

Horses. The disease occurs, although rarely, in horses. It is not known either in cattle or dogs. The treatment consists in depriving the animal for some weeks of food containing starch, or other matters capable of forming sugar. He must be fed on meat soup and cooked animal diet, to which he quickly becomes reconciled. The strength must be kept up by means of tonic. To counteract the intense thirst, Mr Finlay Dun recommends the following to be given three times a day in water:——A drachm of iodide of potassium, a scruple of iodine, and four drachms of carbonate of soda.

=DIACH′YLON.= See PLASTERS.

=DIALY′′SER.= In practical chemistry, an instrument for separating ‘crystalloids’ from ‘colloids,’ introduced by the late Prof. Graham. In its most convenient form it consists of a hoop of gutta percha, over which a circular piece of parchment paper is stretched. The paper is applied to the hoop while wet, and is kept stretched by a second hoop, by an elastic band, or by a few turns of string. The instrument, when complete, resembles an ordinary tambourine. It is distinguished as the ‘HOOP DIALYSER,’ The fluid to be ‘dialysed’ is poured into the hoop upon the surface of the parchment paper, to a small depth only, such as half an inch, and the dialyser is then floated upon water in a large glass basin. Another form of dialyser, termed the ‘BULB DIALYSER,’ consists of a small glass bell-jar, the mouth of which is covered by a piece of parchment paper. This is suspended or otherwise supported in a large vessel of water in such a manner that the parchment paper septum just dips below the surface. See DIALYSIS (below), PARCHMENT PAPER.

=DIAL′YSIS.= In practical chemistry, the method of separating substances by ‘diffusion’ through a septum of gelatinous matter. When a solution having a sp. gr. greater is introduced into a cylindrical glass vessel, and then water very cautiously poured upon it, in such a manner that the two layers of liquid remain unmoved, the substance dissolved in the lower liquid will gradually pass into the supernatant water, though the vessel may have been left undisturbed, and the temperature remain unchanged. The gradual passage of a dissolved substance from its original solution into pure water taking place, notwithstanding the higher sp. gr. of the substance which opposes this passage, is called the ‘diffusion of liquids.’ From the investigation of the phenomena of this diffusion, the late Prof. Graham derived the remarkable results upon which the method under notice is based. Different substances, when in solution of the same concentration, and under other similar circumstances, diffuse with very unequal velocity. “The range in the degree of diffusive mobility,” says Prof. Graham, “exhibited by different substances, appears to be as wide as the scale of vapour-tensions. Thus, hydrate of potassa may be said to possess double the velocity of diffusion of sulphate of potassa, and sulphate of potassa again double the velocity of sugar, alcohol, and sulphate of magnesia. But the substances named belong, as regards diffusion, to the more volatile class. The comparatively fixed class, as regards diffusion, is represented by a different order of chemical substances (marked out by the absence of the power to crystallise), which are slow in the extreme. Among the latter are hydrated silicic acid, hydrated alumina, and other metallic peroxides of the aluminous class, when they exist in the soluble form; with starch, dextrine, and the gums, caramel, tannin, albumen, gelatin, vegetable and animal extractive matters. Low diffusibility is not the only property which the bodies last enumerated possess in common. They are distinguished by the gelatinous character of their hydrates. Although often largely soluble in water, they are held in solution by a most feeble force. They appear singularly inert in the capacity of acids and bases, and in all the ordinary chemical relations. But, on the other hand, their peculiar physical aggregation, with the chemical indifference referred to, appears to be required in substances that can intervene in the organic processes of life. The plastic elements of the body are found in this class. As gelatin appears to be its type, it is proposed to designate substances of this class as ‘COL′LOIDS,’ and to speak of their peculiar form as the ‘colloidal condition of matter.’ Opposed to the colloidal is the ‘crystalline condition.’ Substances affecting the latter form will be classed as ‘CRYSTAL′LOIDS,’ The distinction is, no doubt, one of intimate molecular constitution.”[257] A certain property of colloidal substances comes into play most opportunely in assisting diffusive preparations. The jelly of starch, that of animal mucus, of pectin, of vegetable gelose, and other solid colloidal hydrates, all of which, strictly speaking, are insoluble in cold water, are themselves permeable when in mass, as water is, by the more highly diffusive class of substances. But such jellies greatly resist the passage of the less diffusible substances, and cut off entirely other colloid substances like themselves that may be in solution. A mere film of the jelly has the separating effect. Now, parchment-paper, when wetted, acts just like a layer of animal mucus or other hydrated colloid, by permitting the passage of crystalloids, but not of colloids; consequently this substance may be used for dialytic septa (see DIALYSER, above). The following experiments recorded by Graham will give some idea of the results which may be obtained by dialysis:——

[Footnote 257: ‘Philosoph. Trans.’ for 1861.]

1. Half a litre of urine was placed in a hoop dialyser, which was then floated on a considerable quantity of pure water. Dialysed for 24 hours, the urine gave its crystalloidal constituents to the external water. The latter, evaporated by a water bath, yielded a white saline mass. From this mass urea was extracted by alcohol in so pure a condition as to appear in crystalline tufts upon the evaporation of the alcohol.

2. By pouring silicate of soda into diluted hydrochloric acid (the acid being maintained in large excess), a solution of silica is obtained. But in addition to hydrochloric acid, such a solution contains chloride of sodium, a salt which causes the silica to gelatinise when the solution is heated, and otherwise modifies its properties. Now, such a solution placed for 24 hours in a dialyser of parchment paper was found to lose 5% of its silicic acid (silica) and 86% of its hydrochloric acid. After 4 days on the dialyser, the liquid ceased to be disturbed by nitrate of silver. All the chlorides were gone, with no further loss of silica. What remained was a pure solution of silicic acid, which could be boiled in a flask, and considerably concentrated, without change.

3. Half a litre of dark-coloured porter, with ·05 gramme of arsenious acid added (1/10000th part of arsenious acid), was placed on a hoop dialyser, 8 inches in diameter, and the whole floated in an earthenware basin containing 2 or 3 litres of water. After 24 hours the latter fluid had acquired a slight tinge of yellow. It yielded, when concentrated and precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen, upwards of one half of the original arsenious acid in a fit state for examination.

=DIAMANTKITT——Diamond Cement.= 50 parts graphite, 15 parts litharge, 10 parts milk of lime, 5 parts slaked lime, intimately mixed with enough linseed oil to make a firm mass. (Hager.)

=DIAMANTTROPFEN——Diamond Drops= (Dr Allinhead). A combination of the juices of mysterious herbs of tropical climes, which has the power to make all men transparent.

=DI′AMOND.= The diamond is pure carbon, and differs from the carbon of charcoal and lampblack simply in being limpid, colourless, and highly refractive of light, properties which are generally referred to its crystalline form. The weight, and, consequently, the value of diamonds, is estimated in carats, one of which is equal to 4 grains; and the price of one diamond, compared to that of another of equal colour, transparency, purity, form, &c., is as the squares of the respective weights. The average price of ROUGH DIAMONDS that are worth working is about £2 for the first carat; that of a CUT DIAMOND is equal to that of a rough diamond of double weight, exclusive of the price of workmanship. “To estimate the value of a wrought diamond, ascertain its weight in carats, double that weight, and multiply the square of this product by £2.” (Ure.) Thus, a cut diamond of——

1 carat is worth £8 2 carats ” £32 3 ” ” £72 4 ” ” £128 &c., &c. See CARBON, GEMS.

=Di′amond Dust.= Genuine diamond dust is the powder produced by the abrasion of diamonds against each other in the process of cutting and polishing them. It possesses the valuable property of polishing the gems, and giving “the finest edge to every kind of cutlery.” The discovery of the latter fact, a few years since, led certain dishonest persons to extensively advertise spurious preparations, consisting chiefly of emery powder or powdered quartz, under the name of diamond dust. The factitious articles acquired a very short and bad notoriety. Instead of sharpening cutting instruments, they infallibly destroyed their edge, and were particularly unfortunate in converting razors into saws.

=DIAPEN′TE.= Syn. PULVIS DIAPENTE. Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1744) Bay-berries, birth-wort, gentian, ivory dust, and myrrh, equal parts. An excellent warm tonic, especially useful in the debility and rickets of children. The substance sold under this name in the shops is an inferior mixture, used principally as a tonic in veterinary practice. The following are the forms commonly adopted in its preparation:——

2. Turmeric, 4 lbs.; laurel berries and mustard, of each 3 lbs.; gentian, 2 lbs. (all in fine powder); mix.

3. Bay-berries, gentian, mustard, and turmeric, equal parts.

4. Gentian, 6 lbs.; bay-berries, 1 lb. This is the formula generally used by the farriers. Sometimes mustard, 1 lb., is added.

=DIAPHORET′ICS.= Syn. SUDORIF′ICS; DIAPHORETICA, SUDORIFICA, L. Medicines which promote or increase the perspiration. Those that produce this effect in a very marked degree are more particularly called ‘sudorifics.’ The principal diaphoretics are:——warm diluents, as barley-water, gruel, tea, &c.; salts of the alkalies, as the citrates of potassa and soda, acetate of potassa, acetate and carbonate of ammonia, sal-ammoniac, nitre, &c.; preparations of antimony, as antimonial powder, tartar emetic, &c; also alcohol, camphor, Dover’s powder, ipecacuanha, opium, wine, &c.

The use of diaphoretics is indicated in nearly all diseases accompanied by fever and a dry skin, and particularly in febrile and pectoral affections.

=DI′APHRAGM= (frăm). A partition through or across; a dividing substance. In anatomy, the term is applied to the midriff, a muscle separating the chest or thorax from the abdomen or lower belly. In astronomy and optics the term is applied to a circular ring placed in a telescope or other instrument to cut off the marginal portions of a beam of light. In electricity the name is commonly used to denote the porous partition, cell, or vessel, that separates the fluid containing the positive plate from the fluid which surrounds the negative plate, in a constant voltaic battery. Thin partitions of sycamore, or other porous wood, are occasionally used, but cells made of thin biscuit ware are the most convenient and durable diaphragms. Plaster of Paris, animal membrane, coarse and tightly wove canvas, &c., are used also for the purpose. Plaster cells are also formed by surrounding an oiled cylinder of wood with a hoop of paper, and pouring plaster of Paris, mixed up with water, into the space between the two. See ELECTROTYPE.

=DIARRHŒ′A.= A purging or looseness of the bowels. The causes of diarrhœa are various, but among the most common are the presence of irritating matter, worms, or acidity in the stomach or bowels; and exposure to cold (especially cold to the feet) or sudden changes of climate or temperature.

Treatment. In general, it will be proper to administer a mild aperient, for which purpose rhubarb or castor oil is usually preferred. The dose of the first may be from 20 to 30 grains in sugar, or made into a bolus; that of the second, from 1/4 oz. to 1/2 oz., with a little mint or peppermint water. After the due operation of this medicine, opium, astringents, and absorbents, may be taken with advantage, but not in excessive doses, as is commonly the practice. The first and second are indicated when great irritability exists, and the third, in cases of diarrhœa arising from the presence of acidity. Chalk mixture, to which a few drops of laudanum have been added, or the compound powder of chalk and opium, are excellent medicines, and will generally quiet the bowels. A small piece of catechu or hard extract of logwood, sucked in the same way as a lozenge, is a pleasant method of taking either of these powerful astringents, and will generally cure cases of simple diarrhœa arising from excessive peristaltic motion, or want of tonicity of the muscular coats of the intestines.

In bilious diarrhœa, characterised by the bright yellowish-brown colour of the dejections, a dose of blue pill or calomel, assisted by mild diluents and demulcents, and warmth, generally proves efficacious. Small doses of opium are also useful in some cases.

In catarrhal diarrhœa, chylous diarrhœa, and the like varieties, characterised by the dejections being nearly colourless, and consisting chiefly of water and mucus; or white and milky, showing the entire absence of bile; or, being entirely liquid, limpid, and serous (in some cases resembling the washings of flesh), opinions are divided as to the treatment. The majority of the best authorities regard purging as injurious in these varieties, and rely chiefly on warm baths and warm fomentations, with the internal administration of mild salines and diaphoretics, followed by astringents, tonics, and occasional doses of opiates. Choleraic diarrhœa demands a nearly similar treatment.

The diet in every variety of diarrhœa should be light and non-irritating. Glutinous broths, beef tea, and arrow-root, are among the best articles which can be taken. To these may be added a little dry toast. Arrow-root (genuine), either with or without a spoonful of port wine or brandy (preferably the former), will of itself cure all ordinary cases of diarrhœa, if accompanied with repose and a recumbent posture.

Among external remedies, warm and stimulating fomentations, liniments, &c., to the epigastrium and abdomen, will be found useful adjuncts to other treatment. A spoonful or two of laudanum, used as a friction, will generally allay pain, and in many cases settle the bowels when all other remedies have been tried in vain.

Treatment for Animals. If for the horse, give at the commencement of the attack from 2 to 4 dr. of aloes, mixed with 1 oz. of bicarbonate of soda, and the same quantity of ginger in powder; administer clysters occasionally. Cattle may be treated by having administered to them 3/4 lb. of Epsom or common salt, or a pint of linseed oil. Whichever of the two is employed, it must be combined with 2 oz. each of bicarbonate of soda and ginger, and 1/2 lb. of treacle; 1 oz. of laudanum should be added to the above drenches whenever there is much pain and straining, whether in the horse or cow. Should laxatives fail, aromatics and astringents are called for, and 1 oz. each of tincture of catechu, ginger, and gentian, given in a pint of warm ale, may be tried several times a day for a horse. For cows a double dose is required. Sheep need only half the dose.

=DI′ASTASE.= A peculiar azotised substance contained in malt, which effects the conversion of starch, first into dextrin, and then into grape sugar.

Prep. A cold infusion of malt is heated to 158° Fahr. (to coagulate in albumen); it is then allowed to cool, and alcohol is added to the filtered liquor, when diastase is precipitated, under the form of a tasteless white powder, which is freely soluble in water.

Prop., &c. Diastase seems to resemble vegetable albumen, but very little is known respecting it, as it has never been got in a state of purity. One part of diastase is capable of converting 2000 parts of starch into grape sugar. Malted barley is said to contain 1/500th part of this substance; yet this small portion is quite sufficient to convert the starch of the malt into sugar during the operation of mashing, in the manufacture of beer. See BREWING, DEXTRIN, &C.

=DICTA′MIA.= A nutritious, dietetic article. Prep. (Beasley.) Sugar, 7 oz.; potato arrow-root, 4 oz.; flour of brent barley (Triticum monococcum), 3 oz.; Trinidad and Granada chocolate, of each 1 oz.; vanilla, 15 gr.; triturate together.

=Dictamia.= A strengthening and restorative preparation. Arrowroot, 6 parts; meal of triticum monococcum, 6 parts; chocolate, 4 parts; vanilla, 1/4 part (Richter). Sugar, 217 parts; bran extract, 92 parts; starch, 125 parts; Caracas and Maragnan cocoa, 30 parts; vanilla, 1 part. (Chevallier.)

=DIDYM′IUM.= Di. A rare metal, found associated with cerium and lanthanium in the Swedish mineral cerite. See CERIUM.

=DI′ET.= Food or victuals. In medicine food regulated by certain rules, or prescribed for the cure or prevention of disease. The dietetic part of medicine is no inconsiderable branch, and deserves a much greater share of regard than it commonly meets with. A great variety of diseases might be removed by the observance of a proper diet and regimen, without the assistance of medicine, were it not for the impatience of the sufferers. On all occasions it may come in as a proper assistant to the cure, which sometimes cannot be performed without a due observance of the non-naturals.

Writers on dietetics (DIETETICA, L.) have taken much trouble to divide and classify the numerous articles of food suitable to the various conditions of the body in health and disease; but little practical advantage has resulted from their labours. Low diet, middle diet, full diet, milk diet, farinaceous diet, fruit diet, and vegetable diet, are terms which, under most circumstances, are sufficiently simple to be almost self-explanatory.

=DIGES′TION.= In chemistry and pharmacy the operation of exposing bodies to a gentle and continuous heat. The best digesters are thin glass flasks and beakers, and the most convenient source of heat is the sand bath. Digestion is often performed to soften and otherwise modify bodies that are to be distilled. In physiology the term is applied to the conversion of food into chyme, or the process of dissolving food in the alimentary canal, and preparing it for circulation and nourishment. In surgery digestion signifies a method of treating ulcers, wounds, &c. See DIGESTIVES (below).

DIGESTIBILITY OF DIFFERENT FOODS.

Mean time of chymification Foods. How cooked. in stomach. h. m. Rice Boiled 1 Eggs, whipped Raw 1 30 Trout, salmon, fresh Boiled 1 30 Venison, steak Broiled 1 35 Sago Boiled 1 45 Milk Boiled 2 Eggs, fresh Raw 2 Milk Raw 2 15 Turkey Boiled 2 25 Gelatin Boiled 2 30 Goose, wild Roasted 2 30 Pig, sucking Roasted 2 30 Lamb, fresh Broiled 2 30 Beans, pod Boiled 2 30 Potatoes, Irish Baked 2 30 Chicken Fricassed 2 45 Oysters, fresh Raw 2 55 Eggs, fresh Soft-boiled 3 Beef, lean, rare Roasted 3 Mutton, fresh Boiled 3 Bread, corn Baked 3 15 Butter Melted 3 30 Cheese, old, strong Raw 3 30 Potatoes, Irish Boiled 3 30 Beef Fried 4 Veal, fresh Broiled 4 Fowls, domestic Roasted 4 Ducks, Domestic Roasted 4 Veal, fresh Fried 4 30 Pork, fat, and lean Roasted 5 15 Cabbage Boiled 4 30

The results recorded in the above table, giving the respective time required for the digestion of different foods, were obtained by Dr Beaumont, through his being enabled to watch the process of digestion actually going on in the stomach of a man, who had received a wound in that organ, by which part of it was laid bare, and could thus be seen into.

The above data were controlled by a series of independent experiments, which consisted in digesting different foods in a solution of gastric juice, and heating the mixture to 100°. The relative results of both sets of experiments were found to agree pretty closely; and they have since, on the whole, being confirmed by the researches of other physiologists.

=DIGES′TIVES.= In surgery substances which, when applied to wounds or tumours, induce or promote suppuration. All stimulating applications are of this class. Heat is a most powerful digestive agent. The action of digestives is opposed to that of DISCUTIENTS, which repel or resolve tumours and indurations.

=DIGITA′LIN.= Syn. DIGITA′LIA. A vegetable principle discovered by M. Royer in Digitalis purpurea, or purple foxglove.

Prep. 1. (Majendie.) Foxglove leaves (powdered), 1 lb., are digested in ether, first in the cold, and then heated under pressure; when the whole has again become cold, the liquor is filtered (rapidly), and the ether is distilled off in a water bath; the residuum is dissolved in water, the filtered solution treated with hydrated oxide of lead, the whole gently evaporated to dryness, and the dry residuum again digested in hot ether; from this solution the alkali is obtained, by evaporation and repeated resolutions, in a crystalline form.

2. (Homolle and Henry.) Foxglove leaves (carefully dried and powdered), 2-1/2 lbs., are digested in rectified spirit, and the tincture expressed in a tincture press; the spirit is then distilled off, and the residual extract treated with distilled water, 1/2 pint, acidulated with about 2 fl. dr. of acetic acid, a gentle heat being employed; some animal charcoal is then added, and the whole filtered; the filtrate is then diluted with water, and partly neutralised with ammonia; a fresh-made, strong decoction of galls is next added; a copious precipitation of tannate of digitalin ensues; the precipitate is washed with water, and mixed with a little alcohol, after which it is triturated with litharge (in fine powder) and exposed to a gentle heat; the whole is now digested in alcohol, the tincture treated with animal charcoal, and evaporated; the dry residuum is, lastly, treated with cold sulphuric ether, which takes up some foreign matter, and leaves the digitalin. 2 lbs. 8 oz. of the dried leaves yield 140 to 150 gr. of the digitalin.

Prop., &c. White, inodorous, porous masses, or small scales; it crystallises with difficulty, is intensely bitter, and excites violent sneezing when smelled to; dissolves freely in alcohol; scarcely soluble in cold ether; and takes 2000 parts of water for its solution; it is neither basic nor alkaline; concentrated colourless hydrochloric acid dissolves it, forming a characteristic solution which passes from yellow to a fine green. (Homolle.) It is one of the most powerful of known poisons, being fully 100 times stronger than the powdered leaves of the dried plant. It is used in the same cases.——Dose, 1/60 to 1/30 gr.; either made into pills or dissolved in alcohol and formed into a mixture. Owing to the difficulty and uncertainty connected with dispensing such small quantities, it is now seldom employed in this country.

=Digitalin, Crystallised.= Digitalis leaves from the Vosges, in rather fine powder, 1000 grams; neutral lead acetate, 250 grams; distilled water, 1000 grams. The digitalis should be collected in its second year just when the first flowers appear. With respect to the lead acetate, it is very important that it should not have an alkaline reaction; a slight acidity would be preferable. The lead salt is dissolved in the cold water, the powder added and thoroughly mixed, the whole passed through a sieve and left in contact twenty-four hours, taking care to mix it from time to time. The mixture is then packed sufficiently in a displacement apparatus, and exhausted with 50° alcohol, until it no longer yields any bitterness. About six parts of liquor are thus obtained, and this is neutralised exactly with sodium bicarbonate dissolved to saturation in cold water; about 25 to 30 grams will be required. When effervescence ceases, the alcohol is distilled, and the liquor remaining is evaporated in a water bath down to 2000 grams; it is then left to cool and diluted with its weight of water. Two or three days afterwards the clear liquor is decanted off, by means of a syphon, and the precipitate drained upon a linen filter. When freed from the extractive liquor the precipitate weighs about 100 grams. It is suspended in 1000 grams of 80° alcohol, and the whole passed through a metal sieve or a fine cloth; the turbid liquor obtained is heated to ebullition, and to it is added a solution containing 10 grams of neutral lead acetate; the heating is continued a few moments, and the liquor is then left to cool and filtered. The deposit in the filter is washed with alcohol to remove any liquor it may retain, and then pressed. To this liquor is added 50 grams of finely powdered vegetable charcoal that has been washed with acid and afterwards with water until quite neutral, and it is then distilled, the residue being heated for some time in a water bath, it being very important that all the alcohol should be driven off. A little water is added to replace what may evaporate; the residue is allowed to cool, then drained upon the cloth that was used to separate the precipitate, and the carbonaceous mass is washed with a little water to remove the last portion of the coloured liquor. The carbonaceous residue is then dried completely in a stove at a temperature not exceeding 100° C., and exhausted by displacement with pure chloroform until it passes colourless. This liquid is distilled to dryness, and a few grams of 95° alcohol are placed in the retort, and evaporated to drive off the last traces of chloroform.

The residue is crude digitalin with viscous and oily matter. It is dissolved with heat in 100 grams of 90° alcohol, and 1 gram of neutral lead acetate dissolved in a little water added, together with 10 grams of animal charcoal in fine granules without powder that has been treated with hydrochloric acid, and washed until the washings are no longer acid. After boiling for ten minutes it is allowed to cool and settle, and then filtered in a glass cylinder furnished with a tight cotton plug, through which it passes quickly and clear. The black deposit is added last, and exhausted of all bitterness with alcohol. After distillation the digitalin remains as a grumous crystalline mass, now only contaminated with the coloured oil. A little aqueous liquor that occurs with it is separated and the weight of the impure digitalin is taken in the previously tarred vessel. The digitalin is then dissolved with heat in exactly sufficient 90° alcohol for its solution (from 6 to 12 grams). Any alcohol evaporated is replaced, and then to the cooled solution is added, sulphuric ether rectified at 65°, to half the weight of the alcohol employed; after mixing, distilled water equal to the weight of the alcohol and ether combined is added, and the flask is closed and shaken. Two layers are formed: the upper is coloured, and consists of the ether which has taken up the fat oil; the lower is colourless, and contains the digitalin, which being now free quickly crystallises. The flask is placed in a cool place. Two days afterwards the whole is thrown into a small cylinder furnished with a moderately tight cotton plug; the mother liquor runs off, and then the coloured layer, and the small quantity that remains adherent to the crystals, is removed by a little ether. Thus obtained, this first crystallisation of digitalin is slightly coloured; it is sufficiently pure, however, for its weight to be taken in an analysis; one tenth being deducted for the digitalin it still contains. To obtain it perfectly white, two purifications are necessary, but first a treatment with chloroform is indispensable to separate the remainder of the digitalin which injures its purity.

The digitalin, well dried and reduced to a fine powder, is dissolved in 20 parts of chloroform, and the solution is filtered in a cylinder through a tight cotton plug. The liquor passes limpid; it is distilled to dryness, and a little alcohol is poured into the retort, and evaporated to remove the last traces of chloroform.

The digitalin is dissolved in 30 grams of 90° alcohol, 5 grams of washed granular animal black added, and the whole boiled for 10 minutes; the liquor is filtered and the charcoal exhausted as before indicated; and, lastly, it is distilled, the digitalin in dry crystals is found on the sides of the vessel, but it is still slightly coloured. To obtain it perfectly white it is dissolved with heat in exactly sufficient 90° alcohol (about 6 to 8 grams); to the solution is added ether equal to half the weight of alcohol employed, and double the quantity of distilled water, and the flask is closed and agitated; the crystallisation commences quickly. The ether does not separate. It is exposed to the coolness of the night, and by the next day nearly the whole of the digitalin is deposited in small groups of white needles, that which retains colouring matter remaining in the mother liquor. The whole is thrown into a cylinder and the crystals washed with ether as before described. 1000 grams of Vosges digitalis of good quality yields about 1 gram of crystallised digitalin. Digitalin occurs under the form of very white light crystals, consisting of short slender needles, grouped around the same axis. It is very bitter and scarcely soluble in water. 90° alcohol dissolves it well, anhydrous alcohol dissolves it less freely. Pure ether dissolves only traces. Chloroform is its best solvent. Brought into contact with a small quantity of hydrochloric acid, digitalin is coloured emerald green, and this reaction is favoured by a very slight heat. From ‘Formulæ for New Medicaments, adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society.’

=DILL.= Syn. ANETHUM (Ph. L. & E.), L. The fruit (seed) of Anethum graveolens, or garden dill, Anethi fructus, B. P. Dill is an aromatic stimulant and carminative. The Cossacks employ it as a condiment; and in this country it is frequently employed to heighten the relish of soups and pickles, especially cucumbers. DILL WATER is a favorite remedy of nurses to promote the secretion of milk, and to relieve the flatulence and griping of infants.——Dose, of the powder, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr., or more. Oil of dill (OLEUM ANETHI) and dill water (AQUA ANETHI) are officinal in the pharmacopœias.

=DIL′UENTS.= Syn. DILUENTIA, D. Aqueous liquors; so named because they increase the fluid portion of the blood. Tea, barley-water, water-gruel, and similar articles, are the most common diluents, after pure water. The copious use of diluents is recommended in all acute inflammatory diseases not of a congestive character, and to promote the action of diuretics and sudorifics.

=DINNER PILLS.= See PILLS.

=DIOS′MA.= Syn. BOOKOO, BUKU; FOLIA BAROSMÆ, F. DIOSMÆ, L.; BUCHU (Ph. L.), BUCKU (Ph. E.), DIOSMA (Ph. L. 1836). “The leaves of Barosma serratifolia, B. crenulata, and B. crenata.” (Ph. L.) These species were all included by De Candolle in the genus Diosma. Buchu is principally employed in chronic affections of the urino-genital organs, especially that of the mucous membrane of the bladder, attended with copious discharge of mucus.——Dose, 20 gr. to 1/2 dr. of the powder, taken in wine; or made into an infusion or decoction.

The officinal buchu leaves are “glabrous, glandular; either linear-lanceolate with small serrations, or ovato-oblong, obtuse, crenated, ovate or obovate, serrated.” (Ph. L.) Their odour somewhat resembles that of rue, and their taste is warm and mint-like.

=DIOS′MINE.= A bitter extractive matter, obtained by Brande from buchu leaves. It is very soluble in water, but not in alcohol and ether.

=DIPHTHERIA.= A contagious disease affecting the throat and adjoining parts. A false membrane forms on the mucous lining of the several parts of the throat. This alarming malady generally commences with a little soreness of throat attended with fever; sometimes, however, the fever may not come on for some days after the sore throat has shown itself. An ash-coloured spot makes its appearance on one or both tonsils. This spreads to other parts, extending in doing so, over the soft palate and uvula, inclosing the latter in a sheath. Sometimes a thin red line surrounds the opaque membrane thus formed. As the disease proceeds this opaque and false membrane tends to enlarge itself, and may spread down the gullet into the stomach, or, what is more dangerous still, it may involve the mucous membrane of the larynx, and thence extend along the windpipe into the bronchial tubes. When this is the case the disease is accompanied with cough, and the peculiar noise of croup; harsh, noisy breathing. There also frequently runs from the nostrils a thin acrid secretion, smelling very offensively, and often tainting the whole atmosphere of the room.

By the inexperienced diphtheria is almost always mistaken for ulcerated sore throat.

As in croup, part of the exudation or false membrane is often coughed up; sometimes it peels off from the tonsils. Some pathologists think that minute particles of this membrane, loosely adhering to drinking vessels, linen, sheets, the night-dress, &c., of the patient, may be the means of communicating the disease; by others, however, this surmise is not accepted. The absence of certainty on this point does not remove the stringent necessity of thoroughly cleansing and disinfecting everything with which the secretions of the patient come into contact.

The foregoing has been written with the object of enabling the reader to detect the only symptoms by which this dangerous disease manifests itself, in order that he may seek medical assistance with which to combat the complaint as promptly as possible.

After stating thus much, it is needless to say that we only recommend the adoption of the following treatment, in the extreme case of emigrants and others unable to obtain the services of a medical practitioner. A saturated solution of borax in the form of a gargle should be first used, and used without stint. Should this fail to arrest the formation of the membrane, then a strong solution of alum should be employed instead; or alum in powder should be applied to the throat every half hour or hour. When children are to be submitted to this treatment, the alum instead of being used as a gargle may be mixed with honey, and in this condition laid on the parts with a feather; or the powdered alum may be blown on the affected parts with a tube. Tincture of perchloride of iron, diluted hydrochloric acid, and chlorate of potash are also said to have been used successfully as topical applications. The diet should consist of rich nourishing food, such as strong beef tea and mutton broth, aided by port wine. The internal remedies embrace quinine or bark, tincture of perchloride of iron, pernitrate of iron, chlorate of potash, and small, but repeated doses of the mineral acids. Dr Gardner, in his useful work ‘Household Medicine,’ says, “a definite plan said to have been successful is to employ as a gargle a solution of chlorinated soda half an ounce, syrup half an ounce, water six ounces, mixed. At the same time give internally four drops of the solution every two hours, for two days, then add quinine. We may add that if this latter prescription be used the diet before indicated should be adopted.”

=DISCU′TIENTS.= In surgery, substances or agents which disperse or resolve tumours, &c. See DIGESTIVES.

=DISH-COVERS.= As these are made of various materials they must be cleaned and polished with the substances best adapted for each. All kinds of dish-covers directly they come from table should be washed free from grease and wiped dry.

Plated and silver dish-covers should be polished with plate powder; that free from mercury should be preferred. When dish-covers (as is usually the case) are made of block tin, they should be polished, by first rubbing them with sweet oil, and then dusting over the oil finely powdered whiting; finishing off the polishing with soft rags. All the best covers are provided with movable handles, which must be removed during the process of cleaning.

=DISINFECT′ANT.= An agent which absorbs, neutralises, or destroys, putrescent effluvia, miasmata, or specific contagia, and thus removes the causes of infection. The principal disinfectants are chlorine, iodine, bromine, the so-called chlorides of lime and soda, chloride of zinc, ozone, carbolic acid, the alkaline manganates and permanganates, peat charcoal, the fumes of nitric and nitrous acid, sulphurous acids, heat, and ventilation. The last two are the most efficient and easily applied. The clothing, bedding, &c., of patients labouring under contagious diseases may be effectually (?) disinfected by exposure to a temperature a little higher than that of boiling water, for about an hour. Neither the texture nor colour of textile fabrics is injured by a heat of even 250° Fahr. (Dr Henry.) See DISINFECTING CHAMBERS.

It is a practice at some of the workhouses to bake the clothes of the paupers who have the itch, or who are infested with vermin. The soaking and boiling of clothes in the absence of being able to bake them is by no means a bad method for disinfecting them. The process is rendered the more effective by adding to the water in which they are immersed or boiled 1 part of strong solution of chloride of lime to 20 or 30 parts of water; or carbolic acid in the proportion of 1 part of the pure acid to 100 parts of water. In the German army, if the clothes cannot be baked they are soaked for 24 hours in water containing 1 part of sulphate of zinc to 120 of water, or 1 part of chloride of zinc to 240 of water, after which they are washed in soap and water and dried.

Quicklime rapidly absorbs carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, and several other noxious gases, and is therefore commonly used as a wash for the walls of buildings. Acetic acid, camphor, fragrant pastilles, cascarilla, brown paper, and other similar substances, are frequently burnt or volatilised by heat, for the purpose of disguising unpleasant odours, but are of little value as disinfectants. The sulphates of iron and zinc have the property of rapidly destroying noxious effluvia. A quantity of either of these sulphates thrown into a cesspool, for instance, will in a few hours render the matter therein quite scentless. Of gaseous disinfectants, “sulphurous acid gas (obtained by burning sulphur) is preferable, on theoretical grounds, to chlorine. No agent checks so effectually the first development of animal and vegetable life. All animal odours and emanations are immediately and most effectually destroyed by it.” (Graham.) See ANTISEPTIC, DEODORISER, FUMIGATION, INFECTION, OZONE, CARBOLIC ACID, SALICYLIC ACID, BACTERIA as originators of disease, LIME, CHLORIDE, CHARCOAL, also the DISINFECTING COMPOUNDS given below.

Dr Wynter Blyth divides disinfectants into two great classes:——Gaseous, and solid or liquid.

I. Volatile, in the form of Gas or Vapour.

1. Substances which, like the halogens, appear to form substitution compounds, e.g.

Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine.

2. Substances which probably combine chemically, and thus destroy contagion:

Sulphurous acid, Nitrous acid, Fumes of other acids.

3. Oxidising substances, such as——

Pure air, Oxygen, Ozone.

4. The volatile oils, &c. Feeble disinfectants, supposed, however, to oxidise——

Camphor, Oil of hops, Oil of rue, Oil of rosemary, Oil of chamomile.

II. Solid or Liquid Disinfectants.

1. The chlorides of different metals, earths, or bases:

Chlorides of the alkalies, Chlorides of iron, Chlorides of copper, Chlorides of manganese, Chlorides of zinc, Chlorides of aluminium, Chlorides of lime, Chlorides of mercury, and, in fact, all chlorides which are soluble.

2. All soluble sulphates, especially sulphates of iron and aluminium.

3. All soluble sulphites.

4. Some acetates, as acetate of iron.

5. Some nitrates, such as the nitrates of potash and soda.

6. Certain agents which appear to arrest putrefaction or condense certain gases, &c., without either destruction or oxidation:

Carbolic acid, Tar acids, Charcoal, Great cold, Heat sufficient to dry organic substances, but not to char them.

7. Preservative liquids and solutions. Many of these act by coagulating the albumen of organised bodies:

Antiseptics, Alcohol, Solutions of corrosive sublimate, Solutions of common salt, Solutions of saltpetre.

8. Destructive agents. Not true disinfectants, they act not by disinfection, but by destruction:

A dry heat of 200° to 400° F., The strong undiluted acids and alkalies.

9. Agents which act in many ways, partly by condensing gases, partly by absorbing moisture, and partly by a peculiar action on organic matter analogous to tannin:

Dry earths, Clays, The natural and artificial compounds of aluminium.

The table on the next page is a summary by the late Dr Letheby of some experiments made by Drs Dougall and Calvert, with the view of determining the relative powers possessed by certain substances of arresting putrefaction, as measured by their action in preventing the germination of animalcules and fungi, and the development of vaccine lymph.[258]

[Footnote 258: ‘On the Relative Power of various Substances in Preventing the Germination of Animalculæ,’ by John Dougall, 1871. Calvert, ‘Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ vol. xx, p. 185.]

=Disinfecting Compounds.= 1. (Sir WM. BURNETT’S DISINFECTING LIQUID.) A concentrated solution of chloride of zinc. See ZINC.

2. (COLLINS’ DISINFECTING POWDER.) A mixture of dry chloride of lime, 2 parts, and burnt alum, 1 part. Used either dry or moistened with water. See LIME.

3. (CONDY’S DISINFECTING FLUIDS.) Solutions of the alkaline manganates and permanganates. Although this is an excellent and rapid deodoriser, and makes a most serviceable dressing for fetid sores, it must be borne in mind that it is in no sense an aërial disinfectant, its action being limited to the solid or liquid matters only with which it is brought into immediate contact. It exercises no corrosive action, but it is open to the objection that it leaves a brown stain upon linen. See MANGANESE.

4. (ELLERMAN’S DEODORISING FLUID.) This is said to consist chiefly of the perchlorides and chlorides of iron and manganese.

“In a report addressed to the Metropolitan Board of Works in 1859, Drs Hoffmann and Frankland stated that the perchloride of iron was the cheapest and most efficient deodoriser that could be applied to sewage.” (Beasley.)

5. (LABARRAQUE’S DISINFECTING SOLUTION; LIQUOR SODÆ CHLORINATÆ, Ph. L. & D.) A solution of chlorinated soda, or, as it is commonly called, ‘chloride of soda.’ M. Labarraque made known this valuable disinfectant in 1822, and obtained the prize of the French ‘Society for Encouraging National Industry’ for its introduction.

6. (LEDOYEN’S DISINFECTING FLUID.) A solution of nitrate of lead, 1 part, in about 8 parts of water; or, of litharge, 13-1/2 oz., in nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·38), 12 oz., previously diluted with water, 6 pints. Sp. gr. 1·40.

7. (SIRET’S DISINFECTING COMPOUNDS.)——a. A mixture of sulphate of lime, 53 lbs., sulphate of iron, 40 lbs., sulphate of zinc, 7 lbs., and peat charcoal, 2 lbs., made into balls.

b. Sulphate of iron, 20 parts; sulphate of zinc, 10 parts; tan or waste oak-bark (in powder), 4 parts; tar and oil, of each 1 part; as before. Used for deodorising cesspools, &c.

8. (BISULPHIDE OF CARBON.) This generates, when burnt, sulphurous acid, and is, therefore, a very valuable disinfectant. Its highly inflammable nature, however, renders the adoption of certain precautions necessary in its use. A method of employing it in the form of fumigation will be found under the article “Fumigation.”

9. Dry salicylic acid volatilised from a hot plate purifies the air, and perfectly disinfects the walls of a closed room. (VON HEYDEN.)

10. “SANITAS” is the name given by Mr Kingzett, its discoverer, to a new liquid antiseptic and disinfectant, containing peroxide of hydrogen and camphoric acid, and obtained by the atmospheric oxidation of turpentine. Sanitas is said by its inventor to possess the great advantages of being non-poisonous, and to exercise no injurious effects either on clothing or furniture. It is stated that its antiseptic power is distributed between the peroxide of hydrogen and camphoric acid, the peroxide of hydrogen being able to evolve large quantities of oxygen, which in this state is nascent, and of a powerful and oxidising character.

11. COOPER’S UNIVERSAL DISINFECTING POWDER. According to Professor Wanklyn this powder contains 70 per cent. of mixed chloride of sodium and chloride of calcium, and about 6 per cent. of anhydrous sulphate of zinc (equal to about 12 per cent. of hydrated sulphate), a little insoluble matter, and 15 per cent. of moisture.

12. DR BOND’S CUPRALUM AND FERRALUM. The first of these disinfectants is stated to be a mixture of the sulphates of copper and aluminium, with potassic dichromate and turpentine. Its inventor claims for it that it possesses great power of coagulating albumen and high value both as an antiseptic and deodorant. FERRALUM is a mixture of ferrous and aluminic sulphates, turpentine, and carbolic acid. Its chief use is for flushing sewers and in deodorising cesspools, urinals, &c.

13. BAYARD’S DISINFECTANT. A mixture of sulphate of iron, clay, lime, and coal tar.

Summary of the Experiments made by DR J. DOUGALL, and by DR CRACE CALVERT, _on the action of various Antiseptics on Protoplasmic and Fungus Life, and on Vaccine Lymph._

KEY: A - Quantity required to prevent Animalcules in six days. B - Number of Days before Life appeared in a solution containing 1 of substance in 500 water and 1/2 drachm of following—— C - Number of Days before Vibrio Life appeared in a solution of Albumen containing 1 of substance in 1000 of solution. D - Beef Juice. E - Sol. of Egg Albumen. F - Reaction of the Solution. G - Infusion of Hay. H - Human Urine. I - Beef Juice and Egg Albumen. J - Average of all. K - Effect on Animalcules in Putrid Beef Juice and Egg Albumen, when added in proportion in third column. L - Animalcules. M - Fungi. N - Animalcules. O - Fungi. P - Effect of the Vapour or Gas during 24 hrs. on Vaccine Lymph. Q - Animalcules. R - Putrid Odour. S - Fungi. T - Mouldy Odour.

-------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------- | |EXPERIMENTS BY DR CRACE | EXPERIMENTS MADE BY DR JOHN DOUGALL, OF GLASGOW. | CALVERT. +--------+-------------------+------+-----------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- | | A | | B | | C | |----+----+----+----+ +-----------------+--------+--------+ |-------+-------+-------+------- | | | | | | | D | E | | | | | | | | | | | |--------+--------+--------+--------+ | | | | Substances used. | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T -------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- | |1 in|1 in|1 in|1 in| | | | | | | | | | Acids. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Mineral. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Sulphurous | Acid. | 250| 50| 50| 117|Death.| 24 | 4 P. | 8 |Over 100|Killed.| 11 |Over 40| 21 |Over 40 Nitric | ” | 400| 400| 200| 333| ” | 18 | 4 P. | 15 | 5 T. | ” | 10 | 50 | 10 | 23 Hydrochloric | ” | 500| 400| 100| 333| ” | 28 | 4 P. | 9 |Over 100| ” | —— | —— | —— | —— Sulphuric | ” | 800| 500| 100| 467| ” |Over 100|Over 100| 30 | 10 T. | —— | 9 | —— | 9 | 11 Chromic | ” |4000|1400|1200|2200| —— | 78 | 38 P. |Over 100|Over 100| —— | —— | —— | —— | —— Organic. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Carbolic |Neutral.| 300| 300| 200| 267| None.| 12 | 50 T. | 38 | 36 P. | None. |Over 40|Over 40|Over 40|Over 40 Cresylic | ” | —— | —— | —— | —— | ” | —— | —— | —— | —— | ” | ” | ” | ” | ” Acetic | Acid. | 350| 25| 10| 125| —— | —— | —— | —— | —— |Killed.| 30 | —— | 9 | 50 Picric | ” | 350| 350| 350| 350|Death.| 44 | 11 P. |Over 100| 44 P. | —— | 17 |Over 40| 19 |Over 40 Benzoic | ” | 700| 700| 200| 533| ” |Over 100|Over 100| ” |Over 100| —— | —— | —— | —— | —— -------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- Alkalies. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Lime | Alk. | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 13 | 19 |Over 40|Over 40 Potash | ” | 300| 50| 10| 120|Death.| —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 16 | —— | —— | —— Soda | ” | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 23 | 31 | 18 | 29 Ammonia | ” | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 24 | 50 | 20 |Over 40 -------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- Haloids. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Iodine tincture |Neutral.| 400| 400| 50| 283|Death.| 1 | 80 T.| 15 |Over 100| —— | —— | —— | —— | —— Chlorine gas | Acid. | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— |Killed.| 7 | 21 | 21 | —— Chloride lime | Alk. | 200| 200| 25| 142|Death.| 27 | 27 T.| 40 |Over 100| ” | 7 | 18 | 16 | —— Chloride zinc | Acid. | 300| 300| 300| 300| ” | 4 |Over 100| 18 | ” | —— |Over 40|Over 40| 50 |Over 40 Chloride aluminum| ” |2000| 500| 300| 933| —— | 19 | 4 P.|Over 100| 8 P. | —— | 10 | ” | 21 | 50 -------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- Sulphates, &c. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Bisulphite lime | Acid. | 100| 50| 25| 58|Death.| 4 | 92 T.| 9 |Over 100| —— | 11 | 21 | 14 |Over 40 Sulphate zinc | ” | 300| 300| 200| 267| ” | 30 | 4 P.| 90 | 70 P. | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— Sulphate iron | ” | 500| 500| 100| 367| ? | 14 | 5 T.| 35 | 40 T. | —— | 7 |Over 40| 15 | —— Common alum | ” | 800| 500| 100| 467| —— | 14 | 3 P.| 38 | 15 T. | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— Sulphate copper | ” |1000|1000| 800| 933|Death.| 86 | 20 P.|Over 100|Over 100| —— | —— | —— | —— | —— -------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- Permanganate potash|Neutral.| 500| 200| 125| 275| None.| —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 9 | 50 | 22 |Over 40 Alcohol | ” | 350| 50| 20| 140|Death.| 4 | 4 T.| 10 |Over 100| —— | —— | —— | —— | —— Camphor | ” | 300| 150| 50| 167| None.| —— | —— | —— | —— | None. | —— | —— | —— | —— Turpentine | ” | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | —— | 14 |Over 40| 42 |Over 40 -------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------

Note.——In the first set of Dr John Dougall’s experiments 3 drachms of a solution of the strength mentioned were treated with 1 drachm of a filtered infusion of hay, or with half a drachm of urine or half a drachm of the mixture of beef juice and egg-albumen. In the second set of experiments equal parts of a putrid solution of beef juice and egg-albumen, full of living animalcules, and of the solution of the various substances of the strength known to be preventive of life (as in third column), were mixed together, and the results immediately noted. In the third set of experiments 3-1/2 drachms of distilled water, containing 1 in 500 of the substances named, were treated with half a drachm of filtered beef juice, or half a drachm of a solution consisting of 1 part white of egg to 4 parts water. In the last set of experiments, separate minims of vaccine lymph were exposed to the several vapours for 24 hours, and the dried spot in each case was moistened with glycerin and water, and sealed in a capillary tube until an opportunity for vaccination occurred, when the whole of the diluted lymph was used in one insertion so as to ensure its full effect.

In Dr Crace Calvert’s experiments, 0·026 of a gramme of the substance was added to 26 grammes (1 to 1000) of a solution of albumen containing 1 part white of egg to 4 parts pure distilled water.

The Animalcules observed were Monads (microphymes), Vibrios, and their cell segments (microerphymes), Bacteria (microzymes), Amœba, &c.; and the Fungi were Torula, Mycelium, Penicilium, &c., indicated in Table by letters T and P. Putrefaction was always characterised by a putrid odour, an alkaline reaction, and the presence of animalcules; whereas Mouldiness and Fermentation were distinguished by a mouldy or musty odour, an acid reaction, and the presence of Fungi.

14. LARMANDE’S ANTIMEPHETIC LIQUOR. A solution of the sulphates of zinc and copper.

15. THYMOL. From experiments made with this substance it appears to be a very powerful and valuable antiseptic, and likely, because of its non-poisonous and non-irritant qualities, to supplant carbolic acid in various branches of surgical practice, in which this latter agent has hitherto been employed; such, for example, as a dressing for wounds, ulcers, and as a topical application for certain skin eruptions, &c. Its difficult solubility and price (spite of its much greater antiseptic power), however, for the present at any rate, preclude it from being made available as an ordinary common disinfectant, as this term is generally understood. See THYMOL.

16. SILICATE OF SODA. It is stated that this salt has considerable anti-putrefactive powers.

17. Aluminised CHARCOAL. This is recommended by Dr Stenhouse as a cheap and very efficient decolorising agent. It is made by dissolving in water 54 parts of the sulphate of alumina of commerce in water, and mix it with 92-1/2 parts of finely powdered wood charcoal. When the charcoal is saturated it is evaporated to dryness, and heated to redness in covered Hessian crucibles till the water and acid are dissipated. The charcoal contains 7-1/2 per cent. of anhydrous alumina.

The natural disinfectants are air and water.

Air, when in violent motion, as is the case during a hurricane, has in many instances been known to arrest the course of certain epidemics; whilst in the form of ordinary ventilation, although inadequate alone to destroy the causes (whatever they may be) of contagion or infection, it is nevertheless found to supplement, to a considerable extent, the application of artificial and specific disinfectants. Hence the paramount necessity of perfect ventilation in all apartments in which the sick are placed, and hence also the measures taken in all hospitals to ensure by this means an increasing supply of fresh air to the wards in which the patients are lying.

The diminution in the amount of sickness prevailing in an army caused by the removal of the soldiers from barracks and placing them in sheds or under canvas is another illustration, tending to show the disinfectant properties possessed by an atmosphere in a state of circulation, when, of course, other hygienic precautions are not neglected.

In Hammond’s ‘Hygiène’ for 1863 the author, who was surgeon-general in the United States army, says that he only met with one instance of hospital gangrene in a wooden pavilion hospital, and not a single one in a tent; and the same result is recorded by Kraus, of the Austrian army in 1859, who says he never discovered that gangrene originated in a tent; that, on the contrary, cases of gangrene at once began to improve when those suffering from the disease were sent from hospital wards into tents. In his work on ‘Practical Hygiène’ Dr Parkes advises all cases of typhus occurring in barracks, whenever practicable, to be sent to tents or wooden huts having badly-jointed walls.

The great solvent power of water, superadded to its being able to hold matters in suspension, renders it a most important disinfectant, and thus enables it in the form of rain to remove from the atmosphere many noxious and pestilential bodies that would doubtless, if allowed to increase, become a source of disease. The air-current which constitutes the ventilation of the House of Commons, before entering the Commons’ chamber, is made to pass over a fine spray of water, by which means it has any dust or other organisms washed out of it. The beneficial effect of rain also in flushing drains and canals, and sweetening the superincumbent air, and of washing out of it many solid as well as gaseous objectionable impurities, is well known. The year 1860 was one of the wettest on record, as it was also one of the healthiest. Dr W. Budd recommends that when a room is to be disinfected, a short time before the process is commenced a tub of boiling water should be placed in the apartment, so that the steam may become condensed on the walls, and diffused throughout the air, as he believes there is a greater chance of ensuring the destruction of the disease germs by the aërial disinfectants than if these latter were allowed to act on the germs in the dry state.

We have already enforced in these pages the importance of the habit of personal cleanliness as being one of the greatest aids to the preservation of health; and although the unstinted use of soap and water will alone fail to effect the removal of any infectious or contagious maladies, their use will be found important auxiliaries in assisting recovery. But personal ablution is not the sine quâ non. The frequent cleansing of our dwellings, streets,[259] alleys (more particularly culs-de-sac), lanes, and the sheds and habitations of animals, by soap and water, or water alone, as well as the removal of all decaying or refuse materials from our midst, is of equal importance, and must not be disregarded, if we desire to make our sanitary surroundings such as they ought to be.

[Footnote 259: In streets where there is much traffic the air above has been found to contain large quantities of dust composed, amongst other matters, of the remains of horse droppings; hence the great importance of assiduously watering and cleansing the thoroughfares of all large cities and towns. A plan for laying the dust of streets has been suggested by Mr Cooper, and consists in watering them with waste chlorides of calcium and magnesium. Carbolic acid has been employed for the same purpose by many urban authorities for some years past.]

We extract the following from Dr Parkes’ valuable and standard work——‘Practical Hygiene,’

“Disinfection of Various Diseases.

“EXANTHEMATA, SCARLET FEVER, AND ROTHËLN. The points to attack are the skin and throat. The skin should be rubbed from the very commencement of the rash until complete desquamation, with camphorated oil, or oil with a little weak carbolic acid. The throat should be washed with Condy’s fluid, or weak solution of sulphurous acid.

“Clothes to be baked, or to be placed at once in boiling water, as directed further back. The clothes should not be washed at a common laundry. Chlorine or euchlorine should be diffused in the air, the saucer being put some little distance above the head of the patient. Carbolic acid and ether or carbolic-acid spray may be used instead.

“Smallpox.——In this, as in all cases, there can be no use in employing aërial disinfectants, unless they are constantly in the air, so as to act on any particle of poison which may pass into the atmosphere.

“The skin and the discharges from the mouth, nose, and eyes are to be attacked. There is much greater difficulty with the skin, as inunction cannot be so well performed. By smearing with oil and a little carbolic acid and glycerin, or, in difficult cases, applying carbolised glycerin to the papules and commencing pustules, might be tried. The permanganate and sulphurious acid solutions should be used for the mouth, nose, and eyes. The clothing should always be baked before washing, if it can be done.

“The particles which pass into the air are enclosed in small dry pieces of pus and epithelial scales; and Bakewell, who has lately examined them, expresses great doubts whether any air purifier would touch them. Still it must be proper to use euchlorine or carbolic acid. Iodine has been recommended by Richardson and Hoffmann.

“Measles.——Oily applications to the skin and air purifiers, and chlorides of zinc and aluminium in the vessels receiving the expectoration, appear to be the proper measures.

“Typhus (Exanthematicus).——Two measures seem sufficient to prevent the spread of typhus, viz. most complete ventilation and immediate disinfection and cleansing of clothes. But there is also more evidence of use from air purifiers than in the exanthemata. The nitrous acid fumes were tried very largely towards the close of last century and the beginning of this in the hulks and prisons where Spanish, French, and Russian prisoners of war were confined. At that time so rapidly did the disease spread in the confined spaces where so many men were kept, that the efficacy even of ventilation was doubted, though there can be no question that the amount of ventilation which was necessary was very much underrated. Both at Windsor and Sheerness the circumstances were most difficult. At the latter place (in 1785), in the hulk, 200 men, 150 of whom had typhus, were closely crowded together; 10 attendants and 24 men of the crew were attacked; 3 medical officers had died when the experiments commenced. After the fumigations one attendant only was attacked, and it appeared as if the disease in those already suffering became milder. In 1797 it was again tried with success, and many reports were made on the subject by army and naval surgeons. It was subsequently largely employed on the Continent, and everywhere seems to have been useful.

“These facts lead to the inference that the evolutions of nitrous acid should be practised in typhus-fever wards, proper precautions being taken to diffuse it equally through the room, and in a highly dilute form.

“Hydrochloric acid was employed for the same purpose by Guyton de Morveau in 1773, but it is doubtless much inferior to nitrous acid. Chlorine has also been employed, and apparently with good results.

“In typhus it would seem probable that the contagia pass off entirely by the skin, at least the effect of ventilation, and the way in which the agent coheres to the body linen seems to show this.

“The agent is not also enclosed in quantities of dry discharges and epidemics, as in the exanthemata, and is therefore less persistent and more easily destroyed than in those cases. Hence possibly the greater benefit of fumigations, and the reason of the arrest by ventilation. The clothes should be baked, steeped, and washed, as in the exanthemata.

“Bubo Plague. The measures would probably be the same as for typhus.

“Enteric (typhoid fever). The bowels’ discharges are believed to be the chief, if not the sole agents in spreading the disease; the effluvia from them escape into the air, and will adhere to walls and retain power for some time, or the discharges themselves may get into drinking-water. Every discharge should be at once mixed with a powerful chemical agent; of these, chloride and sulphate of zinc have been chiefly used, but sulphate of copper (which Dougall found so useful in stopping the growth of animalculæ), chloride of aluminium, or strong solution of ferrous sulphate (1 ounce to a pint of water), or carbolic acid. After complete mixing the stools must be thrown into sewers in towns; but this should never be done without previous complete disinfection. In country places they should be deeply buried at a place far removed from any water supply; they should never be thrown on to manure heaps or on to middens, nor into earth closets, if it can be possibly avoided. As the bedclothes and beds are so constantly soiled with the discharges, they should be baked, or, if this cannot be done, boiled immediately after removal with sulphate or chloride of zinc. It would be less necessary to employ air purifiers in this case than in others.

“Cholera. There can be little doubt that the discharges are here also the active media of the conveyance of the disease, and their complete disinfection is a matter of the highest importance. It is, however, so difficult to do this with the immense discharges of cholera, especially when there are many patients, that the evidence of the use of the plan in the last European epidemic is very disappointing.

“The ferrous sulphate (green vitriol), which has been strongly recommended by Pettenkofer as an addition to the cholera evacuations, was fully tried in 1866 at Frankfurt, Halle, Leipzig, in Germany, and at Pill, near Bristol, and in those cases without any good result. In other places, as at Baden, the benefit was doubtful. It seemed to answer better with Dr Budd and Mr Davies at Bristol; but other substances were also used, viz. chlorine gas in the rooms, and chloride of lime and Condy’s fluid for the linen. On the whole it seems to have been a failure. Ferric sulphate, with or without potassium permanganate, has been recommended by Kühne instead of ferrous sulphate, but I am not aware of any evidence on the point. Carbolic acid was largely used in England in 1866, and appeared in some cases to be of use, as at Pill, near Bristol, and, perhaps, at Southampton. It failed at Erfurt, but, as it is believed the wells were contaminated by soakage, this is perhaps no certain case. Chloride of lime and lime were used at Stettin without any good result, and, on the whole, it may be said that the so-called disinfection of the discharges of cholera does not seem to have been attended with very marked results. At the same time it cannot be for a moment contended that the plan has had a fair trial, and we can easily believe that unless there is a full understanding on the part of both medical men and the public of what is to be accomplished by this system, and a conscientious carrying out of the plan to its minutest details, no safe opinions of its efficacy or otherwise can be arrived at. It would be desirable to try the effect of chromic acid or bichromate of potash.

“With regard to air purifiers little evidence exists. Chlorine gas diffused in the air was tried very largely in Austria and Hungary in 1832, but without any good results. Nitrous-acid gas was used in Malta in 1865, but apparently did not have any decided influences, although Ramon da Luna has asserted that it has a decided preservative effect, and that no one was attacked in Madrid who used fumigations of nitrous acid. But negative evidence of this kind is always doubtful. Charcoal in bulk appears to have no effect. Dr Sutherland saw a ship’s crew severely attacked, although the ship was loaded with charcoal.

“Carbolic-acid vapour diffused in the atmosphere was largely used in 1866 in England; the liquid was sprinkled about with water, and sawdust moistened with it was laid on the floors and under the patients. The effect in preventing the spread of the disease was very uncertain.

“Yellow Fever. In this case the discharges, especially from the stomach, probably spread the disease, and disinfectants must be mixed with them.

“Fumigations of nitrous acid were employed by Ramon da Luna, and it is asserted that no agent was so effectual in arresting the spread of the disease.

“Dysentery. It is well known that dysentery, and especially the putrid dysentery, may spread through an hospital from the practice of the same close stool or latrines being used. As long ago as 1807, fumigations of chlorine were used by Mojon to destroy the emanations from the stools, and with the best effects. The chlorine was diffused in the air, and the stools were not disinfected; but this ought to be done as in enteric fever, and especially in the sloughing form. It is probable that carbolic acid in large quantity would be efficacious.

“With respect to Erysipelas, Diphtheria, Syphilis, Gonorrhœa, Glanders, and Farcy, local applications are evidently required, and carbolic acid in various degrees of strength, and the metallic salts, are evidently the best measures.

“Cattle Plague. The experiments made by Mr Crookes on the disinfectant treatment of cattle plague with carbolic acid vapour have an important bearing on human disease. Although the observations fall short of demonstration there are grounds for thinking that when the air was kept constantly filled with carbolic acid vapour, the disease did not spread.

“So also euchlorine was employed in Lancashire by Professor Stone of Manchester, with apparent benefit. Dr Moffat employed ozone (developed by exposing phosphorus to the air), and he believes with benefit. As such experiments are very much more easily carried out on the diseases of animals than on those of men, it is much to be wished that the precise effect of the so-called disinfectants should be tested by continuing the experiments commenced by Mr Crookes, not only in cattle plague in the countries where it prevails, but in epizootic diseases generally.

“It may be said, in conclusion, that although positive evidence is so deficient, yet, taking into consideration the decidedly great and known effect of many so-called disinfectants, and air-purifiers on organic matters, and the fact that the infectious organic agencies are certainly easily destroyed in most cases (since free ventilation renders many of them inert, and few of them retain their power very long), it is highly probable that the specific poisons of the so-called zymotic diseases are destroyed by some of these chemical methods, and at any rate the careful and constant use of chemical agents for the destruction of the specific poisons in the excreta and discharges from the body, and when they pass into the air, is not only warranted, but should be considered comparative.

“Purification of rooms after infectious diseases. In addition to thorough cleansing of all woodwork with soft soap and water, to which a little carbolic acid has been added (1 pint of the common liquid to 3 or 4 gallons of water), and to removal and washing of all fabrics which can be removed, the brushing of the walls, the room should be fumigated for 3 hours with either the fumes of sulphurous or nitrous acids. Both of these are believed to be superior to chlorine, especially in smallpox. All doors and windows, and the chimney being closed, and curtains taken down, the sulphur is ignited as directed in our article FUMIGATION.

“In white-washed rooms the walls should be scraped, and then washed with hot lime to which carbolic acid is added.

“Mortuaries and dead-houses are best purified with nitrous acid.”

These directions may be supplemented by the following:——The towels, sheets, articles of clothing, &c., should be boiled in water, or plunged in boiling water containing one to two handfuls of soda to the gallon, before being taken from the room, after which treatment they should be steeped in water containing 4 fluid ounces of carbolic acid to a gallon of water.

Fabrics soiled by the discharges, &c., such as rags, bandages, and dressings, if of little value should be immediately consigned to the flames; but if this be not convenient, they may be treated with carbolic acid and water, in the same manner as directed for towels, sheets, &c.

As soon as any infectious disease sets in, the room of the patient should be at once stripped of curtains, carpet, bed-curtains, valances, and all unnecessary garments, whether in a wardrobe or drawers, as well as of all superfluous furniture, especially chairs stuffed with wool or covered with fabric of any kind.

Disinfections of the apartment by fumigations must be postponed until it is vacated; as before such a time thorough disinfection is impossible.

Infected bedding, &c., should be removed in the boxes made for the purpose, and subjected to the heating process. In most towns provision is made by the Board of Guardians, and under the directions of the medical officer of health, for the disinfection process to be efficiently carried out. See DISINFECTING CHAMBERS.

The disinfection of articles of food is accomplished by thorough cooking, boiling in the case of milk, boiling and filtration in the case of water, and complete roasting, stewing, and frying of meat.

The experiments of Mr Crookes (to which reference has been made in the extract taken from Dr Parkes’ ‘Practical Hygiène’) with carbolic acid during the cattle plague possess great practical interest both for the chemist and physiologist.

Of the use of carbolic acid as a disinfectant Mr Crookes, in the Appendix to the Report of the Cattle Plague Commissioners, writes as follows:

“According to the principles laid down, the air must be treated, and where there is no disease there is only a secondary use in treating anything besides the air. Several cowhouses have been treated with carbolic acid with very excellent results. The mode has been, first, to remove from the floor the mass of manure, which too often adheres to it; secondly, to sprinkle the floor with strong carbolic or cresylic acid; next, to wash the walls, beams, and rafters, and all that is visible in the cowhouse, with lime, in which is put some carbolic acid, 1 to 50 of the water used, or with strong carbolic acid alone. Next, to make a solution containing 1 of carbolic or cresylic acid to 100 of water, or, perhaps still better, 60 of water, and to water the yard and fold until the whole place smells strongly of the acid. Only a few farms have been treated in this way, so far as I know, but in each it has been successful. It may be well to give the cattle a little of the weak solution of carbolic acid, but this has not been so fully tried as the external use. The washing of the mouth and of the entire animal with the weak solution may be attended with good results, especially in the early stage of disease; but I know nothing of cure, and speak only hopefully of prevention.

“The animals seem to have an instinct for disinfection, and lick substances touched with this acid. They must not be allowed to drink it, as when strong it blisters the skin, and especially the mouth and tongue.”

Mr Crookes also tried the effect of the acid by injecting it into the veins of the animals, and thus details the results of his experiments:——“It appeared evident that if harm were to follow the injection of carbolic acid, the mischievous effect would be immediate; but that if the fluid could pass through the heart without exerting its paralysing action on that organ, and could get into the circulation, no present ill effects need be anticipated. I therefore determined to push these experiments as far as possible, increasing the quantity of carbolic acid, until it produced a fatal result.

The next operation was on cow No. 11, in which 3 oz. of solution (containing 52-1/2 gr. of pure carbolic acid) were very slowly injected; no bad effect followed. Increasing the dose, cow No. 12 had injected into her vein 4-1/2 oz. of solution (equal to 78-3/4 gr. of carbolic acid); this also was followed by no immediate ill effect. Cow No. 13 was then treated with 6 oz. of solution (containing 105 gr. of pure carbolic acid), in two portions of 3 oz. each, five minutes’ interval elapsing between each injection. The first 3 oz. produced a slight trembling, but not so severe as in the case of cow No. 10, as she seemed better in a few minutes. The second dose of 3 oz. was injected. This proved too much, or was pumped in too hurriedly, for almost before I had finished the animal trembled violently, its eyes projected, its breathing became laborious, it fell down and expired. The result could scarcely be attributed to the accidental injection of air into the vein, for the distress began with the injection of the first syringeful, and was only increased by the second; nor is it likely that this accident would happen twice consecutively. I was particularly careful on this point, and the construction of the instrument rendered such an occurrence scarcely possible with ordinary precaution. It is probable that the injection was performed too rapidly, or that the vital powers were lower than usual. In the case of the remaining animal, No. 14, I decided to inject as large a dose as it would bear, stopping the operation at the first sign of trembling, and delivering the liquid very gradually. The first syringeful caused no bad symptoms, and I had just finished injecting the second dose when trembling commenced. It was rather violent for a short time, but soon went off, and in five minutes the animal appeared as well as before.

This cow, therefore, bore without inconvenience the injection of 6 oz. of a 4 per cent. solution, containing 105 gr. of pure carbolic acid. Careful observations with the thermometer were taken before each operation. There were no more diseased beasts on the farm, or I should have carried my experiments still further. On visiting the farm the next day I was told that all the animals seemed better, and on testing them with the thermometer that statement was confirmed. I gave directions that each animal was to be drenched with half a wine-glassful (1 oz.) of carbolic acid in a quart of warm water every morning, but in other respects they might be treated as Mr Tomlinson, a skilful cow doctor, should direct.

“Business now calling me to London, I was unable to watch the further progress of these cases.

“This is to be regretted, as a series of daily thermometric observations would have been of great value in suggesting further experiments. I had, however, frequent accounts sent me. Cow No. 14 continued to improve slowly until convalescent; she is now quite well. Nos. 10, 11, and 12 remained apparently in the same state for four days; they then changed for the worse, and died. It is not improbable that had I been able to inject a further quantity of carbolic acid during the four days in which they were thus hovering between recovery and relapse, it would have turned the scale, and some of them at all events would be now alive and well.

The following table gives the thermometric observations;——

Table showing the results of injecting carbolic acid into the blood of animals suffering from the cattle plague.

+-----+------------+-------------+---------+--------+-----------+ | | Grains of | Temperature | | | | | No. | Carbolic | before | Second | Third | | | | Acid | Injection | Day. | Day. | | | | Injected. | | | | | +-----+------------+-------------+---------+--------+-----------+ | | | F. | F. | | | | 10 | 26-1/2 | 105·4 | 103·8 | Better.| Died on | | | | | | | 6th day. | | 11 | 52-1/2 | 103·8 | 102·8 | ” | Died on | | | | | | | 6th day. | | 12 | 78-3/4 | 104·8 | 104·4 | ” | Died on | | | | | | | 6th day. | | 14 | 105 | 103·7 | 103·1 | ” | Recovered.| +-----+------------+-------------+---------+--------+-----------+

If future experiments prove that injection of carbolic acid or other antiseptic will do good, it is an operation very easily performed. I have injected five animals, and taken thermometric observations within an hour. Sulphite or bisulphite of soda apparently occasions some pain, as the animals struggle very much; with carbolic acid I found them tolerably quiet. I have calculated the proportion which the carbolic acid bore to the whole quantity of blood in these operations. Taking the whole amount of blood in the animal at 150 lbs., there were injected into——

No. 10, 1 part of carb. acid, in 40,000 of blood. ” 11, ” ” 20,000 ” ” 12, ” ” 13,300 ” ” 14, ” ” 10,000 ”

It is worth mentioning incidentally, that in the case of cow No. 14 (which recovered) the proportion of carbolic acid injected into the blood would have been enough to keep from decomposition the whole quantity of that liquid for a considerable time. In Nos. 10, 11, and 12 the proportion of carbolic acid would probably not have been sufficient for that purpose. I am informed by Dr Calvert that cresylic acid has much less coagulating power on albumen than carbolic acid, and my own experiments entirely confirm this statement.”

We have described under “CHARCOAL” the disinfecting properties of that substance. These properties have been turned to excellent account by Dr Stenhouse, who has invented a charcoal respirator, which, causing the wearer to breathe air drawn through a layer of that substance, and by thus depriving the air so inspired of any noxious gases or exhalations, if present, becomes, if worn in an infected atmosphere, a great safeguard against disease. Dr Letheby was accustomed to use a charcoal respirator when analysing dead bodies and other putrid matters of suspected poisoning, and by so doing never experienced any ill effects, nor was he conscious of the offensive odour which but for its adoption he must have encountered.

Professor Tyndall has suggested for the same purpose a respirator of cotton wool, by means of which the air, being filtered before it enters the lungs, becomes deprived of minute particles of various substances suspended in it, as well as of the germs, which so many pathologists believe to be always present during the prevalence of epidemic maladies, and the cause, when inhaled, of the maladies themselves.

=DISINFECTING CHAMBERS.= The sanitary authorities of most large cities have made provision for the purification of mattresses, linen, wearing apparel, &c., by means of disinfecting chambers or ovens, in which receptacles the infected articles are subjected for a certain time to hot air. The simplest form of apparatus for this purpose, and one that could be used on an emergency, provided the articles to be disinfected were not too bulky, is a baker’s oven. The drying closet of a good laundry would be so far unsafe, because it would occasionally fail to give a heat sufficient for the destruction of the noxious principles.

The disinfecting chambers employed in Liverpool are arched ovens of solid brickwork, having a depth of 7 feet from front to back, a width of 5 feet from side to side, and a height of 6-1/2 feet from the floor to the crown of the arch. The doors are made of wrought iron, tightly fitting into cast-iron framework. The floors are made of double iron gratings, having alternate openings, so arranged as to admit at pleasure hot air into the chamber. At the top of the arch there is an opening fitted with an iron valve, by which the air of the chamber escapes into an exhausting shaft which is connected with the chimney. The heating is accomplished by means of a cast-iron cockle, the smoke from which escapes by two cast-iron smoke flues, which, after forming a coil for the purpose of affording as great a heating surface as possible, pass along the hot-air passage under the chamber, into a chimney situated at the opposite end.

The cold air is drawn into a brick flue placed underneath the floor of the stokehole into a cavity on each side of the cockle, and thence into a space underneath the chamber, whence it becomes heated by the radiation from the surface of the two cast iron flues. From this cavity or passage it is conveyed at will through the gratings as already described. At the entrance of the cold air flue there is a damper, by which the temperature of the air may be regulated. A heat equal to 280° F. has been registered in this chamber, and as high as 380° in a drying closet over the cockle. Dr French, the medical officer of health for Liverpool, says “that, if necessary, a temperature reaching 500° F. can be attained in these chambers; but this temperature is of course never employed. Experience has proved that from 220° to 250° F. is the most suitable. Instances have been known where fabrics, after being exposed for some length of time to a temperature above 212° F., have sustained injury from being scorched.

In some of the chambers, carbolic acid powder is sprinkled on the floor.

We have taken the liberty of transcribing the following description and plates illustrative of the disinfecting stove used in the Royal Victoria Yard, Deptford, from that very useful publication, ‘Chemistry, Theoretical, Practical, and Analytical,’ published by Mr W. Mackenzie.

“This stove consists of a brick chamber with a slightly arched roof, and an iron movable floor in two pieces. The chamber is 7 feet deep, 6 feet 9 inches wide, and 5 feet 8-1/2 inches high in the centre of the arch. It is heated by a flue below the iron floor passing round 3 sides of the chamber and up a chimney. There is an opening in the upper part of the chamber in its centre, which passes along in the roof to the side, from thence down in the wall entering beneath the fire; this carries away any of the foul air of the clothes from the chamber through the fire and up the flue. This proceeding takes place after the clothes have been in the chamber say an hour and a half in the following manner:——The damper in the foul air shaft is withdrawn, and the furnace door is shut; any draught that gets to the fire comes to the chamber. Over the opening into the furnace is a square opening, fitted with a glass, inside of which is a fixed thermometer. When this shows a temperature of 200° F., the interior of the chamber is at 250° F., the highest point at which it is allowed to be. In the interior of the chamber at the sides there are little movable cranes, three rows of three supporting rods of iron on which wooden trays rest, and on which the clothes are placed when the iron cart is not used. The cranes move fore and aft to be out of the way when the cart is used. The cart is of iron on wheels, and runs into the chamber on tramways to keep it in position; in the interior of the cart are three iron trays for laying the clothes on. The lowest tray is always the hottest, so that it is prudent to use the cart, the iron bottom of which prevents burning. The iron ends of the cart are removed when it is placed in the chamber; so is the handle. It is usual to keep the clothes at the temperature of 250° F. for two hours.

There is a trap door 8 inches square about 14 inches above the upper edge of the furnace, and on a level with the iron floor of the chamber, for disinfectants. Carbolic acid and sulphur are used; the former is placed on a flat plate, the latter is sprinkled over the floor. These are used as the last, and after that has been the clothes are fit to be used without danger to any one.

Elevation plan (fig. 5) shows the front of the chamber with the doors closed; the openings (Nos. 1, 2, and 3) are for inserting the long thermometer, which is pushed into the clothing to be disinfected; they correspond with the three trays. The thermometer can be withdrawn and examined without allowing much cold air to enter; plugs fit into these three openings when not used for the thermometer.

Section.——The chamber is shown about the centre of its depth; the foul-air shaft (B) passes along the roof down the side wall, and beneath the fire (C); the opening where the fixed thermometer is placed is marked with dotted lines. The damper for the foul-air shaft (E) is represented as shut, and the damper for the chimney (F) is also shut.

The ground plan shows the flue beneath the iron plates, which form the floor of the chamber, the dotted lines showing the foul-air flue (B), as it passes beneath the fire. In the flue (C) there are openings at D, D, D, for the purpose of cleaning it.

Another form of disinfecting chamber is that invented by Dr Esse, of Berlin, and employed in that city. The apparatus consists of two iron cylinders, one fitted within the other, with a space between, into which steam under pressure is introduced. The outer cylinder is surrounded with wood and the top with felt, to prevent the escape of heat. The articles to be disinfected are put in at the top of the inner cylinder, the inside of which soon becomes heated up by the surrounding steam. A pulley is used to lift the lid of the inner cylinder, around which the clothes are hung on pegs, not being allowed to touch the side of the cylinder. At the top of the inside cylinder is a brass box pierced with holes at the bottom, which dips a little way down, through which the air from the interior can rise. In this box the bulb of a thermometer being placed, the temperature of the inner chamber can be registered.

When the steam condenses in the space between the cylinders it is carried off by means of a valve, which is lifted when the water reaches a certain point in the condenser. In an hour’s time the temperature of the interior cylinder can be raised to 235° Fahr.

For heating mattresses another apparatus has been devised by Dr Esse. It consists of an iron case with a spiral steam pipe in the centre, the steam inside the pipe being compressed to two atmospheres.

Dr Ransome has invented, for the use of the Nottingham hospital, a gas stove in the form of an iron box, well packed with a non-conducting material, which surrounds the outside. A channel leads to the interior of the box, and inside this channel gas is kept burning in such a manner by a modification of Kemp’s regulator, that the temperature of the box shall range day and night between 235° and 255° Fahr.

An apparatus put to great use by the Holborn District Board during the epidemic of smallpox in 1871 was one made by Fraser’s patent. Mr Fraser’s disinfecting chamber consists of an oven or receptacle made of brick, with doors in front. Situated on the lower portion of this chamber is a covered furnace connected with flues, by means of which the interior space is heated to the desired temperature. By a particular arrangement the air laden with the noxious vapours given off by the tainted clothing is conveyed into the furnace, and so consumed. Belonging to the apparatus is a covered truck or cart, fitted with doors and dampers, and provided inside with racks and shelves for holding the materials to be purified, which are thus brought from the infected dwelling and placed, truck and all, inside the chamber. The infected materials, as well as the truck containing them, are then heated to the necessary point, disinfection being assisted by sulphurous acid gas, or some other material adapted for the purpose. When the process is finished the carriage with its contents is drawn back to the house from which they were originally taken, and the purified articles are restored to the owners. It will be seen that by this arrangement the vehicle is disinfected as well as the clothes it contains.

=DISLOCA′TION.= Syn. LUXATION; DISLOCATIO, L. The forcible displacement of a bone from its socket, either by violence or disease. The latter happens when the textures forming the joint have been destroyed by some independent organic affection. “A considerable share of anatomical knowledge is required to detect the nature of these accidents; and it is much to be lamented that students neglect to inform themselves sufficiently on the subject.” (Sir A. Cooper.) In common cases the bones may be frequently replaced by forcibly extending the limb. This should be done as early as possible, and before inflammation sets in. The latter should be combated by aperients, local bleeding, refrigerant lotions, &c. Dislocations frequently exist without the fact being suspected, the swelling and inflammation being referred to other causes.

=DISPLACE′MENT.= See PERCOLATION.

=DISTEM′PER.= A disease among dogs, usually characterised by a running from the nose and eyes, and a short dry cough; followed by wasting of the flesh, and loss of strength and spirits. At length the brain suffers, and fits, paralysis of the extremities, or convulsions come on. Laxatives and emetics are the best remedies. If there is much diarrhœa, astringents may be afterwards given. The violence of the fits may be mitigated by the administration of antispasmodics, and by the warm bath. The distemper is a contagious disease, and is generally fatal to weakly and very young dogs. Fits in the advanced stages of the disease are seldom followed by recovery. Impatience of light, red eyes, obstinate diarrhœa, spasmodic twitchings, a yellow colour of the skin, and a pustular eruption, are also bad symptoms.

=Distemper Powders (Blane’s).= The basis of these is said to be ‘aurum musivum,’ or bisulphide of tin. That of another advertised nostrum is a mixture of mercury and chalk, with a little rhubarb and ipecacuanha.

=DISTILLA′TION.= The evaporation and subsequent condensation of the vapour of fluids, by means of a still and refrigerator, or other similar apparatus. DRY DISTILLATION is a term applied to the distillation of substances per se, or without the addition of water or other volatile fluid. DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION is the distillation of substances at temperatures sufficiently high to decompose them, by which their elements are separated, or evolved in new combinations. FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION is the separation of substances having different boiling-points, by distilling the mixture with a gradually increasing heat, and collecting the products which come over at different temperatures in separate receivers. See HYDROCARBON, STILL, &c.

=Distillation.= The art of the distiller; the manufacture of spirituous liquors as practised on the large scale.

The process of distillation, as carried on in the distilleries of Great Britain, may be divided into four general operations, viz.——1. The mashing, or formation of a saccharine infusion from certain vegetable matters, as malt, barley, oats, rye, &c. 2. The cooling of this wort or liquor. 3. The fermentation, or process by which the sugar of the cooled wort is converted into alcohol. 4. The separation of the spirit so formed by means of a still and refrigerator. By the first operation the materials for the formation of the alcohol are obtained; by the second, they are brought to a temperature most favorable to the transformation that takes place in the third, after which it only remains to free the product of the last operation from the foreign matter with which it is associated; this is done in the fourth, which, correctly speaking, constitutes the only part of the process which can be called distillation.

The general principles of the first three of the preceding operations are noticed in the articles BREWING, FERMENTATION, &c. It will there be seen that the amylaceous or starchy matter of the grain is first ‘saccharified,’ and afterwards converted into alcohol, and that certain precautions are necessary to render the process successful and economical. In many of the distilleries of Great Britain molasses and analogous saccharine substances are employed, in which case the vegetable principle (sugar) essential to the formation of alcohol is already present, and merely requires simple solution in water of a proper temperature, to be ready to be subjected to immediate fermentation. In general, however, the sources of spirit in England are the various kinds of grain; barley, rye, maize, and rice are those commonly employed. These are ground and mixed with bruised malt, in various proportions, and are mashed in a similar manner to malted grain. The fermentation is carried on until the density of the liquor ceases to lessen or ‘attenuate,’ which is determined by an instrument called a saccharometer. When this point is arrived at, the ‘wash’ is submitted to distillation, to prevent the access of the acetous fermentation, which would lessen its alcoholic value.

During the process of distilling off the spirit of the fermented ‘wash’ or ‘wort’ a hydrometer is employed to ascertain the ‘strength’ of the liquor that passes over. As soon as this has fallen to a certain point, the operation is stopped, and the ‘spent wash’ removed. The spirits obtained by the first distillation are generally called ‘low wines,’ and have a specific gravity of about ·975. By rectification or ‘doubling,’ a crude milky spirit, abounding in oil, at first comes over, followed by clear spirit, which is received in a separate vessel. The process is continued until the alcoholic content of the distilled liquor has considerably diminished, when the remaining weak spirit that distils over, called ‘faints,’ is caught separately, and mixed with the low wines preparatory to another distillation. The strongest spirit passes over first, and the condensed liquor gradually becomes weaker, until it ceases to contain alcohol. By receiving in separate vessels any given portion of the product, spirit of any required strength, within certain limits, may be obtained. The same object is more conveniently effected by surrounding the top of the capital of the still with a water bath, of a temperature corresponding to that of alcoholic vapour of the strength it is desired to obtain. Thus, if we keep the temperature of the water at about 198° Fahr., we shall obtain proof spirit; if at 192°, a spirit 20 o. p.; and so on for other strengths.

It is found from experience, and is readily accounted for by theory, that the lower the temperature at which the distillation is conducted, the stronger will be the product, and the less quantity of oil or other volatile matter will come over along with it. To promote this, it has been proposed to carry on the process in vacuo, but on the large scale this has never been adopted. The distillation of the wash is usually performed in a separate set of stills to those employed for the rectification of the low wines. For very strong and tasteless spirit, a third and even a fourth rectification is employed, conjointly with other methods, to abstract the water and to remove any foreign matter that vitiates its odour or flavour. A portion of soap is generally put into the still with the wash, to prevent excessive frothing.

We have said that the processes of mashing, &c., in the distillery are similar to those adopted in brewing beer. We may add that, as richness in alcohol, and not flavour, is the object aimed at in the distiller’s wash, not only is a large quantity of unmalted grain employed, but the process of boiling the wort with hops is omitted altogether. The wort is commonly ‘set’ at 70° Fahr., and the fermentation and attenuation of the liquor pushed as far as possible by large and repeated doses of the best ‘top-yeast’ of the porter brewers.

It often happens that raw spirit prepared from damaged grain is contaminated with a highly acrid and volatile fatty substance, which is powerfully intoxicating and irritating to the eyes and nostrils, and possesses an odour very similar to that of an alcoholic solution of cyanogen. This may be got rid of by dilution with water and skilful rectification, when most of it passes over with the first and last ‘runnings,’ the intermediate portion being less loaded with it. Another plan is to filter the spirit successively through 6 or 7 separate vessels containing pine or willow charcoal before rectifying it. In some distilleries the contaminated spirit is well agitated with a considerable quantity of olive oil, and after repose decanted, diluted with water, and rectified as before. The ordinary corn oil or fusel oil of raw spirit is generally, for the most part, intercepted by a self-regulating bath arranged between the still-head and the refrigeratory.

The quantity of spirit obtained from various substances, and even from pure sugar, depends upon the skill with which the several operations are conducted. By theory, pure sugar should yield 51% of alcohol; but in practice 11·925 galls. of proof spirit is the largest quantity which has yet been obtained from 112 lbs. of sugar. By the revenue authorities this weight of sugar is estimated to afford 11-1/2 galls. of proof spirit. The average product is, perhaps, about 1 gall. of spirit of this strength for every 10 lbs. of sugar. According to Harmstädt, 100 lbs. of starch yield 35 lbs. of alcohol, or 7·8 galls. of proof spirit; and 100 lbs. of the following grains produce the accompanying quantities by weight of spirit of sp. gr. ·9427, or containing 45% of pure alcohol:——wheat, 40 to 45%; rye, 36 to 42%; barley, 40%; oats, 36%; buckwheat, 40%; maize, 40%; the mean being 3·47 galls. of proof spirit. It is found that a bushel of good malt yields 2 galls. of proof spirit, and that the largest quantity of proof spirit obtained from raw grain, mashed with 1/5 or 1/6 of malt, does not exceed 22 galls. per quarter.

The distiller is allowed to produce worts from any substance, and at any specific gravity, provided such gravity can be correctly ascertained by the saccharometer approved of by the Board of Inland Revenue. He is not, however, allowed to mash and distil at the same time. See ALCOHOL, BRANDY, FERMENTATION, FUSEL OIL, GIN, STILL, &c.

=DISTOMATA.= A genus of fluke-like parasites infesting men and the higher vertebrate animals. The egg is about the 1/280th of an inch long and 1/270th inch wide.

The embryo is frequently met with in sewage water, from which, if it be removed and placed in pure or distilled water, it soon dies. The embryo which does not become a distoma gives rise to a progeny (gradually formed from germ-cells within it) consisting sometimes of one, but much more often of a number of bodies of various forms and structures, each of which possesses powers of movement and locomotion. But the creatures of this second development are not distomata; neither are the offspring to which they in their turn give rise. Like their immediate progenitors, this offspring produce in their interior germ-cells which develop into minute worms having tails, and displaying great vivacity when placed in water. These latter alone exhibit the characters of true distomata. “These cercaria now either become enclosed, like a chrysalis in a pupa state, or they penetrate into the bodies of soft animals, become encysted and parasitic. It appears probable that the distomata enter the human intestinal canal as cercaria, and then pass into the biliary passages.”[260]

[Footnote 260: Blyth.]

A case is on record of two distomata having been extracted from the foot of a woman, into which it has been surmised they gained an entrance as cercaria whilst the woman was bathing.

It is thought that shell-fish, as well as uncooked fish when eaten, may be the means of introducing these parasites into the human system. The embryos of the Distomata hepaticum swim about and live in water, which may probably, when drunk, be the means of conveying them into the bodies of men and sheep. The ailments and symptoms to which these pests give rise depend upon the particular organ or portion of the body in which they establish themselves.

In man they are a frequent cause of hæmaturia and dysentery. In sheep they occasion fearful mortality, giving rise to the disease known as ‘the rot,’ and killing thousands of flocks annually.

“The number of species affecting men are usually enumerated as nine——viz. Fasciola hepatica, Distoma crassum, D. lanceolatum, D. ophthalmobium, D. heterophyes, Bilharzia hæmatopia, Tetrastoma renale, Hexathrydium renarum, and H. pinguicola.”[261]

[Footnote 261: Blyth.]

=DISTORTIONS.= In treating of this subject we shall confine ourselves to those distortions which are preventable——or rather, we may say, of two out of the three which will be discussed, which are voluntary.

One very common form of bodily distortion is crooked or curved spine. It is mostly met with in young girls of from ten to sixteen years of age; and first shows itself either in the elevation of one shoulder above the other, or in a growing out of one of the shoulder blades, or of one side of the bosom beyond the other. The elevated shoulder is generally the right one. At the same time the right side of the chest is unnaturally high, and rounded; whilst the opposite or left shoulder and chest are on the contrary depressed and concave. Very frequently these conditions are accompanied by a projection of the left hip, and a curving inwards of the loins on the right side. With persons so afflicted the spine presents an appearance that has not inaptly been compared to a long italic f.

Spinal curvature arises from a weakened state of the muscles, ligaments, and bones of the backbone. It is most frequently met with in those whose occupation compels them to stand the greater part of the day; as well as in persons who pass many hours at the desk or at needlework. Spinal curvature is also common in young fragile girls acting as nursemaids, and as such unduly subjected to carrying heavy infants on one side. Amongst the children of the poor, those of tender years are much too frequently put to this objectionable form of drudgery. Any one’s recollections of a walk through a poor neighbourhood will enable them to call to mind many instances they must have seen of smaller babes being nursed by larger ones. Those subjected to too long standing, no doubt because the posture affords them relief, unconsciously contract the habit of frequently standing on the right leg——of standing at ease on it, as it is called——and at the same time of bending the left knee a little; and since this position causes the right shoulder to be raised, and the left side of the pelvis to be thrown out of its place, it will be evident from what has been already said that, if persisted in, it will end in distorting the spine in the manner above indicated.

The same results will also follow in those other cases, such for instance as in too long an application at the desk or at the needle, as well as the carrying for an undue length of time a heavy child in the arms; these all being occupations in which one side of the body is subjected to an undue and unequal strain over the other.

“Why one-sided postures should cause distortion must be evident, when it is considered that the intervertebral substance is compressible to such an extent that an adult man of middle stature loses about an inch of his height after having been in the erect posture during the day, and does not regain it till after some hours of rest. Since the united thickness of the intervertebral substance in an adult man is about 3·875 inches, we see that they lose nearly one fourth by compression, which they do not recover till after some hours of rest. But if the weight of the body falls unequally on the spine day after day, it must be evident that they will become compressed on one side more than the other; and that if their elasticity be impaired, and the muscles and ligaments be weak, and the bones soft, as they are in young persons who have not a sufficiency of fresh air, wholesome food and active exercise, this lateral distortion will become permanent.[262]

[Footnote 262: Dr Druitt.]

Another cause tending to distortion of the spine is the foolish habit of using corsets, a practice which contributes to weaken the dorsal muscles. When the shoulders are continually supported by a corset, the dorsal muscles upon which the support ought to fall have their functions usurped by the corset, and hence fail to receive their proper development, and consequently lose their power; the result being an inability on the part of the body to support itself without the corset, and a sinking and bending of the spine when it is removed. In boys, who never wear corsets, spinal curvature is rarely met with. In girls, who do, it is constantly to be found. To guard against spinal distortions, bad and awkward positions of the body should, wherever possible, be prohibited. Amongst the prejudicial postures indulged in by the young, we have already mentioned the habit of standing on one leg and of carrying heavy loads on one side of the body.

To these may be added the habit of lying crooked in bed, and that of young girls spending a long time in a constrained position in dressing their own hair. Every one-sided motion may lead to distortion if it be frequently repeated, and the tendency once existing, the evil grows day by day. The use of corsets should be strenuously discountenanced. The early detection of spinal distortion is a matter of considerable importance. Hence the advisability of mothers, nurses, governesses, and other guardians of children or young girls, frequently examining the bodies of their charges to note if they present any of the peculiarities we have indicated at the commencement of this article. Should any of these develop themselves, aid should immediately be sought of a skilful medical practitioner.

Dr Lewis Sayre, in his work ‘Spinal Disease and Spinal Curvature’ says:——“The great object in the treatment of Pott’s disease is to maintain rest of the affected part by such means as will not debar the patient from the benefits of fresh air, sunlight, and change of scene. The patient should not be permitted to assume the upright position before he has been fitted with some artificial support capable of removing all pressure from the bodies of the diseased vertebræ. This object may be obtained by straightening the spinal column in such a manner that the weight of the body is borne by the transverse processes and not by the bodies of the vertebræ.” Acting on these principles, Dr Sayre partially envelopes the patient in a jacket of plaster of Paris, surrounding the body from the pelvis to the axillæ.

Although Dr Sayre’s work is almost entirely devoted to a much more serious affection of spinal curvature than that treated of here——viz. posterior angular curvature, in which actual disease of the bones of the vertebræ is concerned——his treatment is no less applicable to the milder form of distortion to which our remarks have been directed. Dr Sayre himself states that 300 cases have been treated by his method with very signal success, and very many eminent surgeons bear testimony to the soundness of the principles concerned in it. For the details of its application consult the author’s work before alluded to.

Serious as are the effects very frequently arising from spinal curvature, amongst which may be included lameness, lung disease, and inability to perform the functions of maternity; still worse results in addition to the two last of these ensue in the case of a persistence in another form of distortion, which is none the less dangerous because it is voluntary. The distortion to which we refer is that caused by the practice of tightlacing.

Foremost among the conditions absolutely essential for the preservation of health and bodily well-being, is the due performance of the function of the lungs, heart, liver, kidneys, stomach and other important organs. The object of the ribs within which most of these organs are more or less wholly contained is to protect these latter from external pressure, and therefore injury; as well as to allow them unimpeded and unrestricted action. To ensure this freedom of movement for the parts and organs within the ribs, it will be evident that every possible obstacle tending in any degree to compress them, or circumscribe their limits should be especially avoided.

Instead of the avoidance of such dangers, however, what course do the silly votaries and dupes of that most senseless and remorseless of all tyrants——Fashion——pursue? One the very reverse; and which is opposed, not only to personal comfort and common sense, but, since it mars nature’s outlines, to symmetry and our proper canons of the grace of the female figure. By means of corsets, tight stays, and other implements of torture the ribs are pressed inwards to such an extent that all the conditions we have insisted on as essential to health are imperilled, and eventually become overthrown. Now, this mischievous and unnatural pressure exerted on the stomach pushes that organ out of its proper position, and in doing so forces the diaphragm also out of its place; a disturbance which so curtails the space in which the movements of the lungs and the heart are performed, that if the pernicious custom be persevered in these latter organs become seriously and incurably diseased. The liver also shares in the damage inflicted, and frequently becomes incapable of discharging its office. The very much larger number of young women than of young men who die of consumption is undoubtedly referable to the fact that a large proportion of the majority are the victims of tightlacing. Nor is it difficult to understand why this should be, since we know that if the lungs are prevented exercising their full powers of expansion, unnaturally diminished function will set up disease in them, which, if there be a predisposition, will probably be consumption. This cause also, by preventing the blood becoming properly oxygenated, gives rise to a large class of disorders due to impurity of the vital fluid. Organic disease of the heart is by no means an uncommon contingency if tightlacing be persevered in; for that organ is not allowed room to beat, nor the blood to circulate. One effect of this is seen in frequent fainting fits.

Again, tightlacing not infrequently stops the growth and arrests the development of a young girl’s mammæ, thus seriously incapacitating her from suckling her babe when she becomes a mother. It also indirectly has a very prejudicial effect upon health by preventing its votaries from taking sufficient walking exercise; free bodily movement with accompanying expansion of the lungs becomes impossible with those encased in a vice of unyielding armour, such as constitutes pestilent stays and corsets. Amongst the minor evils wrought by the baleful custom, we may mention indigestion (for the pressure of the stays weakens the stomach, and sets up this troublesome complaint), with its accompaniments of flatulence, heartburn, pain in the chest, &c. Constipation is also another of its attendant ills; so also are bad breath and a red nose.

“I recollect Dr A. Todd Thomson, in his excellent lectures, relating a case he had attended where a young lady appeared to be dying from the evil effects of tightlacing. He cut open her stays and she gradually came to herself. If the worthy doctor had not quickly done what he did, she would soon have been a corpse! Dr Thomson has kindly favoured me with the following interesting particulars of the case for publication:[263]——‘Some years since I was requested to hasten to a house not far from my own to see a lady who had fallen from her chair in a fit whilst eating her dinner. On being ushered to the drawing room of the house where the circumstance had taken place, I saw a lady lying upon a sofa, apparently dead, and several ladies hanging over the couch in great distress. I found little appearance of life except that the temperature of the body was natural; the pulse had ceased to beat, and no respiratory action could be detected. On laying my hand over the region of the heart, I felt that the stays were extremely tightly laced; and conceiving that the suspension of animation arose from that cause, I requested a penknife to be given me, with which I instantly ripped down the stays and gown. In an instant the chest dilated, on the binding matter giving way, which was almost like splitting an overbraced drum; and in a few seconds respiration recommenced and animation returned. In this case the waist was drawn in to a degree that gave a complete hour-glass appearance to the figure, and prevented the descent of the diaphragm, whilst the blood could not circulate, or be renewed in the lungs from the general obstruction of many of the cells and smaller tubes. The quantity of residual air also in the lungs was too small; and this was still diminished by the warmth of some soup, which the lady was eating when she fell from the chair, dilating the gas in her stomach, and consequently pressing that enlarged organ upwards on the lungs. Had I not lived close by, the time necessary to get medical aid from a greater distance might have rendered it unavailable.’ The above narrative by Dr Thomson is valuable not only as illustrating the dangers arising from tightlacing, but also as emphasizing the rationale of its action as stated by ourselves. In the present article we have explained why it is the use of corsets is to be deprecated. We hope we have succeeded in showing how imperatively the abandonment of stays is called for.

[Footnote 263: Dr Chavasse, ‘Counsels to a Mother.’]

Another variety of distortion is that brought about by wearing tight boots and shoes, or boots and shoes constructed upon false principles; for, a boot or shoe may be productive of considerable inconvenience to the wearer, as well as the cause of a certain amount of twisting out of place of the bones of the foot, without necessarily being too small. Amongst the consequences arising from the adoption of tightly fitting or badly constructed boots or shoes may be mentioned the following:——Considerable bodily discomfort, and pain in walking; corns and bunions; growing in of the nails; chronic enlargement of the base of the great toe; caries or ulceration of the bones of the feet; and flat feet. That these are not altogether minor evils may be inferred when it is stated that, in order to obtain relief from the effects of a bunion, partial amputation of the foot has been sometimes found necessary; that the first attacks of gout mostly seize the joint of the ball of the great toe when that joint has become weakened by displacement following the use of faulty boots and shoes; and that a flat foot interferes with the proper performance of walking.

The above figure (No. 1) represents the skeleton of the foot with the bones which form it in their natural position, and in which they are admirably adapted for executing the various movements required of them.

It will be seen to consist of twenty-six bones, fourteen of which constitute the toes; the remaining twelve bones enter into the formation of what are termed the tarsus and metatarsus.

The five long bones (a) are the metatarsal bones. The toes form joints with the fore part of these metatarsal bones. The remaining seven are the tarsal bones; b, which is one of these, is named the astragalus, and being gripped on each side by a continuation from the bones of the leg called the malleolus, thus forms the ankle-joint.

Fig. 2 gives a representation of the inner aspect and side view of the foot. It will be seen that it is an arch resting in front on the anterior heads of the five metatarsal bones, a, but chiefly on that of the great toe, and on the calcaneum or heel (b) behind.

The astragalus, c, forms the key-stone of the arch. This arch, which supports the superincumbent weight of the body, retains its curved form by means of strong ligaments or bands, which unite the bones which compose it into a compact but withal flexible mass. The arch, owing to the pressure thrown upon it from above, becomes flattened when the foot is resting on the ground; but when this pressure is removed and the foot hangs free, the curvature of the arch increases. In front of the metatarsal bones are placed the toes, which are connected with the metatarsal bones by joints. The great toe has one joint; each of the smaller ones has two.

Fig. 3 depicts the skeleton of a foot with the bones thrown out of their natural position, the contortion being the result of wearing tightly fitting or unscientifically constructed boots or shoes. The following extracts from Dr Hermann Meyer will best illustrate how nature’s simple mechanical arrangements must be thwarted when coverings for the feet are permitted to be constructed which can give rise to distortions such as those represented in Figure 3. Dr Meyer says “the great toe plays by far the most important part in walking; because when the foot is raised from the ground with the intention of throwing it forwards, we first raise the heel, then rest for a second on the great toe, and in lifting this from the ground the point of it receives a pressure which impels the body forwards. Thus, in raising the foot the whole of the sole is gradually, as it were, ‘unrolled’ up to the point of the great toe, which again receives an impetus by contact with the ground.

The great toe ought, therefore, to have such a position as will admit of its being unrolled in the manner described; that is to say, it must so lie that the line of its axis, when, carried backwards, will emerge at the centre of the heel; and this is its position in the healthy foot. The sole of an almost sound foot is given in Fig. 4, and the true position of the great toe is indicated by the dotted line. This relation is still better brought out in Fig. 5, which represents the well-preserved foot of a child about two years old. The line drawn through both figures is that in which the foot unrolls itself from the ground. The smaller toes, however, are by no means without their uses. In standing they rest on the ground and give lateral support to the foot; while in walking they are bent in a peculiar manner, so that they are firmly pressed against the ground; and here too they support the foot laterally. The first joint is strongly bent upwards, while the second is hollow above. This peculiar curvature enables the toe in a measure to lay hold of the ground as with bird’s claws.”

Dr Meyer then proceeds to show how the application of these principles is entirely disregarded in the manufacture of our boots and shoes, and to demonstrate that their neglect gives rise to the objectionable consequences we have before alluded to. As boots and shoes are at present constructed, the foot is made to adapt itself to the sole, not the sole to the foot. This pernicious system must be abandoned if we wish to preserve our feet, as well as our personal comfort.

“A sole,” says Dr Meyer, “is of the proper construction when a line (see Fig. 6, c d) drawn at half the breadth of the great toe distant from, and parallel to, the inner margin of that toe shall, when carried backwards, pass through the centre of the heel. In the usual form of a sole this line passes out of the inner margin of the heel (see Fig. 7). If, then, the preservation of the primary straight line is, as has been already shown, the principal point in the formation of a proper sole, it follows that, if it be thought desirable to have pointed shoes, the pointing must be effected from the outer side, as indicated in the annexed Fig. 8. In a pair of shoes made on these principles, placed side by side with the heels in contact, the inner margins of the front part of the foot are also brought close together” (Fig. 9).

Dr Meyer’s pamphlet contains the following strictures on ‘High heels’ to boots and shoes: “It is usual, in all shoes of even moderate strength, to make the heel a little higher by means of what is called the heel-piece. These heel-pieces are generally of some little use, especially in dirty weather, and we cannot wholly deny their right to existence. But at the same time they ought to be as low as possible, and heels an inch thick, as is at present very commonly the case, have very serious disadvantages indeed.

“The weight of the body is by this means thrown in a disproportionate ratio on the toes, the joints of which are consequently overstrained. Moreover, with a high heel the sole is so oblique in its direction that the foot must be constantly gliding forwards and forcibly pressing the toes into the point of the shoe. The toes, therefore, even when the shoe is sufficiently long, are subjected to the same injuries and disfigurations as if it were too short, and the effects are doubly hurtful when the form of the sole is also incorrect. High heels, especially if they are also very small; are peculiarly liable to wear obliquely, and so the shoe gets trodden on one side; they must, therefore, be peculiarly favorable to origin of flat-foot.

High and small heels are therefore quite unsuitable. The heel-piece ought to be as low and broad as possible.”

Further and more explicit knowledge on this subject may be obtained from Dr Meyer’s excellent little pamphlet entitled ‘Procrustes ante portas,’ very ably translated into English by Mr J. T. Craig, L.R.C.E., under the title of ‘Why the Shoe Pinches.’

=DIURE′SIS.= See URINE.

=DIURET′ICS.= Syn. DIURETICA. Medicines which promote the secretion of urine. The principal diuretics are——aqueous fluids, which act by increasing the watery portion of the blood, and——substances which promote the action of the kidneys. Most of the first produce copious diuresis if the skin is kept cool. Among the last are acetate, bitartrate, and nitrate of potassa; oils of juniper, turpentine, cajeput, and copaiba; dilute spirit, and sweet spirits of nitre; decoction of common broom, &c.

=DIVIDIVI.= An astringent substance imported from Jamaica. It contains above 5% of tannin; whilst gall-nuts contain less than 3·5%, and the best oak-bark only 1·35%. Hence its value in tanning.

=DOBEREINER’S LAMP.= A portable apparatus for obtaining instantaneous light by the action of a jet of hydrogen on a small piece of spongy platinum.

=DOCHMIUS DUODENALIS.= An intestinal parasitic worm. Its length is from 1/3 to 1/2 an inch and its breadth about 1/60th of an inch. It is furnished with hooklets. It is found in the duodenum, the ileum, and the jejunum of man, and Greisinger seems to have pretty conclusively established that it is the cause of the disease so prevalent in Egypt, and known as the Egyptian chlorosis. Anemia, dysentery, and hemorrhoids and liver diseases are also frequently caused by it amongst the natives of Arabia, Brazil, and Northern Italy. In India it is also stated to give rise to some very alarming maladies. Leuchart affirms that it obtains an entrance into the system through drinking impure water.

=DOC′IMACY or DOCIMAS′TIC ART.= See ASSAYING.

=DOG.= The effect of medicines on dogs is much the same as on man; but there are some striking exceptions to this rule. Thus, whilst the dog can take a dose of aloes six or eight times as large as that given to man, the administration of half as much calomel or oil of turpentine would be productive of serious injury to the animal. The idea usually entertained, therefore, that medicines may be given to dogs in doses equalling those taken by man requires considerable modification. Dogs have a short and straight alimentary canal, in consequence of which purgative medicines act more quickly upon them than they do on other veterinary subjects. The facility with which dogs can be made to vomit is also another peculiarity possessed by them. Vomiting may be produced by their swallowing nauseous or unpalatable matters, as well as from their eating various sorts of grass. A good plan to prevent dogs vomiting their medicines is to keep the head well raised for an hour after the administration; and this may be easily accomplished by attaching a chain or cord to the collar, and fixing it at the requisite height, to any object. The kidneys are acted upon with much more difficulty than with the horse, whilst the skin seems nearly, if not altogether incapable of being affected. We give below a list of medicines for dogs; premising that the doses required vary considerably according to the strength, size, and age of the dog, all of which should always be duly taken into account. The doses prescribed in the following formulæ are for moderately large dogs:——

PHYSIC BALLS AND OTHER PURGATIVE MEDICINES:——

1. Barbadoes aloes, 8 oz., antimonial powder, 1 oz., ginger, 1 oz., palm oil, 5 oz.; beat together into a mass.——Dose. From 1/2 dr. to 2 dr. every 4 or 6 hours, till the bowels are relieved. (Youatt.)

2. The same, with the addition of 1 oz. of calomel. He directs from 45 gr. to 2 dr. for a dose. (Clater.)

3. Aloes, 1/2 dr. to 2 dr. made into a ball with syrup of ginger.

4. Aloes, 1/2 dr. to 1-1/2 dr., calomel, 2 to 5 gr., syrup to form a ball; in inflammation of the bowels, and in worms. (Blaine.)

5. Cape aloes, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr., calomel, 2 to 3 gr., oil of caraway, 6 drops, syrup to form a ball. (M′Ewen.)

6. Calomel, 12 gr., aloes, 3 dr., opium, 1 gr., syrup q. s. to form a mass, for 4, 6, or 8 balls; one every 4 or 5 hours till the bowels are relieved. (Blaine.)

7. Croton oil, 1 drop, Castile soap, 20 gr., conserve to form a ball.

8. Castor oil, 3 parts, syrup of buckthorn, 2 parts, syrup of poppies, 1 part.——Dose. From 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls.——Mr Youatt’s purge. [Mr Clark says syrup of buckthorn for dogs should be made with treacle, and the spices omitted.]

9. Epsom salts, from 1 to 4 dr., wrapped in tissue paper, dividing the doses into convenient-sized packets.

10. In costiveness with inflammation: 1/2 oz. to 2 oz. castor oil. (Mr Spooner.)

ALTERATIVE BALLS AND POWDERS:——

1. Sulphur, 2-1/2 lb.; nitre, 1/2 lb.; Æthiops mineral, 4 oz.; linseed meal, 1/2 lb.; palm oil, 1 lb., or as much as may be required; beat together, and keep in a jar for use.——Dose, from 2 scruples to 1-1/2 or 2 dr. (Clater.)

2. Ethiops mineral, 20 to 40 gr.; cream of tartar, 20 to 40 gr.; nitre, 5 to 10 gr.; night and morning, made into a ball with butter. (Spooner.)

3. Tonic Alterative. Mercurial pill, 1 dr.; aloes 2 dr.; myrrh, benzoin, balsam of Peru, of each 1-1/2 dr.; to be divided into 10, 15, or 20 pills: one every evening, for the yellows, after aloes and calomel. (Blaine.)

4. Alterative Powder. Æthiops mineral, 2 to 5 gr.; cream of tartar, 4 to 10 gr., tartarised iron, 1 to 3 gr., once a day. (Clater.)

5. To give a fine skin. Give a table-spoonful of tar made up with oatmeal. (Mayer.)

ASTRINGENT BALLS, &c.:——

1. Catechu, 1-1/2 dr.; sulphate of quinine, 20 gr.; opium, 5 gr.; ginger, 1 dr.; conserve of roses, q. s. to form a mass, to be divided into 8, 6, or 4 balls. (Blaine.)

2. Prepared chalk, 2 oz.; powdered gum Arabic, 1/2 oz.; powdered catechu, 1/2 oz.; powdered oak bark, 1/2 oz.; powdered ginger, 1/4 oz.; opium, 15 gr.; palm oil, 1 oz.; beat well together.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 2 dr., morning, noon, and night, in the advanced stage of distemper. (Clater.)

3. Opium, 5 gr.; catechu, 2 dr.; gum Arabic, 2 dr.; ginger, 1/2 dr.; syrup of poppies, q. s.; divide into 12, 9, or 6 balls: in diarrhœa. (Blaine.)

4. Myrrh, 1 dr.; ipecacuanha, 1 scruple; opium, 3 gr.; chalk, 2 dr.; carbonate of iron, 1 dr.; as No. 3. (Blaine.)

5. In obstinate cases: Alum, 1 dr.; chalk, 2 dr.; opium, 6 gr.; resin, 3 dr.; into 4, 6, or 8 balls.

6. In diarrhœa, after 1 to 4 dr. of Epsom salts; prepared chalk, 1 to 3 scruples; catechu, 5 to 10 gr.; opium, 1/4 to 2 gr.; twice a day. (Spooner.)

COUGH BALLS IN ASTHMA, &c.:——

1. After a few emetics. Calomel, 3 gr.; foxglove, 3 gr.; cream of tartar, 1 dr.; antimonial powder, 12 gr.; honey to form 6 boluses. One twice a day. (Blaine.)

2. Digitalis, 20 gr.; antimonial powder, 40 gr.; nitre, 2 dr.; sulphur, 3 dr.; palm oil, 3 dr., or q. s. Divide into 10, 15, or 20 balls, according to the size of the dog, morning and night, interposing an emetic every third or fourth day. (Clater.)

3. In old cases. P. squill, 1/2 gr. to 1 gr.; gum ammoniac, 5 gr.; balsam of Peru, 8 gr.; benzoic acid, 1 gr.; balsam of sulphur to form a ball.

4. Extract of hemlock, 1/2 dr.; extract of henbane, 10 gr.; p. digitalis, 20 gr.; conserve of roses to form a mass. Divide into 8, 10, or 6 balls. One night and morning. (Blaine.)

DISTEMPER MEDICINES:——

1. Turbeth mineral, 1 to 3 gr.; assafœtida, 1/2 dr.; aloes, 20 gr.; soap, 10 gr.; syrup of poppies to form a ball. To be preceded by an emetic, and given every third day.

2. After an emetic, give a physic ball; and afterwards the following, two or three times a day:——Antimonial powder, 2, 3, or 4 gr.; nitre, 5, 10, or 15 gr.; ipecacuanha, 2, 3, or 4 gr.; form a ball. If the disease proceed to the debilitating stage, give the Tonic Ball No. 2; in the putrid or malignant stage give the Astringent Ball No. 1. (Blaine.)

3. After the Emetic Powder No. 1 (which should be repeated every 3rd or 4th day) give the Cough Ball No. 2, from 1/2 dr. to 2 dr. in weight. And if the dog lose flesh, give equal parts of the cough ball and the Tonic Ball (No. 1). In the more advanced stages give the tonic alone; or the astringent ball if diarrhœa comes on. (Clater.)

4. Give a third of a paper of James’s powder mixed with butter, and afterwards warm broth or milk. In 2 hours, another third; and if this neither vomit nor purge, give the other third at the end of 4 hours. (Daniel.)

5. Blaine’s distemper powders, which are sold in packets, with directions for use.

6. Camphor, 3 to 5 gr.; charcoal, 10 gr.; opium, 1 gr.; aromatic confection, q. s. to form a ball.——In the malignant stage, with diarrhœa.

7. Antimomal powder, 2 to 4 gr.; nitre, 5 to 10 gr.; digitalis, 1/4 to 2 gr. Afterwards the Tonic Pills No. 4. (Spooner.)

Poudre Kusique: a French nostrum. Mix 45 gr. of nitre, 45 of sulphur, and 1 charcoal. Divide into 3 doses. Give 1 for 2 successive mornings, and the third on the 4th morning, mixed with lard or butter, or in milk. For a large dog a second packet (of 3 powders) may be required. (Habert.)

Another French nostrum. Hemel’s Powder is of a similar kind.

8. A strong solution of salt, to the amount of 1/2 pint daily.

9. Powdered tin, sulphur, gunpowder, of each 1 oz.; lard sufficient to form a mass. The size of a nutmeg to be given twice or thrice a week.

10. Physic Ball No. 11.

11. 1/4 oz. to 1 fl. oz. of cod-liver oil twice a day, according to size.

12. Emetics, gentle laxatives, milk diet, and from 5 to 15 gr. of chlorate of potash twice a day. (Finlay Dun.)

WORM MEDICINES:——

1. Carbonate of iron, 1/2 oz.; Æthiops mineral, 1 dr.; gentian, 1 oz.; ginger, 1/2 oz.; levigated glass, 1 oz.; palm oil, 9 dr.; beat well together.——Dose, from 3/4 to 2 dr. (Clater.)

2. As much very finely-powdered glass as will lie on a sixpence, mixed with butter (Blaine). Mr Youatt says from 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.; powdered glass, with a little ginger, made into a ball with lard.

3. Aloes, sulphur, prepared hartshorn, and juice of wormwood, made into a mass; the size of a hazel nut to be given three times a week, fasting, wrapped in butter. (Daniel.)

4. Tin filings, or pewter filings, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr., with butter or lard.

5. Jalap, 10 to 15 gr.; calomel, 2 to 3 gr. mixed with butter; no cold liquid should be allowed. (White.)

6. Cowhage, 1/2 dr.; iron filings, 4 dr.; conserve q. s. to form a mass, to be divided into 4, 6, or 8 balls; one every night and morning; and afterwards the purgative No. 4. (Blaine.)

7. Epsom salts, 1 oz.; common salt, 1 dr.; give a small or large teaspoonful daily.

8. Give green walnut leaves boiled in milk. (Mayer.)

9. From 1/2 dr. to 2 dr., according to size. Betel nut in coarse powder, made into a ball.

10. For Tapeworm.——Oil of turpentine, 1/2 dr., mixed with yolk of egg; for very large dogs, 2 scruples. Some writers prescribe larger doses (1 to 2 dr.), but these sometimes prove fatal. (Blaine.) 2 to 6 dr. of cusso according to size.

11. For Tapeworm.——Oil of turpentine and olive oil, of each 1/2 oz.; mix, and give carefully; 3 or 4 hours after give 1 oz. castor oil. But see No. 9. (White.)

12. For Stomach Worms.——Give the emetic powder (see further back) and afterwards a physic ball.

13. Threadworms.——These are destroyed by an aloetic clyster.

OINTMENTS AND LOTIONS FOR THE MANGE:——

N.B.——An alterative ball should be given daily and a physic ball occasionally. Bleeding is sometimes prescribed.

For Scabby Mange.——Sulphur, 4 oz.; sal ammoniac, 1/2 oz.; aloes, 1 dr.; Venice turpentine, 1/2 oz.; lard, 6 oz.; mix. After four applications, wash well with soap and water. (Blaine.)

2. Horse turpentine and palm oil, each 1/2 lb.; train oil, 1/2 pint. Melt together, and while cooling, stir in 3 lbs. of flowers of sulphur. (Clater.)

3. Aloes, 2 dr.; hellebore, 1/2 oz.; sulphur, 4 oz.; lard or train oil, 6 oz. (McEwen.)

4. Sulphate of zinc, 1 dr.; snuff, 1/2 oz.; white hellebore, 1/2 oz.; sulphur, 4 oz.; aloes, 1/4 oz.; soft soap, 6 oz. (Blaine.)

5. Charcoal powder, 2 oz.; sulphur, 4 oz.; salt of tartar, 1 dr.; Venice turpentine, 1/2 oz.; lard, 6 oz.

6. For Red Mange.——Add 1 oz. of strong mercurial ointment to 6 oz. of either of the above.

7. Charcoal, 1 oz.; chalk, 1 oz.; sugar of lead, 1 dr.; white precipitate, 2 dr.; sulphur, 2 oz.; lard, 5 oz. (Blaine.)

8. Wash for Red Mange.——Corrosive sublimate, 20 gr.; spirit of wine, 2 dr.; dissolve and add milk of sulphur, 1/2 oz.; lime-water, 1/2 pint. Apply by means of a sponge. (Clater.)

9. For Ulcerated Mange.——Ointment of nitrated quicksilver, 2 dr.; sugar of lead, 20 gr.; flowers of sulphur, 1/2 oz.; lard, 1 oz.; mix. (Blaine.)

FLEAS:——

1. Rub the skin with the powdered resin and bran.

2. Let the dog sleep on deal shavings.

3. Scotch snuff steeped in gin. (Meyer.) (This requires caution.)

4. Oil of aniseed. (Finlay Dun.)

5. Persian insect powder.

=DOG-BALLS= (A. H. Bôldt, Genf). Hard pills, weighing 15 grammes, of irregular shape and unequal size, composed of aloes with 1/3 of gentian, and covered with a brown powder containing liquorice root. (Hager.)

=DOORS.= Much annoyance is sometimes experienced from the creaking of doors. This may be prevented by rubbing a little soap or a mixture of tallow and black-lead on the hinges; or by applying to them with a feather a little sweet oil once or twice a year. The trifling trouble and expense (a penny or two a twelvemonth) will be amply repaid by their noiselessness and greater durability. To prevent the noise of doors slamming, a small piece of vulcanised india rubber, cork, or leather may be placed so as to receive the shock.

=DOSE.= In medicine the quantity taken or prescribed at one time. The doses of medicaments vary with the sex, age, temperament, constitutional strength, habituation, and idiosyncrasies of individuals. Different circumstances, especially of climate, exercise an important influence on the activity of medicines. Thus, the inhabitants of England and the northern countries of Europe bear much larger doses in their own climates than when they remove to warmer latitudes. Warmth, indeed, appears to promote the action of most medicaments, whilst cold acts in a contrary way. Nor does the same rule apply to all medicines. Calomel, for instance, is generally borne better by children than by adults; while opium affects them more powerfully, and requires the dose to be diminished considerably below that indicated by mere calculation or analogy with other medicines.

Prescribers ought not to forget that the action of medicines is not simply proportioned to the amount, but that each remedy has a dose below which it either produces no effect or one contrary to that which we desire it to produce. Dr Paris remarks, “that powerful doses are disposed to produce local rather than general effects;” and Dr Barlow gives it as his opinion that “practitioners often err, especially in the treatment of chronic maladies, from requiring an obvious effect from each dose administered.” Adult women are said to require only three fourths the full dose for men. The following rules and tables have been framed chiefly with reference to age; but, as Dr R. E. Griffith correctly observes, “no scheme can be devised, founded on age alone, to which there are not many exceptions.”

I. Formula of Dr YOUNG.

For children under 12 years, the doses of most medicines must be diminished in the proportion of the age to the age increased by 12. Thus, at 2 years, the dose will be 1-7th of that for an adult.

2 for ------------- = 1-7th. 2 + 12

II. Posological Table of GAUBIUS.

For an adult, suppose the dose to be 1, or 1 drachm (60 grains).

Under 1 year will require 1/12 or 5 grains. ” 2 years ” 1/8 or 8 grains. ” 3 ” ” 1/6 or 10 grains. ” 4 ” ” 1/4 or 15 grains. ” 7 ” ” 1/3 or 1 scruple. ” 14 ” ” 1/2 or 1/2 drachm. ” 20 ” ” 2/3 or 2 scruples. ” 21 to 60, the full dose, or 1 or 1 drachm. Above this age an inverse gradation must be observed.

III. Posological Table of PHOEBUS.

Age——Years 80 65 50 25-40 20 16 12 8 5 2 Doses 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 7/8 3/4 5/8 1/2 3/8 1/4

” Months 12 6 2 1 Doses 1/5 1/8 1/15 1/24

=DOUCHE.= [Fr.] Syn. DOUCHE BATH. A species of bath much employed by hydropathists, both for the relief of local affections, and to give a healthy stimulus to the whole system. The douche consists of a single jet of cold water, varying in size from the thickness of a quill to that of a man’s arm; it is projected with great force, either from above, below, or on one side, upon a particular part of the body. See BATH (Shower).

=DOUGLAS′ DISINFECTING POWDER.= A mixture of sulphite of calcium, chalk, and carbolic acid, or of sulphite and carbonate of lime.

=DOVER’S POWDERS.= See POWDER.

=DRAB DYE.= 1. (FOR COTTON.) For 40 lbs. Boil 6 lbs. of fustic; scald 2-1/2 lbs. of Lima wood and 2 lbs. of sumach. Decant into a wooden vessel, capable of containing 100 gallons; reduce with cold water to handling heat; enter, 6 turns; wring out; sadden with 8 ounces of copperas; 4 turns; wring out again, and give 4 ounces of bluestone.

2. (FOR SILK.) For 100 yards. Boil 4 lbs. of fustic and 6 ounces of logwood, 2-1/2 ounces of cudbear, 1-1/4 ounce of copperas. Cool to 200° Fahr.; enter, winch 20 minutes; air out; repeat; then take a little of the liquor out of the boiler, dissolve the copperas, reduce it to handling heat with water, and give one or two shots through it, as the pattern requires; one water out of the saddening; then give a warm but weak sour to clear the colour, wash in two waters, and dry.

3. (FOR WOOL.) Dark drab. For 50 lbs. 7 lbs. of fustic, 8 ounces of madder, 4 ounces of cudbear, 2 lbs. of alum, 8 ounces of tartar. Enter between the cold and 160° Fahr.; after heating up boil from 10 to 30 minutes; wash in two waters. All dark shades of this may be slightly prepared with chrome; wash in two waters.

4. (FOR WOOL.) Light drab. For 56 lbs. 4 lbs. of fustic, 1-3/4 lb. of alum, 4 ounces of madder, 4 ounces of tartar, 3-1/2 ounces of cudbear. Work as for dark drab.

=DRACONINE.= Syn. DRA′CINE, RED RESIN OF DRAGON’S BLOOD. A peculiar vegetable principle discovered by M. Melandre in dragon’s blood.

Prep. Dragon’s blood is dissolved in alcohol, the solution filtered, concentrated, and precipitated with cold water; the red, spongy precipitate is well washed, neutralised with dilute sulphuric acid, again liberated by means of an alkali, and well washed with water.

Prop., &c. Draconine has a fine red colour; is tasteless, inodorous, and flexible; it fuses at 131° Fahr. The smallest quantity of carbonate of lime in filtering paper may be detected by sulphate of draconine, the yellow colour instantly turning red.

=“DRAGEES AU LACTATE DE FER.”= (Gélis & Conté.) 100 grammes of lactate of iron made into 2,000 very small pills with powder and mucilage of marshmallow, and coated with eleosaccharate of anise. (Reveil.)

=DRAGEES DE COPAHU DE FORTIN.= 30 grammes balsam of copaiba made into 72 dragées, with 1·2 grammes calcined magnesia, and coated first with gum arabic and then with sugar. (Reveil.)

=DRAGEES DE CUBEBE AU COPAHU.= Cubebines (Labelonye). 2 parts balsam of copaiba, 2 parts extract of cubebs, 1 part yolk of egg, with sufficient liquorice powder to make a mass, which is divided into oblong pills, each weighing 7 decigrammes. These are dried and coated with white or raw sugar. (Hager.)

=DRAGEES DE POUGUES.= (Garnier.) Chloride of calcium, 50 parts; chloride of magnesium, 50 parts; chloride of iron, 10 parts; dissolved in water and precipitated with sodium carbonate. The precipitate is washed, pressed, and mixed with 100 parts bicarbonate of soda. Of this mixture 25 parts are made into a mass with 475 parts of a paste of sugar, peppermint, oil, and mucilage. The mass is then divided into dragées weighing 5 decigrammes, which are coated with gum and sugar. (Reveil.)

=DRAGON’S BLOOD.= Syn. SANGUIS DRACONIS, L. A rich red-coloured resin, obtained from various species of the genus Calamus. Its colour, in the lump, is a dark brownish-red; in powder, bright red. It is friable, breaks with a shining fracture, and has a sp. gr. not higher than 1·196 or 1·197. When pure, it readily dissolves in alcohol, ether, and oils, yielding rich red, transparent solutions. Adulterated and factitious dragon’s blood is only partly soluble, and lacks the rich colour of the genuine article. Dragon’s blood is chiefly used to tinge varnishes and lacquers.

=Dragon’s Blood, Factitious.= Prep. 1. Shell-lac, 4 lbs.; melt, remove from the fire, and add, Canada balsam, 6 oz., and gum benzoin, 2 oz.; mix well, stir in red sanders wood, 1-1/2 lb., and Venetian red, 3/4 lb. (both in fine powder); and form the mass into sticks.

2. As the last, omitting the red Venetian.

=DRAINS.= The salubrity of a dwelling-house is largely dependent upon the sound condition, the unimpeded outlet from, and the proper construction and position of, its drains, supplemented by like conditions in the various house-pipes which run from the sinks and closets into them.

The sense in which we shall use the term “drain” is that defined by the Public Health Act of 1875:——“‘Drain’ means any drain of, and used for the drainage of one building only, or premises within the same curtilage, and made merely for the purpose of communicating therefrom with a cesspool or other like receptacle for drainage, or with a sewer into which the drainage of two or more buildings or premises occupied by different persons is conveyed.”

There can be no doubt that the almost universal system pursued with regard to house drainage is radically irrational and dangerous. As the drains lead into the main sewer or cesspool it is most important that the house-pipes which communicate with the drains should be so connected with them and arranged, as to remove all risk of the foul air of the sewers passing into them through the drains, and thus (should the pipes be imperfect) escaping into and defiling the atmosphere of the house——a very possible contingency for two reasons, first, because the traps connecting the pipes with the drains may be defective, and, second, because the aspiratory power of the warm house is constantly tending to draw air (the sewer air) through the water in the water trap. Instead of making the connection, as is now so universally done, between the sink and closet and other pipes and the drain, by means of a water trap, underneath the basement, this junction should be effected outside the house. The drains should, therefore, always terminate outside, and not under the house; and wherever practicable all house-pipes should be carried outside, and not inside, or between the walls of any dwelling, the objections to which have been already stated. In cases, however, in which this arrangement is impossible of execution, and a pipe can only be carried through the house from the front to the rear, it is far better to take it above the basement than underneath.

The interposition of the water in the trap at the point of union between the house-pipe and the drain is not alone sufficient to effect the necessary amount of disconnection between them. There must be thorough ventilation and communication with the outer air at the point of junction, otherwise there is danger that the emanations from the sewer may find their way into the house, as in the former case.

A great number of methods have been devised for disconnecting the house-pipes and the outside drains, the simplest of which consists in placing the trap just outside the house, in opening the drain on the side of the trap the furthest from the house, and in carrying up from it a four-inch pipe to as great a height as is convenient. By this means any noxious gas that might escape from the drain is diverted from the house, and ascends into and diffuses into the superincumbent atmosphere.

In the arrangement of the house-pipes it is desirable not to carry the pipes which convey away the sink water and the waste water into the closet-soil pipes, but, wherever it can be managed, to let them discharge over a grating into the drain trap. Where we have to deal with soil or water-closet pipes, or with a pipe formed by the junction of these with the waste-water pipe (if such an arrangement is unavoidable), it is most important that there should be complete disconnection between the pipe and the drain by means of one of the many ventilating contrivances so well known to sanitary engineers.

The best material for the manufacture of drain pipes is hard, well-burnt, smooth, and glazed earthenware; bricks and porous earthenware are particularly ill adapted for the purpose; so also are iron pipes, unless they are thoroughly cemented inside.

In the laying of drain pipes care should be taken to place them on concrete, in loose soils, and on well-worked puddled clay, in the case of clay soils. When they are laid in very loose soils it is sometimes necessary, besides employing concrete, to additionally use even piling for the depth of a foot. Leakage and consequent soakage of the soil are sure to take place sooner or later if the drain pipes are not laid on a good foundation, as they are when the drains are badly and carelessly joined.

Messrs Brooke, of Huddersfield, have invented a combined drain and subsoil pipe, the latter, on which the drain pipe rests, being perforated, carries off the subsoil water. This contrivance is adapted for wet soils.

When junction pipes are required for uniting the drain pipes those known as “oblique junctions” only should be used. The junctions known as “square junctions” should be avoided, as they are always sure to become blocked up.

With respect to the fall of drain pipes Dr Parkes says, “one in forty-eight is frequently given, or three quarters of an inch in every yard; a fall of one in sixty-five in drains of six inches diameter, and one in eighty-seven in drains of eight inches diameter, will give a velocity of 220 feet per minute.

In order that drain pipes may be properly cleaned it is desirable to have them so made that they can be opened at intervals by means of lids or caps. The following cuts represent a few of the many kinds of pipes adapted for this purpose.

In addition to this method of cleansing them, drain pipes should be regularly flushed out at least once a month. House pipes are usually cleaned out by means of a flexible bamboo, or by jointed rods fitted with screws and rollers, which serve to loosen sediment. A frequent examination of all house pipes and traps should be made, and every joint and bend of the former well looked to. Unfortunately, however, they are so frequently covered in, that this is impossible.

Where it can be done all skirting boards and covers under which the pipes and traps are concealed should be removed. When, however, this cannot be managed the following plan of examination into their condition may be followed:——Pour water down the pipe, and observe if there be any smell; if there be, the pipe is full of foul air, and requires ventilation; or else the trap is defective, and the bad smell is due to sewer gas. Or, instead of pouring down water, a lighted candle or a piece of smouldering brown paper may be held over the entrance of the pipe, or the grating over a trap, when the air will be driven back. If the condition of the pipe be tested by throwing water down it, it should be noticed whether the water runs away at once or whether it is checked in its progress. This is all that, under the circumstances, can be done inside the house; but though an examination of the pipe is precluded inside, it may be possible to remove the earth on the outside, and so to get down to and open the drain with which the pipe communicates. Under these circumstances water mixed with lime should be poured down the house pipe; if the milky-looking water is long in making its appearance, and runs only in driblets, the drain requires flushing; if the milky-looking water is much coloured and mixed with dirt, then the pipes and trap are foul, or there is a sinking or depression in some part of the drain where the water is lodging.

Afterwards a pailful of lime and water should be poured down the pipe, which should be afterwards flushed by pouring water down it until the water flows off nearly clear.

Referring to the construction and position of the pipes which carry off the waste water, soil, &c., from our houses into the drains, Dr Parkes writes——“Builders are always anxious to conceal tubes, and thus carry them inside the walls, or in the case of hollow walls, between the two. The consequence is that any escape of air must be into the house. I have known a case in which the leakage of a closet pipe carried down in a hollow wall constantly contaminated the air of a house. It would be infinitely better to run the pipes at once through the wall to the outside. Few persons have any idea of the carelessness of plumbers’ work——of the bad junctions, and of the rapidity with which pipes get out of order and decay. When a leaden pipe carrying water is led into a water-closet discharge pipe, it is frequently simply puttied in, and very soon the dried putty breaks away, and there is a complete leakage of gas into the house. Even if well joined the lead pipe will, it is said, contract and expand, and thus openings are at last formed. Dr Fergus, of Glasgow, has directed particular attention to this in the case of lead closet pipes, which become easily perforated, and which have only a limited duration of wear.” See TRAPS, SEWERS.

=DRAUGHT.= Syn. HAUSTUS, L. A single dose of liquid medicine, usually dispensed in one-and-a-half-ounce or two-ounce phials. Draughts are almost exclusively extemporaneous compounds, and differ from ‘mixtures’ only in containing one dose; whereas mixtures contain several. The latter have now very generally superseded draughts among all but the higher classes, when the dose is to be frequently repeated. Draughts possess the advantages of extreme convenience, and, from only one phial being opened at a time, of preserving the preparation better than when it is exposed to the air by the frequent removal of the cork. They are usually taken from a wine-glass, which they about 2/3rds fill.

In the preparation of draughts the same precautions are observed as are pointed out under MIXTURE; regard being had to the increased volume of the dose. The ingredients of a six-ounce mixture, for example, containing (say) 12 doses, may be equally distributed among a dozen draught phials, after which each may be filled up with distilled water, or any other simple vehicle. In most cases a little syrup may be advantageously added. In many instances no addition will be required, the doses of each form of preparation being the same.

The following are useful formulæ, which will serve as examples for others of the class. The number might be easily multiplied, and, indeed, might be extended so as to include 3/4ths of the whole materia medica; but such a plan would lead to useless repetitions, and occupy much space. See MIXTURE, PRESCRIBING, &c.

=Draught, Abernethy’s.= See ABERNETHY MEDICINES and MIXTURE.

=Draught, Ace′tate of Ammo′′nia.= Syn. HAUSTUS AMMONIÆ ACETATIS, L. Prep. 1. (St. B. Hosp.) Solution of acetate of ammonia, 4 fl. dr.; water to make 1-1/2 fl. oz.

2. (Dr Paris.) Camphor mixture, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; liquor of acetate of ammonia, 4 fl. dr.; antimonial wine, 20 drops; mix. As a refrigerant and diaphoretic in febrile affections; taken late in the evening.

=Draught, Ac′etate of Potas′sa.= Syn. HAUSTUS POTASSÆ ACETATIS, L. Prep. (Mid. Hosp.) Acetate of potassa, 30 gr.; bicarbonate of potassa, 20 gr.; peppermint water, 1 fl. oz. Diuretic, antacid, and laxative.

=Draught, Ammoni′acal.= Syn. HAUSTUS AMMONIACALIS, H. AMMONIÆ, L. Prep. (Brande.) Liquor of ammonia, 20 to 30 drops; compound tincture of cardamoms and tincture of gentian, of each 1/2 fl. dr.; campho-mixture, 1-1/2 fl. oz. An aromatic absorbent and stomachic; in heartburn, acidity, low spirits, &c.

=Draught, An′odyne.= Syn. HAUSTUS ANODYNUS, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of opium, 15 drops; pimento water and syrup of poppies, of each 2 dr.; water, 1 fl. oz.

2. (Copland.) Nitre, 6 gr.; laudanum, 12 drops; compound spirit of ether, 1 fl. dr.; syrup of poppies, 2 fl. dr.; camphor mixture, 9 fl. dr.

3. (Ellis.) Tincture of opium, 15 to 25 drops; syrup of poppies, 2 fl. dr.; spirit of cinnamon, 1 fl. dr.; distilled water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.

4. As the above, but substituting a like quantity of solution of either acetate or hydrochlorate of morphia in lieu of the laudanum. All the above are given as soothing draughts to allay pain and produce sleep, especially the last thing at night. No. 4 is to be preferred if there are febrile symptoms present.

=Draught, Antac′id.= Syn. HAUSTUS ANTACIDUS, L. Prep. 1. Bicarbonate of soda, 20 gr.; tincture of calumba, 3 fl. dr.; tincture of hops, 1 fl. dr.; syrup of orange peel, 2 fl. dr.; water, 6 fl. dr. To improve the appetite in heartburn and dyspepsia; taken 1 hour before a meal.

2. Liquor of ammonia, 16 drops; syrup of saffron, 2 fl. dr.; infusion of gentian, 3 fl. dr.; water, 7 fl. dr. As the last, taken occasionally, especially in debility, low spirits, &c.

3. (Collier.) Compound tincture of cardamoms, 1 fl. dr.; solution of bicarbonate of magnesia (fluid magnesia), 9 fl. dr.; simple syrup, 2 fl. dr. Twice a day; in dyspepsia, heartburn, &c., especially in gouty patients.

4. (A. T. Thomson.) Magnesia, 1 dr.; peppermint water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; tincture of orange peel, 1 fl. dr. In dyspepsia, &c., with acidity or diarrhœa.

5. As No. 1, but using bicarbonate of potassa for bicarbonate of soda. In acidity, diarrhœa, &c., accompanied by great irritability of the coats of the stomach.

6. Prepared chalk, 30 gr.; spirit of nutmeg and tincture of opium, of each 12 to 20 drops; syrup of saffron, 3 dr.; cinnamon water, 1 fl. oz. In acidity, with extreme looseness of the bowels.

=Draught, Anti-arthrit′ic.= Syn. HAUSTUS ANTI-ARTHRITICUS, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of colchicum seeds (L.), 1/2 fl. dr.; syrup of orange peel, 2-1/2 fl. dr.; water, 1 fl. oz. In gout; taken over-night, followed by another in the morning.

2. (Brande.) Wine of colchicum, 1/2 fl. dr.; carbonate of magnesia, 15 gr.; cinnamon water, 1/2 fl. oz.; water, 1 fl. oz. As the last.

3. (Sir C. Scudamore.) Magnesia, 18 gr.; Epsom salts, 1-1/2 dr.; vinegar of colchicum, 1 fl. dr.; simple syrup, 1 fl. dr.; cinnamon water, 9 fl. dr. As the last.

4. (Sir H. Halford’s GOUT PREVENTIVE.) Compound infusion of gentian, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; tincture of rhubarb, 1 fl. dr.; bicarbonate of potassa, 15 gr.

=Draught, Anti-asthmat′ic.= Syn. HAUSTUS ANTI-ASTHMATICUS, L. Prep. Vinegar of squills, 1/2 fl. dr.; ipecacuanha wine, 15 drops; cinnamon water, 1-1/2 fl. oz. Expectorant. One to be taken three times daily during the attack.

=Draught, Anti-emet′ic.= Syn. HAUSTUS ANTI-EMETICUS, L. Prep. 1. Juice of 1 lemon; liquor opii sedativus, 10 drops (or laudanum, 15 drops); ether, 20 drops; simple syrup, 2 dr.; water, q. s.

2. (HAUSTUS ANTI-EMETICUS RIVERII,——P. C.) Bicarbonate of potassa, 30 gr.; lemon juice, 4 dr.; syrup of lemon, 1 oz.; water, 3 oz.; mix quickly, and tie down the cork. To check nausea and vomiting. This is best given effervescing.

=Draught, Anti-hyster′ic.= Syn. HAUSTUS ANTI-HYSTERICUS, L. Prep. Cyanide of potassium, 1 gr.; lettuce water (distilled), 2 fl. oz.; syrup of orange flowers, 1-1/2 oz.; water, 5-1/2 fl. oz.; for 6 draughts. One to be taken when the fit is expected, and a second in half an hour. Should the fit come on, the dose may be repeated at intervals of about 15 minutes until 3 or 4 have been altogether administered. The symptoms, however intense, are generally either at once arrested, or greatly alleviated by this treatment.

=Draught, Antilith′ic.= Syn. HAUSTUS ANTI-LITHICUS, L. Prep. 1. (Venables.) Borax, 8 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 10 gr.; aerated water, 8 fl. oz. For a draught; in red gravel.

2. (Dr Paris.) Carbonate of soda, 12 gr.; tincture of calumba, 1 fl. dr.; infusion of quassia, 1 fl. oz.; water, 3 fl. dr. In dyspepsia and gravel, attended with the lithic-acid diathesis.

=Draught, Anti-neural′gic.= Syn. HAUSTUS ANTI-NEURALGICUS, H. NARCOTINÆ, L. Prep. (Jeston.) Narcotine, 2 gr.; diluted sulphuric acid, 20 drops; infusion of roses, 1-1/2 fl. oz. One every 2 hours in the intermissions of neuralgia.

=Draught, Antisep′tic.= Syn. HAUSTUS ANTISEPTICUS, L. Prep. (Dr Collier.) Decoction of yellow bark, 1 fl. oz.; tincture of opium, 5 drops; spirit of pimento and water, of each 2 fl. dr. In putrid fevers, gangrene, &c.

=Draught, Antispasmod′ic.= Syn. HAUSTUS ANTISPASMODICUS, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Collier.) Tincture of castor, 1 fl. dr.; sulphuric ether, 10 drops; peppermint water, 11 fl. dr.; mix. In hysteria, and that species of irregular muscular action dependent on debility.

2. (Dr Gregory.) Fetid spirit of ammonia, 1/2 to 1 fl. dr.; camphor mixture, 10 fl. dr.; syrup of saffron, 1 fl. dr. In cases complicated with low spirits, debility, &c.

3. (A. T. Thomson.) Musk mixture, 14 fl. dr.; liquor of ammonia, 16 drops; tincture of castor, 1 fl. dr.; syrup of poppies, 1/2 fl. dr.; mix. Three or four times daily, in hysteria and convulsive affections, after the bowels have been well cleared by some aperient.

4. (A. T. Thomson.) Oil of aniseed, 10 drops; magnesia, 20 gr.; tincture of senna, 2 fl. dr.; peppermint water, 10 fl. dr.; mix. In flatulence and spasms of the stomach.

=Draught, Ape′′rient.= Syn. HAUSTUS APERIENS, L. Prep. 1. (Paris.) Infusion of senna, 1 fl. oz.; tincture of senna, tincture of jalap, and syrup of senna, of each 1 fl. dr.; tartrate of potassa, 1 dr.; mix.

2. (Ryan.) Epsom salts, 4 dr.; tincture of senna, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; syrup of ginger, 1 fl. dr.; spirit of sal-volatile, 20 drops; infusion of senna, 1-1/2 fl. oz.

3. (Thomson.) Tartrate of potassa, 3 dr.; tincture of senna and syrup of saffron, of each 1 dr.; infusion of senna, 1-1/2 oz. The above are good aperients, and in their composition and action resemble the ordinary “black draught.”

4. (EFFERVESCING A. D.)——a. (Dr Barker.) Bisulphate of potassa, 73 grs.; carbonate of soda, 72 gr.; water, q. s.; dissolve the two in separate glasses, mix the solutions, and drink whilst effervescing, in the same way as soda water.

b. (W. Cooley.) Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.; potassio-tartrate of soda, 2 drs.; dissolve in about 1-3rd of a glassful of cold water; and pour it on another like quantity of water, holding in solution tartaric acid, 40 grs., and syrup of orange peel, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; and drink it instantly.

c. (Paris.) Potassio-tartrate of soda, 2 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 40 grs.; dissolve, and add lemon juice, 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls.

d. (Young.) Cream of tartar, 3 dr.; carbonate of soda, 2-1/2 dr.; throw them into a soda-water bottle three parts filled with cold water, cork immediately, and wire down the cork. The last three are examples of FACTITIOUS EFFERVESCING SEIDLITZ WATER, and are good saline aperients. The method of taking them may be varied by mixing the dry ingredients (in fine powder) on a piece of paper, and throwing the mixture suddenly into a tumbler 2-3rds filled with water, and drinking the liquid whilst effervescing. See CATHARTIC D. (below.)

=Draught, Ap′petite.= See DRAUGHT, DINNER.

=Draught, Aromat′ic.= Syn. AROMATIC ANTACID, DRAUGHT; HAUSTUS AROMATICUS, L. Prep. 1. Aromatic confection, 1 dr.; spirit of sal-volatile, 1/2 dr.; syrup of saffron, 2 drs.; pimento water, 9 fl. dr. Excellent in dyspepsia, with acidity, and in diarrhœa, preceded by an aperient.

2. (H. AROM. CUM RHEO.——St. B. Hosp.) Aromatic confection, 1 dr.; infusion of rhubarb and cinnamon water, of each, 6 fl. dr. In diarrhœa and dyspepsia, especially when there is acidity and deficiency of bile.

=Draught, Astrin′′gent.= Syn. HAUSTUS ASTRINGENS, L. Prep. 1. Tannin, 3 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 fl. dr.; simple syrup, 2 fl. dr.; water, 6 fl. dr.

2. (Dr Paris.) Chalk mixture, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; tincture of catechu, 1 fl. dr.; laudanum, 15 drops.

3. (Thomson.) Extract of logwood, 12 gr.; tincture of catechu, 1 fl. dr.; cinnamon water, 15 fl. dr. The above are excellent remedies in diarrhœa (preceded by a purgative), and in dysentery, &c. One may be taken after each motion.

=Draught, Black.= See MIXTURE.

=Draught, Cam′phor.= Syn. HAUSTUS CAMPHORÆ, L. Prep. (Guy’s Hosp.) Camphor, 6 gr.; rectified spirit, q. s. to powder; white sugar, 1 dr.; mucilage, 3 dr.; water, 1-1/2 fl. oz. Anodyne and diaphoretic, &c.

=Draught, Cas′tor Oil.= Syn. HAUSTUS OLEI RICINI, L. Prep. (Guy’s Hosp.) Castor oil, 4 dr.; yelk of egg, q. s. (2 in no.); simple syrup, 1 fl. dr.; cassia or cinnamon water, 1 fl. oz. Aperient.

=Draught, Cathar′tic.= Syn. HAUSTUS CATHARTICUS, L. The following are given as additions to those under APERIENT D., and other heads:——Prep. 1. (Dr Thomson.) Tartrate of potassa, 5 dr.; tincture of senna, 1 fl. dr.; infusion of senna, 14-1/2 fl. dr.; syrup of saffron, 1/2 fl. dr.; mix. In acute diseases, taken early in the morning.

2. (Thomson.) Epsom salts and manna, of each 2 dr.; infusion of roses, 14 fl. dr.; dilute sulphuric acid, 10 drops. In inflammatory affections, and to check vomiting in low fevers.

3. (Thomson.) Carbonate of magnesia, 1 dr.; powdered rhubarb, 20 gr.; peppermint water, 12 fl. dr. In dyspepsia, attended with costiveness and acidity, taken an hour before dinner.

4. (Thomson.) Castor oil, 5 fl. dr.; powdered gum, 20 gr.; rose water, 1 fl. oz.; compound tincture of lavender, 8 drops; syrup of poppies, 1 fl. dr. In colic and calculus. The above differ from aperient draughts simply in their greater strength.

=Draught, Chalk.= Syn. HAUSTUS CRETÆ, L. Prep. 1. Powdered gum, chalk, and simple syrup, of each 1 dr.; aromatic water (as that of caraway, cinnamon, nutmeg, pimento, or peppermint), 1-1/2 fl. oz.

2. CHALYBEATED C. D.; HAUSTUS CRETÆ ET FERRI, L.——Paris.) Chalk mixture, 7 fl. dr.; compound mixture of iron, 3 fl. dr.; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 5 or 6 gr. In diarrhœa, particularly in that arising from debility and anæmia.

3. (C. D. WITH RHUBARB; HAUSTUS CRETÆ CUM RHEO, L.)——a. Chalk mixture (see above), 1-1/2 fl. oz.; powdered rhubarb, 12 gr.

b. (Lond. Hosp.) Powder of chalk with opium, 12 gr.; rhubarb, 15 gr.; syrup of saffron and compound tincture of cardamoms, of each 1 fl. dr.; caraway water, 10 fl. dr. In heartburn, dyspepsia, and certain forms of diarrhœa.

=Draught, Chlo′′rine.= Syn. HAUSTUS CHLORINII, L. Prep. (Copland.) Chlorine water, 1/2 fl. dr.; water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; mix, and add of syrup of poppies, 1/2 fl. dr. One every 6 hours; in the worst form of typhus fever, and other putrid diseases, &c.

=Draught, Cit′rate of Ammo′′nia.= Syn. HAUSTUS AMMONIÆ CITRATIS, H. A. SESQUICARBONATIS EFFERVESCENS, L. Prep. (Guy’s Hosp.) Sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 20 gr.; water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve, and add of lemon juice, 1/2 fl. oz. An agreeable, cooling, saline draught in febrile cases.

=Draught, Cit′rate of Potas′sa.= Syn. HAUSTUS POTASSÆ CITRATIS, L. Prep. From carbonate of potassa, 24 gr. (or bicarbonate, 29 gr.); water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve, and add of lemon juice, 5 fl. dr. As the last. 20 gr. of citric acid may be used instead of the lemon juice.

=Draught, Col′chicum.= See DRAUGHT ANTI-ARTHRITIC.

=Draught, Copai′ba.= Syn. HAUSTUS COPAIBÆ, L. Prep. (St. B. Hosp.) Balsam of copaiba, 1/2 fl. dr.; mucilage (thick), 4 fl. dr.; pimento water, 3 fl. dr.; water, 5 fl. dr. In gonorrhœa, &c.

=Draught, Cough.= See MIXTURE.

=Draught, Diaphoret′ic.= Syn. HAUSTUS DIAPHORETICUS, L. Prep. 1. (Collier.) Infusion of serpentary, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; tincture of serpentary, 1 fl. dr. Tonic and diaphoretic.

2. (Thomson.) Sesquicarbonate of potassa, 20 gr.; fresh lemon juice, 4 fl. dr.; tartrate of antimony, 1/6 gr.; water, 11 fl. dr.; syrup of poppies, 1 fl. dr. Antifebrile and diaphoretic.

3. (Thomson.) Liquor of acetate of ammonia, 6 fl. dr.; camphor mixture, 10 fl. dr.; nitrate of potassa, 10 gr.; syrup of tolu, 1/2 fl. oz. Anodyne and diaphoretic. All the above are used in inflammatory affections.

=Draught, Din′ner.= Syn. APPETITE DRAUGHT; HAUSTUS DICTUS ANTE CIBUM. Prep. 1. Tinctures of cascarilla, hops, and rhubarb, of each 1 fl. dr.; spirit of sal-volatile, 1/2 fl. dr.; tincture of capsicum, 20 drops; syrup of orange peel, 2 dr.; water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.

2. Compound tincture of gentian, 1/2 fl. oz.; sal-volatile, 1/2 a teaspoonful; cinnamon water, 1 fl. oz.; compound tincture of cardamoms, 1 teaspoonful. Either of the above to be taken an hour before a meal.

=Draught, Diuret′ic.= Syn. HAUSTUS DIURETICUS, L. Prep. 1. (Collier.) Tincture of jalap, 2 fl. dr.; vinegar of squills, 1 fl. dr.; peppermint water, 10 fl. dr.; mix.

2. (Copland.) Acetate of potassa, 1/2 dr.; infusion of quassia and cinnamon water, of each 6 fl. dr.; vinegar of squills and sweet spirits of nitre, of each 1/2 fl. dr.

3. (Thomson.) Nitre, 8 gr.; tincture of digitalis, 16 drops; infusion of roses, 13 fl. dr.; syrup of roses, 1 fl. dr.

4. (Turner.) Nitre and powdered gum, of each 15 gr.; almond mixture, 1-1/2 fl. oz. The above are used as diuretics in dropsy; the last, also in scurvy, and in the incontinence of urine of children.

=Draught, Donovan’s.= Syn. DRAUGHT OF HYDRIODATE OF ARSENIC AND MERCURY; HAUSTUS HYDRIODATIS ARSENICI ET HYDRARGYRI, L. Prep. (Donovan.) Liquor of hydriodate of arsenic and mercury (Donovan’s), 2 fl. dr.; distilled water, 3-1/2 fl. oz.; syrup of ginger, 1/2 fl. oz.; mix for 4 draughts. One, night and morning; in lepra, lupus, psoriasis, and some other obstinate cutaneous affections. It must not be allowed to touch anything metallic.

=Draught, Efferves′cing.= Prep. (Lond. Hosp.) Sesquicarbonate of soda, 30 gr.; water, or peppermint water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; syrup of orange peel, 2 fl. dr.; tincture of calumba, 1/2 fl. dr.; tartaric or citric acid, 25 gr.; add the acid last, and drink whilst effervescing. Stomachic, tonic, and anti-emetic; in acidity, dyspepsia, &c. (See antè.)

=Draught, Emet′ic.= Syn. HAUSTUS EMETICUS, L. Prep. 1. Sulphate of zinc, 15 gr. to 30 gr.; water, 9 fl. dr.; dissolve. In cases of poisoning, and at the commencement of an attack of ague.

2. (Copland.) Ipecacuanha, 30 gr.; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 20 gr.; tincture of capsicum, 30 drops; oil of chamomile, 10 drops; mint water, 2 fl. oz. As a stimulant emetic in cases of poisoning by laudanum or other narcotics.

3. (Guy’s Hosp.) Antimonial wine, 2 fl. dr.; ipecacuanha wine, 6 fl. dr.; water, 4 fl. dr. For unloading the stomach in ordinary cases.

4. (Mid. Hosp.) Tartar emetic, 1 gr.; ipecacuanha, 20 gr.; syrup, 2 fl. dr.; water, 10 fl. dr. As the last.

5. (Dr Pickford.) Sulphate of zinc, 20 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 4 dr.; water, 1-3/4 oz. When it is also desired to act rapidly on the bowels.

6. (Rodier.) Sulphate of copper, 10 gr.; water, 2 fl. oz. In poisoning by laudanum.

7. (Sprague.) Ipecacuanha, 30 gr.; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 20 gr.; tincture of capsicum, 1 fl. dr.; peppermint water, 3 fl. oz. In poisoning by narcotics.

8. (A. T. Thomson.) Ipecacuanha, 20 gr,; ipecacuanha wine, 2 fl. dr.; water, 10 fl. dr. For unloading the stomach, in ordinary cases.

9. (Trousseau.) Ipecacuanha, 8 gr.; syrup of ipecacuanha, 1 fl. oz.; water, q. s. for 4 draughts. One every 10 minutes, until vomiting occurs.

=Draught, E′ther.= Syn. HAUSTUS ÆTHEREUS, L. Prep. (Neligan.) Sulphuric ether, 1 fl. dr.; spermaceti, 3 gr.; rub together (expertly), and add of peppermint water, 10 fl. dr. An excellent stimulant and antispasmodic, febrile symptoms being absent.

=Draught, Expec′torant.= Syn. HAUSTUS EXPECTORANS, L. Prep. 1. (Collier.) Mixtures of ammoniacum and almonds, of each 6 fl. dr.; tincture of squills, 12 drops. In hoarseness, chronic coughs, &c.

=Draught, Hen′bane.= Syn. HAUSTUS HYOSCYAMI, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of henbane, 30 to 60 drops; syrup of saffron, 1 fl. dr.; water, 10 fl. dr. Anodyne and soporific. Used to allay nervous excitement, and induce sleep, when laudanum is inadmissible.

2. (HENBANE AND SQUILLS D.; HAUSTUS HYOSCYAMI CUM SCILLÂ, L.——Dr Bree.) Extract of henbane, 3 gr.; tincture of squills, 10 drops; dilute nitric acid, 6 drops; water, 1-1/2 fl. oz. Anodyne and expectorant; in asthmas, chronic coughs, &c.

=Draught, Hydrocyan′ic.= Syn. HAUSTUS HYDROCYANICUS, L. Prep. 1. (Donovan.) Cyanide of potassium, 1 gr.; syrup of lemons, 1/2 fl. oz.; distilled water, 7-1/2 fl. oz. For 8 draughts. One for a dose.

2. (Dr S. Dickson.) Medicinal Hydrocyanic acid (L.), 15 drops; liquor of ammonia, 20 drops; syrup of orange flowers (or simple syrup), 3 fl. dr.; water, 8-1/2 fl. oz.; mix, and divide into 6 draughts. One——2 or 3 times a day; in gastrodynia, and all those nameless nervous and hysterical affections arising from excessive irritability, mental anxiety, &c. In a case that came under our notice, in which life was an absolute burden to the patient, relief was afforded by the first draught, and 4 or 5 effected a comparative cure, although almost every other remedy had been tried in vain.

=Draught, Laennec’s.= Syn. LAENNEC’S CONTRA-STIMULANT DRAUGHT; HAUSTUS CONTRASTIMULANS, L. Prep. From tartar emetic, 2 grs.; syrup of poppies, 2 fl. drs.; orange-flower water, 1-1/2 fl. oz. Every two hours in pneumonia, &c.

=Draught, Lax′ative.= Syn. HAUSTUS LAXANS, L. Prep. 1. See DRAUGHTS, APERIENT.

2. (Dr Copeland.) Infusion of senna and compound infusion of gentian, of each 6 fl. dr.; sulphate of potassa, 20 to 30 gr.; extract of taraxacum, 30 to 40 gr.; compound tincture of cardamoms, 1-1/2 fl. dr. Aperient, stomachic, and alterative.

=Draught, Mor′phia.= Syn. HAUSTUS MORPHIÆ, L. Prep. (Brera.) Morphia, 1/4 gr.; syrup of poppies, 1 fl. dr.; water, 11 fl. dr. Two or three drops of acetic acid may be advantageously added. At bed-time, as a soporific.

=Draught, Narcot′ic.= Syn. HAUSTUS NARCOTICUS, H. OPIATUS, L. Prep. 1. (St. B. Hosp.) Laudanum, 12 to 20 drops; syrup of red poppies, 1 fl. dr.; pimento water, 3 fl. dr; water, 1 fl. oz. To induce sleep in slight cases, when fever is absent.

2. (A. T. Thomson.) Camphor mixture, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; laudanum, 35 drops; sulphuric ether and syrup of saffron, of each 1 fl. dr. In intermittent headache.

3. (Thomson.) Carbonate of ammonia, 15 gr.; fresh lemon juice, 1/2 fl. oz.; water, 1 fl. oz.; spirit of nutmeg, 1 fl. dr.; syrup of orange peel, 1/2 fl. dr.; tincture of hemlock, 10 drops. In diseases of increased irritability.

4. (Thomson.) Carbonate of potassa, 20 gr.; fresh lemon juice, 1/2 fl. oz.; peppermint water, 1 fl. oz.; laudanum, 25 drops; syrup of tolu, 1/2 fl. dr. To procure sleep in the majority of diseases. (See above.)

=Draught, Nux Vom′ica.= Syn. HAUSTUS NUCIS VOMICÆ, L. Prep. (Dr Joy.) Nux vomica (in fine powder), 3 gr.; powdered gum, 2 dr; compound tincture of cardamoms, 1 fl. dr.; cinnamon water, 10 fl. dr. Diuretic, narcotic, stimulant, and tonic; in paralysis, impotence, debility, &c., unaccompanied by inflammation of the nervous centres. See STRYCHNINE.

=Draught, Refri′′gerant.= Syn. HAUSTUS REFRIGERANS, L. Prep. 1. Carbonate of potassa, 20 grs.; syrup of orange peel, 1 fl. dr.; spirit of nutmeg, 1/2 fl. dr.; water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.

2. (Thomson.) Nitre, 12 gr.; almond mixture, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; syrup of tolu, 1 fl. oz.

3. (Collier.) Carbonate of potassa, 20 gr.; antimonial wine, 20 drops; syrup of orange peel, 1 fl. dr.; tincture of orange peel, 1/2 fl. dr.; water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; mix, and add a large table-spoonful of lemon juice. In inflammatory diseases, &c.

=Draught, Saline′.= See DRAUGHT, EFFERVESCING, &c.

=Draught, Stomach′ic.= See DRAUGHT, DINNER, &c.

=Draught, Ton′ic.= Syn. STRENGTHENING DRAUGHT; HAUSTUS TONICUS, L. Prep. 1. (Collier.) Disulphate of quinine, 2 gr.; tincture of orange peel, 1 fl. dr.; diluted sulphuric acid, 5 drops; laudanum, 10 drops; infusion of cascarilla, 1-1/2 fl, oz. In pyrosis, &c., 1 hour before dinner.

2. (A. T. Thomson.) Infusion of yellow bark, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; compound tincture of cinchona, 1 fl. dr.; powdered cinchona, 40 gr.; syrup of orange peel, 1 fl. dr. In intermittents and acute rheumatisms.

3. (Thomson.) Infusion of cascarilla, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; tincture of cascarilla and ginger, of each 1 fl. dr. In dyspepsia, arising from intemperance.

4. (Walton.) Infusion of cascarilla, 9 fl. dr.; tinctures of rhubarb and ginger, of each 1 fl. dr.; syrup of saffron, 1/2 fl. dr.; ammonio-citrate of iron, 6 gr.; tincture of capsicum, 5 drops. In anæmia, and debility accompanied by paleness and relaxation.

=Draught, Ver′mifuge.= Syn. HAUSTUS VERMIFUGUS, H. ANTHELMINTHICUS, L. Prep. (M. Levacher.) Castor oil, 4 dr.; oil of turpentine, 2 dr.; mint water, 2 fl. oz.; syrup, 1 fl. oz.; powdered gum, 2 dr.; for an emulsion. In tapeworm.

=DRAW′INGS.= Chalk and pencil drawings may be fixed so as not to suffer from slight abrasion, by washing them with skimmed milk, or with water holding in solution a little isinglass or gum. When the first is used, great care must be taken to deprive it of the whole of the cream, as the latter substance would cause the drawing to look streaky. An easy way of applying these fluids is to pour them into a shallow vessel, and to lay the drawing flat upon the surface of the liquid; after which it should be gently removed and placed on white blotting paper, in an inclined position, to drain and dry.

=DRENCHES.= Syn. DRINKS. In veterinary practice, these terms are applied to liquid medicines or mixtures which are administered to horses and neat cattle, and chiefly to the latter. A drench for a HORSE should not be less than half a pint, nor more than a quart; about a pint is, perhaps, the best quantity; that for a COW or OX should measure about a quart, and not more than about 5 half pints. See VETERINARY MEDICINE.

=DRES′SING.= In the industrial arts, a preparation of gum, starch, size, &c., employed in stiffening or “finishing off” textile fabrics and paper. In surgery, the term is appropriated to any application to a wound or sore, made by means of lint, linen, or leather. SIMPLE DRESSING is simple cerate or spermaceti cerate. Among cooks, the stuffing of fowls, pork, veal, &c., is commonly called ‘dressing.’

=DRIERS.= Driers are substances employed to facilitate the drying of paints. The driers most commonly employed are sugar of lead, litharge, and white copperas. Either of these when well ground, and mixed in small proportion with paints, very materially hastens their drying. Indeed, some colours will not dry without them. Red lead is also well adapted for a drying agent, and in cases where its colour does not preclude it, is much used. The best drier is sugar of lead. Its cost, however, is somewhat higher than that of the other driers. It is important to bear in mind that in the finishing coats of delicate colours driers are not generally had recourse to, as they have a slight tendency to injure the colour. A drying property may be imparted to linseed oil by boiling it with drying substances; it then becomes a very useful vehicle for some purposes. See OILS, DRYING.

=DRIFFIELD OILS.=——For the prevention of gangrene and for healing incised and other wounds, bruises, sprains, swellings, and external inflammations. A dusky brownish-green clear oil, consisting of olive oil, digested with wormwood, savin, and arnica, and afterwards perfumed with a mixture of oils of rosemary, thyme, and juniper, 1 pint (474 grammes). (Hager.)

=DRINKS (Summer).= See BEER, GINGER, LEMONADE, SHERBET, &c.

=DRINK, CORDIAL= (Dr Cherwy). A herbal lemonade to heal all chronic and scrofulous diseases. It contains 115 grammes water, 15 grammes spirit, 2 grammes potassium iodide, 5 grammes bitter almond water, 10 grammes sugar, and 3 grammes burnt sugar. (Hager.)

=DRIPPING TO CLARIFY.= Put the dripping into a stewpan over the fire, and let it boil, and as it does so, skim it carefully. When it boils pour it into a basin, in which you have previously put a little cold water. It must stand till cold. It is then to be taken out of the water. The dripping will now be in the form of a cake, at the bottom of which will be found adhering little pieces of meat, skin, &c. These must be scraped off, and the dripping will have been purified. Another method is to mix boiling water with the dripping, to stir well, let it get cold, and then to take it out and scrape it as above.

=DROP.= See MEASURES.

=DROPS, CHOLERA——CHOLERATROPFEN= (A. Bastler, Vienna). Oils of anise, cajeput, and juniper berries, of each 20 parts; spirit of ether, 60 parts; tincture of cinnamon, 120 parts; Haller’s acid elixir, 5 parts.——Dose, 30 to 50 drops. (Wittstein.)

=DROPS (Confectionery).= These are confections of which the principal basis is sugar. They differ from lozenges chiefly in the ingredients being combined by the aid of heat. Occasionally they are medicated.

Prep. Double refined sugar is reduced to powder, and passed through a hair sieve (not too fine), and afterwards through a gauze sieve, to take out the fine dust, which would destroy the beauty of the drop. It is then put into a clean pan, and moistened with any favorite aromatic, as rose or orange-flower water, added slowly, stirring it with a paddle all the time, from which the sugar will fall as soon as it is moist enough, without sticking. The colouring (if any) is next added, in the liquid state, or in very fine powder. A small, polished copper, or tinned-copper pan, furnished with a lip, is now one half or three parts filled with the paste, and placed over the fire, or over the hole of a stove, or preferably on a sand bath, and the mixture stirred with a little bone or glass spatula until it becomes liquid. As soon as it almost boils, it is taken from the fire, and if it is too moist, a little more powdered sugar is added, and the whole stirred, until it is of such a consistence as to run without too much extension. A tin plate, very clean and smooth, and very slightly oiled, being now ready, the pan is taken in the left hand, and a bit of bright iron, copper, or silver wire, about 4 inches long, in the right. The melted sugar is next allowed to fall regularly on the tin plate, the wire being used to remove the drop from the lip of the pan. In two or three hours afterwards the drops are taken off with the blade of a knife, and are at once put into bottles or tins. On the large scale, ‘confectionery drops’ are moulded by a machine consisting essentially of two metal rollers covered with hollows. A sheet of the warm and soft composition, on being passed between the rollers, is at once converted into a batch of symmetrical drops, the upper and lower halves being moulded by the corresponding hollows of the upper and lower rollers. See CANDYING, CONFECTION, ESSENCE, STAINS (Confectioner’s), SUGAR PLUMS.

The following are a few of the principal confectionery drops kept in the shops:——

=Drops, Acid′ulated.= Syn. ACID DROPS. Prep. Tartaric acid, 1/2 oz., dissolved in a very little water, is added to each lb. of sugar, as above; with essence of lemon, orange, or jargonelle pear, to flavour, as desired.

=Drops, Chocolate.= Prep. Chocolate, 1 oz., is reduced to fine powder by scraping, and added to powdered white sugar, 1 lb.; when the mixture is made into drops, as above, care being taken to avoid heating it a second time.

=Drops, Cof′fee.= Prep. A clarified, concentrated infusion of coffee, 1 oz., is used for each lb. of sugar.

=Drops, Fruit.= These are prepared according to the general description. (See above.) The flavouring essences (volatile oils or essences of lemon, orange, citron, raspberry, jargonelle pear, &c.) not being added until the sugar is melted, to avoid, as much as possible, loss by evaporation. The colouring matter may be any of the transparent ‘stains’ usually employed for cakes, jellies, and confectionery. In this way are made the majority of the first-class fruit drops and bon-bons of the sugar-bakers. In some cases the plan is varied by adding the clarified concentrated juice, or jelly of the fruit to the sugar. One variety of raspberry and currant (red and black) drops are made in this way.

=Drops, Ginger.= Prep. From essence or tincture of ginger, as above. An inferior kind is made in the way described under CANDY, GINGER.

=Drops, Jargonelle′.= Fruit drops flavoured with essence of jargonelle pear (SOLUTION OF ACETATE of AMYLE).

=Drops, Lem′on.= Acidulated drops flavoured with essence of lemon. They are usually stained with an infusion of turmeric. (See above.)

=Drops, Pep′permint.= From the whitest refined sugar, flavoured with English oil of peppermint or its spirituous solution (essence of peppermint), or with peppermint water.

=Drops, Rasp′berry.= See DROPS, FRUIT (above.)

=Drops (Med′icated).= Syn. GUTTÆ, L. This term is commonly applied to compound medicines that are only taken in small doses. At the present time they are almost exclusively confined to empirical and domestic medicine. The plan of directing liquids to be measured by dropping is objectionable, because the drops of different fluids vary in size, and are also further influenced by the size of the bottle and the shape of its neck, as well as the quantity of liquid it is poured from. See ESSENCE, and below.

=Drops, Acoust′ic.= Syn. ACOUSTIC BALSAM; GUTTÆ ACOUSTICÆ, BALSAMUM ACOUSTICUM, L. Prep. 1. Oil of almonds, 1 oz.; laudanum and oil of turpentine, of each 1 dr.; mix. For hardened wax, and to allay pain.

2. Tinctures of benzoin, castor, and opium, of each, 1 fl. oz.; essential oil of assafœtida, 5 drops. As the last, and in deafness arising from debility of the organism.

3. (Baumé’s.) Tinctures of ambergris, assafœtida, castor, and opium, of each, 1 oz.; terebinthinated balsam of sulphur and oil of rue, of each, 15 drops. In atonic deafness.

4. (Bouchardat.) Compound spirit of balm, 2-1/2 dr.; oil of almonds, 5 dr.; ox-gall, 10 dr.; cresote, 10 or 20 drops. In cases complicated with hardened wax, fetid discharges, &c.

5. (Dr Hugh Smith.) Ox-gall, 3 dr.; balsam of Peru, 1 dr. In fetid ulcerations of the ear. One or two drops of the above are poured into the ear; or a piece of cotton wool moistened therewith is introduced instead. The last is the safest plan.

6. Glycerin, either alone or diluted with water. In deficiency of the natural secretions of the ear; used in sufficient quantity to moisten the first passages. See DEAFNESS, GLYCERIN.

=Drops, A′gue.= Prep. White arsenic, 1/2 gr.; hot water, 1 oz.; dissolve.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful, twice a day. See SOLUTION (Arsenite of Potassa).

=Drops, An′odyne.= Syn. GUTTÆ ANODYNÆ, L. The solutions of acetate and hydrochlorate of morphia are commonly vended in the shops under this name.

=Drops, Ant′acid.= Syn. GUTTÆ ANTACIDÆ, L. Prep. (U. C. Hosp.) Liquor of potassa, 3 fl. oz,; powdered myrrh, 1 oz.; triturate together until thoroughly incorporated, add of liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. oz., mix well, place the mixture in a stoppered bottle, and the next day decant the clear portion. Antacid, tonic, and stomachic.——Dose, 10 to 20 drops, or more, in water.

=Drops, Antihyster′ic.= Syn. GUTTÆ ANTIHYSTERICÆ, L. Prep. Cyanide of potassium, 2 gr.; rectified spirit, 5 fl. dr.; syrup of orange flowers, 3 fl. dr.——Dose, 10 drops to 1/2 teaspoonful, when the attack is expected, and repeated occasionally as required; in hysterical affections, gastrodynia, &c.

=Drops, Antiscorbu′tic.= Syn. GUTTÆ ANTISCORBUTICÆ, L. Prep. 1. Expressed juice of water-cress, 2 fl. oz.; salt of tartar, 1 oz.; agitate together occasionally for a few hours, and in 2 or 3 days decant.——Dose, 12 or 15 drops, to a teaspoonful, twice a day, in a cupful of new milk.

2. Citrate of potassa, 4 dr.; ammonio-citrate of iron, 2 dr.; water, 10 fl. dr.——Dose. As the last, in water.

3. (GREEN’S ANTISCORBUTIC DROPS.) Merely a disguised solution of corrosive sublimate. Most of the other ‘antiscorbutic’ and ‘anti-venereal drops’ advertised by quacks have a like composition.

=Drops, Antiscrof′ulous.= Syn. GUTTÆ ANTISCROFULOSÆ, L. Prep. 1. Iodine, 10 gr.; iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; water, 1 fl. oz.

2. (Augustin.) Chlorides of iron and barium, of each, 1/2 dr.; distilled water, 1 fl. oz.——Dose, 10 to 30 drops, 2 or 3 times a day.

=Drops, Antispasmod′ic.= Syn. GUTTÆ ANTISPASMODICÆ, L. Prep. Tinctures of castor, valerian, and assafœtida, of each, 2 dr.; tincture of capsicum and balsam of Peru, of each, 1 dr.; camphor, 20 gr.; acetate of morphia, 3 gr.——Dose, 10 to 20 drops, as required.

=Drops, Bateman’s.= See DROPS, PECTORAL.

=Drops, Battley’s.= See LIQUOR OPII SEDATIVUS.

=Drops, Bitter.= Syn. GUTTÆ AMARÆ, L.; GOUTTES AMÈRES, Fr. Prep. From nux vomica (rasped), 1 lb.; liquor of potassa, 1/2 fl. oz.; bistre, 1 dr.; compound spirit of wormwood, 32 fl. oz.; digest 10 days, express the tincture, and filter. A most unscientific preparation; said to be tonic and stomachic.——Dose, 1 to 8 drops in water or any bitter infusion. In large doses it is poisonous.

=Drop, Black.= Syn. ARMSTRONG’S BLACK DROP, LANCASTER’S B. D., QUAKER’S B. D., TOUSTALL’S B. D., BRAITHWAITE’S GENUINE B. D.; GUTTA NIGRA, L. This celebrated preparation was originally prepared nearly a century and a half ago by Edward Toustall, a medical practitioner in the county of Durham, and one of the Society of Friends. The formula passing into the possession of a relative of his (John Walton, of Shildon), was found among his brother’s papers, and, by the permission of Thomas Richardson, of Bishop’s Wearmouth, one of his executors, was handed to Dr Armstrong, who subsequently published it in his work on typhus fever.

Prep. 1. (Original formula.) Opium (sliced), 1/2 lb.; good verjuice, 3 pints; nutmegs, 1-1/2 oz.; saffron, 1/2 oz.; boil them to a proper thickness; then add, of sugar, 1/4 lb., and yeast, 2 teaspoonfuls. Set the whole in a warm place, near the fire, for 6 or 8 weeks, then place it in the open air until it becomes of the consistence of a syrup; lastly, decant, filter, and bottle it up, adding a little sugar to each bottle. To yield two pints of strained liquor.

2. (ACETUM OPII, L.——U. S.) Opium, 8 oz.; nutmeg, 1-1/2 oz. (both in coarse powder); saffron, 1/2 oz.; distilled vinegar, 24 fl. oz.; digest on a sand bath with a gentle heat for 48 hours, and strain; digest the residuum with an equal quantity of distilled vinegar for 24 hours; then put the whole into a percolator, and return the filtered liquid as it passes until it runs clear; afterwards pour on the material, fresh distilled vinegar until 48 fl. oz. of filtered liquor shall be obtained; in this dissolve sugar, 12 oz., and gently evaporate the whole to 52 fl. oz.

3. (Wholesale.) Opium, 10 oz., and distilled vinegar, 1 quart, are digested together for about a fortnight, and after sufficient repose the clear portion is decanted. This is the form commonly adopted by the wholesale trade in England.——Dose, 5 to 10 drops. It is usually considered to be of fully 4 times the strength of laudanum.

=Drops, Carmin′ative.= Syn. GUTTÆ CARMINATIVÆ, L. Prep. (Radius.) Oil of mace, 1 dr.; nitric ether, 3 dr.——Dose, 6 to 10 drops on sugar; in flatulent colic, &c.

=Drops, Cham′omile.= See ESSENCE.

=Drops, Dalby’s.= See PATENT MEDICINES (Dalby’s Carminative).

=Drops, Durande’s.= Syn. GUTTÆ ÆTHERIS TEREBINTHINATÆ, L. Prep. (M. Durande.) Rectified sulphuric acid, 3 parts; oil of turpentine, 1 part.——Dose, 20 to 30 drops, or more; in the passing of gall-stones.

=Drops, Dutch.= Syn. HAERLEM DROPS, TURPENTINE DROPS; BALSAMUM TEREBINTHINÆ, L. The genuine or imported ‘Dutch Drops’ is the residuum of the rectification of oil of turpentine. It is also prepared by distilling resin, and collecting the product in different portions. At first a white, then a yellow, and lastly a red oil, comes over. The last is the balsam. The article commonly sold under the name in this country is prepared by one or other of the following formulæ:——

1. Oil of turpentine, tincture of guaiacum, and sweet spirit of nitre, of each 1 oz.; oils of amber and cloves, of each 15 drops.

2. Balsam of sulphur, 1 part; oil of turpentine, 5 parts. This last is the form most generally employed. They are all regarded by those who use them as detergent, diuretic, stimulant, and vulnerary.

=Drops, Female.= Syn. EMMENAGOGUE DROPS; GUTTÆ EMMENAGOGÆ, L. Prep. (Brande.) Compound tincture of aloes and tincture of valerian, of each, 2 fl. oz.; tincture of sesquichloride of iron, 1 fl. oz.——Dose. A teaspoonful in water or chamomile tea; in obstructed menstruation, &c.

=Drops, Fit.= Syn. SOOT DROPS; TINCTURA FULIGINIS, GUTTÆ F., L. Prep. From wood-soot, 2 oz.; sal-ammoniac, 1 oz.; salt of tartar, 1/2 lb.; soft water, 4 lbs.; digest a week and filter. Reputed antispasmodic, and also useful in scurvy and certain skin diseases.——Dose. A teaspoonful or more, occasionally, in water.

=Drops, Golden.= Syn. DE LA MOTTE’S G. D.; BESTUCHEFF’S NERVOUS TINCTURE; GUTTÆ AUREÆ, L.; ELIXIR D’OR, GOUTTES D’OR DU GÉNÉRAL LAMOTTE, Fr. Prep. 1. (Original.) Chloride of iron (obtained by distilling iron pyrites with twice its weight of corrosive sublimate), 3 oz.; alcohol, 7 oz,; expose the mixture in a closely stoppered bottle to the rays of the sun until it becomes decoloured.

2. Chloride of iron, 1 part; alcohol and ether, of each, 3 parts. These drops have the remarkable property of losing their yellow colour in the sun, and recovering it in the shade. They are taken in gout, hypochondriasis, and nervous complaints, in doses of from 10 to 60 drops.

=Drops, Hooping-Cough.= Syn. GUTTÆ ANTI-PERTUSSICÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Graves.) Tincture of assafœtida and compound tincture of camphor, of each 1/2 fl. oz.; compound tincture of bark, 5 fl. oz.——Dose. A teaspoonful, 2 or 3 times a day.

2. (Potestates Succini.) Oil of amber, 1 oz.; carbonate (not sesquicarb.) of ammonia, 1/2 oz.; strongest rectified spirit (alcohol), 1/2 pint; digest 3 or 4 days, and decant the clear portion.——Dose, 10 drops to 1 dr., applied as a friction.

=Drops, Infantile.= Several anodyne, carminative, and absorbent preparations, which pass by this name, will be found under MIXTURES, &c.

=Drops, Jes′uits’.= Syn. ELIXIR ANTIVENEREUM, L. Prep. 1. Gum guaiacum, 7 oz.; balsam of Peru, 4 dr.; root of sarsaparilla, 5 oz.; rectified spirit of wine, 1 quart; digest for 14 days.

2. (Quincy.) Copaiba, 1 oz.; gum guaiacum, 2 dr.; oil of sassafras, 1 dr.; salt of tartar, 1/2 dr.; rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz.; digest a week.

3. (Walker’s.) Copaiba, 6 oz.; gum guaiacum, 1 oz.; chio turpentine and salt of tartar, of each, 1/2 oz.; cochineal, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest a week. See COMP. TINCTURE OF BENZOIN.

=Drops, Kœchlin’s.= Prep. (Augustin.) Solution of ammonio-chloride of copper and mercury, 1 fl. dr.; water, 10 fl. dr. In obstinate venereal affections, scrofula, &c.——Dose. A teaspoonful after each meal.

=Drops, Lav′ender.= Syn. RED DROPS; GUTTÆ LAVENDULÆ, L. The same as compound tincture of lavender.

=Drops, Life.= Syn. SALMON’S DROPS OF LIFE; GUTTÆ VITÆ, L. Prep. Tincture of castor, 8 fl. oz.; antimonial wine and water, of each 1 lb.; opium, 3 oz.; saffron, 1/2 oz.; cochineal, camphor, and nutmegs, of each 2 dr.; digest for 10 days and filter. Anodyne and diaphoretic.——Dose, 20 to 60 drops.

=Drops, Mercu′′rial.= Syn. GUTTÆ HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDI, L. Prep. 1. Bichloride of mercury, 2 gr.; hydrochloric acid, 3 drops; rectified spirit and distilled water, of each, 1/2 fl. oz.——Dose, 12 to 20 drops.

2. Bichloride of mercury, 2 gr.; sal-ammoniac, 3 gr.; compound decoction of sarsaparilla, 2 fl. oz.——Dose. A teaspoonful.

3. (Sir A. Cooper.) Corrosive sublimate, 1 gr.; dilute hydrochloric acid, 1/2 dr.; dissolve, and add tincture of bark, 2 fl. oz.——Dose. As the last. They are all taken 2 or 3 times daily, as alteratives in scrofula, syphilis, cancer, &c. It should not be measured in a metal spoon.

=Drops, Norris’s.= An aqueous solution of tartar emetic, mixed with spirit of wine, and coloured.

=Drops, Odontal′gic.= Syn. TOOTH-ACHE DROPS; GUTTÆ ODONTALGICÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Blake.) Alum (in fine powder), 1 dr.; sweet spirit of nitre, 7 fl. dr.; agitate together occasionally for an hour.

2. (Dr Copland.) Powdered opium and camphor, of each 10 gr.; oils of cloves and cajeput, of each 1 dr.; highly rectified spirit and sulphuric ether, of each 1/2 fl. oz.

3. (Cottereau.) A saturated ethereal solution of camphor, to which a few drops of liquor of ammonia is added.

4. (Dr R. E. Griffith.) Wine of opium, Hoffman’s anodyne, and oil of peppermint, equal parts. Used as a friction on the cheek or gum, as well as applied to the teeth.

5. (Perry’s.) A concentrated ethereal tincture of camphor and pellitory.

6. (Righini.) Creosote, 6 dr.; rectified spirit, 4 dr.; tincture of cochineal, 2 dr.; oil of peppermint, 1/2 dr.

7. Camphor, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 oz.

Obs. The above are applied to the tooth with a camel-hair pencil, or a little wad of lint or cotton wool is moistened with them, and placed in or against the tooth.

=Drops, Pectoral.= Syn. BATEMAN’S P. D.; GUTTÆ PECTORALES, L. Prep. 1. Paregoric, 10 fl. oz.; tincture of castor, 4 fl. oz.; laudanum, 1 fl. oz.; tincture of saffron or of cochineal, 1/2 fl. oz.; oil of aniseed, 15 drops.

2. Castor, 1 oz.; oil of aniseed, 1 dr.; camphor, 5 dr.; cochineal, 1-1/2 dr.; opium, 3/4 oz.; treacle, 1 lb.; proof spirit, 1 gal.; digest for a week.

3. (Phil. Coll. of Pharm.) Camphor, catechu, powdered opium, and red sanders wood, of each 2 oz.; oil of aniseed, 4 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 4 old wine-gallons; digest 10 days, and filter.——Dose. A teaspoonful, or more, in coughs, colds, hoarseness, &c., assisted by an aperient.

=Drops, Rheumat′ic.= Syn. GUTTÆ RHEUMATICÆ, L. Prep. 1. Iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; tincture of guaiacum, 2 fl. oz.; dissolve.——Dose, 20 to 30 drops. In both chronic and occasional rheumatism, assisted with the copious use of lemon juice.

2. (Lampadius.) Bisulphuret of carbon and ether, of each 2 fl. dr.——Dose, 6 to 12 drops, on sugar, or in milk.

3. (Wutzer.) Bisulphuret of carbon, 1 fl. dr.; alcohol, 2 fl. dr.——Dose. As No. 2. The last two are sudorific, alterative, resolvent, and emmenagogue, and, besides rheumatism, have been used with advantage in amenorrhœa, in some cutaneous affections, in glandular swellings, &c.

=Drops, Rousseau’s.= See WINE OF OPIUM (by Fermentation.)

=Drops, Sed′ative.= Syn. GUTTÆ SEDATIVÆ, L. The solutions of acetate and hydrochlorate of morphia, black drop, Rousseau’s drop, and Battley’s liquor opii sedativus, are frequently sold under this name by the druggists. The anti-hysteric drops (antè) is also an excellent sedative.

=Drops, Spilbury’s.= Prep. 1. (Dr Paris.) From bichloride of mercury, gentian root, and dried orange peel, of each 2 dr.; precipitated sulphuret of antimony and red sanders wood, of each, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 16 fl. oz.; digest ten days and strain.

2. Levigated crocus metallorum (‘crocus of antimony’), 6 dr.; corrosive sublimate, 45 gr.; red sanders, 1/2 dr.; gentian root and dried orange peel, of each 2 dr.; brandy (or equal parts of rect. sp. and water), 16 fl. oz.; digest as before.——Dose, 5 to 30 drops; as an antiscorbutic, &c.

=Drops, Steel.= See TINCTURE OF SESQUICHLORIDE OF IRON.

=Drops, Ton′ic.= Prep. (Collier.) Elixir of vitriol, 2 fl. dr.; tincture of calumba, 6 fl. dr. A teaspoonful three times daily, in a wine-glassful of cold water.

=Drops, Torrington’s.= See TINCTURE OF BENZOIN (Comp.).

=Drops, Van Swieten’s.= An aromatised solution of corrosive sublimate.

=Drop, Ward’s White.= Prep. From quicksilver, 4 oz.; nitric acid, 16 fl. oz.; dissolve, add sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 7 oz.; evaporate and crystallise; then dissolve the resulting salt by the heat of a sand bath, in 4 times its weight of rose-water. Very poisonous.——Dose, 5 to 15 drops, as an antiscorbutic, antivenereal, &c.

=Drops, Worm.= Syn. GUTTÆ ANTHELMINTICÆ, G. VERMIFUGÆ, L. Prep. 1. Creosote, 1 dr.; oil of turpentine, 7 fl. dr.——Dose. A teaspoonful, 3 or 4 times a day.

2. (Peschier.) Oil of male-fern, 3 fl. dr.; rectified oil of turpentine, 5 fl. dr. As the last; in tapeworm.

3. (Schwartz’.) Barbadoes tar, 1 fl. oz.; tincture of assafœtida, 1-1/2 fl. oz.——Dose, 30 to 40 drops, three times a day; in tapeworm.

=DROPS (Scouring).= Prep. 1. Oil of turpentine and oil of lemons, equal parts. Both of the ingredients should have been recently distilled or rectified.

2. Oil of lemon bottoms, 1-3/4 lb.; oil of turpentine, 1 quart; mix well, and distil by the heat of a sand bath, until 3 pints have come over, or as long as the distillate is clear, pale, and sweet. Used to remove paint, grease, &c., from cloth.

=DROPSY.= Syn. HYDROPS, L. An unnatural collection of aqueous fluid in any part of the body. Dropsy has received different names, according to the part of the body affected by the disease. When it occurs in the cellular membrane it is called ANASARCA; when in the cavity of the abdomen, ASCITES; in the cavity of the cranium, HYDROCEPHALUS; in the scrotum, HYDROCELE; in the uterus, HYDROMETRA; and in the chest, HYDROTHORAX. Dropsy is mostly a symptom of extreme debility and a broken-down constitution, and frequently follows lengthened attacks of exhausting chronic diseases.

The treatment of dropsy, perhaps, more than any other disease, depends upon the circumstances with which it is connected, and, more especially, upon those which have caused it. The acute inflammatory forms of dropsy generally require depletion. In most other cases, tonics may be advantageously administered. To promote the absorption of the accumulated fluids, diuretics are commonly resorted to. Confirmed dropsy (especially HYDROCEPHALUS and HYDROTHORAX), occurring in patients either much debilitated by previous disease or of a bad habit of body, is seldom curable.

=DROWNING.= The cause of death from submersion in water is the entire seclusion of air from the lungs, by which the aëration of the venous blood is prevented. In consequence of this deprivation of air, venous blood circulates through the arterial system, whilst the pulmonary vein ceases to convey oxygenated blood to the heart. Under ordinary circumstances, in the course of 4 or 5 minutes after the access of air has been cut off, life becomes extinct. Many cases have, nevertheless, occurred of persons being submerged for 15 or 20 minutes, and even longer, and where perfect insensibility has existed, in which recovery has taken place.

Prev. The specific gravity of the human body is less than that of water, so long as the lungs are partially filled with air; and this difference is sufficient to keep the body floating with the mouth and nostrils free for respiration, provided the face is turned upwards by throwing the head back on the shoulders, by which the weight of the head is sustained by the water. When a person throws himself into the water, the body rises rapidly to the surface and assumes nearly the erect position, the upper part of the head, down to a little below the eyes, remaining above the surface of the water. This arises from the greater density of the legs and thighs compared to that of the chest, which acts as a species of float or buoy to the rest of the body. In this situation the head may be thrown back, so that the face may form the exposed portion, as before mentioned, when respiration may be carried on without inconvenience in still water, and regularly, but sufficiently, so as to sustain life for some time, even in a rough sea. The adoption of this simple precaution would have saved thousands of valuable lives.

Another point which should be remembered by every person in danger of drowning is, that there is always a considerable amount of residual air in the lungs, in a nearly deoxidised state, and that if this air is expelled by two or three forced inspirations, and a deep inspiration is then taken, a larger quantity of vital air will be introduced into the lungs, and the blood will continue aërated for a proportionally longer time; and consequently, a longer period will elapse before another inspiration will be required. If we prepare ourselves by taking two or three forced inspirations, and then take a full inspiration, we may remain for 1-1/2 or 2 minutes before a second attempt at respiration need be made. This is the plan adopted by the pearl fishers, and other divers who are remarkable for remaining beneath the surface of the water for some time. A person in danger of shipwreck, or expecting immediate submersion, in any other situation, should have recourse to this expedient, which would prevent the dreadful effects of attempting respiration whilst under water.

Treat. The first object is the restoration of the animal heat. For this purpose, the wet clothes should be removed, and the body, after being well dried, surrounded with warm air. In the absence of a warm-air bath, the body may be laid between well-heated blankets, and bottles of hot water applied to the feet and armpits. Gentle friction with warm flannel or the hands should also be assiduously employed. Meanwhile attempts should be made to excite respiration artificially; and when the apparatus is at hand, slight shocks of electricity should be kept up at the same time. On the appearance of returning life, such as sighing or convulsive twitching, a vein may be opened. The throat may be tickled with the finger or a feather, to excite vomiting, and a teaspoonful of warm water administered. If the power of swallowing exists, a table-spoonful of warm wine or brandy and water may be given. Even if no symptom of returning animation appear, these means of recovery should be persisted in for three or four hours.

In the treatment of this species of asphyxia, nasal stimulants, as ammonia, aromatic vinegar, &c., should be avoided, as well as the injection of tobacco smoke, both of which have been found highly prejudicial. The practice of holding the body with the head downwards, which is sometimes adopted by the vulgar and ignorant, under the idea of allowing the water to run out by the mouth, is still more dangerous and absurd. The supposition that water is inhaled by drowning persons instead of air is perfectly fallacious. The peculiar mechanism of the glottis, or upper portion of the windpipe, is such as to prevent, by the spasmodic closure of the epiglottis, the entrance of more than a very trifling and accidental quantity of water, which is altogether too insignificant to produce any very injurious effects. See ASPHYXIA.

=DRUGS.= Substances used in medicine, sold by druggists, and compounded by apothecaries and physicians. Our continental neighbours, wiser than ourselves, not merely require that persons engaged in selling and dispensing drugs and pharmaceutical preparations shall be fully qualified by previous education and training for the task, but also that the various articles they sell and use shall be commercially pure and of the proper quality. In the United States of America this subject has also engaged the attention of the government and legislature. Under the Act of the 26th June, 1848, inspectors were appointed to examine the quality of imported articles of this class before allowing them to pass the Customs for home use. An abridged copy of the order addressed to the “collectors and other officers under this act” is appended, and will be useful to the reader, as assisting to establish a standard by which the value of the substances named therein may be estimated.

TREASURY DEPARTMENT, June 4th, 1853.

The following articles are to be entitled to entry when ascertained by analysis to afford the per-centages as under, viz.:——

ALOES, 80% of pure aloetic extract.

ASSAFŒTIDA, 50% of its peculiar bitter resin, and 3% of volatile oil.

CINCHONA BARK,[264] 1% of pure quinine, or 2% of the several alkaloids, as quina, cinchona, quinidine, aricine, &c.

BENZOIN, 80% of benzoin resin.

Do. 12% of benzoic acid.

COLOCYNTH, 12% of colocynthine.

ELATERIUM, 30% of elaterine.

GALBANUM, 60% of resin.

Do. 10% of gum, and 6% volatile oil.

GAMBOGE, 70% of pure gamboge resin, and 2% of gum.

GUAIACUM, 80% of pure guaiacum resin.

GUM AMMONIACUM, 70% of resin, and 18% of gum.

JALAP,[265] 11% of pure jalap resin.

MYRRH, 30% of pure resin, and 50% of gum.

OPIUM, 9% of pure morphia.

RHUBARB,[266] 40% of soluble matter.

SAGAPENUM, 50% of resin, 30% of gum, and 30% of volatile oil.

SCAMMONY, 70% of pure scammony resin.

SENNA, 28% of soluble matter.

Medicinal leaves, flowers, barks, roots, extracts, &c., not specified above, must be, when imported, in perfect condition, and of as recent collection and preparation as practicable.

Pharmaceutical and chemical preparations, whether crystallised or otherwise, used in medicine, to be pure and of a proper consistence and strength, as well as of perfect manufacture, conformably with the standard authorities named in the Act; and must, in no instance, contain over 3% of excess of moisture or water of crystallisation.

Essential or volatile oils, and expressed oils used in medicine must be pure and of the standard sp. gr. noticed and declared in the dispensatories named in the above Act.

“Patent” or “Secret Medicines” are by law subject to the same examination as other medicinal preparations, and cannot be permitted to pass the Custom-house for home consumption, but must be rejected and condemned, unless the special examiner is satisfied, after due investigation, that they are fit and safe to be used for medical purposes.

An appeal from the examiner to the collector to be admitted within 10 days.

JAMES GUTHRIE, Secretary to the Treasury.

[Footnote 264: Of whatever denomination.]

[Footnote 265: Root in powder.]

[Footnote 266: Only Turkey, East Indian, and Russian, admissible.]

=DRUM′MOND LIGHT.= See LIGHT (Artificial).

=DRUNK′ENNESS.= See ABSTINENCE, INTEMPERANCE, &c.

=DRY′ERS (Painter’s).= Prep. 1. Litharge (best) ground to a paste with drying-oil. For dark colours.

2. From white copperas and drying oil; as the last.

3. From sugar of lead and drying oil. The last two are for pale colours.

4. From white copperas and sugar of lead, of each 1 lb.; pure white lead, 2 lbs. For ‘whites,’ and opaque light colours, greys, &c.

Dryers are employed, as the name implies, to increase the drying and hardening properties of oil paints. A little is beat up with them at the time of mixing them with the oil and turpentine for use.

=DRY′ING.= See DESICCATION, &c.

=DRY′ING-OIL.= See OILS.

=DRY-ROT.= A peculiar disease that attacks wood, and renders it brittle and rotten. It is generally caused by dampness and the subsequent development of the spores of fungi, particularly those of Merulius lacrymans and vastator and Polyporus destructor. The dry-rot principally attacks ‘ill-seasoned’ timber, and more particularly that of ships and badly ventilated buildings.

Prev. Various means have been proposed to prevent the attacks of dry-rot and to arrest its progress when it has commenced, among which the process called ‘KYANIZING’ (Kyan’s patent) is that most generally known and most extensively adopted. It consists in immersing the timber in a bath of corrosive sublimate. The process termed ‘PAYNIZING’ (Payne’s patent) consists in first filling the pores with a solution of chloride of calcium, under pressure, and next forcing in a solution of sulphate of iron, by which an insoluble sulphate of lime is formed in the body of the wood, which is thus rendered nearly as hard as stone. Wood so prepared is now largely employed in our public works and railways. Sir W. Burnett’s process (patented in 1836) consists in impregnating the timber with a solution of chloride of zinc. Mr J. Bethell’s process (patented in 1838) consists in thoroughly impregnating the wood with oil of tar containing creasote and a crude solution of acetate of iron, commonly called ‘pyrolignite of iron.’ The impregnation is effected in a strong cylindrical vessel, connected with a powerful air-pump, so that in the first instance a vacuum being formed, and subsequently a pressure of several atmospheres applied, the liquid may as much as possible be forced into all the pores of the wood. The above processes for ‘seasoning’ preserve the timber not only from dry-rot, but from the influence of the weather and the attacks of insects and worms.

“The construction of air-drains or passages around wood-work to be preserved is, where the method is applicable, a great aid to the preservation of wood. Dry-rot is both prevented in new buildings and cured in old ones by filling up the spaces between the floor-joists with ‘tank-waste’ from alkali works. This can also be applied to the ends of beams resting in walls.”——Chemical News.

=DUB′BING.= Prep. 1. By boiling the waste cuttings of sheep-skins in crude cod oil. 2. Black resin, 2 lb.; tallow, 1 lb.; crude cod oil or train oil, 1 gall.; boil to a proper consistence. Used by the curriers to dress leather, and by shoemakers and others to soften leather, and to render boots and shoes waterproof.

=DUBOISIA MYOPOROIDES.= (Nat. order, Solanacæ.) A small tree growing in Australia, New Caledonia, and New Guinea. The leaves have been used in Brisbane and Sydney as a substitute for atropine, and extract of belladonna; to both of which Mr Tweedy believes them to be superior in prompt and energetic action. Mr Tweedy further states that, in every case in which he has used duboisia to produce dilatation of the pupil of the eye, its action has been beneficial, and he is induced to conclude, more advantageous than that of atropine. According to Dr Ringer, duboisia, besides causing dilatation of the pupil, quickens the pulse, parches the tongue, stops the secretions of the skin, and induces headache and drowsiness. He also reports that it is antagonistic in its action to muscarine, and produces tetanus after the lapse of some hours or days.

For an account of the botanical properties of the plant, the reader is referred to a paper by Mr E. M. Holmes in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal’ for March 9th, 1878; and to the ‘Lancet’ of March 2nd, 1878, for some experiments on its physiological effects by Messrs Ringer and Tweedie. The Duboisia myoporoides was introduced into medical practice by Dr Bancroft, of Brisbane.

Since the above has been written, Mr Gerrard has obtained a powerful alkaloid from an extract of the leaves of the Duboisias, very similar in chemical properties to aconite, and possessed of the same physiological qualities as the extract.

=DUCK.= See POULTRY.

=DUCTIL′ITY= is the property of being drawn out in length without breaking. See METALS.

=DULCAMA′RA.= See NIGHTSHADE (Woody).

=DUMB′NESS.= Syn. APHONIA, L. As speech is an acquired and imitative faculty, persons who are either born deaf or become so in early infancy are also, necessarily, dumb. The first step in treating dumbness must therefore be directed to the removal of the deafness on which the imperfection rests. The exertions of modern philanthropists have, however, been so far successful in such cases as to enable the deaf-mute to converse with those around him by signs. Those interested in the subject may consult an admirable treatise on ‘Deaf-dumbness,’ by M. E. Hubert-Valleroux, of which an excellent translation appeared in the ‘Medical Circular,’ vol. ii, for 1853. See DEAFNESS.

=DUMPLINGS, Norfolk.= Mix half a pound of flour with half a teaspoonful of baking powder and a pinch of salt; make into a little dough with cold water; fall into small balls, put them into boiling water immediately, and boil for twenty minutes.

=DUNGER——MANURE= (Boutin, Paris). A bluish-green fluid, containing about 190 grammes of solid matter per litre. The residue consists of sulphates of copper, iron, magnesia, and soda, sal ammoniac, nitrates of potash and soda, common salt, and none or a mere trace of phosphoric acid. The blue deposit which separates on standing is ultramarine. (Keller, Karmrodt, and Nessler.)

=DUNG′ING.= Syn. CLEANSING. One of the principal processes in the arts of calico printing and dyeing, its object being to free the cloth from loose matters, which would interfere with the dyeing. After the thickened mordants have been applied to the fabric and properly fixed, it is necessary to remove the now useless thickening matter, together with the excess of mordant, which has not come into actual contact with the cloth. Formerly a bath formed of cow-dung, diffused through hot water (130° to 212° Fahr.) was always used to wash away these loose matters; but now various manufactured substances are successfully employed for the purpose. The best dung substitutes are the arsenite and arseniate of soda, the silicate of soda, and phosphate of lime. Experience proves that, in the case of these substitutes, a final rinse in cow-dung before dyeing is advantageous. A process very similar to ‘dunging’ is employed after dyeing, to clear and give purity to the undyed parts. This subsequent process is distinguished by the term ‘clearing.’ Cow-dung has been used in ‘clearing’ operations, but its employment is not to be recommended. Bran scalded and mixed with water is employed for certain goods, but bleaching powder is the most generally used ‘clearing agent.’

=DUST, ATMOSPHERIC.= When a ray of sunlight is admitted into a dark room, or an electric beam is transmitted through a glass tube, myriads of little motes are revealed, which move and dance about in all directions.

In ordinary daylight these minute particles are invisible. Nevertheless, they are always more or less present in the atmosphere wherever (except under special conditions) this permeates, and they constitute that more or less attenuated, impalpable, generally dry, or dessicated form of matter which we denominate dust.

As with every inspiration we take into our bodies more or less of this suspended material, the study of the composition and characters of the different substances which compose it is one possessed of paramount interest, both for the pathologist and sanitarian.

Amongst solid, inorganic matters found in the open air are silica, peroxide of iron, silicate of alumina, carbonate and phosphate of lime, sand, carbon, chloride of sodium, and metallic iron. These, of course, are of telluric origin, and are carried into the atmosphere by strong currents and winds, which latter have the power of transporting dust to great distances, e.g. red sand from the interior of Africa has been found in the sails of ships 600 or 800 miles distant from the African coast, whilst particles of carbon, sand, and dried mud, ejected to great heights from volcanoes into the air, have been transported over still greater distances.

Some doubt appears to prevail as to whether all dust storms originate on the earth, it having been conjectured that some of the solid matters found in the atmosphere may be of meteoric origin, and may have entered it from the realms of space. The chloride of sodium (which the chemist knows is so omnipresent that he cannot heat an ordinary platinum wire in a Bunsen burner without indications of its presence) is derived from the spray of the sea, lifted and diffused into the air by the wind; the iron dust from the rails over which railway trains are constantly passing; the silica, amongst other sources, from the traffic over macadamised thoroughfares.

The organised and organic substances contained in the external air are very numerous. The animal kingdom is the source of the wings of moths, butterflies, and other insects, spiders’ legs and webs, hair, wool, epithelium, and eggs, many of these bodies being mere débris.

The vegetable kingdom contributes spores, pollen, cells, cotton fibre, and the germs of vibriones and monads. Besides these are many living creatures, brought by the agency of monsoons and cyclones from extensive deserts. Showers of sand derived from these wastes occur in different parts of Europe. Ehrenberg submitted the sand obtained during seventy of these showers to microscopic examination, and found, in addition to sand and oxide of iron, numerous organic forms, amongst which 194 Polygastrica, 145 Phylolithariæ, besides Polythalmia, &c. Silvestre found four species of diatoms and living infusoria in the sand obtained from a dust shower in Sicily in 1872. But, besides the presence of these organisms in the external air, which may be regarded exceptional, it contains, under ordinary conditions, numerous living creatures, some brought into it from the earth by the force of winds, others growing in it. More than 200 forms——rhizopods, tardigrades, and Anguilulæ——have been found in it by Ehrenberg. So tenacious of life are these latter that, even if dried, they will retain their vitality for months, and even years.

Of the organisms found in the air the following are the most important:——1. Extremely small, round, and oval cells, which, that they may be rightly examined by the microscope, require a power of 600 or 1000 diameters. They are found sometimes growing together and sometimes cleaving, when they present an appearance like the figure 8. Sulphuretted hydrogen in the air is said to stimulate their growth and carbolic acid to check it. Although existing in the open air, they are by far more abundant in the atmosphere of dirty prisons. They are also met with in the sweat of the prisoners inhabiting these localities. Observers believe they increase rapidly by cleavage. No ill effects have been traced to them.

“To the same class, perhaps, of these round and oval cells the bacteria and monads, which have been described as gathered from the air, must be assigned; the development of these cells into vibriones and rod-like bacteria, though asserted, has not yet been definitely proved, and, indeed, Burden-Sanderson’s observations rather throw doubt on the statement that true bacteria exist in the air.

“2. Spores of fungi are not infrequent in the open air; they occur most commonly in the summer (July and August); they are not in this country more frequent with one wind than another; the largest number found by Maddox in ten hours was 250 spores; on some days not a spore can be found. Maddox leaves undetermined the kind of fungus which the spores developed under cultivation; the spores were pale or olive coloured and oval, probably from some form of smut. Angus Smith found in water through which the air of Manchester was drawn innumerable spores. Mr Dancer has calculated that in a single drop of the water 250,000 fungoid spores as well as mycelium were present; but as the water was not examined for some time there may have been growth. Mycelium of fungus seems uncommon in the air, but is sometimes found.

The cells of the Protococcus pluvialis are not uncommon, neither, perhaps, are those of other algæ. On the whole the experiments of Maddox show that in his locality (near Southampton) it is incorrect to speak of the air being loaded with fungoid spores; they can be found, but are not very numerous.”[267]

[Footnote 267: Parkes.]

Amongst other suspended matters are minute fragments of dried horse droppings, derived from the original substance, reduced to powder by the traffic, and carried by aerial currents into the atmosphere. In the ‘Chemical News’ for October, 1871, Professor Tichborne gives the results of some analyses of the street dust of Dublin. Some dust taken from the top of a pillar 134 feet high contained 29·7 per cent. of organic matter, whilst that collected from the street consisted of as much as 45·2 per cent. This organic matter was principally composed of comminuted stable manure; it was capable of acting as a ferment, and was possessed of deoxidising powers sufficient to reduce nitrate to nitrite of potash.

This evidence of the presence of suspended known matters in the air has led some pathologists to conjecture that certain formless substances found in it, undeterminable by the microscope, may in reality be disease germs, which, being transported through long distances by the wind, may also be the means of spreading certain maladies from one locality to another. In this manner cholera has been supposed to have been propagated from India, the particles of the dried excreta of cholera patients being supposed to be the carriers of the formidable disease; this hypothesis of its origin, however, is not yet, at any rate, universally accepted. “In the case of smallpox and scarlet fever the distance to which the ‘contagions’ spread by means of the air is certainly inconsiderable.”[268]

[Footnote 268: Ibid.]

Hitherto we have spoken only of the nature of the dust occurring in the external air. The composition of that met with in confined spaces is, of course, largely influenced by surrounding conditions and circumstances; for instance, in indifferently ventilated apartments, in addition to the substances already enumerated, the dust of the confined air has been found to contain small particles of food, bits of the hair of human beings, domestic animals, and feathers of birds, as well as of coals, cinders, charred wood, linen, cotton, and wool fibres, varieties of epithelium, and certain round cells resembling nuclei.

In the apartments of the sick it is additionally charged with a very large quantity of organic matter.

The spores of the Tricophyton and Acorion have been discovered in and seem peculiar to skin hospitals. In that taken upon two occasions from the ward of St. Louis (the Skin Hospital of Paris), and submitted to examination, one specimen was found additionally to contain 36 per cent. and in the other 46 per cent. of organic matter.

“The scaly and round epithelia found in most rooms are in large quantity in hospital wards, and probably in cases where there is much expectoration and exposure of pus or puriform fluids to the air the quantity would be still larger.”[269]

[Footnote 269: Parkes.]

The investigation of the air of a cholera ward in 1849 by Britain and Swayne, at Clifton, revealed the presence of bodies resembling fungi; minute scales of variolous matter have been found by Bakewell in smallpox wards, and cells of pus and epithelium in the sheds and stables of animals affected with cattle disease and pleuro-pneumonia. Dr Watson detected in the air of a ward for consumptive patients at Netley, together with pus cells, bodies bearing a great resemblance to the cells met with in tuberculous matter, these latter not being discoverable in the open air or in the rooms of non-consumptive persons; whilst Rainy, examining the air of the cholera ward at St. Thomas’s Hospital, found bacteria in it, besides fungi. The presence of these bodies was, however, detected in the open air.

The atmosphere of mines, workshops, manufactories, and rooms in which handicraft of any kind is carried on, is more or less laden with small particles of substances employed in the arts, manufactures, and various industries. The nature of these floating substances, as well as a list of the diseases, together with the amount of mortality they produce, will be found under the article “TRADES, CERTAIN, THEIR EFFECTS ON HEALTH.”

Dr Wynter Blyth gives the following instructions for collecting atmospheric dust for examination:——

“The most simple way to obtain the emanations from a sick room for microscopical observation is to suspend a common water bottle from the ceiling filled with iced water. The moisture of the air condenses, and brings with it organic matters; or the moisture may be gathered which adheres to panes of glass in cold weather; or a bottle may be taken containing some distilled water, absolutely free from impurities of any kind, and filled several times with the air of the place. The water may then be submitted to microscopical and chemical examination.

“Metallic dust, such as iron, may be attracted by a magnet. The most usual and successful way is, however, by aspiration, either by an aspirator made for the purpose [see ASPIRATOR], or by means of an ordinary cask, by which a considerable volume of air is drawn through a small quantity of distilled water, glycerin, or other liquid. The indirect way for the organic matter, &c., mentioned above, viz., analysis of the rain water, and the obvious way of collecting the dust, by carefully sweeping it off shelves, &c., may be also enumerated.

“Examination of dust. The dust obtained by any or all of these methods should now be examined microscopically and chemically. Low powers should be used at first, and then (if looking for germs) the highest that can be obtained. If the dust is in any quantity it can be submitted to chemical examination, but a knowledge of what class it belongs to——animal, mineral, or vegetable——is sufficient for most purposes.”[270]

[Footnote 270: ‘Dictionary of Hygiene.’]

=DUST-BIN.= A dust-bin on any premises may become a nuisance and a peril to health if certain precautions are not observed with respect to it.

It should have a tolerably tight-fitting cover, and one that is waterproof also, if, especially as it ought to be, the dust-bin is situated in the open air. The bottom should never be the bare earth, but one that is properly bricked or tiled. It should be lime-washed occasionally, in summer time the most frequently. Only dry refuse, such as ashes and the sweepings of rooms, &c., should be thrown into it.

On no account should fragments of vegetable or animal nature be put in, such as fishbones, potato parings, cabbage stalks, dirty or discarded pieces of apparel, or bits of rags or dusters. These should be at once burnt on the kitchen fire; the best kind of stove for consuming these is that known as the kilnhouse. Meat bones should be got disposed of as soon as possible, as they frequently give rise to unpleasant and offensive odours. Finally, the dust-bin should not be too large. If too capacious, it acts as a guile for servants not to have it cleaned out as often as it should be, the frequent removal of its contents being a most essential condition toward the preservation of health.

=DUSTING.= This very important branch of household labour is sometimes very inefficiently performed. Very frequently the dust of an apartment is not removed, but merely disturbed or driven from one place to settle down on another.

It should always as much as possible be got rid of by means of a duster or a brush and dust-pan.

As the dust should adhere to the former, this should from time to time be taken out into the open air and shaken. During the time a room is being dusted the furniture should be collected in as small a space as possible, and enveloped in the dusting-sheet. The dusting-sheet on its removal should be carefully folded together, taken into the air and shaken. The furniture may then be dusted and returned to the proper places.

A duster should never be rubbed over furniture standing close to a wall, or a dirty mark on the wall-paper will be the result. The same caution applies to mantel-pieces, where the paper may soon be spoilt by the act of dusting, unless contact with the duster be avoided.

=DUTCH DROPS.= The dark-coloured residue left by the dry distillation of turpentine. (Hager.)

=DUTCH GOLD.= See ALLOY.

=DUTCH LIQ′UID.= See OLEFIANT GAS.

=DYE′ING.= The act of tinging or colouring absorbent materials by impregnating them with solutions of colouring matters or dye-stuffs. The colouring matters which impart their tints without the intervention of other substances are called ‘substantive colours’; while those which require such aid are called ‘adjective colours.’ The bodies employed to fix and develop the latter class are called ‘mordants.’ The exact way in which dye-stuffs act upon fibrous materials has not yet been investigated as fully as it deserves; the generally received opinion is that the fibre has a chemical affinity for the colouring matter in the case of substantive dyes, and likewise for the mordant, which, in its turn, has an affinity for the colouring matter of adjective dyes. Another opinion is that the fibres have pores, which, when expanded by heat or chemical agents, admit particles of colouring matter. However this may be, it is certain that different materials ‘take’ dyes in different proportions; thus, silk and wool take the coal-tar dyes in the most perfect manner, but cotton requires the intervention of a most powerful mineral or animal mordant. Wool takes the colouring matters of most dye-stuff so well that the deepest tints can readily be produced. SILK and COTTON are dyed with greater difficulty, whilst LINEN shows still less disposition to take dyes. The operations which take place in dyeing are ‘mordanting,’ ‘ageing,’ ‘dunging,’ ‘dyeing,’ and ‘clearing.’ The first of these operations is noticed under MORDANT. After the fabric has been mordanted, it is generally hung up in a room through which a current of steam and air is passing, by means of which the union between the fibre and the mordant is quickened very considerably. This exposure to moist air is the step in the process to which the term ‘ageing’ is applied. The operations of ‘dunging’ and ‘clearing’ are noticed above (see DUNGING). The ‘dyeing’ proper, which follows the ‘dunging,’ is effected by running the fabric through the solution of the dye-stuff, the colour being modified more or less by the nature of the mordant used. Under the names of the different colours the means used to dye such colours are minutely described. See BLACK DYE, BLUE DYE, &c.

The following particulars respecting the production of the more common colours may prove interesting to the reader, who merely requires some general information on the subject:——

BLACK is usually produced by logwood or galls with an iron mordant. Common black silks are dyed with logwood and fustic, iron being used as a mordant. The best silks are dyed black on a blue ground. Woollen goods are first dyed blue with indigo, and afterwards with sumac, logwood, and green or blue copperas. Cotton and linen goods are dyed black in a very similar manner.

BLUE is commonly produced from indigo, either in the form of sulphate or in aqueous solution. Prussian blue, with a persalt of iron or tin as a mordant, gives a very splendid dark blue. Of late several blues of novel shades have been produced from coal-tar.

RED is obtained in various shades by using cochineal, safflower, lac-dye, madder, or logwood, with a tin mordant.

PURPLE. Until the last few years the dyer was dependent for his purples on orchil or cudbear, but he has now at his disposal the magnificent series of aniline, or coal-tar, colours, ranging from the most delicate violet, or ‘mauve,’ to the full crimson-purple, known as ‘magenta.’ See PURPLE DYE.

YELLOW. The most important yellow dyes are made from quercitron, fustic, turmeric, arnotto, and French and Persian berries. For further information, see BLEACHING, CALICO-PRINTING, &c.

=DYER’S SPIRITS.= See TIN MORDANTS.

=DYES.= See DYEING, and the names of the principal colours.

=DYE-STUFFS.= The colouring materials used in dyeing are so called. The more important of them are noticed under the respective names.

=DYNAMITE.= Nobel’s dynamite consists of a mixture of 75 parts of nitroglycerin incorporated with 25 parts of an infusorial earth known as ‘kieselghur,’ found at Luneburgh, and consisting of the fossil shells of infusoria. Kieselghur is almost pure silica. Dynamite is in regular use on the Continent for mining operations, and its manufacture and transport appear to be subject only to reasonable precautions. If ignited in the open air, or even when loosely packed, it burns quietly away, with the evolution of a small quantity of nitrous acid. Although the first cost of dynamite is four times that of gunpowder, it is said to be really only half as expensive, since it possesses eight times the explosive power of the latter; added to which the labour of boring blast-holes is avoided. It also possesses the advantage of not being impaired in efficiency by damp.

When required for use the dynamite is rammed into a thick paper cartridge, into which a fusee is passed, by means of which it is ignited. Although dynamite when once made may be comparatively harmless until exploded at will; that great risk is incurred in its manufacture may be inferred from the fact that, upon two occasions the manufactory on the Continent in which it is prepared has been twice entirely destroyed. On the occasion of the last accident it was impossible to learn the cause of the disaster, since every one in the building was blown to atoms.

Diralin is said to be a mixture of nitroglycerin with sawdust or wood-pulp as used in paper-mills, the two latter substances having been previously treated with nitric and sulphuric acids.

=DYNAMOM.= (Dr Momma Düsseldorf.) A galvano-electric curative apparatus. A small capsule of horn, containing a disc secured to a pedicel. On the disc a number of sharp needles are fixed. By gently moving the apparatus, and afterwards withdrawing it, artificial pores are produced in the skin by punctures which are not very painful. These are then to be rubbed with a certain oil, probably containing cantharides. (Wittstein.)

=DYS′ENTERY.= Syn. BLOODY FLUX; DYSENTERIA, L. A disease arising from inflammation of the mucous membrane of the large intestines, and characterised by stools consisting chiefly of blood and mucus, or other morbid matter, accompanied with griping of the bowels, and followed by tenesmus. There is generally more or less fever, and the natural fæces are either retained or discharged in small, hard balls (scybala). The common causes of this disease are marsh miasma, improper diet, excessive exhaustion, and fatigue, and, above all, exposure to the cold and damp air of night after a hot day.

Treat. The common dysentery of this country generally gives way to gentle aperients (castor oil or salts-and-manna), to cleanse the bowels, followed by mild opiates or morphia, to allay irritation. The chronic symptoms, which frequently hang about for some time, are best combated by mild tonics and vegetable bitters (bark, calumba, cascarilla). Occasionally, chalybeates (ammonia-citrate of iron, lactate of iron, wine of iron, saccharine carbonate of iron) will be found useful during convalescence. Throughout, the diet should be light and nutritious.

The contagious dysentery, of camps and hot climates, is a severe and often fatal disease, in which the preceding symptoms are complicated with remittent or typhoid fever. Its treatment is tedious and difficult, and depends chiefly on judiciously meeting the several symptoms as they develop themselves. Aperients, diaphoretics, and nauseants, followed by tonics, are the remedies generally relied on. The febrile symptoms must be treated according to their inflammatory or putrid tendency. This variety of the disease frequently gives rise to organic diseases of the abdominal viscera, dropsy, &c. It is regarded by some as contagious, but without sufficient reason.

=DYSMENNORHŒ′A.= See MENSTRUATION.

=DYSPEP′SIA.= [L.] Syn. DYSPEP′SY, INDIGESTION. This complaint pervades every rank of society, and is, perhaps, of all others, the most general. Few indeed are there who wholly escape it, in one or other of its forms. The common symptoms of dyspepsia are——want of appetite, sudden and transient distensions of the stomach, frequent eructations, heartburn, stomachic pains, occasional vomiting, and, frequently, costiveness or diarrhœa. Sometimes the head is affected, and dimness of sight, double vision, muscæ volitantes, and slight vertigo, are experienced, along with a multitude of other symptoms, depending on a derangement of the functions of the nervous system.

The causes of dyspepsia are numerous. In the higher ranks of society it is a common consequence of over-indulgence in the luxuries of the table, of late hours, or of the want of proper exercise, both of body and mind. In the studious, and those who lead a sedentary life, it is usually caused by excessive mental exertion or anxiety, or by the fatigues of business, and the want of sufficient bodily exertion and of pure air. In the lower orders of society it generally results from inebriety, or a deficiency of proper food and clothing, bad ventilation, &c.; and is not unfrequently occasioned by the physical powers being over-taxed, especially soon after meals.

The treatment of dyspepsia depends less on medicine than on the adoption of regular habits of life. Moderation in eating, drinking, and the indulgence of the passions; early rising, due exercise, and retiring to rest at an early hour, will do much to restore the tone both of the stomach and nerves. Excessive study and mental exertion should be avoided, and recourse should frequently be had to society and amusements of a lively and interesting character. If the bowels are confined, mild aperients should be taken, and if diarrhœa is present, antacids and absorbents may be had recourse to with advantage. The stomach may be strengthened by the use of mild bitters, tonics, and stimulants, and sea bathing, or the shower or tepid bath, may be taken, when convenient, to strengthen the nervous system. When dyspepsia is a secondary or symptomatic disease, the cause should be sought out, and the treatment varied accordingly. Among the aperient medicines most suitable to dyspepsia may be mentioned——Epsom salts, phosphate of soda, and Seidlitz powders, each of which should be taken largely diluted with water. An occasional dose of the ‘Abernethy Medicines’ (which see) has also been recommended. Among antacids, are the bicarbonates and carbonates of potassa and soda, either of which may be taken in doses of half a teaspoonful dissolved in water; or, if the spirits are depressed, one or two teaspoonfuls of spirit of sal volatile will be more appropriate; and in cases accompanied by diarrhœa, a little prepared chalk. As bitters, the compound infusion of orange peel, or of gentian, are excellent. As tonics, small doses of bark, or of sulphate of quinine, to which chalybeates may be added, if there is pallor of countenance, or a low pulse, with no disposition to fever or headache.

When dyspepsia is complicated with hysteria, hypochondriasis, or chlorosis, the treatment noticed under those heads may be conjoined to that above recommended. When it depends on constipation, or a deficiency of bile, the mildest and most effective of all remedies will be found supplied in inspissated ox-gall. “In all cases of incipient constipation, ox-gall is a remedy of undoubted efficacy; and even in protracted cases, when hope has almost fled——but where evidences of strangulation are not unequivocally manifested——it should never be omitted by the practitioner. In habitual or chronic constipation, accompanied by indigestion, clay-coloured stools, and a feeling of oppression after food has been taken, it acts with almost specific certainty. When, however, the liver begins to assume its healthy action, its employment should be discontinued, and it will then produce all the symptoms of regurgitation of bile into the stomach. This state will be readily recognised as a favorable omen of returning power.” (Dr Allnatt.)

=DYSPNŒ′A.= Difficulty of breathing. It is generally symptomatic of some other affections. When it occurs in persons of a nervous or irritable habit of body, perfect quiet, a semi-recumbent posture, fresh air, and some small doses of ether, ammonia, or opium, will generally effect a cure. Those of a full habit require aperients and depletion. To prevent attacks of the kind, excess in eating and drinking, and the use of stimulants, should be avoided.

=DYSU′′RIA.= [L.] Syn. DYS′URY. Difficult urination. It is generally symptomatic of disease of the kidneys, bladder, or urethra. The treatment depends on the exciting cause.

=EAR (Inflamma′tion of).= Syn. OTITIS, L. This affection, when it attacks the internal part of the ear, is generally accompanied with confusion of sound, deafness, and more or less fever. It is most frequent among children, and is commonly produced by exposure to draughts of cold air, and, occasionally, by foreign matters, as cherry-stones, insects, &c., having got into the external ear. In such cases, the removal of the offensive matter, and due attention to warmth and cleanliness, with a dose of laxative medicine, will be all the treatment required. The pain may generally be relieved by throwing warm water into the ear by means of a syringe, and fomenting the surrounding parts with decoction of poppy-heads and chamomile flowers. Should this treatment not succeed, a drop or two of laudanum, with one drop of oil of cloves and a little oil of almonds, may be dropped in the ear, and a piece of cotton wool introduced afterwards. Cases of acute inflammation of the internal ear are occasionally met with in adults, which assume a very serious character, and demand the most careful treatment. See DEAFNESS.

=Earache.= Pain in the ear may arise from various causes, amongst which, in the absence of organic disease, cold, and that peculiar derangement of health popularly called ‘nervousness,’ are the most common. In the one case, the proper remedy is warmth; in the other, the attention should be directed to the restoration of the body to the healthy standard.

=Earache, Simple Cure for.= Take a common, tobacco-pipe, place a wad of cotton in the bowl, drop upon it 8 or 10 drops of chloroform, and cover with another wad of cotton; place the stem to the affected ear, then blow into the bowl, and in many cases the pain will cease almost immediately.——Amer. Journ.

=EARTHS.= In chemistry, a group of metallic oxides. The principal earths are baryta strontia, lime, magnesia, alumina, berylla or glucina, yttria, zirconia, and thoria. The first four are termed ALKALINE EARTHS; the remainder, together with the oxides of the very rare metals erbium, terbium, norium, cerium, lanthanum, and didymium, constitute the EARTHS PROPER.

The term earth was very loosely applied by the older chemical and pharmaceutical writers, and the practice is still common among the vulgar at the present day. Thus, ABSORBENT EARTH (chalk); ALUMINOUS E., ARGILLACEOUS E. (alumina); BOLAR E. (bole); BONE-E. (phosphate of lime); FULLER’S E. (an absorbent clay); HEAVY E. (baryta); JAPAN E., or TERRA JAPONICA (catechu); SEALED E. (bole), &c., are names even now frequently encountered both in trade and in books.

=EARTHEN-WARE AND GLASS, to prevent the Cracking of.= When quite new, all vessels of glass and earthenware should be laid to soak in cold water, and after some hours, this water, covering the vessels, should be gradually heated to the boiling point. It is a good plan to place a little hay on the top of the water.

Glass and earthenware vessels thus treated are far less liable to crack when subjected to the heat of boiling water than it would otherwise be.

=EARTH-NUT.= See ARACHIS HYPOGŒA.

=EAU.= (Fr.) Water. This word, like its English synonym, is applied to numerous substances, differing in their composition, sensible properties, and uses, of which the following are a few useful examples:——EAU DOUCE, fresh or river water; EAU DE MER, sea or salt water; EAU DE FONTAINE, EAU DE SOURCE, spring water; EAU DE PUITS, well or pump water; EAU DE RIVIÈRE, river water; EAU DISTILLÉE, distilled water; EAU DE ROSE, rose water; EAU DE VIE, brandy; EAU DE COLOGNE, Cologne water; EAU D’HONGRIE, Hungary water; EAU BÉNITE, holy water; EAU FORTE, aquafortis; EAU DE SAVON, soapsuds; EAU DE SENTEUR, scented water, &c.

=Eau Athenienne.= (Hte. Bourgeois, Paris.) Pour nettoyer la tête et enlever les pellicules——for cleaning the head and removing scurf. An alcoholic solution of potash-soap, with some solution of potash and aromatic oil. (Dr P. Goppelsröder.)

=Eau Berger for Dyeing the Hair.= Two fluids for consecutive application. No. 1 is a solution of 1·3 grammes sulphate of copper, ·25 grammes nitrate of nickel, 30 grammes distilled water, 4 grammes ammonia. No. 2 is a solution of calcium sulphide, made by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into milk of lime until it ceases to be absorbed, and then filtering from the excess of lime. (W. Engelhardt.)

=Eau Capillaire Progressive, pour rétablir la coleur naturelle des cheveux et de la barbe. Formule rationelle, succès garanti.= Progressive hair-wash for restoring the natural colour of the hair and beard. Formula rational, success guaranteed (Dr R. Brimmeyer, chimie-pharmacien, Echternach, Luxembourg). (Schädler.)

=Eau d’Afrique, for dyeing the Hair Black.= Three fluids to be consecutively applied. No. 1 is a solution of 3 parts nitrate of silver in 100 parts water. No. 2 is a solution of 8 parts sodium sulphide in 100 parts water. No. 3 is a solution of nitrate of silver like No. 1, but perfumed. (Reveil.)

=Eau d’Atirona.= An elegant fluid cosmetic soap, by the use of which all imperfections of the skin will be easily and painlessly removed. It consists of 25 grammes of a spirituous tincture of cinnamon and cloves, 4 grammes soda soap, and a drop of peppermint oil. (Wittstein.)

=Eau de Bahama.= A black dye for the hair. It is a solution of sugar of lead perfumed with oil of anise, and containing flowers of sulphur in suspension. (Reveil.)

=Eau de Beauté, Eau de Paris sans pareille, or Eau de Princesses= (August Renard, Paris); with a German title, “Rhümhehst bekanntes cosmetisches Wasser genannt Prinzessen-Wasser.” The well-known and renowned cosmetic called Princesses’ Water.’ To experience the brilliant effects of this marvellous fluid we need only, after washing, habitually pass a small sponge moistened with the fluid gently over the skin, and allow it to dry without rubbing. By so doing our complexion will remain white, smooth, clear, and soft, even to extreme old age. Those, however, who are troubled with freckles, heat-spots, or any other eruption should use the water several times a day as directed. They need suffer no longer from any defect of the skin. Princesses’ Water when shaken is a milk-white fluid contained in an oval bottle with a long neck, which holds 125 grammes. On standing it deposits a white precipitate. It is made from 2·5 grammes calomel, ·45 grammes corrosive sublimate (so altered by the added perfume that the usual tests do not reveal it), and 122 grammes orange-flower water.

=Eau de Botot.= A mouth wash. Tincture of cedar wood, 500 grammes; tincture of myrrh and tincture of rhatany, of each 125 grammes; peppermint oil, 5 drops. (Winkler.)

=Eau de Capille= (Kamprath & Schwartze). A hair dye. A mixture of 16 grammes glycerine, 8 grammes hyposulphite of soda, 1 gramme sugar of lead (or an equivalent quantity of Liq. Plumbi subacet.), about 2 grammes precipitated sulphur and 130 grammes water, perfumed with a small quantity of eau de Cologne. (Hager.)

=Eau de Charbon, Dr Chattam’s= (A. Ahnelt, Charlottenburg, the African traveller). A prophylactic and specific against syphilis. 150 grammes of a slightly red fluid, consisting of a watery solution of carbolic acid coloured with aniline and perfumed with 1 drop peppermint oil and 8 drops chloroform dissolved in 20 grammes spirit. (Hager.)

=Eau de Cythère.= A hair dye. A solution of 4 parts chloride of lead and 8 parts crystallised hyposulphite of soda in 88 parts distilled water. (Hager.)

=Eau de Docteur Sachs.= For promoting the growth of the hair, preventing its turning grey, for protecting the scalp from all injurious influences, and for preserving it in a state of purity and health. A solution of castor oil in spirit containing picrotoxin. (Dr C. Schacht.)

=Eau de Fée——Fairy Water.= A natural hair wash (Lattke, Chemiker, Kiel). Recommended as a preparation consisting solely of harmless vegetables. It consists mainly of a strong solution of nitrate of lead. (Himly.)

=Eau des Fées——Fairy Water.= A hair wash. A solution of 1-1/4 parts lead sulphite in about 3 parts sodium hyposulphite, 7-3/4 parts glycerin, and 88 parts water. According to the directions for use, more than three bottles of 120 grammes of the Fairy Water should not be used before the hair has been treated with Eau de Poppée, and, to raise it to the highest possible degree of beauty, with Huile régénératrice d’Hygie. (Hager.)

=Eau de Hebe.= For freckles. To be applied with a small sponge in the evening and washed off in the morning. Lemons, cut small, digested in a closed flask with distilled vinegar, lavender vinegar, oil of lemon, and rosemary, and filtered.

=Eau de Java Anticholerique= is a solution of camphor and carbolic acid in spirit. (Casselmann.)

=Eau de la Floride.= A colourless fluid with a greenish-yellow deposit consisting of sugar of lead, 50 parts; flowers of sulphur, 20 parts; distilled water, 1000 parts. (F. Eymael.)

=Eau de Lechelle= may be replaced by a filtered mixture of 200 parts aqua aromatica, 300 parts aqua dest., 10 parts acid. carbol., 10 parts ol. thymi, 20 parts acid. tannic.

=Eau de lys de Lohse= (Lohse formerly——before the French war——Lohsé, Berlin). A cosmetic consisting of 2 grammes zinc oxide, 2 grammes prepared talc, 4 grammes glycerin, and 200 grammes rose water. (Schädler.)

=Eau de Mont Blanc.= A hair dye. A solution of nitrate of silver.

=Eau de Naples.= Neapolitan washing solution. A mixture of 12 parts borax, 100 parts distilled water, 50 parts rose water, 1 part camphor, 4 parts tinct. benzoin. (W. Hildwein.)

=Eau de Quinine——Glycerin Hair Wash, with Extract of Peruvian Bark= (A. Heinrich, Leipzig). For removing scurf and strengthening the hair. 2 grammes balsam of Peru, 6 grammes castor oil, 60 grammes rum, 35 grammes water, 5 grammes tincture of red cinchona. (Hager.)

=Eau de Vienne.= A hair dye from Paris. Two fluids, one of which is a solution of nitrate of silver in ammoniacal water, and the other a solution of pyrogallic acid.

=Eau Dentifrice de Mallard.= Star anise, common anise, cinnamon, cloves, of each, 8 parts; guaicum wood, 10 parts; brown cinchona, 6 parts; rose leaves, 5 parts; nutmegs, 2 parts, are placed in a displacement apparatus and percolated with 3 parts cochineal; 12-15 parts water, 1000 parts sp. vini; sp. gr. ·860. The tincture is displaced with water and 1000 parts are mixed with 7 parts of a mixture of peppermint oil, spirit of scurvy grass, and tinct. of benzoin, allowed to stand and filtered.

=Eau Dentifrice des Cordillères.= An Indian recipe. 360 parts strong spirits, 330 parts water, 2-1/2 parts extract of red or yellow cinchona, 1 part oil of cinnamon, 2 parts oil of cloves, 3 parts oil of anise, 5 parts oil of peppermint. (Hager.)

=Eau Ecarlate——Scarlet Water.= (Bürdel). For renovating red linen and woollen fabrics. Oxalium, 25 parts; soda, 16 parts; potash, 5 parts; water, coloured with cochineal and slightly perfumed, 1000 parts. (Sauerwein.)

=Eau Lajeune.= A hair dye. An elegant pasteboard box, in which are three bottles of fluid and two bone-handled tooth-brushes. No. 1 contains a clear fluid consisting of pyrogallic acid 1·5 gramme, ·3 gramme colouring matter of alkanet, 17·5 grammes spirit of wine, 27 grammes water. No. 2 is filled with a thick brown fluid, which from decomposition has produced a deposit sometimes brown, sometimes grey. This partly-decomposed fluid was originally a mixture of silver nitrate, 3·5 grammes; ammonia, 4·5 grammes; gum arabic or some similar mucilage, 2·5 grammes; distilled water, 23 grammes. No. 3, labelled “Fixateur,” contains 7·5 grammes fluid, consisting of ·5 gramme sodium sulphide, 7 grammes distilled water. The directions for use, translated into various languages, say——Dissolve 10 grammes subcarbonate of soda in half a litre of warm or cold rain water, and with this wash the grease from the hair. Afterwards rinse it in clear water, and dry it thoroughly with a cloth. Pour one part of fluid No. 1 into a saucer, and with brush No. 1 apply it to the roots of the hair. Allow it two or three minutes to dry, then rub the hair with an old linen cloth to remove the superfluous moisture. Next repeat the operation, using fluid and brush No. 2, and without waiting wash the hair with warm or cold soapy water. This hair dye is quite harmless, and leaves no marks on the skin behind it. To use it for the Beard.——The process is the same as that for the hair, except that instead of the soda solution, ordinary soap is to be used to cleanse the beard from grease. It often happens that when the user of the dye has not taken ordinary care in cleansing the hair, the latter becomes of a false and unnatural tint. In this case the Fixateur should be used. A small sponge should be moistened with this and passed over the hair, which will make the colour natural and glossy. The Fixateur as well as the sponge must only be used in this way. It may be employed two days after the first operation without it being necessary to dye the hair anew. (Hager.)

=Eau Medicinales= are either simply watery solutions (HYDROLÉS, HYDROLATURES, SOLUTIONS PAR L′EAU), or distilled water (EAUX DISTILLÉES); or they are vinous or alcoholic tinctures or solutions of essential oils, aromatics, or more active drugs. See CORDIALS, HAIR DYES, PERFUMERY, SPIRITS, TINCTURES, WATERS, &c.

=Eau Tonique de Chalmin= is a perfumed solution of tannin.

=Eau Tonique Parachûte des Cheveux.= To prevent the falling off of the hair. Macerate some pieces of violet root for some days in 120 grammes rose water, filter, and add to the fluid 2 decigrammes sulphate of iron, 3 drops vinegar, 1·3 gramme each of tincture of benzoin and balsam of Peru, 7·5 grammes Provence oil, and 10 drops oil of bergamot. (Dr Casselmann.)

=Eau Virginale= (Chable). Lead acetate, zinc sulphate, of each 1 part; distilled water, 28 parts; eau de Cologne, 12 parts. Dissolve and mix; allow to stand for a month and filter. A spoonful mixed with a glass of water to be used as a vaginal injection. (Reveil.)

=Eaux=, in perfumery, are solutions of the fragrant essential oils in spirit, as eau de Cologne, eau de bouquet, &c.; or they are distilled waters, largely charged with the odorous principles of plants, as eau de rose, eau de fleurs d’oranges, &c.

=Eaux=, of the liqueuriste, are aromatised spirits or cordials.

=EB′LANINE.= The yellowish-red, crystallisable, solid substance, which is left behind in the retort, when wood spirit is rectified from quicklime. It is insoluble in water, and sublimes without fusion at 273° Fahr.

=EBONITE.= The only difference between this and vulcanite, consists in the colouring materials used. See CAOUTCHOUC.

=EB′ONY.= The wood of the Diospyrus Melanoxylon, an East Indian tree, of the natural order Ebenaceæ. Two other species of the same genus, namely, Diospyrus Ebenus and D. Ebenaster, yields respectively MAURITIUS EBONY and the BASTARD EBONY of Ceylon. Pale-coloured woods are stained in imitation of ebony (FACTITIOUS EBONY), by washing them with or steeping them in a strong decoction of logwood or of galls, and, when dry, washing them over with a solution of sulphate or acetate of iron. They are then rinsed in clean water, and the process is repeated, if required. The wood is lastly polished or varnished.

=EBRI′ETY.= See INTOXICATION.

=EBULLI′′TION.= The state of boiling, or the agitation of a liquid arising from its rapid conversion into vapour by heat. Ebullition occurs in different liquids at very different temperatures, such temperatures being called their ‘boiling-points.’ Under the same circumstances the boiling-points are constant, and by observing them the chemist is often able to distinguish liquids which much resemble each other. The boiling-point of the same liquid may, however, vary considerably under different circumstances. The causes which induce variation are increased or diminished atmospheric pressure, the greater or less depth of the liquid, and the character of the containing vessel. Thus boiling water is colder by some degrees when the barometer is low, in bad weather, or at the top of a hill, than when the barometer is higher, in fine weather, or at the bottom of a valley or mine. There is a very simple and beautiful experiment, illustrative of the effect of diminished pressure in lowering the boiling-point of a liquid. A little water is made to boil for a few minutes in a flask or retort placed over a lamp, until the air has been expelled, and the steam issues freely from the neck. A tightly fitting cork is then inserted, and the lamp at the same moment withdrawn. When the ebullition ceases, it may be renewed at pleasure for a considerable time by the affusion of cold water, which, by condensing the vapour within, occasions a partial vacuum. Liquids in general boil from 60° to 140° lower than their ordinary boiling-points when heated in vacuo.

The following table furnishes very exact information respecting the effect of increasing pressure upon the boiling-point of water:——

Boiling water contained in a deep vessel is hotter than that in a shallow one, on account of the greater resistance in the one case than the other to the escape of the steam. It is also found that fluids boil at a lower temperature and more quietly in vessels with rough and spicular surfaces, than in those with smooth or polished ones. The boiling-point of water, as marked on the scale of the thermometer, is 212° Fahr., but in glass vessels, under common circumstances, it varies from

TABLE I.——_Boiling-points of Water at different Pressures._ By Mr C. GREVILLE WILLIAMS.

--------------+-----------+---------------+----------- Boiling-point | Barometer | Boiling-point | Barometer ° Fahr. | Inches. | ° Fahr. | Inches. --------------+-----------|---------------+----------- 184 | 16·676 | 200 | 23·454 185 | 17·047 | 201 | 23·937 186 | 17·421 | 202 | 24·441 187 | 17·803 | 203 | 25·014 188 | 18·196 | 204 | 25·468 189 | 18·593 | 205 | 25·992 190 | 18·992 | 206 | 26·529 191 | 19·407 | 207 | 27·068 192 | 19·822 | 208 | 27·614 193 | 20·254 | 209 | 28·183 194 | 20·687 | 210 | 28·744 195 | 21·124 | 211 | 29·331 196 | 21·576 | 212 | 29·922 197 | 22·030 | 213 | 30·516 198 | 22·498 | 214 | 31·120 199 | 22·965 | 215 | 31·730 --------------+-----------+---------------+-----------

212·254° to 215·6°; whilst in perfectly pure and smooth glass vessels water may be heated to 221° Fahr. without boiling. That the elevation of the boiling-point in this case is due to the nature of the surface, may be at once demonstrated by throwing into water, about to boil in a glass matrass, a little iron filings or coarsely powdered glass, when ebullition will commence with almost explosive violence, at the same time that the temperature of the fluid will sink about 2° Fahr.

The boiling-point of water contained in ordinary vessels may be raised considerably above 212° Fahr., by the addition of saline matter, as will be seen in the following table, extracted from Mr C. G. Williams’s excellent ‘Handbook of Chemical Manipulation,’——

TABLE II.——Boiling-points of Saturated Solutions of various Salts at the ordinary Atmospheric Pressure. By C. G. WILLIAMS.

Name of Salt. Boiling-point.

Chloride of calcium 355° Fahr. Acetate of soda 256 ” Nitrate of soda 246 ” Sal-ammoniac 236 ” Common salt 224 ” Cream of tartar 214 ”

The above solutions are suitable for chemical baths. With the exception of the first, they furnish in their boiling-points temperatures, as nearly as can be obtained, 10° above each other. They were chosen by Mr Williams because, in ‘fractionating’ volatile substances, it is usual to separate the distilled products by differences of temperature equal to 10° Fahr. In long operations it is found inconvenient to employ a saturated saline solution for a bath (by which the highest temperature would be obtained), as the constant evaporation of the water induces the crystallisation of the salt. It is hence usual to keep it considerably below that point.

The following table, compiled chiefly from the pages of Dr Miller’s ‘Elements of Chemistry,’ gives the boiling-points of several interesting substances.

TABLE III.——Boiling-points of various Liquids at the ordinary Atmospheric Pressure.

Name of Substance. Boiling-point.

Liquid carbonic acid -108° Fahr. Liquid sulphurous acid + 17·6 ” Chloric ether 51·9 ” Aldehyd 69·4 ” Ether 94·8 ” Bisulphide of carbon 118·5 ” Bromide 145·4 ” Wood spirit 149·9 ” Alcohol (sp. gr. ·815) 173·1 ” Benzol 176·8 ” Dutch liquid 184·7 ” Acetic acid 243·1 ” Sulphur (melted) 609· ” Mercury 662· ”

=EBUL′LIOSCOPE.= Syn. EBULLITION ALCOHOLOMETER, THERMO-ALCOHOLOMETER. “This instrument is essentially a thermometer, and its application to alcoholometry is based upon the fact that the boiling-point of a spiritous liquid is scarcely altered by the presence, within certain limits, of the substances which may be dissolved in it, and which, by increasing its specific gravity, render the ordinary alcoholometers or hydrometers useless for the purpose of indicating its alcoholic richness. The ebullioscope was invented by the Abbé Brossard-Vidal, of Toulon, and in its original form consisted of a spirit-lamp surmounted by a small boiler, into which a large cylindrical glass bulb was plunged, having an upright stem of such calibre that the quicksilver contained in them, by its expansion and ascent when heated, raised before it a little glass float in the stem, which was connected by a thread with a similar glass bead, hanging in the air. This thread passed round a pulley, which, turning with the motion of the beads, caused an index to move along a graduated circular scale, which represented on its face the per-centage of absolute alcohol in spirituous liquors of different boiling-points. This form of the apparatus being found inconvenient and liable to get disarranged, various improvements were made in it by MM. Conaty, Lerebour, and others. The modification of the instrument now in use, and known as Field’s PATENT ALCOHOLOMETER, was made by the late Dr Ure, and can scarcely be improved on. It consists of a thermometer having a very minute bore and a large bulb, similar to that employed to determine the height of mountains from the boiling-point of water, but instead of thermometric degrees being marked upon the scale the per-centage under proof is placed on the left-hand side of the stem, and the per-centage content of proof spirit on the right-hand side. These commence at 178·5° Fahr., the temperature at which ‘proof spirit’ boils, and which here forms the bottom of the scale. The succeeding number are based upon the boiling-points of mixtures of alcohol and water. The little boiler being charged, and about a teaspoonful of salt (35 gr.) being added, to prevent loss of alcohol by evaporation, the thermometer is set in its place, and the spirit-lamp lighted. When the mercury begins to rise out of the bulb of the thermometer, the ‘damper-plate’ is pushed in a little way, to moderate the heat. The eye is now kept steadily on the instrument, and as soon as the liquor boils freely, and the mercury becomes stationary in the stem, the indication is carefully noted, and the damper-plate pushed home to extinguish the flame.

“The ebullioscope is adjusted to the mean boiling-point of water under an atmospheric pressure of 29·5 inches. When the pressure is either higher or lower, both water and alcohol boil at a somewhat different temperature, to meet which a barometrical equation is attached to the thermometer by means of a small subsidiary scale. It is therefore necessary, prior to commencing the operation of testing any liquor, to charge the little boiler with pure water only, and to fix the thermometer in its place. When the water boils freely, the mercury becomes stationary in the stem, exactly opposite the true barometrical indication at the time. Should this be against the line 29·5, no correction will be required; but should it stand at any other line, above or below, then the various boiling-points will bear reference to that boiling-point only. In the latter case, the boiling-point of the water on the barometrical indicator must be set against the boiling-point of the liquid on the scale, when opposite the line——29·5 will be found the true strength. Thus:——the barometer being at 30 inches, and the indication or boiling-point being 72 u. p., 30 on the indicator must be placed against 72 u. p. on the thermometer, when against the line of 29·5 will be seen 69·6 u. p., the real strength of the sample tested.

“When a spirit is stronger than the ‘excise proof,’ its boiling-point varies too little with its alterations of strength to render the ebullioscope of much practical value. To make it applicable to the stronger spirits, it is therefore necessary to dilute them with exactly their own bulk of pure water before testing them, and then to double the resulting indication, as suggested by Dr Ure. Our own plan is always to do this when the spirit is stronger than 20 u. p.

“By means of the ebullioscope the alcoholic content of beer, wines, and spirits, of every variety and class, may be readily determined with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes; and by methods which we shall hereafter point out, the amount of saccharine extractive, or sugar, in cordialised spirit, malt liquors and wines, may also be ascertained.

“The ebullioscope (Field’s ALCOHOLOMETER) employed by us in numerous and extensive investigations connected with public hygiène, was made by Mr Long, of Little Tower Street, and is an instrument which should be in the hands of every wine and spirit merchant and licensed victualler, as well as every private gentleman who feels interested in the quality of the liquors in his cellar. The instrument is accompanied by a useful little pamphlet of directions and tables, which has been very accurately got up, as we understand, by the late Dr Ure, expressly for Mr Long.” (A. J. Cooley.)

=ECHINOCOCCUS HOMINIS.= This creature, which is the larva of the Tinæa Echinococcus, is a very common parasite infesting man, and has been found in the human lungs, heart, kidneys, liver, spleen, ovaries, breasts, membrane of the throat, and the bones. The disease to which it gives rise is of a very long and painful nature, frequently terminating fatally, and one in which no remedies have hitherto been found of any avail. The part of the human economy most frequently attacked by the ravages of the Echinococcus is the liver, in the substance of which it gives rise to the formation of a hydatid tumour. This tumour is composed of a thick-walled cyst or bag, within which is another of a much more delicate texture. “This latter membrane is the mother-sac of the Echinococcus embryo” (Huxley), and corresponds with the germinal membrane of Professor Goodsir. It is studded with innumerable transparent cells, varying as extremes of measurement from 1/10000th to 1/3000th of an inch. It is the seat of development of innumerable Echinococci, and to this membrane, in a fresh hydatid tumour, they are found connected by a delicate membrane, either singly, or more commonly in clusters, the number of individuals on the cluster varying from 10 to 100 or more, as shown in the annexed woodcut.”[271]

[Footnote 271: Aitken.]

The size of the embryo varies from 1/18th to 1/20th of a line to 1/10th to 1/18th, according as it is elongated or contracted. Fig. 2 represents two Echinococci. In the one the head is drawn within the vehicle, and in the other it is extruded.

Fig. 3 represents a transverse view of an echinococcus; S S are suctorial discs; the hooklets may be seen encircling a membranous disk.

In Fig. 4 we have a representation of the circlet of these hooklets, B, which are thirty-four in number; C gives various views of separate hooklets; b is the base; c the central extremity; e the hooklets viewed upon their concave or inferior border. The dotted lines connecting f, g, k, represent the outer surface of the neck, and runs through the fixed point of the three hooks which move upon the central fixed process, as on the pivot.

The inhabitants of Iceland are said to suffer severely from the effects of the Echinococcus Humanus; it has been computed that a sixth of the population of the island are attacked by it.

=ECLECTIC REMEDIES.= These are medicines chiefly employed by a sect of American practitioners, self-styled “Eclectics.” The medicinal properties appended to each of these preparations are those ascribed to them by the Eclectics themselves.

APOCYNIN. From the roots of Apocynum and Rosœmifolium. Given in jaundice, hepatic torpor, and constipation.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 gr.

ASCLEPEDIN. From Asclepias tuberosa. Expectorant, diaphoretic, and tonic.——Dose, 1 to 5 grains three times a day.

BAPTISTIN. From Wild Indigo. Given in liver affections.——Dose, 1/4 to 1/2 grain.

BAROSMIN. From Buchu. Diuretic, alterative, antispasmodic.——Dose, 2 to 4 grains.

CAULOPHYLLIN. From Caulophyllum thalictroides. Tonic and alterative, acts on the uterus.——Dose, 1/4 to 1 grain three times a day; as a parturient, 2 to 4 grains.

CERASEIN. From the Cerasus virginiana. Given as a substitute for quinine when this latter is inadmissible.——Dose, 5 to 10 gr.

CIMICIFUGIN. Syn. MACROTIN. From Black Snakeroot. Tonic, alterative, nervine, antiperiodic, and in chorea.——Dose, 1 to 6 gr.

CORNINE. From Cornus Florida (Dogwood). Antiperiodic.——Dose, 10 grains.

EUPATORINE. From Eupatoreum purpureum. Diuretic.——Dose, 3 to 5 grains.

EUPHORBIN. From Euphorbia corollata. Emetic, cathartic, expectorant, and vermifuge.——Dose, 1 grain or less.

GELSEMIN. From Gelsemium sempervirens. Given in pneumonia, hysteria, and dysmenorrhœa.——Dose, 1/4 to 2 grains. This must not be confounded with the powerful alkaloid, Gelsimia.

GERANIN, or GERANIIN. From Geranium maculatum. Astringent.——Dose, 1 to 5 gr.

HAMAMELIN. From Hamamelis Virginica (Witch hazel). Astringent.——Dose, 5 grains.

HYDRASTIN. From Hydrastis Canadensis. Tonic.——Dose, 3 to 5 grains. This must not be confounded with the alkaloid Hydrasta.

IRIDIN. From the Blue flag. Alterative, sialagogue, anthelmintic.——Dose, 1/2 to 5 gr.

INGLANDIN. From Butter-nut. Given in chronic hepatic disorders and constipation.——Dose, 2 to 4 gr.

LEPTANDRIN. From Leptandra Virginica. Given in liver affections, chronic dysentery, diarrhœa, and typhus.——Dose, 2 to 4 gr.

LYCOPIN. From Lycopus Virginicus. Given in hæmorrhage, diabetes, and dysentery.——Dose, 2 to 3 grains.

MYRICIN. From Myrica cerifera. Stimulant, astringent, and antispasmodic.——Dose, 2 to 10 grains.

POPULIN. From Populus tremuloides. Tonic and febrifuge.——Dose, 4 to 8 grains.

PRUNIN. From Wild Cherry Bark. Stimulant, tonic, and expectorant.——Dose, 1 to 2 gr.

RUMIN. From Rumex crispus. Action like rhubarb.——Dose, 3 grains.

SANGUINARIN. From Sanguinaria Canadensis. Hepatic and alterative.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 grains.

STILLINGIN. From Stylingia sylvatica. Given in bronchitis and laryngitis. Used externally as a stimulant. Internally, 1 drop with mucilage.

=EDELENZIANWURZELSAFT——Noble Gentian-root Juice——Enzian Extract——Extract of Gentian.= A water-clear, colourless Schnapps, which contains much fusel oil and has had some of the spirit removed, distilled from gentian plant. (Hager.)

=EDIBLE EARTHS.= There seems little reason to doubt that the inhabitants of many countries, especially during famine and in times of scarcity, use certain kinds of earth as food. In Spain, a particular kind of earth known as bucaro is eaten; the Russian peasant partakes of his rock-flour; the Thuringian of his rock-butter; the Swede, of his bergmehl or mountain meal; the native of Java of an earth known as teneampa; the Hindoo, of the so-called Patna earth; and the Persian of a species of soil known as Gheli Giveh.

Mr Molvar has analysed an earth, eaten by the poorer classes of the Neograd district in Hungary, and finds it has the following composition:——

Carbonic acid 40·357 Lime 51·488 Magnesia 0·110 Volatile matter 5·545 Ferrous oxide 0·158 Alumina 2·272

As the volatile matter seemed to be the probable means of nourishment, it was subjected to a special examination, and was found to contain, besides empyreumatic substances, 0·067 water, and 0·010 nitrogen.

Dr Schmidt, a German chemist, gives the following as the composition of 100 parts of the air-dried powder from the coast of the White Sea:——

Water given off at 100° C 0·260 Given off at a low red heat 0·835 Alumina 40·797 Ferric oxide 0·310 Magnesia 0·618 Lime traces Soda 1·829 Potassa 9·845 Silicic acid, trace of fluorine, and loss 45·506

This earth is eaten by the Laplanders, who mix it with the flour of which they make their bread.

The Persian edible earth called Gheli Giveh contains:——

+----------------------+------+ |Magnesic carbonate |66·963| +----------------------+------+ |Calcic carbonate |23·634| +----------------------+------+ |Sodium chloride | 3·542| +----------------------+------+ |Sodic sulphate | 0·293| +----------------------+------+ |Sodic carbonate | 0·598| +----------------------+------+ |Magnesic hydrate | 1·311| +----------------------+------+ |Ferric oxide | 0·092| +----------------------+------+ |Alumina | 0·227| +----------------------+------+ |Silicic acid | 0·765| +----------------------+------+ |Water combined at 120°| 1·153| +----------------------+------+ |Hydroscopic moisture | 1·422| +----------------------+------+

The ‘Chemical News’ (xxxvi, 202) contains the analysis by Mr Paterson Muir of a clay from Mackenzie County, South Island, New Zealand, which is largely eaten by sheep. It consists of:——

+------------------+------+ |Silica | 61·25| +------------------+------+ |Alumina | 17·97| +------------------+------+ |Ferric oxide | 5·72| +------------------+------+ |Lime | 1·91| +------------------+------+ |Magnesia | 0·87| +------------------+------+ |Sodium chloride | 3·69| +------------------+------+ |Potassium chloride| trace| +------------------+------+ |Water | 7·31| +------------------+------+ |Organic matter | 1·77| +------------------+------+ | |100·49| +------------------+------+

See ANIMALCULÆ.

=EDULCORA′TION.= The affusion of water on any substance for the purpose of removing the portion soluble in that fluid. Edulcoration is usually performed by agitating or triturating the article with water, and removing the latter, after subsidence, by decantation or filtration. It is the method commonly adopted to purify precipitates and other powders which are insoluble in water. The washing-bottle is a most useful instrument for the edulcoration of precipitates. In its simplest form, it is a bottle fitted with two bent glass tubes, one drawn to a fine point and reaching to the bottom of the bottle, the other only entering the cork a few inches. By blowing down the latter tube, the water is forced out of the former in a fine stream. See WASH-BOTTLE.

=EEL.= Syn. ANGUILLA, L. A family of fishes belonging to the ‘apodal’ section of the malacopterygii. At least three species of eels are found in this country——the ‘sharp-nosed,’ the ‘broad-nosed,’ and the ‘snig.’ The first, which is common in streams and lakes, attains the greatest size——sometimes 25 lbs. or even 30 lbs. The ‘snig’ is considered superior to other kinds for the table. As articles of food, eels are said to be laxative and far from wholesome. The fat (EEL FAT; ADEPS ANGUILLÆ, OLEUM A.) is among the simples of the Ph. L. 1618, and was formerly considered ‘good against stripes,’ and is even now used by the vulgar as a friction for stiff joints. For the table, eels are generally dressed by stewing, frying, baking, or potting, which is done in the usual way, the fish being cut into pieces 2 or 3 inches long, and melted butter, onions, sweet herbs, and anchovy sauce, added at will. The CONGER EEL is a distinct and gigantic species of the same family. Its flesh is coarse and oily, but is much esteemed by the inhabitants of the southern coast of Devon, on which it abounds.

Letheby states the following to be the composition of the Eel:

+------------------+-----+ |Nitrogenous matter| 9·9| +------------------+-----+ |Fat | 13·8| +------------------+-----+ |Saline matter | 1·3| +------------------+-----+ |Water | 75·| +------------------+-----+ | |100·0| +------------------+-----+

Payen’s analysis differs from the above, in giving a larger proportion of nitrogenous matter, and a still greater quantity of fat.

The native inhabitants of New Zealand and kindred races suffer largely from scrofula, the prevalence of which disease amongst them has been attributed to their partaking so largely of eel as a common article of diet.

=EFFERVES′CENCE.= The rapid escape of gas in small bubbles from a liquid. See DRAUGHT, POWDER, &c.

=EFFLORES′CENCE.= The spontaneous conversion of a crystalline solid into a dry pulverulent form. Crystals which in a dry atmosphere lose their water of crystallisation, and become crusted over with a mealy powder, are said to be EFFLORESCENT.

=EGG.= Syn. OVUM, L. A body produced in the females of birds and certain other animals, containing an ′embryo’ of the same species, or body, from which a similar animal may ultimately be produced. The eggs of the common domestic fowl are nutritious and easily digestible; and when lightly cooked by boiling and eaten with a little salt, are admirably adapted as an aliment for the sick and delicate. When boiled hard or fried, they are rendered less digestible, and possess no advantage in this respect over butcher’s meat. A new-laid egg, beaten up in a cup of tea, coffee, or chocolate is an excellent ingredient in the breakfast of a person with a poor appetite, and is very supporting. A glass of wine, beer, or porter, similarly treated, along with a biscuit, has been recommended as a light and nutritious luncheon or supper, well suited to the debilitated and dyspeptic. Raw eggs may be advantageously substituted for cod-liver oil in all the cases in which this last is ordered, occurring in persons with delicate or irritable stomachs. The addition of fresh salad oil vastly increases their medicinal virtues. A fresh egg is said to contain about the same amount of nourishment as 1-1/2 oz. of fresh meat and 1 oz. of wheaten bread, but in a more digestible form.

Composition of the contents of the egg. Water 74·02 Albumen 14·08 Oil and fat 10·25 Mineral matter 1·65 ——————— 100·00

Composition of the white of egg. (Thompson.) Nitrogenous matter 20·40 Fatty matter Saline matter 1·60 Water 78·00 —————— 100·00

Composition of the yolk. (Thompson.) Nitrogenous matter 16·00 Fatty matter 30·70 Saline matter 1·30 Water 52·00 —————— 100·00

=Egg, White of= (ALBUMEN OVI), is officinal in the B. P. Yelk of egg (vitellus ovi) is an ingredient in the BRANDY MIXTURE (MISTURA SPIRITUS VINI GALLICI) of the London College. It is also a popular application to chaps, cracked nipples, abrasions, &c., and is largely used to render oleaginous substances miscible with water, in the preparation of emulsions.

The average weight of the new-laid egg of a hen is about 2-1/2 oz., and its sp. gr. is 1·080 to 1·090; the white generally weighs about 1-1/2 oz.; the yolk, a little under 3/4 oz.; and the shell and skin, 1/4 oz. Dr Prout found that an egg, on being kept for 2 years in a dry situation, lost 544-3/10 gr., from the evaporation of a portion of its water through the shell. By boiling in water an egg loses from 2% to 3% of its weight.

Choice. The larger end of a new-laid egg feels cold when placed against the tongue. New-laid eggs appear semi-transparent when placed between the eye and a strong light, and have a small and perceptible division of the skin from the shell, which is filled with air. This mode of examination among the trade is called ‘candling.’ When they shake they are stale. The eggs of turkeys and pea-hens are much esteemed for some purposes; those of ducks and geese are coarse and inferior.

Sound eggs will sink if put into a solution, consisting of 1 oz. of salt in 10 oz. of water; in the same solution indifferent ones will float, whilst bad or worthless ones will swim even in pure water.

Pres. Eggs may be preserved for any length of time by excluding them from the air. One of the cleanest and easiest methods of doing this is to pack them with the small end downwards, in clean dry salt, in barrels or tubs, and to place them in a cool and dry situation. We have eaten eggs thus preserved that were more than a twelvemonth old, and that had been for some months on shipboard in a tropical climate, and which yet retained all the peculiar sweetness of new-laid eggs. With a like intention, eggs are placed in vessels containing milk of lime or strong brine, or are rubbed over with butter, lard, or gum water, all of which act by excluding the air. Eggs for keeping should never be laid on their sides, and when kept in the air should be occasionally turned to prevent the yolk attaching itself to the side instead of floating in the albumen. Some persons place the eggs in a netting or on a sieve or colander, and immerse them for an instant in a caldron of boiling water before packing them away. The practice of packing eggs in damp straw, or anything else that can convey a flavour should be carefully avoided. The shells of eggs are porous, and readily admit the passage of gaseous substances, especially of fetid odours. It is from inattention to this point that a large number of the eggs imported from the coast of France have a less delicate flavour than those of our poultry yards. Damp chopped straw, as well as most other organic substances exposed to warmth and moisture, readily ferment or putrefy; and during fermentation a considerable increase of temperature takes place, as any one may readily perceive by examining the common hotbeds in our gardens, which are merely masses of organic matter in a state of decomposition. Eggs, as long as they retain the embryo of the future chick in a vital state, possess in themselves a certain degree of warmth, which tends materially to promote the decomposition of the substances they are packed in, particularly in the presence of moisture.

A correspondent of the ‘Chemical News’ says: “Eggs may be kept fresh for a whole year by subjecting them to the following process. The fresh eggs are carefully placed in a mixture of five kilogrammes of alum, dissolved in five litres of water, heated to from 45° to 50° C., and left in that liquid for from thirty to forty minutes; the eggs are next drained, and in the meantime the solution of alum is heated to boiling-point. The eggs are again immersed in the liquid and kept therein from ten to fifteen seconds; after having been drained and cooled, they are packed in either dry bran, sawdust, cork-dust, sifted ashes, or in cotton-wool.”

M. Durand, of Blois, proposes to preserve eggs by coating them with silicate of soda.

To Preserve Eggs fresh for many weeks.——As the eggs are taken from the nest, brush each one separately with a thin solution of gum Arabic, being careful to leave no portion of the shell uncovered by it. The half of each egg must first be done, and left to become dry before the remainder is touched, that the gum may not be rubbed off any part by its coming in contact while wet with the hand as it is held to be varnished, or with the table when it is laid down to harden.——ELIZA ACTON.

Eggs to boil in the Shell.——Eggs brought from a cold place and suddenly plunged into boiling water are very frequently liable to crack, and thus to allow of the partial escape of their contents. In winter it will be found a good plan to hold them for an instant over the steam of the saucepan before they are placed in it, which they should be, very gently. By boiling for three minutes, the whites will become in a partially solid state. Exactly five minutes will harden the whites and leave the yolks liquid. Eight or ten minutes will render them hard. Eggs should always be boiled in water sufficient to entirely cover them. They should be boiled 15 minutes for salad-dressings.

Eggs, to Poach.——Take for this purpose a wide and delicately clean pan about half filled with the clearest spring water; throw in a small saltspoonful of salt, and place it over a fire quite free from smoke. Break some new-laid eggs into separate cups, and do this with care, that the yolks may not be injured. When the water boils, draw back the pan, glide the eggs gently into it, and let them stand till the whites appear almost set, which will be in about a minute; then without shaking them move the pan over the fire, and just simmer them from two minutes and a half to three minutes. Lift them out separately with a slice, trim quickly off the ragged edges, and serve them upon dressed spinach or upon minced veal, turkey, or chicken; or dish them for an invalid upon delicately toasted bread, sliced thick and free from crust; it is an improvement to have the bread buttered, but it is less wholesome.

Comparative time of poaching eggs: swan’s eggs, 5 to 6 minutes (in basin, 10 minutes); turkey’s eggs, 4 minutes; hen’s eggs, 3 to 3-1/2 minutes; Guinea fowl’s, 2 to 3 minutes; bantam’s, 2 minutes.

Obs. All eggs may be poached without boiling if kept just at simmering point, but one boil quite at last will assist to detach them from the stewpan, from which they should always be very carefully lifted on what is called a fish or egg slice. There are pans made on purpose for poaching and frying them in good form; but they do not, we believe, answer particularly well. If broken into cups slightly rubbed with butter and simmered in them, their roundness of shape will be well preserved.——ELIZA ACTON.

=Egg, Elas′tic.= Take a good and sound egg, place it in strong vinegar, and allow it to remain for 12 hours; it will then become quite soft and elastic. In this state it can be squeezed into a tolerably wide-mouthed bottle; when in, it must be covered with water having a little soda dissolved in it. In a few hours the egg will be restored to nearly its original solidity; after which the liquid may be poured off and the bottle dried, the whole being kept as a curiosity to puzzle one’s friends for an explanation how the egg got there. (‘Parlour Pastime.’)

=Egg Flip.= Prep. 1. Beer, 1 pint; eggs, 3 in no.; sugar, 2 oz.; nutmeg and ginger, q. s. to flavour; the eggs are broken into one half of the beer, the sugar added, and the whole beaten well together; the mixture is then placed in a clean warmer, and heated over the fire to nearly the boiling-point, and stirred one way all the time, care being taken not to let it either boil or curdle; the other portion of the beer and the spices are then added, and the whole mixed well together.

2. As above, but adding a glass of spirit. Some persons also add a little lemon peel.

=Eggs, Packing, for Shipboard.= The following plan is now adopted by many firms shipping eggs:——“In the bottom of the box may be placed bran, cut hay, and sawdust. Tear up old newspapers to about 8 or 10 inches square. The paper should be about medium——that is, not too stiff nor too soft. Place one of these pieces of paper on the hand, and on this an egg, on one end; close the lower hand so as to bring the paper up all round the egg; with the other hand crumple the loose corners and edges of the paper down over the other end of the egg; lay another piece of paper on the hand, on which place the same egg, but the other end up; bring up the new paper and crumple down as before. This gives a good cushion to both ends, and a fair one over the centre. Repeat this till you have six thicknesses of paper, reversing the egg each time, and always keeping it on the end. This gives you a ball about 3 to 3-1/2 in. thick by 3-1/2 to 4 in. long. Care should be taken not to press the paper too closely to the egg while covering. Place on one end in the box or basket; place alongside and press them together close enough to prevent their becoming loose in the box, fillings at the ends and on top with crumpled paper.”——J. P.

=Egg, Glaire of.= Prep. Separate the whites from the yolks, and whisk them to a froth, let them stand 24 hours, and strain them through muslin. Used as a glaze or varnish by bookbinders and others.

=Egg, Liquid.= Prep. (Jayne.) From lime, 1 bushel (slaked with water); common salt, 2 or 3 lbs.; cream of tartar, 1/2 lb.; water, q. s. to form a mixture strong enough to float an egg. Used to preserve eggs, which it is stated it will do for two years, by simply keeping them in it. Simple milk of lime answers quite as well.

=Egg Wine.= As egg flip, but using equal parts of white wine and water, instead of beer.

=ELA′IDINE.= A fatty compound of elaïdic acid and glycerin, formed by the action of nitrous acid or nitrate of mercury on olive oil. It is neutral; melts at 90° Fahr.; and is very soluble in ether, scarcely so in alcohol. It is one of the components of CITRINE OINTMENT. By saponification it is resolved into its two constituents.

=ELA′IN.= See OLEIN.

=ELAIOM′ETER.= Syn. OLEOM′ETER. An instrument for ascertaining the specific gravity of oils. See HYDROMETER and OIL.

=ELAL′DEHYD.= A peculiar crystalline substance which forms in ALDEHYD when kept for some weeks at a temperature of 32° Fahr. It melts into a colourless liquid at about 38°, in which state it is miscible with water, alcohol, and ether. It is isomeric with aldehyd, but its vapour has about three times the density of that substance, whilst it neither combines with ammonia nor comports itself with potassa and solution of silver like aldehyd.

=ELAOP′TENE.= See OIL (Volatile).

=ELAT′ERIN.= Syn. MOMORDICINE. The active principle of ELATERIUM. It was discovered by Dr Clutterbuck in 1819, but first obtained in a state of purity in 1830 by the late Mr Hennel.

=Elaterin.= Syn. ELATERIUM. (Dr Morries.) Obtained by evaporating tincture of elaterium (made with rectified spirit) to the consistence of thin oil, and throwing it in boiling distilled water. When cold, the crystalline precipitate is collected, and dried with a gentle heat.——Dose, to commence with 1-16th of a grain.

Prep. 1. (Dr Morries.) Elaterium is digested in hot alcohol, the resulting tincture filtered, evaporated to the consistence of thin oil, and then thrown into boiling distilled water. When the whole is cold, the precipitate is collected and purified by redissolving it in alcohol and precipitation by water, as before.

2. (Hennel.) The alcoholic extract of elaterium is digested in ether, and the residuum dissolved in hot alcohol; crystals form as the solution cools.

3. An alcoholic tincture is evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, and thrown into a mixture of equal parts of liquor of potassa and water at a boiling temperature. Almost pure elaterin separates as the liquid cools.

Obs. Elaterin forms delicate, white, silky crystals, having a bitter taste; it is fusible at about 365° Fahr.; tastes bitter; odourless; neutral; insoluble in water; and dissolves readily in hot alcohol. Its medicinal action is similar to that of elaterium, differing only in its greater activity.——Dose, 1/16 gr. to 1/20 gr.

=ELATER′IUM.= Syn. SQUIRTING CUCUMBER. In pharmacy, ‘the fresh unripe fruit’ of the wild cucumber, ‘Ecbalium officinarum——Richard,’ Ph. L. (Momordica Elaterium, Linn.). According to present usage, the word is more generally applied to the feculence deposited from the juice of the wild cucumber. It is thus applied in Ph. B. E. & D. See below.)

=Elaterium.= B. P. Syn. EXTRACT OF ELATERIUM, E. OF SQUIRTING CUCUMBER; EXTRACTUM ELATERII (Ph. L.), ELATERIUM (Ph. E. & D.,) L. The feculence of the juice of the above fruit.

Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Slice wild cucumber before it is quite ripe in the long direction, and strain the juice, very gently expressed, through a fine hair sieve; then set it aside for some hours, until the thicker part has subsided. The thinner supernatant fluid being rejected, dry the thicker portion with a gentle heat. The processes of the other colleges are essentially the same.[272]

[Footnote 272: At the Mitcham Gardens, elaterium is manufactured in much the same way, only that considerable force is used in the expression of the juice, and the product therefore less potent, though more in quantity. The manufacture usually commences about the second week in September. (Dr Royle).]

2. (Dr Clutterbuck.) The cucumbers (fully ripe) are cut longitudinally, and sprinkling with cold water, and the juice allowed to strain through a fine sieve into an earthenware vessel. The seeds and surrounding pulp are next placed on the sieve, with the split fruit, and washed repeatedly with cold water. The washings being received in the same vessel with the juice, the whole is allowed to repose for a few hours, when the clear portion is decanted and the sediment spread thinly on fine linen, and dried by exposure to the air and a gentle heat avoiding the sunshine or a bright light. Quality very fine. Forty fruits, by this process, yield only 6 gr. of elaterium.

3. (Apothecaries’ Hall.) The fruit, slit into halves, is placed in hempen or horsehair bags, and submitted to slight pressure in a tincture press. The juice, as it runs off, passes through a fine hair sieve into a cylindrical glass jug or jar, where it is allowed to remain for two hours, when the clear supernatant liquor is poured off, and the thick portion containing the sediment is poured on a paper filter, supported on linen, and allowed to drain, after which it is dried by a gentle heat in a stove. The product has a green colour, and constitutes the finest elaterium of commerce. A darker and inferior article is obtained from the liquor, poured from the first sediment by placing it in shallow pans, and allowing it again to deposit.

Prop., &c. Elaterium is sold in thin cakes, and when pure has a pale-gray or greenish-gray colour, floats on water, is easily pulverised by pressure, and forms with rectified spirits a rich, green-coloured tincture. Elaterium obtained as a second deposit (ELATERIUM NIGRUM), is dark and inferior. Alcohol dissolves from 50% to 60% of good elaterium. “When exhausted by rectified spirit, the solution, concentrated, and poured into hot dilute solution of potassa, deposits, on cooling, minute silky, colourless crystals (of ELATERIN), weighing from 1/7th to 1/4th of the elaterium operated on.” (Ph. E.)

Obs. To procure a fine sample of elaterium it is necessary to remove it as soon as it is deposited, as a heavy mucilage falls down soon afterwards, which materially injures its quality and appearance. English elaterium is the best. The foreign is uniformly adulterated with chalk or starch, and coloured with sap green.

Dose, 1/16 gr. to 1/2 gr., formed into a pill with extract of gentian and liquorice powder; as a hydragogue and cathartic in dropsies, twice a day, repeated every other day for a week or ten days. Its use must be avoided when there is much debility or any inflammatory symptoms. Larger doses than 1/2 gr. of pure elaterium are poisonous. The antidotes are emetics, followed by demulcents, opium, and stimulants.

=EL′DER.= Syn. SAMBUCUS (Ph. L. & E.), L. A large shrub or small tree belonging to the natural order Caprifoliacæ. It is indigenous in Europe, and has long been valued for its medicinal properties. “The recent flowers of the Sambucus nigra” (Ph. L.) or common elder are regarded as diaphoretic and pectoral, and a distilled water (ELDER-FLOWER WATER; AQUA SAMBUCI) is made of them. The inner bark of the same tree is purgative and emetic, and is used in dropsy; the leaves are purgative; the juice of the fresh berries is made into wine (ELDER WINE), and is largely used to make FACTITIOUS PORT WINE, and to adulterate the real wine. See WATERS (Distilled).

=ELECAMPANE′.= Syn. INULA (Ph. L.), L. “The root of Inula Helenium” (Ph. L.). A plant of the nat. order Compositæ. Tonic, diaphoretic, and expectorant.——Dose, 20 gr. to 1 dr., or more, either in the form of powder or decoction; in catarrh, dyspepsia, &c. It is now seldom used.

=ELECTRANODYN.= For the cure of neuralgia, headache, migrain, faceache, and apoplectic attacks. As a necklace for children for toothache, as a preventive of quinsy, &c. A tissue paper converted into a nitrogenous material (pyroxylin or düppelpapier) by immersion in a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acid, and containing besides an insignificant proportion of wax and resin. (Hager.)

=ELEC′TRIC.= Syn. ELECTRICAL. Exhibiting the effects of ELECTRICITY when ‘excited’ by friction; pertaining to, derived from, or produced by electricity.

=Electric.= Syn. INSULATOR, NON-CONDUCTOR. A substance which may under ordinary circumstances be readily made to evince electrical properties by friction. Electrics do not transmit, or conduct, electricity; whilst, on the other hand, ANELECTRICS are good transmitters or conductors of electrical action. The most perfect electrics are shell-lac, sulphur, amber, jet, resinous bodies, gums, gun-cotton, glass, silk, diamond, agate, and tourmaline; dry fur, hair, wood, feathers, and paper; turpentine and various oils; dry atmospheric air and other gases, steam of high elasticity, and ice at 0° Fahr. The most perfect anelectrics or conductors are the metals, charcoal, and saline fluids.

=Electric Eel.= The Gynotus electricus, a fish having the power or giving violent electric ‘shocks’; which power it exerts for killing or stunning its prey. It is an inhabitant of the fresh-water lakes and rivers of the warmer regions of America, Africa, and Asia.

=Electrical Machine.= An instrument for the excitation and collection of electricity. The term is only applied to contrivances in which friction is the immediate cause of the electrical disturbance; those which act through chemical force, magnetism, or heat, being known by various distinctive names, as ‘voltaic battery,’ ‘electro-magnetic machine,’ ‘induction-coil,’ ‘thermo-electric pile,’ &c.

The electrical machines in common use are composed of a hollow glass cylinder, or circular plate of glass, turning on an axis, and rubbing against two or more leather rubbers covered with silk, the electricity being collected by sharp points fixed in a metal rod standing on a glass pillar. A description of these instruments, however, would be out of place in the present work, which does not aim at giving information that may be easily obtained from other sources.

Cylinder machines are seldom made of greater size than 13 inches by 9, and are about as powerful as an 18-inch plate machine. The latter are commonly made up to 3 and 4 feet diameter, and will, with a suitable condenser, give 15 inch sparks in air.

=ELECTRI′′CITY= (-trĭs′-ĭt-e). The name given primarily to one of the great forces of nature, and secondarily to that department of physical science which embraces all that is known respecting this particular force. Many theories respecting the nature of electricity have been advanced for the purpose of explaining electrical phenomena. The theory of Dr Franklin supposed the existence of a single homogeneous, imponderable fluid, of extreme tenuity and elasticity, in a state of equable distribution throughout the material world. This fluid is assumed to be repulsive of its own particles, but attractive of all other matter. When distributed in bodies, in quantities proportionate to their capacities or attraction for it, such bodies are said to be in their ‘natural state.’ When we increase or diminish the natural quantity of electricity in any substance, excitation is the result, and the substance, if ‘overcharged,’ is said to be electrified ‘positively,’ or if ‘undercharged,’ ‘negatively.’ These theories, and all others based upon the assumption that electricity is a form of matter, have been found to be inadequate for the elucidation of electrical phenomena.

At the present day, however, two kinds of electric forces are recognised, and distinguished as negative and positive, but they are both assumed to be analogous in principle, and very generally assumed to be simply due to different analogous motions of matter. For a full exposition, however, the reader must refer to some of the especial works on the subject.

=ELECTRICITY, Iron reduced by.= Gelatin capsules of the size of a 2-grain pill, filled with powdered blacksmith scales (black oxide of iron). (Hager.)

=ELECTRO-CHEM′ISTRY.= That branch of chemistry which treats of the agency of electricity in effecting chemical changes.

=ELECTRO-ETCH′ING.= See ETCHING.

=ELECTROL′YSIS.= (-trŏl′-e-sĭs). Electro-chemical decomposition. The voltaic current has the power of loosening and separating the constituents of certain compound bodies when these are interposed in the circuit. The substances which are thus susceptible of decomposition are termed electrolytes. They are all binary compounds, containing single equivalents of their components, which are held together by very powerful affinities. The amount of electrical power required to effect decomposition varies greatly with different electrolytes: solution of iodide of potassium, melted chloride of lead, hydrochloric acid, water mixed with a little sulphuric acid, and pure water, demand very different degrees of decomposing force, the resistance increasing from the first-mentioned substance to the last, which latter it has been denied can be decomposed. One of the indispensable conditions of electrolysis is fluidity. When a liquid is electrolysed its components are discharged solely at the limiting surfaces, where, according to the usual figurative mode of speech, the current enters and leaves the liquid, all the intermediate portions appearing quiescent. The terms ‘anode’ and ‘cathode’ have been proposed respectively for the surfaces which are supposed to receive and let out the current of positive electricity. The anode is therefore directly against or opposite the positive pole of the battery, or, according to the improved nomenclature, the positive electrode; and the cathode against the negative pole, or electrode. The bodies which are set free by the action of the current are termed ions; those which go to the anode and appear at the positive electrode being distinguished by the term anions, and those which go to the cathode and appear at the negative electrode by the term cathions. This nomenclature has, however, been but partially adopted, and is making but slow way, if any, many preferring the old terms of electro-positive for anions, and electro-negative for cathions.

The relative decomposing effects produced by the same current in different electrolytes are exactly expressed by the chemical equivalents of the electrolytes. Thus, if a current be made to traverse acidulated water, iodide of potassium, and chloride of lead, these three electrolytes will suffer decomposition at the same time, but by no means to the same extent; for the current which decomposes but 9 parts of water will separate into their elements 166 parts of iodide of potassium and 139 parts of chloride of lead. The electrolysis of metallic salts is now carried out on a large scale in the beautiful arts, which we notice under the general head of ELECTROTYPE.

=ELECTROMOTIVE ESSENCE= (Romershausen). An embrocation for restoring the suspended functions of the skin by stimulating the flow of vital electricity and the functions of the nerves. A solution of oils of turpentine and rosemary in the ninth dilution of alcohol previously coloured red with some vegetable dye. (Reithner.)

=ELECTRO-PLA′′TING and GILDING.= See ELECTROTYPE.

=ELECTROPH′ORUS.= A simple instrument for exciting electricity, generally used in the chemical laboratory for charging small Leyden jars when gases have to be exploded by the electric spark. To construct it, a plate of tinned iron is made into a circle of about 12 inches diameter; a raised border is then turned up for about half an inch, and the extreme edge is turned outwards over a wire to avoid a sharp border. A mixture of equal parts by weight of shell-lac, Venice turpentine, and resin, is made by gently heating them together with stirring until well fused and thoroughly incorporated. This composition is poured into the plate, to quite fill it, and kept melted until all bubbles have disappeared. Another portion of the instrument, serving the same purpose as the conductor of an electric machine, is a circle of wood, rather smaller than the resinous plate, rounded at the edge, and neatly covered with tin-foil. An insulating handle, formed of a piece of stout glass rod, is cemented into the centre of this wooden disc. Before using the instrument it must be carefully dried and slightly warmed. The resinous surface is excited by beating it obliquely with a folded piece of warm flannel. When this has been done for about a minute, the warm dry cover of the instrument is to be placed upon the resinous plate, and touched with the finger. If the cover is then raised a few inches, and the knuckle approached, a powerful spark of positive electricity will pass; and if the cover be again replaced, touched, and raised, a second spark will pass. This may be repeated many times without again exciting the resinous plate. By receiving the sparks with the knobs of a Leyden jar, a charge strong enough to give a powerful shock, or explode a gaseous mixture, may be rapidly obtained. Other forms have been given to the instrument, but the essential part of every one is a plate of some resinous substance.

=ELECTROTYPE.= Syn. ELECTRO-MET′ALLURGY, GALVAN′O-PLAS′TIC. The art of working in metals by the aid of electricity. Strictly speaking, the term electrotype is only applicable to one branch of ‘electro-metallurgy’——that which relates to the production of copies of engraved plates, medals, coins, and other works——but it is now commonly employed in the sense indicated by our definition. According to this extended signification of the term, the art of electrotype includes ELECTRO-PLATING, and ELECTRO-GILDING.

General Principles.——If a current from a voltaic battery be passed, by means of platinum electrodes, through water to which some sulphuric acid has been added, electrolysis, takes place, hydrogen appearing at the cathode, and oxygen at the anode. If into the acid liquid some crystals of sulphate of copper be now thrown, electrolysis will still go on, but only one of the elements of the water, namely oxygen, will be evolved; for the hydrogen, on being released, will take the place of the copper in the solution, and the copper thus liberated will be deposited on the platinum plate or wire which constitutes the negative electrode. This experiment may be continued until all the copper is extracted from the solution. Let this experiment be repeated with a copper plate for the positive electrode, and it will be found that neither of the gases will be evolved. The hydrogen, as before, will take the place of the copper in the solution; the oxygen, instead of escaping at the anode, will combine with the copper of the electrode and the sulphuric acid to form sulphate of copper. The chemical forces called into action by the current are so beautifully balanced, that in the last experiment the quantity of copper supplied by the positive electrode exactly equals the quantity withdrawn from the solution and deposited upon the negative electrode. The whole art of electrotype consists in applying the metals thus released from their solutions to artistic or useful purposes. To obtain compact and brilliant deposits, many precautions have to be observed. The solutions must be kept saturated, or nearly so; the mould to be copied, or object to be coated, must not be too small, or out of proportion to the size of the zinc plate of the battery; in fine, the power employed must be carefully regulated according to the work to be done. In all arrangements the moulds or objects which receive the deposits act as negative electrodes, and are consequently in connection with the zinc of the battery or generating cell.

Electrotype Processes. Although reguline deposits of many metals can be obtained through the agency of voltaic electricity, we shall only treat of those of copper, silver, gold, and platinum. When copper is deposited, the object is generally to produce a substantial copy of a medal, an engraved plate, or other work of art; but when solutions containing the precious metals are electrolysed, the deposits are nearly always used for covering the surface of inferior metals. We shall notice the operations connected with the deposition of copper, and those relating to electro-plating under separate heads.

1. DEPOSITION OF COPPER:

The moulds or models intended to receive the deposited metals may be formed of various materials. For medals and similar small works, moulds of fusible metal, white wax, stearine, stearic acid, and gutta percha, are commonly used. The first are formed by dropping or pressing the medals to be copied upon the melted metal, taking care that the former are quite cold, and that the surface of the metal is bright or free from oxide. To make a mould in gutta percha, the material must be softened in warm water, and then pressed upon the medal by means of a strong screw press. With the other materials the manipulation is very easy. A ribbon of cardboard or thick paper is placed round the medal, so as to form a rim; the material, which has been melted in an earthen vessel, is then poured on, and allowed to remain until quite cold and hard, when it is cautiously removed. For large works, moulds of plaster of Paris are usually employed; these require to be saturated with wax or tallow, by standing them in a shallow vessel containing these substances in a melted state. For copying seals and small coins, impressions in ordinary sealing-wax may be used as electrotype moulds. Non-metallic moulds must be coated with some substance which has the property of conducting electricity before they can be used as negative electrodes. The substance commonly employed is plumbago or black-lead. It must be in the condition of an impalpable powder. It is rubbed briskly over the surface of the mould (wax, stearine, plaster, &c.) by means of a strong fine camel-hair brush, till the whole presents the well-known black-lead polish. The adhesion of the plumbago may be often promoted by breathing slightly on the mould. To cause it to adhere to sealing wax impressions, the wax may be slightly moistened with spirits of wine, or exposed to the vapour of ether. Delicate moulds and objects, which cannot well be black-leaded, may be covered with a conducting film of silver, by first dipping them in bisulphuret of carbon holding about 1/20th part of phosphorus in solution, and then, after a few seconds, immersing them in a weak solution of nitrate of silver, and allowing them to dry in the light. Metallic moulds require no preparation.

The voltaic apparatus used may now be described. The single-cell arrangement, used for small works, is formed on the principle of Daniell’s Constant Battery. It consists of a vessel of glass, earthenware, or wood, containing a smaller cell of thin biscuit ware, or other porous material; a rod or plate of amalgamated zinc, placed within the porous cell, and a wire connecting the zinc with the mould to be copied; the latter being placed in the outer vessel. The annexed figure represents a convenient form of the single-cell:——

The battery arrangement has many advantages over that described above, and should always be employed when large objects are to be electrotyped, or when a number of small moulds are to be operated upon. In this arrangement the copper solution is electrolysed in a separate vessel, termed the decomposition cell, and the current generated by one or more cells of a Daniell’s or Smee’s battery. This arrangement is shown in the following engraving:——

To connect the moulds with the zinc or positive element, stout copper wires or strips of thin sheet copper are employed. In the case of a non-metallic mould, the wire must lead directly to the plumbagoed surface, or, what amounts to the same thing, the plumbago must be extended to the point of attachment. The connecting wires, and the backs and edges of metallic moulds, must be covered with sealing-wax varnish, or other non-conducting substance, to prevent them receiving the deposit. Before a mould is placed in the copper solution it is advisable that everything should be arranged, so that the immersion may occasion immediate voltaic action. If the connection between the zinc and the mould is not effected until after the immersion, the solution may act chemically on the surface of the mould, and cause the deposit to appear dark and dirty. When a mould has remained in the solution long enough to receive a complete coating of copper, it may be lifted out with impunity for examination. If everything is going on well, the deposited metal will present a brilliant, light, copper-coloured surface. When sufficiently thick, the deposit is removed with care, washed and placed to dry. Electrotype medals may be polished with wash-leather and the plate brush, or bronzed. Various natural objects such as insects, fruits, &c.; small works of art, such as busts and statuettes; chemical vessels, particularly glass flasks and retorts; and numerous classes of articles, may be rendered less fragile by coating them with copper by the electrotype process.

II. DEPOSITION OF THE PRECIOUS METALS——

The solutions generally employed as electrolytes from which silver and gold are respectively separated, are those of the argento-cyanide and the auro-cyanide of potassium. These compounds are what chemists call double salts; for instance, cyanide of potassium is simply a compound of potassium and cyanogen; but argento-cyanide of potassium is cyanide of silver united with cyanide of potassium. When a solution of this double salt is electrolysed silver appears at one electrode and cyanogen at the other, while a proportionate amount of the simple cyanide of potassium is formed in the solution. But if the positive electrode is of silver, the cyanogen combines with it, and forms cyanide of silver, which unites with the liberated cyanide of potassium, and so keeps up the strength of the solution.

As in the deposition of copper, the apparatus used for plating or gilding may be the single cell or the decomposition cell and battery. The necessity of economising solutions of silver and gold has, however, led to certain modifications in the apparatus. The single-cell arrangement consists, as before (see above), of an outer vessel of glass or earthenware, containing a cell of porous biscuit ware; but the object to be silvered or gilded is placed, with the cyanide solution in the latter, while the zinc is placed in the outer vessel, with the dilute sulphuric acid.[273] The zinc is usually employed in the form of a cylinder, completely surrounding the porous cell. In the battery arrangement the decomposition cell may be of porcelain or glass; the silver or gold employed to keep up the strength of the solution may be in plates, wires, or ingots. For plating small objects, a single cell of a Daniell’s battery will afford ample decomposing power; gilding may be better accomplished by using three such cells. The battery arrangement is much more convenient, effective, and economical than the single-cell arrangement.

[Footnote 273: The strength of the acid water acting upon the zinc must be regulated according to the work to be done. If the action between the acid and the zinc be too energetic, the electricity developed will be more than sufficient to release pure metal, and hydrogen will be evolved, which will interfere with the deposition.]

On a large scale, electro-plating is carried out in oblong vats, occasionally holding from 200 to 250 gallons of solution. Silver plates connected with a powerful voltaic or magneto-electric battery, are placed at intervals in the vats; they form the positive electrodes, and correspond in extent of surface with the articles to be coated, and face them on both sides. The articles (tea-pots, cruet-frames, forks, spoons, &c.) act as the negative electrodes, and are suspended by copper wires from brass rods laid lengthways over the vats, and connected with the battery. The articles plated are usually formed of nickel silver or German silver, which is chosen on account of its silvery whiteness, a quality of great importance when portions of the coating of noble metal have been worn away by use.

To prepare the articles for plating, they are first boiled in a solution of potassa, to free them from grease; they are then quickly dipped in red nitrous acid, to remove any oxide that may have formed on the surface, and after this well washed in water, to remove every trace of acid. They are then suspended from copper wires, and dipped into a solution of mercury in cyanide of potassium, or some other mercurial solution, and afterwards washed in water, as before. The amalgamation of the surface effected by the last operation promotes the adhesion of the film of silver. The articles having been weighed, are now immersed in the silvering solution, and left until a sufficient amount of silver has been deposited on them. Their condition at any time may be ascertained by weighing a test-object removed from the solution. In some electro-plating establishments the silvering solution is kept constantly stirred by simple mechanical arrangements; in others, continual motion is given to the suspended articles. On being removed from the vats the plated articles are well brushed with brushes of fine brass wire attached to a lathe, and cleaned with fine Calais sand; they are afterwards polished on revolving brushes with rottenstone, then by hand with soft leather and rouge, and, lastly, with the naked female hand. A lasting polish is given to some articles by burnishing with a burnisher formed of highly polished hardened steel, bloodstone, agate, or flint. The process of electro-gilding on the large scale is nearly the same as that of electro-plating or silvering, but, of course, plates of gold are suspended in the solution instead of silver plates.

Various solutions for silvering, plating, and platinising, have been recommended. We give below those generally employed.

1. Solvent solution. Cyanide of potassium, 2 oz; distilled water or rain water, 1 pint; dissolve. Other proportions may be employed. Used as a general solvent for salts of silver, gold, and platinum.

2. Silver solution. Oxide of silver?[274] (not dried), 1 oz.; the solvent solution (No. 1), 1 pint. Used for the single-cell apparatus, its strength being maintained as the deposition proceeds by a fresh supply of oxide from time to time.

[Footnote 274: Precipitated from pure solution of nitrate of silver by excess of lime water. It should be well washed, and preserved in bottles with distilled water.]

Cyanide of silver dissolved in solvent solution (No. 1). This is the solution generally employed for plating with a separate decomposition cell.

3. Gold solution. Add to a pint of No. 1 oxide of gold, 1/4 oz. Used in the same manner as the second silver solution.

Cyanide of gold dissolved in solution of cyanide of potassium (No. 1). Used as last.

4. Platinum solution. The double chloride of platinum and potassium, dissolved in solution of caustic potassa. Other solutions have been proposed, but this appears to be decomposed with the greatest ease.

The above sketch of the electrotype art is necessarily very imperfect. For minute details respecting manipulation, the reader is referred to the excellent treatises on the subject that have been written; more particularly to Ernest Spon’s valuable work, entitled ‘Workshop Receipts.’

=ELEC′TUARY.= Syn. ELECTUARUM, L. Electuaries (ELECTUARIA) are formed of light powders, generally vegetable, mixed up with honey, syrup, or sugar, to the consistence of a stiff paste. In the present Pharmacopœia they are included under the title Confection, but this arrangement is manifestly improper, as the words are not synonymous. In Conserves and Confections the addition of the saccharine matter is in much larger proportion, and is designed to preserve the vegetable matter; in Electuaries, the syrup is designed merely to communicate the required form. (Dr Murray.)

The preparation of electuaries is similar to that of confections and conserves, and the same precautions must be observed to reduce the dry ingredients to very fine powder before adding them to the syrup or other substances used to give them form. Care must also be taken to diffuse the ingredients equally through every portion of the mass, by patient and laborious stirring. The neglect of this point has often led to disagreeable consequences, from some portion of the electuary being nearly inert, while another portion has possessed increased activity. See CONFECTION, CONSERVE, LINCTUS, &c.

=Electuary of Ac′etate of Potassa.= See CONSERVE.

=Electuary of Al′um.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM ALUMINIS, L. Prep. 1. (Phœbus.) Alum, 1 dr.; extract of logwood, 4 dr.; balsam of Peru, 6 drops; water of sage, q. s. Astringent and antiseptic; in diarrhœa, sponginess of the gums, &c.

2. (St. Marie.) Alum, 1 dr.; catechu and extract of bark, of each 2 dr.; conserve of roses, 6 dr.; simple syrup, q. s.——Dose. A teaspoonful, every 4 hours; in chronic diarrhœa, leucorrhœa, hæmorrhages, &c. See CONFECTION.

=Electuary, An′odyne.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM ANODYNUM, L. Prep. See CONFECTION OF OPIUM.

=Electuary, Anti′monial.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM ANTIMONII, Fr. Prep. Electuary of senna, 1 oz.; guaiacum resin, æthiops mineral, prepared sulphuret of antimony, each 1/2 oz.; syrup, q. s.——Dose, 1 dr. to 2 dr. twice a day.

=Electuary, Anti-rheumatic.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM ANTIRHEUMATICUM; CHELSEA PENSIONER. Prep. Guaiacum resin, 1 dr.; rhubarb, 2 dr.; bitartrate of potash, 1 oz.; sulphur, 2 oz.; one nutmeg; mix the powders with 1 lb. of honey. Take two spoonfuls night and morning.

=Electuary, Ar′abic.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM SARZÆ COMPOSITUM, E. ARABICUM, L.; ELECTUAIRE ARABIQUE, Fr. Prep. From sarsaparilla, 5 oz.; senna and China root, of each, 3 oz.; dried walnut peel, 1 oz. (all in fine powder); honey, q. s.——Dose, 1 to 4 dr. See TRAITEMENT ARABIQUE.

=Electuary, Aromat′ic.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM AROMATICUM (Ph. E.). This preparation differs from the aromatic confection of the other British colleges, in not containing chalk. It is aromatic and stomachic, but not antacid or absorbent. CONFECTION.

=Electuary, Bath.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM ANTI-CACHECTICUM, E. MARTIALE, E. FERRI COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. From blacksmiths’ clinkers, reduced to an impalpable powder, and made into an electuary with honey or treacle, q. s.; afterwards adding powdered ginger and carbonate of magnesia, of each, 1 oz., to every lb. of the mixture.——Dose. A teaspoonful night and morning every day, for 3 or 4 days, and again, after an equal interval, as long as thought necessary; as a chalybeate tonic, and in worms.

=Electuary of Bitar′trate of Potas′sa.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM POTASSÆ TARTRATIS, L. Prep. (Monro.) Cream of Tartar, 1 oz,; powdered ginger and conserve of roses, of each 1 dr.; syrup of orange peel, q. s.——Dose, 1 to 3 dr.; as a hydragogue purge. It is also a useful laxative in common cases. See CONFECTION OF CREAM OF TARTAR.

=Electuary, Black.= Syn. TROUSSEAU’S ELECTUARY, TROUSSEAU’S BLACK TONIC; ELECTUARIUM NIGRUM, E. FERRI TANNATIS, L. Prep. From sesquichloride of iron, 4 dr.; tannin, 1 dr.; confection of roses, 2 oz.; syrup of orange peel, 1 oz. Tonic and astringent.——Dose, 5 to 30 gr.

=Electuary of Black Pep′per.= See CONFECTION OF PEPPER.

=Electuary of Burnt Sponge.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM SPONGIÆ USTÆ, L. Prep. (Hulse.) Burnt sponge, 10 gr.; rhubarb, 4 gr.; conserve of roses, q. s. For a dose, to be taken night and morning; in scrofula, glandular swellings, &c. See CONFECTION OF SPONGE.

=Electuary of Cas′sia.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM CASSIÆ (Ph. D. 1826.), E. C. FISTULÆ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Fresh cassia pulp and syrup of orange, of each, 1/2 lb.; manna, 2 oz.; tamarind pulp, 1 oz.; mix, and evaporate to a proper consistence.——Dose, 2 dr. to 1 oz.; as a gentle laxative for children, or as a vehicle for other cathartics. That of the shops is commonly made with equal parts of tamarind and cassia pulps, mixed with 1/8th of manna, and flavoured with a few drops of tincture of orange peel, without any evaporation. See CONFECTION.

=Electuary of Cat′echu.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM CATECHU, CONFECTIO C., C. JAPONICA, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Powdered catechu and kino, of each, 4 oz.; cinnamon and nutmegs, of each, 1 oz.; opium (dissolved in a little sherry), 1-1/2 dr.; syrup of red roses (evaporated to the consistence of honey), 1-1/2 pint. See CONFECTION, and below.

=Electuary of Cat′echu (Compound).= Syn. ELECTUARIUM CATECHU COMPOSITUM (Ph. D.). See CONFECTIONS. Both the above are astringent, aromatic, and anodyne.——Dose, 15 gr. to 1 dr., or more; in diarrhœa, dysentery, &c.

=Electuary, Cathar′tic.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM CATHARTICUM, L. Prep. 1. Confection of senna, 1-1/2 oz.; flowers of sulphur, 1/2 oz.; syrup of roses or of orange peel, q. s.——Dose. A teaspoonful, 3 or 4 times a day, in piles; or, 2 to 3 teaspoonfuls, as a gentle laxative for females, and in skin diseases, gonorrhœa, &c. A mild and excellent medicine. It may be safely given in larger doses.

2. (Brera.) Aloes, 8 gr.; cream of tartar, 2 dr.; honey, q. s. For a dose. In amenorrhœa, attributed to abdominal engorgement.

=Electuary, Cephal′ic.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM CEPHALICUM, E. VALERIANÆ COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. (Hosp. F.) Valerian root and mistletoe of the oak, of each 1 oz.; honey, 1-1/2 oz.; tincture of henbane, q. s. to make an electuary. In nervous and rheumatic headache, &c.; assisted by an aperient.

=Electuary of Char′coal.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM CARBONIS, E. CARBONII, CONFECTIO C., L. Prep. 1. (Hosp. F.) Confection of senna, 2 oz.; fresh burnt charcoal, 1/2 oz.; carbonate of soda, 1/4 oz.; syrup of orange peel, q. s.

2. (Radius.) Electuary of senna, 2 oz.; powdered charcoal and carbonate of soda, of each, 1 dr. Both the above are given in obstinate constipation.——Dose, 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls twice a day. See ELECTUARY FOR THE TEETH.

=Electuary for Chol′era.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM ANTI-CHOLERICUM, L. The preparations that come under this name are numerous, including aromatic confection, and several like absorbent or astringent preparations. This name has been given to the American remedy for cholera, noticed at page

=Electuary of Cincho′na Bark.= Syn. ELECTUARY OF BARK; ELECTUARIUM CINCHONÆ, L. Prep. 1. From yellow bark and simple syrup, of each 1 oz.; conserve of red roses and confection of orange peel, of each 1/2 oz. Tonic and febrifuge.——Dose, 1 to 4 dr.; in debility, agues, &c.

2. (Radius.) Peruvian bark, 1 oz.; syrup of orange peel, q. s. As the last.——Dose, a teaspoonful or more, 3 or 4 times daily. (See below.)

=Electuary of Cinchona (Compound).= Syn. ELECTUARIUM CINCHONÆ COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. 1. (ACIDULATED,——Copland.) Yellow bark, 1 oz.; confection of roses, 1/2 oz.; diluted sulphuric acid, 1 dr.; syrup of ginger, 1-1/2 oz.

2. (ASTRINGENT,——Saunders.) Powdered Peruvian bark, orange peel, and conserves of roses and hips, of each 6 dr.; crabs’ eyes (or prepared chalk), 2 dr.; syrup of catechu, q. s.——Dose. A teaspoonful, 2 or 3 times daily; in chronic diarrhœa, &c.

3. (WITH CATECHU,——Pierquin.) Peruvian bark, 1 oz.; catechu and balsam of tolu, of each 1 dr.; syrup of comfrey (Symphytum officinale,——Linn.), q. s.——Dose. As the last; in spitting of blood, hæmorrhages, &c.

4. (WITH CLOVES,——Dewees.) Peruvian bark, 2 oz.; cloves, 1 dr. (better, 4 dr.); simple syrup, q. s. A piece the size of a walnut, every hour or two, during the intermission of an ague.

5. (WITH IRON,——Cadet.) Peruvian bark, 6 dr.; oxide of iron and confection of opium, of each 2 dr.; syrup of cinnamon, q. s.——Dose. A teaspoonful, or more, twice a day; in dropsy of the belly, after the evacuation of the fluid, and as a tonic in debility, accompanied by nervous excitement, &c., in the absence of fever.

6. (Quarin’s.) Red bark, 1 oz.; ammoniated iron, 1 dr.; made into an electuary with equal parts of oxymel of squills and syrup of the ‘five roots’ (diuretic). Tonic, febrifuge, and pectoral.

7. (WITH SAL-AMMONIAC,——P. Cod.) Gray bark, 2-1/4 oz.; hydrochlorate of ammonia, 1 dr.; honey and syrup of wormwood, of each 2 oz. In intermittents occurring in scrofulous subjects.

8. (WITH SODA,——P. Cod.) Powdered cinchona, 1 oz.; carbonate of soda, 2 dr.; thin mucilage, q. s. to mix. Tonic, febrifuge, and stomachic.——Dose, 2 dr., 2 or 3 times a day; in agues, complicated with acidity and dyspepsia.

9. (WITH SULPHUR,——Cadet.) Peruvian bark, 1 dr.; sulphur, crabs’ eyes (chalk), and spermaceti, of each 2 dr.; extract of opium, 4 dr.; conserve of roses, 4 dr.; syrup of milfoil, q. s. Highly praised in debility from phthisis.——Dose. A teaspoonful, 2 or 3 times a day, assisted with the liberal use of raw or lightly boiled eggs and cod-liver oil.

10. (WITH TIN,——Cadet.) Peruvian bark 1 oz.; tin filings and valerian root, of each 1/2 oz.; syrup of saffron, q. s. In epilepsy, worms, &c.——Dose. A teaspoonful, morning and evening. See CONFECTION OF BARK.

=Electuary of Copai′ba.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM COPAIBÆ, L. Prep. 1. Copaiba and powdered cubebs, equal parts; conserves of roses and orange peel, of each (in equal quantities), q. s.

2. (Caspar.) Blanched almonds, 6 dr.; powdered marsh-mallow root, 1 dr.; catechu, 1/2 dr.; balsam of copaiba, 3 dr.

3. (Ricord.) Confection of almonds, 1 oz.; copaiba, 1/2 oz.; hard extract of rhatany, 3 dr.; syrup of orange peel, q. s. All the above are excellent in gonorrhœa, gleets, &c. The last two agree better with the stomach than most other like preparations.——Dose, 1 teaspoonful, or more (rapidly increased to 2 or 3 dr.), 3 or 4 times daily. See CONFECTION.

=Electuary of Cow′hage.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM DOLICHOS, E. MUCUNÆ, L. Prep. 1. Dip the pods of dolichos in treacle, allow them to drain a moment, and then scrape off the hairs for use.

2. (Chamberlain.) As the last, nearly.

3. (Correa.) Cowhage (the hairs or setæ), 40 gr.; syrup, 1/2 oz.

4. (Ellis.) Cowhage (hairs), 1 dr.; honey, q. s.

5. (Guy’s Hosp.) Cowhage (hairs), any quantity, made into an electuary with treacle, q. s. In worms.——Dose. For a child, a teaspoonful; for an adult, a table-spoonful; in the morning, fasting, and at night, for 3 or 4 days; followed by a dose of castor oil, to which a teaspoonful of turpentine may be advantageously added. See COWHAGE.

=Electuary of Cu′bebs.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM CUBEBÆ, L. Prep. 1. See ELECTUARY OF COPAIBA.

2. (Beral.) Cubebs and copaiba, of each 2 oz.; powdered alum, 1 oz.; extract of opium, 5 or 6 gr.; mix.

3. (Bouchardat.) Cubebs, 1/2 oz.; copaiba, 1 oz.; sweet spirit of nitre, 1/2 fl. dr.; oil of peppermint, 8 or 10 drops; powdered sugar, q. s.

4. (Radius.) Cubebs, 1/2 oz.; honey, 1 oz. In gonorrhœa, mucous discharges from the vagina, bladder, &c.——Dose, 1 teaspoonful, afterwards increased to 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls, twice or thrice daily. See CONFECTION OF COPAIBA, ELECTUARY OF C., &c.

=Electuary, Demul′cent.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM DEMULCENS, L. Prep. From spermaceti, syrup of poppies, and syrup of tolu, of each 2 dr.; powdered gum tragacanth, 1 dr.; confection of roses, 6 dr.; nitre, 1/2 dr.——Dose. A piece the size of a small filbert, frequently; as a pectoral and demulcent in coughs, hoarseness, &c.

=Electuary, Deob′struent.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM DEOBSTRUENS, L. Prep. (Copland.) Confection of senna, 1-1/2 oz.; cream of tartar, 1 oz.; sulphur and syrup of ginger, of each 6 dr.; borax, 3 dr.; syrup of poppies, 2 dr.——Dose. A teaspoonful, or more, nightly; in the obstinate constipation of females, painful and suppressed menstruation, &c.

=Electuary for Dys′entery.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM ANTI-DYSENTERICUM (Ph. E. 1744), L. Electuary of catechu, mixed with half its weight of Locatel’s balsam.

=Electuary, Emmen′agogue.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM EMMENAGOGICUM, L. Prep. From myrrh, 1 dr.; ammoniated iron, 1 scrup.; syrup of ginger, q. s. to mix.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr., night and morning; in deficient or suppressed menstruation.

=Electuary for Epilep′sy.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM ANTI-EPILEPTICUM, L. Prep. 1. See ELECTUARY OF CINCHONA (Comp.), No. 10.

2. (Dr Mead.) Powdered cinchona, 1 oz.; valerian and tin (both in powder), of each, 1/2 oz.; syrup, q. s. to mix.——Dose. A teaspoonful, night and morning.

=Electuary, Feb′rifuge.= See ELECTUARY OF CINCHONA, &c.

=Electuary, Compound Guaiacum.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM GUAIACI COMPOSITUM. (Mid. H.) Prep. Guaiacum resin, 2 dr.; rhubarb, 1 dr.; sulphur, 2 dr.; nitre, 2 dr.; syrup of poppies, q. s.; mix.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.

=Electuary of In′digo.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM INDIGI, E. PIGMENTI INDICI, L. Prep. (Phœbus.) Powdered indigo, 4 dr.; aromatic powder, 1/2 dr.; syrup, 1 fl. oz. or q. s. In spasmodic diseases, especially in epilepsy, chorea, and hysteria, and the convulsions of children. It has also been used with advantage in that species of impotence in which strychnia is useful. The above quantity is to be all taken, in divided doses, during the day. To be of permanent advantage, it should be continued for several weeks.

=Electuary of Ipecacuan′ha.= See CONFECTION.

=Electuary of Jal′ap.= See CONFECTION.

=Electuary of Kermes.= MARMELADE DE ZANETTI; ELECTUARIUM KERMETIS, E. K. MINERALIS, L. Prep. From manna, 4 oz.; pulp of cassia and oil of almonds, of each 2 oz.; butter of cacao, 1/2 oz.: Kermes mineral, 10 gr.; syrup of marsh-mallow, 3 fl. oz.; syrup of orange flower, q. s. A diaphoretic laxative.——Dose, 1 to 4 teaspoonfuls, or more.

=Electuary of Lau′rel Ber′ries.= See CONFECTION OF RUE.

=Electuary, Len′itive.= See CONFECTION OF SENNA.

=Electuary, Mahomed’s.= Prep. 1. From grocer’s currants, 2 oz.; powdered senna, 1/2 oz.; powdered ginger, 1 dr.; finely powdered capsicum and cloves, of each 20 gr.; croton oil, 3 drops; conserve of roses and syrup of saffron, of each in equal parts, q. s. to mix.

2. (Bateman.) Currants, 1 oz.; senna, 1/2 oz.; ginger, 1/2 dr.; syrup of roses, q. s.; croton oil, 1 drop.——Dose, 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls, early in the morning; in dyspepsia and habitual constipation. The first formulary produces a most useful medicine, particularly for free-livers.

=Electuary of Male Fern.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM FELICIS MARIS, L. Prep. 1. Powder of male fern, 3 dr.; conserve of roses, 1 oz.

2. (Radius.) Ethereal extract of male fern, 1/2 dr.; honey of roses, 1 oz. The half of either to be taken at night, and the remainder the next morning. In worms.

=Electuary, Mustard.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM SINAPIS. (Guy’s H.) Prep. Mustard seed, lightly bruised, 1 oz.; sulphur, 2 dr.; syrup of orange peel, 1 fl. oz.——Dose, 1 dr., 3 or 4 times a day.

=Electuary of Ni′tre.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM POTASSÆ NITRATIS, L. Prep. (Hosp. F.) Nitre, 3 dr.; confection of roses, 2 oz.——Dose. A piece of the size of a filbert, where the use of nitre is indicated. See CONFECTION.

=Electuary, Olibanum.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM OLIBANI. [Fr.] Prep. Olibanum, 1/2 oz.; balsam of copaiva, 1/2 oz.; conserve of hips, 1 oz.; syrup, q. s.——Dose, 2 dr. twice a day.

=Electuary of O′pium.= See CONFECTION OF OPIUM.

=Electuary, Pec′toral.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM PECTORALE, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1744.) From conserve of roses, 2 oz.; compound powder of tragacanth, 4 dr.; flowers of benzoin, 1 dr.; syrup of tolu, q. s.——Dose. A little, ad libitum.

2. Oxymel of squills, syrup of marsh-mallows, mucilage of gum Arabic, and syrup of tolu, of each 1/2 oz.; powdered lump sugar, 2 oz. As the last.

=Electuary of Pep′per.= See CONFECTION, and above.

=Electuary for Piles.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM HÆMORRHOIDALE, L. Prep. 1. See CONFECTION and ELECTUARY OF PEPPER.

2. (Dr Copland.) Cream of tartar, 1 oz.; precipitated sulphur (pure), 3 dr.; confection of senna, 2 oz.; syrup of orange peel or ginger, q. s. to mix.

3. (Dr Graves.) Confection of senna and sulphur, of each 1 oz.; balsam of copaiba and cream of tartar, of each 1/2 oz.; jalap and ginger, of each 1 dr.; syrup of orange peel, q. s.

4. (Hosp. F.) Confection of senna, 2 oz.; black pepper and precipitated sulphur, of each 1/2 oz.; oil of cubebs, 1 dr.; syrup, q. s. The last three are useful laxatives in piles, and by their preventing the accumulation and hardening of the fæces, often remove the affection.——Dose. A teaspoonful, three or four times a day. From the difficulty experienced in procuring pure precipitated sulphur, washed sublimed sulphur may be advantageously substituted.

=Electuary of Pomegran′ate= Syn. ELECTUARIUM GRANATI, L. Prep. 1. From the root-bark, 1 dr.; assafœtida, 1/2 dr.; croton oil, 6 drops; conserve of roses, 1 oz.——Dose. A teaspoonful, night and morning.

2. (Radius.) Extract of the root-bark, 6 dr.; lemon juice, 2 fl. dr.; linden water, 3 fl. dr.; gum tragacanth, q. s. to make an electuary. One half to be taken at once; the remainder in an hour. Both are given in tape-worm.

=Electuary of Prunes.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM PRUNONUM. (Zwelfer.) Prep. Pulp of prunes boiled to a due consistence, 2 lbs.; pure sugar, 1 lb.

=Electuary of Resin.= See CONFECTION OF RESIN.

=Electuary of Rhubarb.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM RHEI, L. Prep. (Saunders.) Powdered rhubarb, 1-1/2 dr.; sulphate of potassa, 1 dr.; cream of tartar, 4 dr.; pulp of tamarinds, 2 oz.——Dose. A teaspoonful, as a mild stomachic laxative.

=Electuary, Compound Saffron.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM CROCI COMPOSITUM. CONFECTION D’HYACINTHE, [F.] Prep. Prepared Armenian bole, 8 oz.; levigated crab’s eyes, 8 oz.; cinnamon, 3 oz.; yellow sandal, red sandal, myrrh, of each 1 oz.; dittany of Crete, 1 oz.; all in fine powder. On the other hand, dissolve 1-1/2 lb. of honey in 3 lbs. of syrup of pinks, over a gentle fire, and strain, and when nearly cold stir into it 1 oz. of saffron in powder. Let stand twelve hours, and then stir in carefully the powders first mentioned.

=Electuary of Scam′mony.= See CONFECTION.

=Electuary for Scur′vy.= See CONSERVE (Antiscorbutic).

=Electuary of Sen′na.= See CONFECTION OF SENNA.

=Electuary of Squills.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM SCILLÆ, L. Prep. 1. Oxymel of squills, 2 fl. oz.; cream of tartar and powdered sugar, of each 1-1/2 oz.——Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls, as a laxative and expectorant; in old coughs, &c.

2. (Radius.) Squills, nitre, gum ammoniacum, and tartrate (bitartrate) of potassa, of each 2 dr.; sal-ammoniac, 20 gr.; syrup of cinnamon, q. s.——Dose, 2 dr.; three times a day; in dropsies. See CONSERVE OF SQUILLS.

=Electuary of Steel.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM FERRI, E. CHALYBEATUM, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Collier.) Potassio-tartrate of iron, 1/2 oz.; confection of roses, 1 oz.; syrup q. s. to mix.

2. (Collier.) Precipitated sesquioxide of iron, 1 oz.; honey, 2 oz.; ginger syrup, 1/2 fl. oz. Both the above are tonic and emmenagogue.——Dose. One teaspoonful, thrice a day. See CONFECTION.

=Electuary, Stim′ulant.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM STIMULANS, L. Prep. From gum ammoniacum (strained), 1 oz.; vinegar of squills, 1/2 oz.; mixed with a gentle heat, and spread on leather. Applied to the chest or pit of the stomach, as a mild counter-irritant and antispasmodic; and as a discutient to tumid glands and indolent tumours. It is wrongly called an electuary.

=Electuary, Stomach′ic.= Syn. DINNER ELECTUARY; ELECTUARIUM STOMACHICUM, CONFECTIO STOMACHICA, L. Prep. 1. Rhubarb, ginger, and extract of chamomile, of each 1 dr.; confection of orange peel, 4 dr.; syrup q. s.

2. Rhubarb and gentian, of each, 1-1/2 dr.; extract of hops and powdered capsicum, of each 1/2 dr.; oil of chamomile, 12 drops; confection of hips and syrup of orange peel, of each 1/2 oz.

3. Green peppermint, lump sugar, and confection of orange peel, equal parts.——Dose. A teaspoonful, an hour before a meal. They are all excellent stomachics, and are useful to improve the appetite, and in dyspepsia.

=Electuary of Sul′phur.= See CONFECTION OF SULPHUR, and below.

=Electuary of Sulphur (Compound).= Syn. ELECTUARIUM SULPHURIS COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. 1. Sulphur, 3/4 oz.; cream of tartar, 1 oz.; confections of senna and black pepper, of each 2 oz.; syrup of ginger, 1 fl. oz. An excellent medicine in piles.——Dose. A teaspoonful, twice a day.

2. (WITH BORAX.) Flowers of sulphur, 1 oz.; cream of tartar, 1-1/2 oz.; borax, 1/2 oz.; confection of senna, 2-1/2 oz.; syrup of orange peel q. s. to mix.——Dose. 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls, in diseases of the uterine organs and lower bowels. See CONFECTION.

=Electuary for the Teeth.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM DENTIFRICUM, L. See TOOTH PASTE, DENTIFRICE, &c.

=Electuary of Tin.= See CONFECTION OF TIN, and below.

=Electuary of Tin (Compound).= Syn. ELECTUARIUM STANNI COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. 1. Powdered tin, 1 oz.; confection of oil of turpentine, 2 oz.

2. (Dr Cheston.) Tin filings, 4 dr.; carbonate of iron (sesquioxide), 1 dr.; conserve of wormwood, 3 dr.

3. (Foy.) Powder of tin, 1 oz.; extract of wormwood and powdered jalap, of each, 1 dr.; compound syrup of chicory, q. s. In worms.-Dose. A tablespoonful, or more, for 2 or 3 successive mornings, fasting; followed by a purge.

=Electuary of Tur′pentine.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM TEREBINTHINÆ, L. Prep. 1. (St. B. Hosp.) Common turpentine, 1 oz.; honey, 2 oz.——Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls; in complaints of the urinary organs, worms, &c.

2. (Radius.) Turpentine, soap, and rhubarb, of each, 1 dr.; syrup of wormwood, q. s.——Dose. Three teaspoonfuls a day; in dropsy, worms, &c.

3. (E. OLEI TEREBINTHINÆ,——Copland.) As confection of turpentine,——Ph. D. See CONFECTION.

=Electuary, Ver′mifuge.= Syn. ELECTUARIUM ANTHELMINTICUM, E. VERMIFUGUM, L. Prep. 1. (Bresmer.) Worm-seed and tansy-seed, of each 4 dr.; powdered valerian root, 2 dr.; jalap and sulphate of potassa, of each 1-1/2 to 1/2 dr.; oxymel of quills, q. s. to mix.——Dose. A teaspoonful, or more; repeated night and morning, followed by a brisk purge.

2. (Rosenstein.) Worm-seed, 10 gr.; sulphate of iron, 4 gr.; jalap and honey, of each 20 gr. For two doses, as the last. 2 or 3 dr. of confection of senna are often substituted for the jalap and honey.

3. (Foy.) Aloes, 1/2 oz.; common salt, 3 dr.; flour, 2 oz.; honey q. s. to form a stiff paste. Used as a suppository in ascarides.

4. Flowers of sulphur, 4 oz.; powdered jalap, 1 oz,; powdered bark, 1 oz.; syrup of buckthorn q. s.——Dose. Two or three teaspoonfuls, every morning early. See CONFECTION and ELECTUARY OF TIN, TURPENTINE, WORM-SEED, &c.

=Electuary for Worms.= See ELECTUARY VERMIFUGE (above).

=EL′EMENTS.= Syn. ELEMENTARY BODIES, SIMPLE B.; ELEMENTA, L. In chemistry, those substances or bodies which have hitherto resisted every attempt which has been made to decompose them, or to resolve them into simpler forms of matter. Earth, air, fire, and water, were regarded by the ancients as simple bodies, of which all others are composed, and they still constitute the ‘four elements’ of the vulgar. The imaginary principles or elements of the alchemists were termed salt, sulphur, and mercury. About sixty-four different kinds of matter are at present recognised as elementary bodies. They are substances having the most diverse characters. The great majority exist in the solid state; bromide and mercury are liquid; while oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and chlorine, are gaseous. About four fifths of the elements are metallic, as instanced by gold, silver, copper, iron, &c.; the remainder are non-metallic, as instanced by carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, &c. A list of the known elements is given under the head of ATOMIC WEIGHTS (which see).

=EL′EMI.= Syn. GUM ELEMI; ELEMI (B. P.). “A terebinthinate concretion, from an uncertain plant.” (Ph. L.) MEXICAN ELEMI is known to be the produce of a species of the genus Elaphrium. MANILLA ELEMI is probably the product of Canarium commune.

Prop., &c. The elemi of commerce is of a pale-yellow colour, brittle without, but soft and tough within; it has a warm bitter taste, and a fragrant aromatic smell, partaking of fennel and juniper. It is only partially transparent even in thin plates, is very fusible, and has a density a little greater than that of water. It contains 12-1/2 per cent. of volatile oil (oil of elemi). It is used to give toughness to lacquers and varnishes, and in medicine in the preparation of ELEMI OINTMENT.

Pur. The elemi of the shops is often adulterated, but more frequently a factitious kind is sold for the genuine gum. This fraud may be detected by exposing the suspected article to heat, along with a little water, when the factitious fragrance of the spurious article evaporates, and the coarse terebinthinate smell of the resin used to adulterate it, or which is sold for it, becomes readily distinguishable.

=Elemi, Facti′′tious.= Prep. 1. Yellow resin, 8 lbs.; melt, add Canada balsam, 2 lbs; withdraw the vessel from the heat, and further add of oil of juniper, 2 dr.; oil of sweet fennel, 1 dr.; oil of nutmeg, 1/2 dr.

2. Yellow resin, 7 lb.; Canada balsam, 1 lb.; juniper oil bottoms, 4 dr.; oil of mace, 3 dr.; mix as before.

=EL′EMIN.= The crystalline resin of gum elemi.

=ELIX′IR.= In pharmacy, a name formerly applied to various compound tinctures, and to preparations supposed to contain the quintessence of other substances. (It is still applied to several popular remedies.) The elixirs of the alchemists were solutions employed in their fruitless attempts to transmute the baser metals into gold.

=Elixir, Ac′id.= Syn. ELIXIR ACIDUM, L. Prep. 1. (Dippell’s) Sulphuric acid, 1 part, dropped gradually into rectified spirit of wine, 5 parts; placed in a large flask, and afterwards coloured by digestion on animal kermes and saffron, of each 1 part.

2. (Haller’s,——Ph. Sax. 1837.) From sulphuric acid and rectified spirit, of each 1 part; as before.

3. (Vogler’s.) From sulphuric acid and nitrous ether, equal parts, as above. Astringent and antiseptic.——Dose. A few drops, in water.

=Elixir of Al′oes.= Syn. COMPOUND TINCTURE OF ALOES; ELIXIR ALOËS, L. See TINCTURE.

=Elixir of Aloes (Compound).= Syn. ELIXIR OF ALOËS COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. (Dr Copland.) Acetate of potassa, inspissated ox-gall, socrotine aloes, and myrrh, of each 2 dr.; hay saffron, 1 dr.; brandy (or proof spirit), 2-1/2 fl. oz.; digest a week, and strain. Stomachic and laxative.——Dose. A teaspoonful, or more; in dyspepsia, constipation, &c.

=Elixir, Anti-asthmat′ic.= Syn. ELIXIR ANTI-ASTHMATICUM, L. Prep. 1. Oil of aniseed, camphor, and balsam of tolu, of each 1 oz.; cochineal, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 1 gal.; digest a week, and filter.

2. As the last, adding powdered opium, 1-1/4 oz.——Dose. A teaspoonful to allay irritation, assisted by an occasional dose of aperient medicine; in asthma, chronic coughs, &c.

3. (Boerhaave’s.) Aniseed, asarabacca, elecampane, liquorice root, orris root, and sweet flag (calamus), of each equal parts; made into a tincture, with brandy.——Dose, 20 to 40 drops.

=Elixir Antigoutteux de Villette= is a tincture of 100 parts brown cinchona bark, 50 parts poppy petals, 25 parts sassafras, 50 parts guaiacum in 4,000 parts rum, mixed with 2,500 parts syrup of sarsaparilla. (Hager.)

=Elixir, Anti-scrof′ulous.= Syn. ELIXIR ANTI-SCROFULOSUM, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) The ammoniated tincture of gentian. See TINCTURE.

2. (Desforges.) Guaiacum, 5 oz.; cinchona bark and pellitory of each 3 oz.; cloves, 5 dr.; orange peel and benzoin, of each 2 dr.; hay saffron, 1/2 dr.; rectified spirit and brandy, of each 1/2 pint; digest a week, and filter. Used as an application to scorbutic gums.

=Elixir, Bitter.= Syn. ELIXIR AMARUM (Ph. Germ.) Prep. Extract of buckbean, extract of orange peel, of each 2 parts; peppermint water, alcohol (68 per cent.), of each 16 parts; spirit of ether (made of 3 parts of alcohol and 1 part of ether), 1 part. Dissolve and mix.

=Elixir, Boerhaave’s Asthmat′ic.= See ELIXIR ANTIASTHMATIC (above).

=Elixir, Boerhaave’s Vis′ceral.= Syn. ELIXIR BOERHAAVII, E. B. VISCERALE, L. Prep. (Ph. Han.) Aloes, myrrh, and saffron, of each 1 oz.; tartrate of potassa, 2 oz.; alcohol (strongest rectified spirit), 14 oz.; water, 1 oz.; macerate 3 days, and filter. This preparation “has been highly praised in visceral obstruction.” (Dr Griffith.)——Dose, 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls.

=Elixir of Celery= (Dr Wilkinson’s.) For increasing, preserving, and producing virility. Juniper berries, angelica root, lovage root, of each 1 part; spirit, 12 parts; orange-flower water, rose water, of each 4 parts; spring water, sufficient. Distil 20 parts, and mix the distillate with 12 parts clarified honey. (Hager.)

=Elixir, Claude’s.= Syn. ELIXIR CLAUDERI, L. 1. (Pideret.) Salt of tartar, sal-ammoniac, strained aloes, and myrrh, of each 1 oz.; elder-flower water, 1-1/4 pint, digest, with agitation, for 24 hours, and filter.

2. (Parrish.) Carbonate of potassa, 1 oz.; aloes, guaiacum, myrrh, saffron, and rhubarb (contused), of each 2 dr.; water, 18 fl. oz. Macerate a few days, and decant.——Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls; in amenorrhœa, constipation, scurvy, visceral obstructions, &c.

=Elixir, Cough.= Syn. ELIXIR ANTI-CATARRHALE, L. Prep. 1. See ANTI-ASTHMATIC ELIXIR.

2. (Hufeland.) Extracts of blessed thistle and dulcamara, of each 1 dr.; cherry-laurel water, 1 fl. dr.; fennel-water, 1 fl. oz.——Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls, 3 or 4 times a day. It is a most useful remedy in coughs occurring in nervous, hysterical, or irritable patients. See ELIXIR OF IPECACUANHA, ELIXIR LETTSOM’S, &c. (below).

=Elixir, Daffy’s.= Syn. ELIXIR SALUTIS, E. SENNÆ COMPOSITUM, TINCTURA SENNÆ COMPOSITA, L. This is an aromatised and sweetened tincture of senna, to which other cathartics are generally added. Nearly every drug-house has its own formula for this article. The following are those employed in the London trade:——

Prep. 1. East India senna, 1-1/2 lb.; jalap, 5 oz.; coriander seed and aniseed, of each 1/2 lb.; rhubarb, 1/4 lb.; red sanders wood, 2 oz.; salt of tartar, 2 oz.; treacle, 7 lbs.; rectified spirit of wine, 2-1/2 galls.; water, 3-1/4 galls. All the solids are well bruised, and macerated in the mixed fluids for 14 days, when the whole is pressed, and strained through a flannel bag. It is too glutinous to run through filtering paper.

2. Senna, rhubarb, and aniseed, of each 2 lbs.; jalap and caraways, of each 1 lb.; red sanders wood, 1/2 lb.; brown sugar, 7 lbs.; proof spirit, 10 galls.; as the last.

3. Senna, 56 lbs.; aniseed, 7 lbs.; rhubarb (East India), 14 lbs.; coriander seed, 6 lbs.; caraway seed and red sanders wood, of each 5 lbs.; cassia bark and jalap, of each 3 lbs.; proof spirit, 100 galls.; digest for 14 days, press, strain, and add molasses, 84 lbs.; mix well, and either clarify or strain through flannel.

4. For proof spirit in the last two formulæ, equal parts of spirit of wine and water are employed by the smaller houses.

5. (Redwood.) Senna, 1/2 lb.; aniseed, caraways, and jalap, of each 1 oz. 2 dr.; juniper berries, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 6 pints; macerate for 14 days, then add of treacle, 10-1/2 oz.; water, 1 lb. 5 oz.; mix and strain.

6. (Dicey’s.) Senna, 1 lb.; guaiacum shavings, elecampane root (dried), aniseed, caraway seed, coriander seed, and liquorice root, of each 1/2 lb.; stoned raisins, 2 lbs.; proof spirit or brandy, 9 quarts; macerate for 10 days.

7. (Swinton’s.) Senna, 1 lb.; jalap, 3 lbs.; coriander seed, caraway seed, liquorice root, and elecampane root, of each 4 oz.; moist sugar, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit of wine and water, of each 1 gal.; as the last.

Obs. Daffy’s elixir is a favorite purge with drunkards, and is a common and very popular remedy in flatulent colic, dyspepsia, diarrhœa, &c.——Dose, 1 to 4 table-spoonfuls, or more.

=Elixir de Pepsin Digestif.= (Grimault & Co.) For loss of appetite and disordered digestion. Contains pepsine, in quantities not at all proportionate to the price of the article.

=Elixir Deslauriers Toni-Febrifuge au Quinquina et Caffé.= A tonic febrifuge. Yellow cinchona (Köningschina), 20 grammes; brown cinchona, 8 grammes; powdered coffee beans, slightly roasted, 16 grammes; wine, 250 grammes; sugar, 15 grammes; citric acid, 2·5 grammes. Boil once after standing some time in a warm place, and filter. Add to the filtered liquid 85 grammes sugar and 15 grammes spirit.

=Elixir de St. Hubert pour les Chasseurs= is a solution of 2 parts carbolic acid in 50 parts spirit. (Casselmann.)

=Elixir, Devil’s.= Syn. ELIXIR CAPSICI COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. From pods of capsicum, and cloves (bruised), of each 1 oz.; ginger and saffron, of each 3 oz.; cantharides, 5 dr.; proof spirit, 7 lbs.; digest for 10 days.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 3 dr., in mixtures. It is stimulating, anti-choleraic, and aphrodisiac.

=Elixir of Garlic.= Syn. ELIXIR ALLII, L. Prep. From garlic roots (bruised), 80 in no.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest, distil to dryness, and repeat the process with the same spirit from fresh roots, a second and a third time; lastly, add camphor, 2 dr. Diaphoretic and pectoral.——Dose. A teaspoonful, twice a day; in asthma, old coughs, diarrhœa from debility, &c.

=Elixir, Garus’s.= Syn. ELIXIR GARI, L.; ELIXIR DE GARUS, Fr. Prep. 1. Myrrh, 1 oz.; aloes and saffron, of each 1/2 oz.; cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg, of each 1 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest a week, add water, 5 fl. oz., and distil over 1 quart; to the distillate (ALCOOLAT DE GARUS) add of syrup of maidenhair, 2 lbs.; orange-flower water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.

2. (Foy.) Compound tincture of saffron, 8 pints; syrup of maidenhair, 10 pints; mix; add caramel, q. s. to colour, dissolved in orange-flower water, 1/2 pint.

3. (P. Cod.) Aloes and saffron, of each 1 oz.; myrrh, cinnamon, and cloves, of each 1/2 oz.; nutmeg, 1/2 dr.; proof spirit, 12 pints; orange-flower water, 16 fl. oz.; macerate 2 days, distil 6 pints, and add to the distillate (ALCOOLAT DE GARUS), of syrup of capillaire, 7-1/2 pints; and colour with saffron q. s.

4. (Soubeiran.) Socotrine aloes and saffron, of each 1 oz.; myrrh, canella alba, citron, and nutmegs, of each 1/2 oz.; spirit (sp. gr. ·923), 20 lbs.; orange-flower water, 16 fl. oz.; macerate as last, distil 10 lbs., and add to the distillate (ALCOOLAT DE GARUS), of syrup of capillaire, 12-1/2 lbs.; orange-flower water, 8 fl. oz.; with saffron q. s. to colour.

5. (Thierry.) Aloes, myrrh, and saffron, of each 2 dr.; nutmeg, 4 dr.; canella alba and cloves, of each 1 oz.; spirit (·864), 13 lbs.; draw over 12 lbs. of ‘alcoolat,’ add to the residue of the distillation rose water, 10 lbs.; distil 6 lbs., and add as much of this aromatic water to the alcoolat as will raise its sp. gr. to ·890. Then to every 11 lbs. of the above mixed liquor add of simple syrup, 15 lbs.; tincture of vanilla and orange peel, of each 2-1/2 fl. oz.; fresh milk (skimmed), 1 lb.; and tincture of saffron q. s. to colour; digest with agitation for two days, and filter. Used as a stomachic, carminative, and stimulant, in doses of a wine-glassful. That prepared without distillation forms an excellent stomachic purge. With the exception of that from the 2nd formula, the products may be regarded as agreeable cordial liquors rather than medicines. It is much employed on the Continent.

=Elixir of Gold.= Syn. ELIXIR AURII, L.; ELIXIR D’OR, Fr. Prep. 1. De la Motte’s Golden Drops.

2. Terchloride of gold, 20 gr.; rectified spirit, 6 fl. dr.; ether, 3 fl. dr.; dissolve.——Dose, 5 to 15 drops, taken in distilled water; in gout, scrofula, nervous diseases, cancer, indurated glands, secondary syphilis, &c. This last preparation is often confounded with the gouttes d’or du Général de la Motte; but the two are evidently distinct articles. See DROPS.

=Elixir, Haller’s.= See ELIXIR ACID (above).

=Elixir, Hoffman’s Visceral.= Syn. ELIXIR HOFFMANNI, E. H. VISCERALE, L. Prep. 1. As ELIXIR OF ORANGE-PEEL,——Ph. Bor. 1847.

2. Thin outside peel of orange (dried), myrrh, and centuary, of each 2 dr.; extracts of carduus benedictus, cascarilla, and gentian, of each 1 dr.; white wine (sherry), 1 quart. Aromatic and stomachic.——Dose. A dessert-spoonful, or more.

=Elixir for Impotence in Males= (Dr Ludwig Tiedemann). Prepared from directions given in the Puntsaou from genuine ginseng root. 135 grammes of a dark brown aromatic vinous liquid, prepared by digesting orange berries in wine. The embrocation is an equal quantity of a pleasantly-smelling liquid consisting of spirit with tincture of storax and a small admixture of volatile oils. (Hager.)

=Elixir of Ipecac′uanha.= Syn. ELIXIR IPECACUANHÆ, L. Prep. (Cadet.) Powdered ipecacuanha and balsam of tolu, of each 4 dr.; flowers of benzoin, opium, and saffron, of each 2 dr.; oil of aniseed, 1 dr.; camphor, 40 gr.; alcohol (rectified spirit), 1-1/2 pint; digest a week and filter.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr., as a stimulant, diaphoretic, expectorant, and stomachic; in chronic coughs, asthmas, and old colds, and in certain forms of deficient appetite, dyspepsia, diarrhœa, &c.

=Elixir of Jal′ap.= Syn. ELIXIR JALAPÆ COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. From jalap, 4 oz.; scammony, 4 dr.; gamboge, 2 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 3 dr., as a purgative; especially in worms.

=Elixir Karoly pour les Fourrures.= A solution of camphor and carbolic acid in strong spirit, mixed with a clear brown acrid tincture, perhaps tinct. pyrethri rosei. (Casselmann.)

=Elixir, Lettsom’s.= Prep. (Augustin.) Oil of aniseed, 1 dr.; camphor, 1-1/2 dr.; benzoic acid, opium, and saffron, of each 2 dr.; ipecacuanha and balsam of tolu, of each 4 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 lbs.; digest 10 days and filter.——Dose, 5 to 15 drops, for a child; 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful, for an adult; in ordinary coughs, hooping-cough, &c.

=Elixir of Life, Bitter= (Jacob Wolff). For strengthening the constitution. A brandy prepared from 1 gramme aloes, 10 grammes cinnamon, 2·5 grammes sweet flag, 5 grammes angelica root, ·6 grammes cake saffron, 10 grammes caramel, 215 grammes glycerin, 180 grammes spirit, 350 grammes water. (Hager.)

=Elixir, Live-long.= Syn. ELIXIR OF LONG LIFE; E. LONGÆ VITÆ, L. Prep. 1. See TINCTURE OF RHUBARB AND ALOES.

2. (ELIXIR VITÆ MATTHIOLI.) A mixture of several aromatics and stimulants, made with rectified spirit.

=Elixir of Myrrh.= Syn. ELIXIR MYRRHÆ, L. See TINCTURE OF SAVINE (Comp.),——Ph. L. 1788.

=Elixir d’Or.= See ELIXIR OF GOLD.

=Elixir of Or′ange Peel.= Syn. ELIXIR AURANTIORUM COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Bor. 1847.) Orange peel, 6 oz.; cinnamon, 2 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 1 oz.; Madeira wine, 4 lbs.; macerate 6 days, express the tincture, and add of extracts of buckbean, cascarilla, gentian, and wormwood, of each, 1 oz.; dissolve, and after repose for subsidence, decant and filter. An excellent aromatic bitter and stomachic.

2. (Moscati.) Orange peel, 1 oz.; cascarilla, 1/2 oz.; waters of citron peel and wormwood, and rectified spirit, of each 1/2 pint; digest a week. Resembles the last.——Dose (of either). A table-spoonful to a wine-glassful.

=Elixir, Parego′ric.= Syn. ELIXIR PAREGORICUM, L. See TINCTURE OF CAMPHOR (Comp.).

=Elixir, Paregoric (Scotch).= Syn. ELIXIR PAREGORICUM SCOTICUM, L. See TINCTURE OF OPIUM (Ammoniated).

=Elixir, Pec′toral.= Syn. ELIXIR PECTORALE, L. (Ph. E. 1745.) Balsam of tolu, 2 oz.; gum benzoin, 1-1/2 oz.; saffron, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 32 fl. oz.; digest in a gentle heat for 4 days and filter.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful. (See above.)

=Elixir, Pol′ychrest.= Syn. ELIXIR POLYCHRESTON, L. Prep. (Ph. E. 1745.) Guaiacum (gum), 6 oz.; balsam of Peru, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 23 fl. oz.; digest as last, strain, and add oil of sassafras, 2 fl. dr. Pectoral and anti-rheumatic.——Dose, 10 to 60 drops, or more.

=Elixir, Paracelsus’s.= See ELIXIR PROPRIETATIS (below).

=Elixir Proprieta′tis.= [L.] Syn. PARACELSUS’S ELIXIR OF PROPRIETY; ELIXIR DE PROPRIÉTÉ DE PARACELSE, Fr. An old preparation, nearly corresponding to the compound tincture of aloes of modern pharmacy, and which is now sold for it. Prep. 1. (Soubeiran.) Tincture of myrrh, 4 oz.; tinctures of aloes and saffron, of each 3 oz. (‘Trait. Pharm.’ 1847.)

2. (ELIXIR PROPRIETATIS CUM ACIDO.)——a. The last, slightly acidulated with oil of vitriol, and filtered.

b.——Ph. Bor. 1847.——Aloes and myrrh, of each 2 oz.; saffron, 1 oz.; spirit (sp. gr. ·900), 2 lbs.; dilute sulphuric acid (1 to 5), 2 oz.; macerate 4 days, and filter.

3. (ELIXIR PROPRIETATIS TARTARIZATUM; E. P. ALKALIZATUM.) From elixir proprietatis, alkalised with salt of tartar, and filtered. The last two are old preparations, now seldom inquired for in this country, except in places remote from London.

=Elixir, Radcliffe’s.= Prep. 1. From socotrine aloes, 6 dr.; rhubarb, 1 dr.; cinnamon (cassia), cochineal, and zedoary root, of each 1/2 dr.; syrup of buckthorn, 2 fl. oz.; brandy, 1-1/4 pint; digest 10 days and strain.

2. As the last, but substituting proof spirit, 1 pint, and water, 1/4 pint, for the brandy. Aromatic, stomachic, and aperient.——Dose, 1 to 4 dr.; in similar cases to those in which ‘DAFFY’S ELIXIR’ is taken.

=Elixir of Ro′ses.= Syn. ELIXIR ROSÆ, L. Prep. 1. Eau de rose, 2 fl. oz.; spirits of horseradish and scurvy grass, of each 1 fl. oz.; otto of roses, 3 drops; camphor and cochineal (both in powder), 12 gr.; powdered sugar-candy, 1/2 oz.; digest, with frequent agitation, for a week, and after repose decant the clear, and strain through a piece of muslin. Used as an elegant application in scurvy of the gums, and also to perfume the breath.

2. (Beasley.) Cinnamon, 3 oz.; ginger, 2 oz.; cloves, 1 dr.; essence of peppermint, 1 oz.; oil of orange peel, 1 dr.; otto of roses, 15 (? 25) drops; rectified spirit, 2-1/2 pints; digest 15 days and filter. Used as a tooth cosmetic.

=Elixir Sa′crum.= Tincture of aloes and rhubarb.

=Elixir Salu′tis.= Syn. ELIXIR OF HEALTH. The compound tincture of senna of old pharmacy. See ELIXIR, DAFFY’S.

=Elixir of Scam′mony.= Syn. ELIXIR SCAMMONII, L. Prep. (Guibourt.) Scammony (pure), 2 dr.; proof spirit, 8 fl. oz.; mix in a suitable vessel, apply heat, set the spirit on fire, and add of sugar, 4 oz.; when the whole is dissolved (melted down), extinguish the flame, and further add of syrup of violets, 2 fl. oz.; mix well, and after sufficient repose decant the clear portion from the dregs. The product should be 12 oz., containing 12 gr. of scammony per oz.——Dose, 1 to 2 dessert-spoonfuls in milk or aromatised water; or made into an emulsion with aromatics; in worms, &c.

=Elixir, Squire’s.= Prep. 1. (Original Formula.) Aurum musivum, 3 oz.; opium, 2 oz.; camphor, 1 oz.; cochineal, 1/2 oz.; sweet fennel, 1/4 oz.; tincture of serpentary, 1 pint (old meas.); spirit of aniseed, 1 gal. (old meas.); sugar, 1 lb.; dissolved in water, 1 pint (old meas.); digest 10 days and filter.

2. Powdered opium, 2 oz.; ginger, red sanders wood, and camphor, of each 1 oz.; oil of aniseed, 1/2 oz.; oil of sweet fennel, 1/2 dr.; tincture of serpentary, 1 pint; proof spirit, 5 pints; water, 1 quart; as last. Stimulant, anodyne, diaphoretic, and pectoral.——Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls; in chest affections, nervous headaches, &c., in the absence of inflammatory symptoms.

=Elixir, Stomach′ic.= Compound tincture of gentian was formerly so called.

=Elixir, Stoughton’s.= Prep. 1. Raisins (stoned and bruised), 1 lb.; gentian root, 3/4 lb.; dried orange peel, 6 oz.; serpentary, 1/4 lb.; calamus aromaticus, 1-1/2 oz.; cardamoms, 1/2 oz.; sugar colouring, 1/4 pint; brandy or proof spirit, 2 galls.; digest a week and strain.

2. Tincture of gentian (compound), and brandy or proof spirit, of each 1 quart; tincture of serpentary and syrup of saffron, of each 1 pint; tinctures of aloes and rhubarb, of each 1/4 pint; bitter almonds (bruised), 8 in no.; digest as before.

3. (Foy.) Aloes and cascarilla, of each 1 dr.; rhubarb, 4 dr.; gentian, germander, dried orange peel, and wormwood, of each 6 dr.; rectified spirit, 32 fl. oz.; as before. Stimulant, tonic, and stomachic.——Dose, 20 drops to a teaspoonful.

=Elixir, Ton′ic.= Syn. ELIXIR ROBORANS. See TINCTURE OF CROWN BARK (Comp.,——Ph. Bor. 1847).

=Elixir Tonique Antiglaireux de Guillé.= A stomachic tonic for diarrhœa. Calumba root, 90 parts; orris root, 60 parts; gentian root, 8 parts; jalap root, 1500 parts; aloes, 13 parts; saffron, 60 parts; sulphate of quinine, 16 parts; tartar emetic, 2 parts; nitre, 16 parts; yellow sandal, 30 parts; syrup prepared from barley sugar, rectified spirit, and water, of each 11,000 parts. Macerate the drugs in spirit for 24 hours, and dissolve the salts in the water. Filter the liquids, mix and leave for 24 hours, then add the syrup, stand and filter next day. (Reveil and Hager.)

=Elixir, Tooth.= Syn. ELIXIR DENTIFRICUM, L. Prep. 1. (Lefandinière’s.) Guaiacum raspings and cloves, of each 1 oz.; pellitory of Spain and nutmeg, of each 2 dr.; oil of rosemary, 20 drops; bergamotte, 10 or 12 drops; brandy, 1 quart; macerate a fortnight, and filter.

2. Cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg, of each, 1 dr.; vanilla, 1/2 dr.; camphor, 10 gr.; tincture of pellitory, 2 fl. oz.; brandy or proof spirit, 1/2 pint; digest as before. See ANTISCROFULOUS and ROSE ELIXIRS (above).

=Elixir Valerianatis Ammonici (Goddard).= Valerianic acid, 3 grammes dissolved in 40 grammes distilled water and neutralised with ammonium carbonate. Add this to 35 grammes spirit, 50 grammes syrup, 1 drop bitter almond oil, 2 drops oil of orange peel, 30 grammes diluted bitter almond water, 12 grammes tincture of red sandal, 3 grammes tincture of orange peel, 2 grammes burnt sugar, and filter.

=Elixir, Vis′ceral.= Syn. ELIXIR VISCERALE, L. See ELIXIRS, BOERHAAVE’S and HOFFMAN’S (above).

=Elixir of Vit′riol.= 1. The old name for aromatic SULPHURIC ACID (which see).

2. (Mynsicht’s.) See TINCTURE (Acid Aromatic).

3. (Scourer’s.) Dilute sulphuric acid 1 to 5). Used to scour metals.

4. (SWEET E. OF V.; E. VITRIOLI DULCI, L.) The old name for aromatic SPIRIT OF ETHER (which see).

5. (Virgani’s). Prep. From spirit of sulphuric ether, 2 lb.; aromatic tincture, 3 lb.

=Elixir, Woroneje.= Capsicum, 1 oz.; nitre, 1/2 oz.; sal-ammoniac, 2 dr.; nitro-hydrochloric acid, 2 fl. dr.; vinegar, 1-1/2 pint; native white or rose naphtha, or petroleum, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; olive oil, 1 fl. oz.; oil of peppermint (Mitcham), 15 fl. oz.; strongest rectified spirit, 6 quarts; digest 12 days, with constant agitation, and filter.——Dose, 2 teaspoonfuls every 15 minutes; in cholera, diarrhœa, &c.

=ELLAG′IC ACID.= HC_{7}H_{2}O_{4}.Aq. When an aqueous infusion of nut-galls is left for some time exposed to the atmosphere, the tannic acid gradually disappears, and is replaced by gallic acid, and an insoluble grey powder, to which the term ellagic acid was applied by Chevreul. It is soluble in alkalies, forming salts, and is precipitated by acids.

=ELM.= Syn. ULMUS, L. A genus of tree forming the type of the natural order Ulmaceæ. The interior bark of the Ulmus campestris, or common small-leaved elm (Ulmi cortex), is officinal in B. P. This substance is demulcent, diaphoretic, and diuretic, and slightly febrifuge, astringent, and tonic. It has been employed in agues, and as a substitute for sarsaparilla in cutaneous eruptions, but is now little used. The leaves of the elm-tree are reported to be vulnerary. See DECOCTION and ULMIN.

=ELUTRIA′TION.= Cleansing by washing. The term is commonly applied to the operation of washing insoluble powders with water, to separate them from foreign matter, or the coarser portion. It is usually performed by grinding or triturating the mass with a little water until reduced to a very fine powder, and this paste is suddenly diffused through a large quantity of water, contained in a deep vessel, from which, after the subsidence of the grosser portion, the liquid is poured into another vessel, and allowed to deposit the fine powder it still holds in suspension. When this has taken place, the clear supernatant liquor is decanted, and the sediment drained and dried. The coarse sediment deposited in the first vessel is now submitted to a fresh grinding and diffusion through water, and the entire operation is repeated until the whole of the pulverisable portion is washed over. The proper length of time for the liquid to remain in the first vessel depends solely on the density of the powder and the degree of fineness required in the product; heavy powders subsiding almost immediately, while light ones often take several minutes to deposit the coarser portion. Sometimes three or more vessels are employed, and the muddy liquor, after remaining a short time in the first, is poured into the next one, and this, in a short time longer, into the third, and so on, until the last vessel is filled, by which means powders of different degrees of fineness are obtained, that deposited in the last vessel being in the minutest state of division. The elutriated paste or moist powder is then drained, and dried. On the small scale the trituration is performed with a stone and muller, or in a mortar; on the large scale, in a mill, driven by either horse or steam power. Antimony chalk, bistre, and other pigments, as well as various other substances insoluble in or unacted on by water, are commonly obtained in the state of an impalpable powder by elutriation, or ‘washing over,’ as it is called by amateurs and operatives.

=ELYDOR′IC PAINTING.= A method of painting invented by M. Vincent, of Montpetit, in which the pigments are mixed up with an emulsion of oil and water. It is said to add the fresh appearance of water colours, and the finish of miniature painting, to the mellowness of oil colours.

=EMBALM′ING.= Syn. MUMMIFICATION. The preservation of the dead bodies of animals. See PUTREFACTION.

=EMBOS′SING.= The formation of ornamental figures in relief on cloth, leather, paper, and wood, has now been brought to such perfection as to place this species of decoration within the reach of almost every class of society. EMBOSSED CLOTH and PAPER are now employed by the bookbinder to cover even the low-priced volumes that pass through his hands; whilst the EMBOSSED LEATHER that encloses the album or ornaments our furniture frequently bears the richest patterns of the arabesque or moresque. Cloth and paper are usually embossed by machinery; leather and wood more frequently by hand labour.

=EMBROCA′TION.= Syn. EMBROCATIO, L. A fluid medicine for external and local use. Embrocations do not differ, materially, from liniments and lotions, and are applied in the same manner. (See those preparations, and below.)

=Embrocation, Guestonian.= Syn. EMBROCATIO TEREBINTHINÆ CUM ACIDO L. Prep. (Dr Paris.) Oil of turpentine and olive oil, of each 1-1/2 oz.; dilute sulphuric acid, 3 fl. dr.; agitate together until mixed. Used in rheumatism, &c.

=Embrocation, Lynch’s.= Olive oil (coloured with alkanet root), 5 fl. oz.; oils of amber, rosemary, and turpentine, of each 1 dr. In bruises, rheumatism, &c.

=Embrocation, Roche’s.= Prep. 1. (Dr Paris.) Olive oil, mixed with half its weight of the oil of cloves and amber.

2. Olive oil, 2 oz.; oil of amber, 1 oz.; oils of cloves and lemons, of each 1 dr. For hooping-cough.

=Embrocation, Ward’s.= See ESSENCE.

=Embrocation of Cantharides.= Syn. EMBROCATIO CANTHARIDES. (Dr Struve, in hooping-cough.) Prep. Tartarized antimony, 1 scruple; water, 2 oz.; tincture of cantharides, 1/2 oz. To be rubbed over the region of the stomach, covering the part afterwards with flannel.

=Embrocation of Delphinia.= Syn. EMBROCATIO DELPHINIÆ. (Dr Turnbull.) Prep. Delphinia, 1 scruple to 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 oz.

=Embrocation of Quinine.= Syn. EMBROCATIO QUINIÆ. (Dr Gustamacchia.) Prep. Sulphate of quinine, 8 to 12 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 oz.

=Embrocation of Veratria.= Syn. EMBROCATIO VERATRIÆ. (Dr Turnbull.) Prep. Veratria, 1 scruple to 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 oz.

=EMBROID′ERY.= Gold and silver fancy work of this description may be cleaned with a little spirit of wine, either alone or diluted with an equal weight of water. Gin is frequently used for the same purpose. The common practice of using alkaline or acid liquors is very injurious, and frequently destroys the beauty of the articles instead of cleaning them.

=EM′ERALD.= Syn. SMARAGDUS; EMERAUDE [Fr.] This beautiful deep-green gem ranks next to the diamond in value. The finest are brought from Peru, but fair varieties are found in Bavaria, Siberia, and India. A fine emerald weighing 4 or 5 gr. is worth as many pounds; one of 10 gr., about £2 per gr.; one of 15 gr., £3 to £4 per gr.; and so on in proportion to the increase in size. One of 24 gr., if of pure water, is worth about £100. According to the analysis of Vauquelin, the purest specimens consists of 65 parts silica, 14 alumina, 13 glucina, 2·56 lime, and 3·50 oxide of chromium, to which last the gem owes its rich green colour. See BERYL, GEMS, PASTES, &c.

=Emerald Green.= See GREEN PIGMENTS.

=EMERY= is an impure, amorphous, compact, and opaque variety of corundum, and consists of alumina, with a small per-centage of silica and peroxide of iron. It occurs in Spain, the isles of Greece, and other localities, and derives its name from Cape Emeri, in the island of Naxos. Its hardness is so great, that it scratches and wears down nearly all minerals except the diamond; hence the use of its powder for cutting and polishing glass and various other hard substances. For commercial purposes, the lumps of emery, as taken from the mine, are broken into pieces about the size of a hen’s egg, which are then crushed under stampers, similar to those used for pounding metallic ores. The coarse powder is then sifted through sieves covered with wire-cloth of different degrees of fineness, by which it is sorted into different sizes. In this state it forms the emery of the shops, or flour emery. For delicate purposes, it is afterwards prepared by elutriation.

=Emery Cakes= are formed by melting emery flour with a little beeswax, and after thorough admixture, forming it into solid lumps of suitable sizes. Used to dress the edges of buff and glaze wheels.

=Emery Cloth= is prepared by brushing the surface of thin cotton cloth over with liquid glue, and sifting the emery powder over the surface while still warm.

=Emery Paper= is made in the same way as emery cloth. Both are used either with or without oil, in the same way as glass paper.

=Emery Sticks= are made of pieces of wood in the same way, and are used for the same purposes, as emery paper.

=Emery Stones= are formed of emery, of the requisite coarseness, mixed with about half its weight of good Stourbridge loam, and water q. s. to make a stiff paste, which is forced into metallic moulds by a powerful press. The pieces, when thoroughly dry, are exposed in a muffle for a short time to a temperature just under a full white heat. In this way ‘discs’ and ‘laps’ are generally made. For ‘wheels,’ only 1/4th of loam is used. Another method, applicable for ‘cutting stones’ generally, is to press the flour emery, previously moistened with water, into moulds, with strong pressure, as before, without any other addition, and then to fire it at nearly a full white heat.

=EMETIA.= Syn. EMETIN, EMETINA. A feebly basic or alkaloidal body, existing in and forming the active principle of ipecacuanha.

Prep. 1. (Medicinal——EMETIC EXTRACT.)——a. Ipecacuanha (in coarse powder) is digested first in ether, and then in rectified spirit for 3 or 4 days; the alcoholic tincture is next expressed and evaporated (distilled) to dryness; the residuum is dissolved in distilled water, and the solution precipitated with acetate of lead; the precipitate is then diffused through distilled water, in a tall glass vessel, and sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through it, to throw down the lead; after which the liquor is decanted, filtered, evaporated to the consistence of a thick syrup, and spread in a thin layer on warm plates of glass, and allowed to dry in a current of warm air, or by a gentle heat in a stove. The maceration in ether is frequently omitted.

b. Ipecacuanha, 1 part; rectified spirit (·835), 7 parts; make a tincture, distil off the spirit, dissolve in cold distilled water, 5 parts; filter the solution, and evaporate, &c., as before. Inferior to the last.

c. (P. Cod.) As the last, nearly.

Obs. Medicinal or impure emetia is brownish, red, deliquescent, and emetic in doses of 1/4 to 1/2 gr.

2. (Pure.)——a. Ipecacuanha (in coarse powder), 1 part, is digested for 24 hours in distilled water, 10 parts; together with calcined magnesia, added in slight excess; the deposit is then thrown on a filter, washed carefully with very cold water, and dried; it is next dissolved in rectified spirit and neutralised with dilute sulphuric acid; the filtered solution is decoloured with animal charcoal, again filtered, and again precipitated by digestion with magnesia; the last deposit forms a colourless solution with rectified spirit, which, by gentle evaporation, gives up its emetia as a yellowish white pulverulent mass, which may be rendered perfectly white by redissolving it in alcohol, &c., as before. The process is rendered easier by first digesting the powdered ipecacuanha in ether.

b. (P. Cod.) Alcoholic extract of ipecacuanha, 1 part; water, 10 parts; dissolve, filter; add calcined magnesia, 1 part; evaporate to dryness, wash the product on a filter with very cold water, 5 parts; dry it again, and dissolve it in boiling alcohol; evaporate the filtered tincture to dryness, redissolve the residuum in a little water, acidulate (slightly) with dilute sulphuric acid, decolour with animal charcoal, filter, precipitate with liquor of ammonia, and dry the precipitate by a gentle heat.

c. (Ph. Suec. 1845.) Powdered ipecacuanha, 1 part; water, acidulated with sulphuric acid, 6 parts; digest, filter; add lime, 1 part, and evaporate to dryness over a water bath; the residuum is then exhausted with boiling rectified spirit, and otherwise treated as in the last formula.

Prop., &c. Pure emetia is white, pulverulent, inodorous, and bitter; fusible at 122° Fahr.; very soluble in alcohol and boiling water, but only slightly so in ether, oils, and cold water. It restores the blue colour of reddened litmus, and partially neutralises the acids, forming scarcely crystallisable salts. It is reddened by nitric acid, and this red colour is deepened by ammonia. Tincture of iodine produces a reddish precipitate in an alcoholic solution of emetia. With tincture of galls this solution behaves like morphia; but, unlike the last substance, the salts of iron produce no change of colour in it. These reactions, combined with its emetic properties, are sufficient for its identification.——Dose. White and pure emetia is emetic in doses of 1/20 to 1/16 gr. The large doses ordered in certain pharmaceutical compilations, evidently in error of the difference between the strengths of the pure and the impure or medicinal emetia, have, in several cases which have been reported on, produced very serious consequences.

The ‘Journal de Pharmacie et de Chemie,’ for September, 1875, contains a new process for the extraction of emetia, by M. A. Glenard. This process is based upon the combined use of lime and ether. It consists in treating with ether a suitably prepared powder, or an extract of ipecacuanha and lime, or the precipitate formed upon adding an excess of lime to a solution obtained by treating ipecacuanha in the cold with water acidulated by sulphuric acid. Either of these mixtures, or the precipitate, when treated with ether, will yield all the alkaloid it contains.

The alkaloid may be obtained from the ethereal solution by distilling it to dryness, and treating the residue with acidulated water, or by at once shaking the solution with acidulated water. A more or less acid aqueous liquid is thus obtained, which upon the addition of ammonia, yields the emetine almost colourless, and much more pure than that produced by the process ordinarily employed.

Preparation of Crystallised Hydrochlorate and Pure Emetine.——When water, acidulated with hydrochloric acid, is employed to remove the emetine from the ether, an acid solution is obtained, which, when sufficiently concentrated by evaporation, forms a nearly colourless, solid, crystalline mass. This mass is formed of extremely delicate needles, formed in bundles that radiate around a central point, and form small spheres with an embossed surface, resembling mulberries in appearance. Upon pressing these crystals in a cloth the more or less coloured mother liquid runs off, and the crystals redissolved in water give a colourless solution, from which a fresh crystallisation of perfectly pure hydrochlorate of emetine can readily be obtained.

The production of this crystallised hydrochlorate of emetine is worthy of notice, since it does not accord with what has been stated by different authors, who have all considered emetine to be incapable of forming crystallisable salts. It is especially interesting in that it furnishes a convenient and certain method of obtaining perfectly pure emetine, for which it is only necessary to precipitate a solution of the hydrochlorate with an alkali. But it is important to observe that ammonia does not precipitate all the emetine of the hydrochlorate, and that the precipitate is less in proportion as the salt is more acid.

It might appear from this that emetine is soluble in hydrochlorate of ammonia. But the author finds that it is the result of a decomposing action exercised by the emetine upon the hydrochlorate of ammonia, as is shown by the following two experiments. If a little dry powdered emetine be placed in a glass containing a solution of hydrochlorate of ammonia, it may be observed to agglomerate and become transformed into a soft resinoid mass, at the same time the disengagement of ammonia may be recognised, and the resinoid mass gradually undergoes a kind of metamorphosis, and becomes white and crystalline. Again, if emetine in powder be suspended in water, and solution of hydrochlorate of ammonia be gradually added, the emetine is dissolved, and upon evaporation of the solution crystals of double hydrochlorate of emetine and ammonia is obtained.

The author believes the decomposition of hydrochlorate of ammonia by an organic alkali to have been hitherto unobserved. It does not appear, however, that emetine is alone in this action, as the author has observed that quinine, under similar conditions, behaves in the same manner.

Zinoffsky (‘Jour. de Pharm. d’Anvers,’ xxix, 490) gives the following process for the quantitative determination of emetia:——Treat fifteen grams of powdered ipecacuanha with alcohol of 85 per cent., acidified with a few drops of sulphuric acid, so as to form a volume of 150 cubic centimètres. Filter, and after expelling the alcohol from 100 cubic centimètres of the liquid by distillation, add to the residue a titrated solution of iodo-hydrargyrate of potassium until a filtered portion ceases to be affected by this reagent. The number of cubic centimètres of iodo-hydrargyrate multiplied by 0·0189 (0·0001 of the equivalent of emetine) gives the quantity of emetine contained in ten grains of the root.

A normal solution of iodo-hydrargyrate is obtained by mixing aqueous solutions of 13·546 grams of bichloride of mercury, and 49·8 of iodide of potassium, adding water to make one litre. One cubic centimètre of this solution precipitates 0·0001, or 0·00005 of an equivalent of alkaloid.

Wine of ipecacuanha can be titrated by the same process.

Composition of Emetine and its Hydrochlorate.——These substances dried at 110° C., gave upon analysis results corresponding with following centesimal composition:

Hydrochlorate Emetine. of Emetine. Carbon 72·25 63·00 Hydrogen 8·61 8·15 Nitrogen 5·36 4·75 Oxygen 13·78 11·64 Chlorine 12·46

From these figures the author has constructed the following formulæ:

Emetine: C_{30}H_{22}NO_{4}. Hydrochlorate of Emetine: C_{30}H_{22}NO_{4}HCl.

Preparation and Composition of Emetine (J. Lefort and F. Wurtz, ‘Comptes Rendus,’ lxxxiv, 1299). When ipecacuanha is dissolved in water, and a concentrated solution of potassium nitrate added, a thick mass is produced, consisting of emetine nitrate. It is washed with water, dissolved in alcohol, and the solution poured into milk of lime. The mixture is evaporated to dryness, and digested with ether, which dissolves out the emetine, leaving it as a yellowish mass on evaporation. On dissolving this mass in sulphuric acid, and pouring the solution into dilute ammonia, the alkaloid is obtained as a white precipitate, which is dissolved in alcohol, from which it separates in minute radiate groups of needles. By analysis it gave numbers leading to the formula C_{28}H_{40}N_{2}O_{3}.[275]

[Footnote 275: Note by the translator (‘Journal of Chem. Soc,’): “This is printed C_{28}N_{2}H_{40}O_{5} in the formula for emetine nitrate, and as no data are given, it is impossible to tell which are correct.”]

Pure emetine nitrate was prepared, and was found to have the formula C_{28}N_{2}H_{40}O_{5}NOH; this in conjunction with Glenard’s results, shows that emetine does not form basic salts.

=EMET′ICS.= Syn. VOMITS, ANACATHARTICS; ANACATHARTICA, EMETICA, VOMITORIA, L. Medicines which induce vomiting. The principal emetics are ipecacuanha and tartarised antimony, and their preparations; and the sulphates of zinc and copper. Of these the first is commonly employed either in substance or infused in wine (ipecacuanha wine), when it is merely wished to evacuate the contents of the stomach, when that organ is in a disordered state or overloaded with food; and is the one most adapted in ordinary cases for children and females. Tartar emetic (tartarated antimony) (dissolved in water) and antimonial wine, either alone or combined with ipecacuanha, are preferable at the commencement of fevers and other inflammatory disorders, in consequence of the nausea, relaxation, and depression of the muscular power and circulation which commonly follow their use. When poison has been taken, sulphate of zinc is generally preferred as an emetic, on account of the promptness and completeness of its action, and its effects ceasing as soon as it is ejected from the stomach. Sulphate of copper is employed in the same cases as sulphate of zinc, but its action is more violent and disagreeable, whilst its intense metallic taste is a great objection to its use. 25 to 30 gr. of either of the above sulphates are dissolved in 3 or 4 fl. oz. of warm water, and a fourth of the solution is given every ten minutes, until copious vomiting ensues. In the absence of other substances, when an immediate emetic is required, a teaspoonful of flour of mustard (an article always at hand), stirred up with half a pint of warm water, and drank at a draught, will generally act easily and effectively, and relieve the stomach before other remedies can be obtained and applied.

The operation of emetics is powerfully promoted by drinking copiously of diluents, especially of warm or tepid water. The latter, in fact, is itself an emetic, when taken in quantity. Its use will also prevent that dreadful straining and retching which makes emetics so much dreaded by the nervous and delicate.

The timely administration of an emetic at the commencement of fevers and other inflammatory affections will frequently cause copious diaphoresis, and produce a cure, or at least greatly mitigate the severity of the symptoms. Dropsies have also been cured by vomiting; and swelled testicle, bubo, and other glandular swellings, have occasionally been dispersed by the action of emetics. Visceral obstructions, in both sexes, have also yielded to the same treatment. Small and repeated doses of emetics are frequently administered, with advantage, to produce nausea, in many diseases of the lungs and stomach. Certain chronic and obstinate diseases, as rheumatism and asthma, are sometimes relieved by emetics, when every other line of treatment has failed.

Emetics should be avoided in plethoric habits, in hernia, pregnancy, and whenever visceral inflammation is suspected. They should also be given with great caution to young children and females, and to the nervous and delicate. In such cases, wine or powder of ipecacuanha should alone be employed.

=Emetic Cups.= Syn. ANTIMONIAL CUPS; POCULA EMETICA, CALICES VOMITORII, L. Small cups made of metallic antimony. Wine left in them for 10 or 12 hours becomes emetic.

=Emetic Tartar.= See ANTIMONY, TARTARATED.

=EM′ETINE.= See EMETIA.

=EMMEN′AGOGUES.= Syn. EMMENAGOGA, L. Medicines which are considered to have the power of promoting the menstrual discharge when either retained or suspended. There are, probably, few remedies which exert this specific power on the uterus, the majority of repeated emmenagogues acting rather by their influence on the system generally, or on parts contiguous to the uterus, than in the uterus itself. Among the substances usually arranged under this class are——aloes, black hellebore, birthwort, borax, cubebs, ergot, gamboge, gin, iodide of potassium, iodine, madder, mercurials, the peppers, rue, savine, stimulants (generally), stimulating diuretics, stinking goosefoot, stinking orache, wine, &c.

Of the above, ergot and madder are the only articles which exercise a direct power on the uterus, and that rather in increasing its expulsive energy than in promoting the menstrual function, though they are advantageously employed for the latter purpose. Several of the other substances named are drastic purgatives, or possess cerebro-spinal properties, or local powers of irritation, by which they increase the pelvic circulation, or produce excitement in the neighbouring parts, in many cases of a dangerous and irreparable character. Hence many writers on pharmacology deny the existence of emmenagogues.

To ensure the successful administration of this class of medicines, the system must be previously prepared for their use by invigorating it, if there is either relaxation or debility; and an opposite course should be pursued when there is an undue degree of arterial action. In the majority of cases, the restoration of the discharge is rather attributable to a proper regulation of the system than to any specific power in the medicine administered.

=EMOLL′IENTS.= Syn. EMOLLIENTIA, L. In pharmacy and therapeutics, demulcents of an oleaginous, saponaceous, or emulsive character, applied to surfaces (generally external), to soften and relax the fibres. See DEMULCENTS.

=EMUL′SIN.= Syn. SYNAPTASE. An azotised substance, forming a large proportion of the white pulp of both bitter and sweet almonds. It is yellowish-white, soluble in cold water, and coagulated by heat and alcohol. Its most remarkable property is its action on amygdalin by which the volatile oil of almonds and hydrocyanic acid, with other products are formed. It has never been obtained in a state of purity.

=EMULSINES.= See EMULSION.

=EMUL′SION.= Syn. EMULSIO, L. A milky fluid, formed by the mechanical admixture of oil and water, by means of some other substance that possesses the power of combining with both. The emulsions of the Pharmacopœia are in the ‘British Pharmacopœia’ included in the class Misturæ (which see).

In the preparation of emulsions, the oily or resinous ingredients are usually suspended by means of mucilage of gum arabic, almonds, or yolk of egg. 1 dr. of the first, made with equal parts of gum and water; 1 oz. of the second (usually 26 in number); and one in no. of the last, will form 2 dr. of any oil into an emulsion with about 1 oz. of water, gradually added. In some cases, instead of the above substances, a little liquor of potassa is employed, by which a saponaceous emulsion is formed. In all cases the mucilage or other viscid substance should be put into the mortar before anything else. The oil or resinous matter may then be very gradually rubbed in, taking care not to add it more quickly than it can be subdued by the pestle; and if, during this part of the manipulation, the mixture should begin to assume a breaking or curdling appearance at the edges, a few drops of water must be immediately incorporated with it, before adding the remainder of the oil. From the want of this precaution, it is common for an emulsion suddenly to lose its tenacious consistence in the mortar, and it is then in vain to endeavour to restore it. After the oil is thoroughly incorporated, some care is requisite to avoid separating it again by too hasty an effusion of the water or other fluid of the mixture. If any alcoholic or acid liquid is to be added, it must be at the very end of the process. Indeed, the addition of an acid liquid, even a slightly acescent syrup, will often entirely destroy an emulsion. Mixtures of copaiba are frequently spoiled by the addition of spirit of nitric ether; a misfortune which might be avoided by first diluting it with one or two parts of water.

An excellent method of preparing emulsions of resins and gum-resins, is to put the article into a marble or wedgwood mortar, and to pour over it about 4 times its weight of rectified spirit, which is then to be ignited, and the mixture triturated until an equal consistence is obtained. The liquid is then to be added gradually, and the whole patiently triturated or shaken until cold. Yolk of egg or mucilage may be added to the fluid resin or gum-resin, if desired, as in the common method, but an excellent emulsion may be made without them.

The presence of soluble salts in an emulsion is apt to occasion the separation of the oleaginous portion. Spirit produces the same effect in those which are made with yolk or mucilage; and acids in those made with an alkali. The addition of these substances to emulsions should be therefore avoided as much as possible. Emulsions of wax, spermaceti, oil of turpentine, and balsam of copaiba, are the most readily and completely formed with yolk of egg. Volatile oils are more readily made into emulsions if mixed with an equal volume of some simple fixed oil, before proceeding to operate on them. Scammony is generally formed into an emulsion with milk; and resin of jalap, with almonds and water.

In a paper read before the American Pharmaceutical Association by Mr Gregory, the author recommends the use of powdered gum instead of mucilage in the preparation of emulsions. He thinks that three drachms of acacia in fine powder are necessary to emulsify one ounce of any of the volatile oils, and that a little less (about two drachms) will answer for the fixed oils and balsams, and that to this quantity of gum four drachms and a half of water must be added (no more and no less), and that either the water or the oil may be added first to the gum, but it is quickest to add the oil the first; and well triturate before adding the water. Less gum can be made to yield a good result by a careful operator, but, as a general practical working rule, it may be said that three drachms are necessary for one ounce of oil.

The following formulæ, for certain emulsions, are merely given here for examples. Various others will be found under MIXTURE, LOTION, WASH, &c.

=Emulsion of Al′monds.= Syn. MILK OF ALMONDS, ALMOND MIXTURE; EMULSIO AMYGDALÆ, MISTURA A., L. Prep. 1. Blanched almonds, 1 oz.; beat them to a smooth paste, add, gradually, water, 1/2 pint; and when the whole is thoroughly incorporated, strain through a piece of gauze.

2. As the last, adding sugar, 1 oz.; or syrup (either simple or flavoured), 1-1/2 fl. oz. See EMULSION OF OIL OF ALMONDS (below).

=Emulsion of Assafœt′ida.= Syn. EMULSIO ASSAFŒTIDÆ, MISTURA A., L. Prep. (Duclow.) Assafœtida, 1 oz.; powdered gum, 2 oz.; oil of almonds, 3-1/2 fl. oz.; water, 6 fl. oz. Antispasmodic.——Dose, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls; in hysterical affections, &c.

=Emulsion of Cam′phor.= Syn. EMULSIO CAMPHORÆ, E. CAMPHORATA, MISTURA CAMPHORÆ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Castr. Ruth. 1840.) Camphor, 1/2 dr.; triturate with milk, 1/2 fl. oz., gradually added; then further add of water, 7-1/2 fl. oz.

2. (Ph. E.) Camphor, 20 gr.; lump sugar, 1/2 oz.; triturate together, and add of blanched almonds, 1/2 oz.; again triturate, then gradually add of water, 1 pint. Stimulant, antispasmodic, and diaphoretic.——Dose, 1 fl. oz. to 2 fl. oz.

=Emulsion of Cas′tor Oil.= Syn. EMULSIO OLEI RICINI, MISTURA O. R., L. Prep. 1. Castor oil, 1 oz.; thick mucilage, 1-1/2 oz.; syrup of orange peel, 1 fl. oz.; water, 6 fl. oz.

2. As the last, but using milk instead of water.——Dose. One third; as an aperient for females who object to taking the unprepared oil.

=Emulsion of Copai′ba.= Syn. EMULSION OF CAPIVI; EMULSIO COPAIBÆ, MISTURA C., L. Prep. 1. Balsam of copaiba and syrup of orange peel, of each 2 oz.; yolks of 5 eggs; milk, 14 fl. oz.

2. (Beral.) Copaiba and mucilage, of each 2 oz.; water, 12 fl. oz.——Dose, 1/2 oz. to 1 oz., 2 or 3 times a day; where the use of copaiba is indicated.

=Emulsion of Cubebs.= Syn. EMULSIO CUBEBÆ. (Dublanc.) Prep. Essence of Cubebs, 4 oz.; mucilage, 4 oz. Mix them.

=Emulsion of Gum.= Syn. EMULSIO ACACIÆ, MISTURA ACACIÆ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. From sweet almonds (blanched), 10 dr.; white sugar, 5 dr.; mucilage, 3 fl. oz.; water, 1 quart. Demulcent. In coughs, &c., ad libitum.

=Emulsion of Indian Hemp.= Syn. EMULSIO CANNABIS INDICÆ. (Mr Bromfield.) Prep. Rub 1 scruple of extract of Indian hemp in warm water with 1 fl. dr. of olive oil; then add gradually, still triturating the mixture, 4 dr. of mucilage of acacia and 7-1/2 oz. of distilled water.

=Emulsion of Oil of Almonds.= Syn. EMULSIO OLEI AMYGDALÆ, L. Prep. From oil of almonds, 3 dr.; thick mucilage and simple syrup, of each, 5 dr.; rose water, 1 fl. oz.; distilled water, 3 to 4 fl. oz. An elegant and efficient substitute for almond milk. See EMULSION OF ALMONDS (above).

=Emulsion, Pancreatic.= See PANCREATIN.

=Emulsion of Peru′vian Balsam.= Syn. EMULSIO BALSAMICA, E. BALSAMI PERUVIANI, L. Prep. 1. As emulsion of copaiba.

2. (Hosp. F.) Balsam of Peru, 1/2 oz.; oil of almonds, 6 dr.; powdered gum, 1 oz.; triturate together, and add, gradually, rose water, 4 fl. oz.——Dose, 1 or 2 table-spoonfuls; in old asthmas, chronic coughs, winter coughs, &c.

=Emulsion of Poppies.= Syn. EMULSIO PAPAVEUS. Prep. Poppy seeds, 2 drachms; water, 8 oz. Make into an emulsion and strain.

=Emulsion of Raw Meat.= (Yvon.) Raw meat 250 grammes; sweet almonds, 75 grammes; bitter almonds, 5 grammes; white sugar, 80 grammes. After blanching the almonds beat them up with the rest of the ingredients in a marble mortar until a rose-coloured uniform paste is obtained. This may be easily made into an emulsion with water, and will not unmix for 24 hours. It can be made still more nourishing by the addition of the yolks of two eggs, and by the substitution of milk for water. This emulsion is frequently prescribed by continental physicians.

=Emulsion of Resin of Jalap.= Syn. EMULSIO PURGANS CUM RESINÆ JALAPÆ. (Par. Pharm.) Prep. Resin of jalap, 8 gr.; white sugar, 1 oz.; orange-flower water, 2 dr.; water, 4 oz. Triturate the resin with a little of the sugar, add gradually half the yolk of an egg, triturate for a long time, then add gradually the rest of the sugar and the water.

=Emulsion of Scam′mony.= Syn. EMULSIO SCAMMONII, MISTURA S. (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Resin of scammony, 7 gr.; new milk, 3 fl. oz. For a dose.

2. (Planche.) Aleppo scammony, 7 gr.; sugar, 2 dr.; new milk, 3 fl. oz.; cherry-laurel water, 5 drops. For a dose. Purgative; in torpor of the intestines, dropsy, worms, &c. The formula of the Paris Codex is similar.

=Emulsion of Spermace′ti.= Syn. EMULSIO CETACEI, MISTURA C., L. Prep. As emulsion of wax. Demulcent.

=Emulsion of Tur′pentine.= Syn. EMULSIO TEREBINTHINÆ, MISTURA T., L. Prep. 1. Chio turpentine, 2 dr.; white sugar, 1 oz.; yolk of 1 egg; milk of almonds, 4 fl. oz. In gleets.——Dose, 2 table-spoonfuls, 3 or 4 times a day.

2. (Clossius.) Venice turpentine, 1-1/2 dr.; yolk of 1 egg; peppermint water, 4-1/2 fl. oz. (See below.)

=Emulsion of Oil of Turpentine.= Syn. EMULSIO OLEI TEREBINTHINÆ, MISTURA O. T., L. Prep. (Carmichael.) Rectified oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz.; yolk of 2 eggs; emulsion of almonds, 4 fl. oz.; syrup of orange peel, 2 fl. oz.; spirit of lavender, 4 fl. dr.; oil of cinnamon, 5 or 6 drops.——Dose, 1 fl. oz., twice or thrice a day; in nephritic pains, and that variety of ophthalmia termed iriditis. (See above.)

=Emulsion of Wax.= Syn. EMULSIO CERÆ, E. CERÆ ALBÆ, MISTURA C., LAC C., L. Prep. (Guibourt.) White wax, 1 oz.; powdered gum, 1-1/2 dr.; water, 24 fl. oz.; simple syrup, 4 fl. oz.; put the syrup and gum into a warm mortar, add the wax, and triturate with a warm pestle until united; then add the water (warm) gradually, and continue the agitation till the whole is quite cold. Demulcent. Ad libitum.

=ENAM′EL.= A species of vitreous varnish, coloured with metallic oxides, applied in a thin stratum to brightly polished metallic surfaces (copper or gold), on which it is fused by the flame of a lamp urged by the blowpipe, or by the heat of a small furnace.

The basis of all enamels is a highly transparent and fusible gloss, called ‘frit,’ ‘flux,’ or ‘paste,’ which readily receives a colour on the addition of metallic oxides. It may be made by one or other of the following formulæ:

Prep. 1. Red lead, 16 parts; calcined borax, 3 parts; powdered flint glass, 12 parts; powdered flints, 4 parts; fuse in a Hessian crucible for 12 hours, then pour it out into water, and reduce it to a powder in a biscuit-ware mortar.

2. Tin, 3 parts; lead, 10 parts; mix, calcine in an iron pot at a dull cherry-red heat, and scrape off the oxide as it forms, observing to obtain it quite free from undecomposed metal; then reduce it to fine powder by grinding and elutriation. In this state it is known among enamellers as ‘flux’ or ‘calcine.’ 4 parts of this ‘calcine’ are next mixed with an equal weight of pure sand or powdered flints, and 1 part of sea salt, or other alkaline matter; the mixture is then partially fused in a Hessian crucible, by which it undergoes semi-vitrification.

3. (Chaptal.) Lead and tin, equal parts; calcine as above, and take off the mixed oxides or ‘calcine’ and ground flints, of each, 1 part; pure carbonate of potash, 2 parts; and proceed as before.

4. (Wynn.) Flint glass, 3 oz.; red lead, 1 oz.; as last.

5. (Wynn.) Red lead, 18 parts; borax (not calcined), 11 parts; flint glass, 16 parts; as last.

6. (Wynn.) Powdered flints, 10 parts; nitre and white arsenic, of each, 1 part; as last.

Obs. The precise qualities of the products of the above processes depend greatly upon the duration and degree of heat employed. By increasing the quantity of sand, glass, or flux, the enamel is rendered more fusible, and the opacity and whiteness is increased by the addition of oxide of tin. The use of borax should be avoided, or it should be used sparingly, as it is apt to make the enamel effloresce and lose colour.

=Enamel, Black.= Prep. 1. Calcined iron (protoxide), 12 parts; oxide of cobalt, 1 part; mix, add an equal weight of white flux, and fuse as before.

2. (Clouet.) Pure clay, 3 parts; protoxide of iron, 1 part. A fine black.

3. Peroxide of manganese, 3 parts; zaffre, 1 part; mix, and add it, as required, to white flux.

=Enamel, Blue.= Prep. 1. White ‘frit’ or ‘flux,’ coloured with oxide of cobalt.

2. Sand, red lead, and nitre, of each 10 parts; flint glass or ground flints, 20 parts; oxide of cobalt, 1 part, more or less; depending on the desired depth of colour.

=Enamel, Brown.= Prep. 1. Manganese, 5 parts; red lead, 16 parts; flint powder, 8 parts; as before.

2. (Wynn.) Manganese, 9 parts; red lead, 34 parts; flint powder, 16 parts.

3. Red lead and calcined iron, of each, 1 part; antimony, litharge, and sand, of each, 2 parts. To be added in any required proportion to white ‘frit,’ according to the colour desired. A little oxide of cobalt or zaffre is frequently added to alter the shade.

=Enamel, Green.= Prep. 1. ‘Flux’ or ‘frit,’ 2 lbs.; black oxide of copper, 1 oz.; as before.

2. As the last, but adding red oxide of iron, 1/2 dr. Less decisive.

3. Copper dust and litharge, of each 2 oz.; nitre, 1 oz.; sand, 4 oz.; ‘flux’ or ‘frit,’ q. s.

4. From transparent ‘frit,’ any quantity; oxide of chromium, q. s. to colour. Colour superb; it will stand a great heat; in common hands, however, it frequently turns on the dead-leaf tinge.

5. Transparent ‘flux,’ 5 oz.; black oxide of copper, 20 to 40 gr.; oxide of chromium, 2 gr. Resembles the emerald.

6. From blue and yellow enamel mixed in the required proportions.

=Enamel, Ol′ive.= Prep. Blue enamel, 2 parts; black and yellow enamel, of each, 1 part. See ENAMEL BROWN.

=Enamel, Or′ange.= Prep. 1. Red lead, 12 parts; red sulphate of iron and oxide of antimony, of each, 1 part; flint powder, 3 parts; calcine together, powder, and melt with ‘flux,’ 50 parts.

2. (Wynn.) Red lead, 12 parts; oxide of antimony, 4 parts; flint powder, 3 parts; red sulphate of iron, 1 part; calcine, then add ‘flux,’ 5 parts, to every 2 parts of this mixture.

=Enamel, Pur′ple.= Prep. 1. ‘Flux’ or ‘frit,’ coloured with oxide of gold, purple precipitate of cassius, or peroxide of manganese.

2. Sulphur, nitre, green vitriol, antimony, and oxide of tin, of each, 1 lb.; red lead, 60 lb.; mix, fuse, cool, powder, and add rose copper (red oxide), 19 oz.; zaffre, 1 oz.; crocus martis, 1-1/2 oz.; borax, 3 oz.; and of a compound formed of gold, silver, and mercury, 1 lb.; fuse, stirring the melted mass with a copper rod all the time, then place it in crucibles, and submit them to the action of a reverberatory furnace for 24 hours. This is said to be the purple enamel used in the mosaic pictures in St. Peter’s at Rome.

=Enamel, Red.= Prep. 1. ‘Paste’ or ‘flux,’ coloured with the red oxide or protoxide of copper. Should the colour pass into the green or brown, from the partial peroxidation of the copper, from the heat being raised too high, the red colour may be restored by the addition of any carbonaceous matter, as tallow, or charcoal.

2. By tinging the glass or ‘flux’ with the oxide or salts of gold, or with the purple precipitate of cassius. These substances produce shades of red, inclining to crimson or purple of the most exquisite hue. The enamel often comes from the fire quite colourless, and afterwards receives its rich hue at the lamp.

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