XXXVII. , last three verses

XXXVII. , last three verses

Footnote 632:

See Genesis 1. 3.

Footnote 633:

As the ancient Egyptian women did in the same case.—See a passage in Herodotus, before referred to, lib. ii., cap. 85.

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SUPPLEMENT.

I.—THE COPTS.

The fame of that great nation from which the Copts mainly derive their origin renders this people objects of much interest, especially to one who has examined the wonderful monuments of Ancient Egypt: but so great is the aversion with which, like their illustrious ancestors, they regard all persons who are not of their own race, and so reluctant are they to admit such persons to any familiar intercourse with them, that I had almost despaired of gaining an insight into their religious, moral, and social state. At length, however, I had the good fortune to become acquainted with a character of which I had doubted the existence—a Copt of a liberal as well as an intelligent mind; and to his kindness I am indebted for the knowledge of most of the facts related in the following brief memoir.

The Copts, at present, compose less than one fourteenth part of the population of Egypt; their number being not more than about one hundred and fifty thousand. About ten thousand of them reside in the metropolis. In some parts of Upper Egypt are villages exclusively inhabited by persons of this race; and the district called the Feiyoom particularly abounds with them. The vast number of ruined convents and churches existing in various parts of Egypt shows that the Copts were very numerous a few centuries ago; but every year many of them have embraced the faith of El-Islám, and become intermixed by marriage with Muslims; and thus the number of genuine and Christian Copts has been reduced to its present small amount.

The Copts are undoubtedly descendants of the ancient Egyptians; but not an unmixed race; their ancestors in the earlier ages of Christianity having intermarried with Greeks, Nubians, Abyssinians, and other foreigners. Their name is correctly pronounced either “Kubt” or “Kibt;” but more commonly, “Gubt” or “Gibt,” and (in Cairo and its neighbourhood, and in some other parts of Egypt), “’Ubt” or “’Ibt:” in the singular it is pronounced “Kubtee, Kibtee, Gubtee, Gibtee, ’Ubtee,” or “’Ibtee.” All of these sounds bear a great resemblance to the ancient Greek name of Egypt (Αίγυπτος): but it is generally believed that the name of “Kubt” is derived from “Coptos” (once a great city in Upper Egypt), now called “Kuft,” or, more commonly, “Guft;” to which vast numbers of the Christian Egyptians retired during the persecution with which their sect was visited under several of the Roman Emperors. The Copts have not altogether lost their ancient language; their liturgy and several of their religious books being written in it: but the Coptic has become a dead language, understood by very few persons; and the Arabic has been adopted in its stead.

With respect to their personal characteristics, we observe some striking points of resemblance, and yet, upon the whole, a considerable difference, between the Copts and the ancient Egyptians, judging of the latter from the paintings and sculptures in their tombs and temples. The difference is, however, easily accounted for by the fact of the intermarriages of the ancestors of the modern Copts with foreigners, above mentioned. The people who bear the greatest resemblance to the ancient Egyptians, at present, are the Noobeh (or more genuine Nubians); and next to these, the Abyssinians and the Copts; who are, notwithstanding, much unlike each other. The Copts differ but little from the generality of their Muslim countrymen: the latter being chiefly descended from Arabs and from Copts who have embraced the faith of the Arabs, and having thus become assimilated to the Copts in features. I find it difficult, sometimes, to perceive any difference between a Copt and a Muslim Egyptian, beyond a certain downcast and sullen expression of countenance which generally marks the former; and the Muslims themselves are often deceived when they see a Copt in a white turban. We observe, in the latter, the same shades of complexion, in different latitudes of the country, as in the former; varying from a pale yellowish colour to a deep bronze or brown. The eyes of the Copt are generally large and elongated, slightly inclined from the nose upwards, and always black: the nose is straight, excepting at the end, where it is rounded, and wide: the lips are rather thick; and the hair is black and curly. The Copts are, generally speaking, somewhat under the middle size; and so, as it appears from the mummies, were the ancient Egyptians. Their women, of the higher and middle classes in particular, blacken the edges of their eyelids with kohl; and those of the lower orders tattoo blue marks upon their faces, hands, etc., in the same manner as other Egyptian females, but usually introduce the cross among these ornaments. Most of the Copts circumcise their sons; and another practice which prevailed among their pagan ancestors, mentioned by Strabo, and alluded to in a note subjoined to page 48 of this work, is observed among the Copts without exception.

The dress of the Copts is similar to that of the Muslim Egyptians; excepting that the proper turban of the former is black or blue, or of a greyish or light-brown colour; and such Copts as wear cloth generally choose dull colours, and often wear a black cotton gown, or loose shirt, over their cloth and silk dress. In the towns, they are usually careful thus to distinguish themselves from the Muslims; but in the villages, many of them wear the white or red turban. Other Christians, and Jews who are subjects of the Turkish Sultán, are distinguished from the Muslims in the same manner; but not all: many Armenians, Greeks, and Syrian Christians wear the white turban. Subjects of European Christian powers are allowed to do the same, and to adopt altogether the Turkish dress. The occasions which originally caused the Copts to be distinguished by the black and blue turbans will be mentioned in some historical notes respecting this people hereafter.—The Copt women veil their faces, not only in public, but also in the house, when any men, excepting their near relations, are present. The unmarried ladies, and females of the lower orders, in public, generally wear the white veil: the black veil is worn by the more respectable of the married ladies; but the white is adopted by many, from a desire to imitate the Muslim′ehs.

The Copts, with the exception of a small proportion who profess the Romish or the Greek faith, are Christians of the sect called Jacobites, Eutychians, Monophysites, and Monothelites; whose creed was condemned by the Council of Chalcedon, in the reign of the Emperor Marcion. They received the appellation of “Jacobites” (“Ya’ákibeh,” or “Yaakoobees”), by which they are generally known, from Jacobus Baradæus, a Syrian, who was a chief propagator of the Eutychian doctrines. Those who adhered to the Greek faith were distinguished from the former by the name of “Melekites” (“Melekeeyeh,” or “Melekees”), that is to say, “Royalists,” because they agreed in faith with the Emperor of Constantinople. The secession of the great majority of the Copts from what was generally considered the orthodox Church gave rise to an implacable enmity between them and the Greeks, under whom they suffered much persecution, and with whom they would no longer even contract marriages. This enmity was, of course, more bitter on the part of the Copts: they gladly received the Arab invaders of their country, and united with them to expel the Greeks. Their revenge was gratified; but they were made to bow their necks to a heavier yoke: yet the hatred with which even the modern Copts regard the Greeks and all other Christians who are not of their own sect is much greater than that which they bear towards the Muslims.—Saint Mark, they assert, was the first who preached the Gospel in Egypt; and they regard him as the first Patriarch of Alexandria. The Nubians and Abyssinians embraced Christianity soon after the Egyptians; and, following the same example, they adopted the Jacobite doctrines. The Nubians, however, have become Muslims; and boast that there is not a single Christian among their race, and that they will never allow one to live among them; for, as they are more ignorant, so are they also more bigoted, than the generality of Muslims. In Abyssinia, Jacobite Christianity is still the prevailing religion.

The religious orders of the Coptic Church consist of a Patriarch, a Metropolitan of the Abyssinians, Bishops, Archpriests, Priests, Deacons, and Monks.

The Patriarch (“el-Batrak”) is the supreme head of the church; and occupies the chair of Saint Mark. He generally resides in Cairo; but is styled “Patriarch of Alexandria.” He is chosen from among the order of monks; with whose regulations he continues to comply; and it is a point of these regulations that he remains unmarried. He is obliged to wear woollen garments next his body; but these are of the finest and softest quality, like the shawls of Kashmeer; and are concealed by habits of rich silks and cloth. So rigid are the rules with which he is obliged to conform, that, whenever he sleeps, he is waked after every quarter of an hour.[634] A patriarch may be appointed by his predecessor; but, generally, he is chosen by lot; and always from among the monks of the Convent of Saint Anthony (“Deyr Antooniyoos”), in the Eastern Desert of Egypt, near the western Gulf of the Red Sea. The bishops and principal priests, when a patriarch is to be elected, apply to the superior of the convent above mentioned, who names about eight or nine monks whom he considers qualified for the high office of head of the Church: the names of these persons are written, each upon a separate slip of paper, which pieces of paper are then rolled into the form of little balls, and put into a drawer: a priest draws one, without looking; and the person whose name is thus drawn is invested as patriarch. Formerly, a young child was employed to draw the lot; being supposed to be more under the direction of heaven.

The property at the disposal of the patriarch is very considerable: it chiefly consists in houses; and can only be employed for pious uses. Modern patriarchs have done little more than augment their property: generally, when a Copt sells a house in Cairo, the patriarch bids for it; and no one ventures to bid against him; so that the owner of the house is obliged to part with it for considerably less than its just value.

The patriarch and bishops wear a turban of a wider and rounder form than those of other persons; much resembling the mukleh of the Muslim ’Ulama; but of the same dark colour as those of the other Copts.

The Metropolitan of the Abyssinians (“el-Matrán”) is appointed by the Patriarch. He retains his office for life; and resides in Abyssinia.

A bishop (“Uskuf”) is generally (or, I am told, always) chosen from among the monks; and continues, like the patriarch, to conform with their regulations. The canons of the Church do not require that bishops should be monks; but unmarried men, or widowers, were formerly always chosen for the episcopal office. The number of bishops is twelve.

An Archpriest (“Kummus”) is elevated from the order of common priests. The archpriests are numerous.

A priest (“Kasees”) must have been a deacon: he must be without bodily defect, at least thirty-three years of age, and a person who has never married, or who has married but one wife, and taken that wife a virgin, and married her before he became a priest; for he cannot marry after. If a priest’s wife die, he cannot marry again; nor is the widow of a priest allowed to marry a second husband. A priest may be of the order of monks; and, consequently, unmarried. He is supported only by alms, and by what he obtains through his own industry. Both priests and deacons are ordained either by the Patriarch or by a bishop. The priests wear a turban formed of a long narrow band. This was worn, a few years ago, by all the Copts in Cairo: a desire to imitate the Muslims has made them change the style.

A Deacon (“Shemmás”) must be either unmarried, or a person who has only once married, to a virgin bride. If he take a second wife, or marry a widow, he loses his office. He may be of the order of monks, as appears from what has been said above.

A Monk (“Ráhib”) must have submitted to a long trial of his patience and piety, and made a vow of celibacy, before his admission into the monastic order. He usually performs menial and arduous services, previously to his admission, for a year, or a year and a half, in some sequestered convent in the desert. He is generally employed in fetching wood and water, sweeping the convent, etc., and waiting upon the monks; and expends all his property (if he have any) in the purchase of clothes and other necessaries for the monks and the poor in general. If, after a sufficient service, he persevere in his resolution, he is admitted. The prayers of the dead are recited over him, to celebrate his death to the world; and it has been said that, when he dies, he is buried without prayer; but I am informed that this is not the case. The monks are very numerous, and there are many nuns. They lead a life of great austerity; and are obliged always to wear woollen garments next the body. Every monk is distinguished by a strip of woollen stuff, of a deep blue or black colour, about four inches wide, attached beneath the turban and hanging down the back to the length of about a foot.[635] A woollen shirt is generally the only article of dress worn by the monks, beside the turban. They eat two meals in the course of the day, at noon and in the evening; but, if living in a convent, seldom anything more than lentils; as most of their convents are in the desert: on feast-days, however, they eat flesh, if it be procurable. The number of convents and churches is said to be a hundred and forty-six;[636] but the former are few in comparison with the latter.

The Coptic Church recommends baptizing boys at the age of forty days, and girls at the age of eighty days, if they continue so long well and healthy; but earlier if they be ill, and in apparent danger of death: for it is a prevailing belief among the Copts, that, if a child die unbaptized, it will be blind in the next life, and the parents are held guilty of a sin, for which they must do penance, either by repeating many prayers, or by fasting: yet people of the lower orders, if living at an inconvenient distance from a church, and even in other cases, often neglect baptizing their children for a whole year. The child is dipped three times in the water, in which a little holy oil, dropped on the priest’s thumb, has been washed off; and prayers, entirely in Coptic, are repeated over it. The Copts hold that the Holy Spirit descends upon the child in baptism. No money is taken by the priest for performing the baptismal service, unless voluntarily offered.

I have said that most of the Copts circumcise their sons. Not many of them in Cairo, I am told, do so; but in other parts, all, or almost all, observe this rite. The operation is generally performed when the child is about seven or eight years of age; and always privately: there is no fixed age for its performance: some of the Copts are circumcised at the early age of two years; and some at the age of twenty years, or more. The more enlightened of the Copts certainly regard circumcision as a practice to be commended; but not as a religious rite; which the priests declare it is not. It appears, however, from its being universal among the peasantry, that these look upon it as something more than a mere civil rite; for if they regarded it as being of no higher importance, surely they would leave the more polished to comply with the custom. Some say it is in imitation of Christ, who submitted to this rite, that they perform it. It is a relic of ancient customs.

The Copts have numerous schools; but for boys only: very few females among them can read; and those have been instructed at home. The boys are taught the Psalms of David, the Gospels, and the Apostolical Epistles, in Arabic; and then the Gospels and Epistles in Coptic. They do not learn the Coptic language grammatically; and I am told that there is not to be found, among the Copts, any person who can write or speak that language with correctness or ease; and that there are very few persons who can do more than repeat what they have committed to memory, of the Scriptures and Liturgy. The Coptic language gradually fell into disuse after the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs. For two centuries after that event, it appears to have been the only language that the generality of the Copts understood; but before the tenth century of our era, most of the inhabitants of Lower Egypt had ceased to speak and understand it;[637] though in the Sa’eed (or Upper Egypt), El-Makreezee tells us, the women and children of the Copts, in his time (that is, about the close of the fourteenth century of our era, or the early part of the fifteenth), scarcely spoke any other language than the Sa’eedee Coptic; and had a complete knowledge of the Greek. Soon after this period, the Coptic language fell into disuse in Upper Egypt, as it had done so long before in the Lower Provinces; and the Arabic was adopted in its stead. All the Copts who have been instructed at a school still pray, both in the church and in private, in Coptic; and the Scriptures are still always read in the churches in that language; but they are explained, from books, in Arabic. Many books for the use of priests and other persons are written in the Coptic language, expressed in Arabic characters.

The ordinary private prayers of the Copts are a subject particularly worthy of notice. In these they seem to have imitated the Jews, and to resemble the Muslims. I am informed that there are few of them in Cairo who do not comply with a precept of their church which enjoins them to pray seven times in the course of the day. The first prayer is said at day-break; the second, at the third hour; the third, at the sixth hour; the fourth, at the ninth hour; the fifth, at the eleventh hour; the sixth, at the twelfth hour, which is sunset; and the seventh, at midnight. In each of these prayers, those persons who have learned to read, and are strict in the performance of their religious duties, recite several of the Psalms of David (about a seventh part of the whole book of Psalms) in Arabic, and a chapter of one of the four Gospels in the same language; after which they say, either in Coptic or Arabic, “O my Lord! have mercy!” forty-one times; some using a string of forty-one beads; others counting by their fingers: they then add a short prayer in Coptic. In the seven prayers of each day, altogether, they repeat the whole book of Psalms. Such, I am assured, are the rigid practices of the more strict and instructed classes in their daily worship. The illiterate repeat, in each of the seven daily prayers, the Lord’s prayer seven times, and “O my Lord! have mercy!” forty-one times. Previously to private as well as public prayer, persons of the better and stricter classes wash their hands and face; and some also wash their feet; and in prayer they always face the east. Though in most of the rules above mentioned they nearly resemble the Jews and the Muslims, they differ from both these sects in holding that prayer, excepting with the congregation in the church, is better performed in private than in public. Their ordinary prayers, or at least the latter and shorter form, they often repeat while walking or riding or otherwise actively employed. I can hardly believe that the longer form is generally used by the instructed classes; though I am positively assured that it is.

The larger churches are divided into four or five compartments. The “Heykel,” or Chancel, containing the altar, occupies the central and chief portion of the compartment at the upper end, which is screened from the rest of the church by a close partition or wall of wooden panel-work, having a door in the centre, the entrance of the Heykel, before which is suspended a curtain, with a large cross worked upon it. The compartment next before this is appropriated to the priests who read the lessons, etc., and to boys who serve as acolytes and singers, and the chief members of the congregation: this is separated from the compartment next before it by a partition of wooden lattice-work, about eight or nine feet high, with three doors, or a single door in the centre. The inferior members of the congregation occupy the next compartment, or next two compartments; and the lowest is appropriated to the women, and is screened in front by a partition of wooden lattice-work, to conceal them entirely from the men. Upon the walls of the church are suspended ill-executed and gaudy pictures of various saints; particularly of the patron saint; but no images are admitted. The floor is covered with mats.

Every man takes off his shoes on entering the church; but he retains his turban. He first goes to the door of the Heykel, prostrates himself before it, and kisses the hem of its curtain. He then prostrates himself, or makes a bow, and a salutation with the hand, before one or more pictures of saints, and sometimes kisses the hand of one or more of the officiating priests, in the compartment next before the Heykel. Almost every member of the congregation has a crutch, about four feet and a half or five feet long, to lean upon while he stands; which he does during the greater part of the service. The full service (with the celebration of the Eucharist) occupies between three and four hours; generally commencing at day-break.

The priests who officiate in the Heykel are clad in handsome robes; but the others wear only their ordinary dress. The whole of the service that is performed in the Heykel is in the Coptic language; no other language being allowed to be spoken within the sanctuary. The priests without, standing opposite and facing the door of the Heykel, read and chant explanations and lessons in Arabic and Coptic.[638] A priest is not permitted to sit down while reading the service in the sanctuary; and as this occupies so long a time, he pauses, in order that he may sit down, several times, for a few minutes, and on these occasions, cymbals of various sizes and notes are beaten as long as he remains sitting. Several times, also, a priest comes out from the Heykel, waves a censer, in which frankincense is burning, among the congregation, and blesses each member, placing his hand upon the person’s head. Having done this to the men, he proceeds to the apartment of the women. The Sacrament of the Lord’s Supper is often performed in the Coptic Church. The bread, which is made in the form of small round cakes, or buns, stamped upon the top, is moistened with the wine, and in this state administered to the congregation, and partaken of by the ministers in orders, who have larger shares than the laymen, and are alone privileged to drink the wine. Each member of the congregation advances to the door of the Heykel to receive his portion.

The priests and others are often guilty of excessive indecorum in their public worship. I heard a priest, standing before the door of the sanctuary in the patriarchal church in Cairo, exclaim to a young acolyte (who was assisting him, I suppose, rather awkwardly), “May a blow corrode your heart!” and a friend of mine once witnessed, in the same place, a complete uproar: a priest from a village, having taken a part in the performance of the service, was loudly cursed, and forcibly expelled, by the regular officiating ministers; and afterwards, many members of the congregation, in pressing towards the door of the Heykel, vociferated curses, and beat each other with their crutches. The form of service in itself struck me as not much characterized by solemnity; though probably it approaches very nearly to that of the earliest age of the Christian Church.

Confession is required of all members of the Coptic Church; and is indispensable before receiving the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper. Each person generally confesses to the same priest. The penance which the confessor usually imposes is a certain number of crossings and prostrations, with the repetition, during each prostration, of the Lord’s Prayer, or, “O my Lord! have mercy!”

The Copts observe long and arduous fasts. A week before their Great Fast, or Lent, commences a fast of three days, kept in commemoration of that of Nineveh, which was occasioned by the preaching of Jonah. Some of the Copts observe this fast by total abstinence during the whole period of three days and three nights; others keep it in the same manner as the other fasts, of which an account here follows.

Their principal fast, called “Ses-óm el-Kebeer” (or the Great Fast), above alluded to, was originally limited to forty days; but it has been gradually extended, by different patriarchs, to fifty-five days. During this period, excepting on two days of festival, which will presently be mentioned, they abstain from every kind of animal food, such as flesh-meat, eggs, milk, butter, and cheese; and eat only bread and vegetables (chiefly beans), with sweet oil, or the oil of sesame, and dukkah. The churches are open, and service is performed in them, every day during this fast; and the Copts eat nothing after their supper until after the church-prayers of the next day, about noon: but they do not thus on the other fasts.

They observe, however, with almost equal strictness, three other fasts:—1st, the “Sóm el-Meelád” (or Fast of the Nativity); the period of which is twenty-eight days immediately preceding the festival of the Nativity, or Christmas-day; that is, all the month of Kiyahk excepting the last two days:—2dly, the “Sóm er-Rusul” (or Fast of the Apostles), which is the period between the Ascension and the fifth of Ebeeb; and is observed in commemoration of the Apostles’ fasting after they were deprived of their Lord:—3dly, the “Sóm el-’Adra” (or Fast of the Virgin), a period of fifteen days previous to the Assumption of the Virgin.

The Copts also fast every Wednesday and Friday in every other period of the year; excepting during the fifty days immediately following their Great Fast: that is, from the end of the Great Fast to the end of the Khamáseen. On these Wednesdays and Fridays, they eat only fish, vegetables, and oil.

Each fast is followed by a festival. The Copts observe seven great festivals:—1st, the “’Eed el-Meelád” (or Festival of the Nativity), on the 29th of Kiyahk (or 6th or 7th of January):—2dly, the “’Eed el-Gheetás,” on the 11th of Toobeh (18th or 19th of January), in commemoration of the baptism of Christ:—3dly, the “’Eed el-Bishárah” (Annunciation of the Virgin, or Lady-day), on the 29th of Barmahát (or 6th of April):—4thly, the “’Eed esh-Sha’áneen” (Palm Sunday), the Sunday next before Easter:—5thly, the “’Eed el-Kiyámeh” (the Resurrection, or Easter), or “el-’Eed el-Kebeer” (the Great Festival):—6thly, the “’Eed es-So’ood” (the Ascension):—7thly, the “’Eed el-’Ansar′ah” (Whitsunday). On the first, second, and fifth of these, the church-prayers are performed at night: that is, in the night preceding the day of festival. On all these festivals, the Copts wear new clothes (or the best they have), feast, and give alms.

On the “Leylet el-Gheetás” (or eve of the festival of the Gheetás), the Copts, almost universally, used to perform a singular ceremony, which, I am informed, is now observed by few of those residing in the metropolis, but by almost all others; that is, by the men. To commemorate the baptism of Christ, men, old as well as young, and boys, plunge into water; and the Muslims say, that as each does this, another exclaims to him, “Plunge, as thy father and grandfather plunged; and remove El-Islám from thy heart.” Some churches have a large tank, which is used on this occasion; the water having first been blessed by a priest: but it is a more common practice of the Copts to perform this ceremony (which most of them regard more as an amusement than a religious rite) in the river; pouring in some holy water from the church before they plunge. This used to be an occasion of great festivity among the Copts of the metropolis: the Nile was crowded with boats; and numerous tents and mesh′als were erected on its banks. Prayers are performed in the churches on the eve of this festival: a priest blesses the water in the font, or the tank, then ties on a napkin as an apron, and, wetting the corner of a handkerchief with the holy water, washes (or rather, wipes or touches) with it the feet of each member of the congregation. This latter ceremony is also performed on the Thursday next before Easter, or Maunday Thursday (“Khamees el-′Ahd”), and on the Festival of the Apostles (“′Eed er-Rusul”), on the 5th of Ebeeb (or 11th of July).

On the Festivals of the “Bishárah” and the “Sha′áneen,” the Copts eat fish; and on the latter of these two festivals the priests recite the prayers of the dead over their congregations in the churches; and if any die between that day and the end of the Khamáseen (which is the chief or worse portion of the plague-season), his body is interred without the prayer being repeated. This custom seems to have originated from the fact of its being impossible to pray at the tomb over every victim of the plague; and must have a very impressive effect upon people expecting this dreadful scourge.

Among the minor festivals are the “Khamees el-′Ahd,” above mentioned; “Sebt en-Noor” (or Saturday of the Light), the next Saturday, when a light which is said to be miraculous appears in the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem; the “′Eed er-Rusul” before mentioned; and the “′Eed es-Saleeb” (or Festival of [the discovery of] the Cross), on the 17th of Toot (or 26th or 27th of September).

Pilgrimage to Jerusalem the Copts hold to be incumbent on all who are able to perform it; but few of the poorer classes acquit themselves of this duty. The pilgrims compose a numerous caravan. They pass the Passion-Week and Easter at Jerusalem; and, on the third day after the Passion-Week, proceed to the Jordan, in which they bathe.

The Copts almost universally abstain from eating swine′s flesh; not because they consider it unlawful, for they deny it to be so, but, as they say, on account of the filthiness of the animal. I should think, however, that this abstinence is rather to be attributed to a prejudice derived from their heathen ancestors. The flesh of the wild boar is often eaten by them. Camel′s flesh they consider unlawful; probably for no better reason than that of its being eaten by the Muslims. They abstain from the flesh of animals that have been strangled, and from blood, in compliance with an injunction of the Apostles to the Gentile converts,[639] which they hold is not abrogated.

The male adults among the Copts pay a tribute (called “gizyeh”), besides the income-tax (or “firdeh”) which they pay in common with the Muslim inhabitants of Egypt. There are three rates of the former: the richer classes, in Cairo and other large towns, pay thirty-six piastres each; the middling classes, eighteen; and the poorest, nine: but in the country, this tax is levied upon families, instead of individuals. The firdeh is the same for the Copts as for the Muslims; the twelfth part of a man′s annual salary or gain, when this can be ascertained.

The Copts are not now despised and degraded by the government as they were a few years ago. Some of them have even been raised to the rank of Beys. Before the accession of Mohammad ′Alee, neither the Copts nor other Eastern Christians, nor Jews, were generally allowed to ride horses in Egypt; but this restriction has, of late years, been withdrawn.—A short time since, the Muslims of Damascus, who are notorious for their bigotry and intolerance, complained to the conqueror Ibráheem Básha, of the Christians in their city being allowed to ride horses; urging that the Muslims no longer had the privilege of distinguishing themselves from the infidels. The Básha replied, “Let the Muslims still be exalted above the Christians, if they wish it: let them ride dromedaries in the streets: depend upon it the Christians will not follow their example.”—The Copts enjoy an immunity for which they are much envied by most of the Muslims: they are not liable to be taken for military service; as no Muslim prince would honour a Christian by employing him to fight against a Muslim enemy.

The ordinary domestic habits of the Copts are perfectly Oriental, and nearly the same as those of their Muslim fellow-countrymen. They pass their hours of leisure chiefly in the same manner, enjoying their pipe and coffee: their meals, also, are similar; and their manner of eating is the same: but they indulge in drinking brandy at all hours of the day; and often, to excess.

They are not allowed by their church to intermarry with persons of any other sect; and few of them do so. When a Copt wishes to contract such a marriage, which causes him to be regarded as a reprobate by the more strict of his nation, he generally applies to a priest of the sect to which his intended wife belongs; and if his request be denied, which is commonly the case unless the man will consent to adopt his wife′s creed, he is married by the Kádee, merely by a civil contract. As a marriage of this kind is not acknowledged by the church, it may be dissolved at pleasure.

When a Copt is desirous of marrying according to the approved custom, he pursues the same course to obtain a wife as the Muslim; employing one or more of his female relations or other women to seek for him a suitable companion. Scarcely ever is he able to obtain a sight of the face of his intended wife, unless she be of the lower orders; and not always even in this case. If the female sought in marriage be under age, her father, or mother, or nearest male relation, is her “wekeel” (or agent) to make the necessary arrangements; but if she be of age, and have neither father nor mother, she appoints her own wekeel. The bridegroom, also, has his wekeel. The parties make a contract, in which various private domestic matters are arranged, in the presence of a priest. Two-thirds of the amount of the dowry is paid on this occasion: the remaining third is held in reserve: if she survive her husband, she claims this from his property: if she die before him, her relations claim it at her death. The contract being concluded, the Lord′s Prayer is recited three times by all persons present: the priest commencing it first.

The marriage-festivities, in the cases of persons of the higher and middle classes, when the bride is a virgin, usually occupy a period of eight days. Such is the length of what is termed a complete fête.

The night preceding Sunday (which the Copts, like the Muslims, call the night of Sunday) is the most approved for the performance of the marriage service; and most of the Copts are married on this night. In this case, the festivities commence on the preceding Tuesday, when the bridegroom and the bride′s family entertain their respective friends. At the feasts given on these occasions, and on subsequent days of the marriage-festivities, a curious custom, which reminds us of the alites or præpetes of the Romans, is usually observed. The cook makes two hollow balls of sugar; each with a hole at the bottom: then taking two live pigeons, he attaches little round bells to their wings; and having whirled the poor birds through the air till they are giddy, puts them into the two balls before mentioned: each of these is placed upon a dish; and they are put before the guests; some of whom, judging when the birds have recovered from their giddiness, break the balls: the pigeons generally fly about the room, ringing their little bells: if they do not fly immediately, some person usually makes them rise; as the spectators would draw an evil omen from their not flying.[640] The guests are generally entertained with music on the evenings of these feasts.—Wednesday is passed in preparations.

On Thursday, in the afternoon, the bride is conducted to the bath, accompanied by several of her female relations and friends, and usually with music; but not under a canopy.—Friday, again, is a day of preparation; and the bride has the henna applied to her hands and feet, etc.

Early on Saturday, two sets of articles of clothing, etc., one for the bridegroom and the other for the bride, and each consisting of similar things (namely, a shirt of silk and cotton, a pair of drawers, the embroidered band of the drawers, and two handkerchiefs embroidered with gold, together with a tobacco-purse, ornamented in the same manner), are sent from the bride′s family to the house of the bridegroom. An old lady of the family of the bride afterwards goes to the bridegroom’s house, to see whether it be properly prepared; and the bridegroom’s “ashbeen” (or brideman) takes him and several of his friends to the bath.

In the ensuing evening, about an hour and a half, or two hours, after sunset, the bride, accompanied by a number of her female relations and friends, preceded and followed by musicians, and attended by a number of persons bearing mesh’als and candles, proceeds to the house of the bridegroom. This “zeffeh” (or parade) much resembles that of a Muslim′eh bride; but the Copt bride is not conducted under a canopy. She is covered with a shawl, with several ornaments attached to that part which conceals her face and head, and numerous coins and other ornaments upon the part which covers her bosom. The procession moves very slowly; and generally occupies about two hours. A lamb or sheep is killed for the guests at the bridegroom’s house this night: it is slaughtered at the door; and the bride steps over its blood. This ceremony, I am told, is only observed in Cairo and other large towns.

The bride’s party having rested about two hours at the bridegroom’s house, and there partaken of refreshments, proceed with her thence, in the same manner, to the church. The bridegroom goes thither with his friends, forming a separate party; and without music. In the church, where the men and women place themselves apart, long prayers are performed; and the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper is administered. The priest receives and blesses and returns two rings, for the bridegroom and bride; and places a kind of crown, or frontal diadem, of gold, upon the head of each of them, and a sash over the shoulder of the bridegroom. This ceremony is called the “tekleel” (or crowning). The two crowns belong to the church: before the parties quit the church, they are taken off; but the bridegroom often goes home with the sash; and it is there taken off by a priest. At the weddings of the rich in the metropolis, the Patriarch generally officiates. In most cases, the ceremonies of the church are not concluded until near daybreak: the parties then return to the house of the bridegroom. From respect to the sacrament of which they have partaken, the bridegroom and bride maintain a religious reserve towards each other until the following night (that preceding Monday); or, generally, until after the close of this night.[641]

The bride’s father gives a dinner at the bridegroom’s house on Monday, at which the principal dishes are usually rice and milk, and boiled fowls. In the evening, after this dinner, the bridegroom and his ashbeen go about to invite his friends to a great feast to be given on the evening following, which concludes the marriage-festivities.

Such are the ceremonies which are usually observed on the marriage of a virgin-bride. Sometimes, the Patriarch, bishop, or priest, who is employed to perform the marriage-service, dissuades the parties from expending their money in zeffehs and repeated feasts; counselling them rather to devote the sums which they had purposed to employ in so vain a manner to the relief of the wants of the clergy and poor; and in consequence, the marriage is conducted with more simplicity and privacy. A widow is always married without ostentation, festivity, or zeffeh. A virgin bride of the poorer class is sometimes honoured with a zeffeh; but is generally conducted to the bath merely by a group of female relations and friends, who, wanting the accompaniment of musical instruments, only testify their joy by “zagháreet:” in the same manner, also, she proceeds to the bridegroom’s house; and she is there married by a priest; as the expenses of lighting and otherwise preparing the church for a marriage fall upon the bridegroom. Many of the Copts in Cairo, being possessed of little property, are married in a yet more simple manner, before mentioned. To be married by one of their own clergy, they must obtain a licence from the Patriarch; and this covetous person will seldom give it for less than a hundred piasters (or a pound sterling), and sometimes demands, from such persons, as many riyáls (of two piasters and a quarter each): the parties, therefore, are married by a licence from the Kádee; for which they usually pay not more than two piasters, or a little less than five pence of our money.

The newly-married wife, if she observe the approved rules of etiquette, does not go out of the house, even to pay a visit to her parents, until delivered of her first child, or until the expiration of a year, if there appear no signs of her becoming a mother. After this period of imprisonment, her father or mother usually comes to visit her.

A divorce is obtained only for the cause of adultery on the part of the wife. The husband and wife may be separated if she have committed a theft, or other heinous crime; but in this case, neither he nor she is at liberty to contract another marriage, though they may again be united to each other.

One of the most remarkable traits in the character of the Copts is their bigotry. They bear a bitter hatred to all other Christians; even exceeding that with which the Muslims regard the unbelievers in El-Islám. Yet they are considered, by the Muslims, as much more inclined than any other Christian sect to the faith of El-Islám; and this opinion has not been formed without reason; for vast numbers of them have, from time to time, and not always in consequence of persecution, become proselytes to this religion. They are, generally speaking, of a sullen temper, extremely avaricious, and abominable dissemblers; cringing or domineering according to circumstances. The respectable Copt, to whom I have already acknowledged myself chiefly indebted for the notions which I have obtained respecting the customs of his nation, gives me a most unfavourable account of their character. He avows them to be generally ignorant, deceitful, faithless, and abandoned to the pursuit of worldly gain, and to indulgence in sensual pleasures: he declares the Patriarch to be a tyrant, and a suborner of false witnesses; and assures me that the priests and monks in Cairo are seen every evening begging, and asking the loan of money, which they never repay, at the houses of their parishioners and other acquaintances, and procuring brandy, if possible, wherever they call.

Many of the Copts are employed as secretaries or accountants. In every village of a moderate size is a “M’allim”[642] who keeps the register of the taxes. The writing of the Copts differs considerably from that of the Muslims, as well as from that of other Christians residing in Egypt. Most of the Copts in Cairo are accountants or tradesmen: the former are chiefly employed in government offices: among the latter are many merchants, goldsmiths, silversmiths, jewellers, architects, builders, and carpenters; all of whom are generally esteemed more skilful than the Muslims. Those in the villages, like the Muslim peasants, occupy themselves chiefly in the labours of agriculture.

The funeral-ceremonies of the Copts resemble, in many respects, those of the Muslims. The corpse is carried in a bier, followed by women, wailing in the same manner as the Muslim′ehs do on such an occasion; but is not preceded by hired chanters. Hired wailing-women are employed to lament in the house of the deceased for three days after the death (though this custom is disapproved of by the clergy and many others; being only a relic of ancient heathen usages): and they renew their lamentations there on the seventh and fourteenth days after the death; and sometimes several weeks after. The Copts, both men and women, pay regular visits to the tombs of their relations three times in the year: on the ’Eed el-Meelád, ’Eed el-Gheetás, and ’Eed el-Kiyámeh. They go to the burial-ground on the eve of each of these ’eeds; and there pass the night; having houses belonging to them in the cemeteries, for their reception on these occasions: the women spend the night in the upper apartments; and the men below. In the morning following, they kill a buffalo, or a sheep, if they can afford either; and give its flesh, with bread, to the poor who assemble there: or they give bread alone. This ceremony, which resembles the “kaffárah” performed by the Muslims on the burial of their dead, is not considered as any expiation of the sins of the deceased; but probably originates from an ancient expiatory sacrifice: it is only regarded as an alms. As soon as it is done, the mourners return home. They say that they visit the tombs merely for the sake of religious reflection. In doing so, they perpetuate an ancient custom, which they find difficult to relinquish; though they can give no good reason for observing it with such ceremonies.

I shall close this account of the Copts with a few notices of their history under the Muslim domination, derived from El-Makreezee’s celebrated work on Egypt and its Metropolis.[643]

About seventy years after the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs, the Copts began to experience such exactions and persecutions, notwithstanding the chartered favours and privileges which had at first been granted to them, that many of them rose in arms, and attempted to defend their rights; but they were reduced, after sustaining a great slaughter. The monks, for the first time, had been subjected to an annual tribute of a deenár[644] each. The collector of the tribute branded the hand of each monk whom he could find with a stamp of iron; and afterwards cut off the hand of every person of this order whom he detected without the mark; and exacted ten deenárs from every other Christian who had not a billet from the government to certify his having paid his tribute. Many Monks were subsequently found without the mark: some of these were beheaded, and the rest beaten until they died under the blows: their churches were demolished; and their crosses and pictures destroyed. This took place in the year of the Flight 104 (A.D. 722-3), at the close of the reign of the Khaleefeh Yezeed Ibn-’Abd-El-Melik. A few years after, in the reign of the successor of this prince (Hishám), Handhal′ah Ibn-Safwán, the Governor of Egypt, caused the hand of every Copt to be branded with an iron stamp bearing the figure of a lion, and greatly aggravated their misery: so that many of those residing in the provinces again rebelled, and had recourse to arms; but in vain; and a terrible persecution followed.

From the period of the conquest until the reign of Hishám, the Jacobites (or almost all the Copts) were in possession of all the churches in Egypt; and sent their bishops to the Nubians, who consequently abandoned the Melekite creed, and adopted that of the Jacobites; but in the reign of this Khaleefeh, the Melekites, by means of a present, obtained the restoration of those churches which had formerly belonged to them: these, however, soon after returned to the possession of the Jacobites; and in aftertimes, were now the property of one sect, and now of the other, being purchased by presents or services to the government.

It would be tiresome to detail all the troubles of the Copts under the tyranny of Muslim princes; but some particulars in the history of the persecutions which they endured in the earlier ages of the Arab domination may be here mentioned. The Copts are a people of indomitable presumption and intrigue; which qualities render them very difficult to be governed. They have often incurred severe oppression by their own folly; though they have more frequently been victims of unmerited persecution under tyrannical rulers, and through the influence of private fanatics.[645]

In the year of the Flight 235 (A.D. 849-50), the Khaleefeh El-Mutawekkil ordered several degrading distinctions to be adopted in the dress of the Copts: the men were obliged to wear “honey-coloured” (or light brown) hooded cloaks, with other peculiar articles of dress; and the women, garments of the same colour: and they were compelled to place wooden figures (or pictures) of devils at (or upon) the doors of their houses.

One of the bitterest persecutions that they ever endured, and one which was attributed to their pride, and their display of wealth, and contemptuous treatment of Muslims, befell them during the reign of that impious wretch the Khaleefeh El-Hákim, who acceded to the throne in the year of the Flight 386 (A.D. 996-7), and was killed in 411. Among the minor grievances which he inflicted upon them, was that of compelling them to wear a wooden cross, of the weight of five pounds, suspended to the neck, and garments and turbans of a deep black colour. This seems to have been the origin of the black turban worn by so many of the Christians in the present day. As the distinguishing dress and banners of the Khaleefehs of Egypt were white, black, which was the colour that distinguished their rivals, the ’Abbásees, was, in their eyes, the most hateful and ignominious hue that they could choose for the dresses of the despised Copts. I find no earlier mention than this of the black turban of the Christians of Egypt. At the same time that the Copts were compelled thus to distinguish themselves, the Jews were ordered to wear a round piece of wood, of the same weight as the crosses of the Christians, and suspended in the same manner. All the churches were given up to be destroyed and plundered, with all the property appertaining to them; and many of them were replaced by mosques. Finally, a sentence of banishment to Greece was pronounced against all the Christians of Egypt, and the Jews; but so strong was the love which they bore to their native country amid all their miseries, and so much were they actuated by that common but absurd disposition, which most sects possess, of hating most bitterly those differing least from them in faith, that a multitude of Copts thronged round the great palace of the Khaleefeh, and implored and obtained a revokement of this sentence. Many Copts, during this and other persecutions, embraced the faith of El-Islám.

In the month of Regeb, 700 (A.D. 1301), happened an event which, for the first time, as well as I can learn, occasioned the Copts to be distinguished by the blue turban, as they mostly are at present. A Maghrab′ee ambassador, approaching the Citadel (of Cairo), saw a man handsomely attired, wearing a white turban, and riding a mare, with many attendants walking by his stirrups, paying him great honours, asking favours of him, and even kissing his feet; while he turned aside from them, and repulsed them, calling to his servants to drive them away. The Maghrab′ee, informed that this person was a Christian, was so enraged that he was about to lay violent hands upon him; but he refrained, and, ascending to the deewán in the Citadel, related to some of the Emeers there present what he had just seen, with tears in his eyes, drawn by his pity for the Muslims. In consequence of his complaint, the chief persons among the Christians and Jews were summoned to the deewán: and orders were given that the Christians should wear blue turbans, and waist-belts; and the Jews, yellow turbans: and that no person of either of these sects should ride horses or mules. Many Christians, it is added, embraced El-Islám rather than wear the blue turban.

On Friday, the 9th of Rabeea el-A′khir, 721 (A.D. 1321), in the reign of Mohammad Ibn-Kalaoon, all the principal churches throughout Egypt, from Aswán to the Mediterranean, sixty in number, and twenty-one of these in the metropolis and its neighbourhood, were destroyed through a plot formed by some fanatic Muslims. This havoc was accomplished chiefly during the period of the congregational prayers of the Muslims, at noon. At the close of the prayers of the Sultán and his court, in the mosque of the Citadel, a man, in a state of apparent frenzy, cried out in the midst of the congregation, “Destroy ye the church which is in the Citadel!” Another man, a fakeer, in the great mosque El-Azhar, before the appearance of the Khateeb (or Preacher), seemed to be affected by an involuntary trembling, and cried out, “Destroy ye the churches of the presumptuous and infidels! Yea, God is most great! God give victory and aid!” Then he shook himself, and cried, “To the foundations! To the foundations!” Some members of the congregation said, “This is a madman:” others said, “This is an indication of some event.” On their going out of the mosque, they saw that the act which he had urged had been commenced: numbers of persons were pressing along the streets with the plunder of the churches, many of which were reduced to mere mounds of rubbish. The Sultán threatened a general massacre of the people of El-Káhireh (now Masr, or Cairo) and El-Fustát (or Old Masr) for this outrage; but was diverted from his purpose by the revenge which the Christians exacted. Refraining from the execution of their plot for the space of a month, that they might be less liable to suspicion, they set fire, on different days, to a vast number of mosques, houses of Emeers, and private dwellings, both in El-Káhireh and El-Fustát. Several of the incendiaries were detected; and some burnt alive; and a number of Muslims also were put to death, most of them hanged, along the principal street leading from the southern gate of the city of El-Káhireh to the Citadel, ostensibly for insulting an Emeer, whom they accused of favouring the Christians; though there was no proof that they were the persons who committed this offence: they had been arrested without discrimination, to atone for the injury, and to be made examples to their fellow-citizens. The Sultán, however, alarmed by the clamours of a tremendous mob, was afterwards constrained to grant licence to his Muslim subjects to plunder and murder every Christian whom they might chance to meet. The Christians at that time had reverted to the habit of wearing the white turban; and the Sultán caused it to be proclaimed, that every person of this sect, who was seen wearing a white turban, or riding a horse, might be plundered and killed; that they should wear the blue turban; that they should not ride horses nor mules, but only asses, and with their face to the animal’s tail; and should not enter a bath unless with a bell suspended to the neck. At the same time, the Emeers were forbidden to take any Christians into their service; and all of this sect who were in the service of the government were displaced.

After having suffered frequent and heavy exactions and other oppressions, a vast number of the Christians both in Upper and Lower Egypt, in the year of the Flight 755 (A.D. 1354-5), embraced the faith of El-Islám. The number of proselytes in the town of Kalyoob alone, who changed their faith in one day, was four hundred and fifty. Most of the churches of Upper Egypt were destroyed at the same time; and mosques were built in their places.

From the period just mentioned, the Copts continued subject to more or less oppression, until the accession of the present Básha of Egypt, under whose tolerant though severe sway nothing more is exacted from the Christian than the Muslim, excepting an inconsiderable tribute, which is more than balanced by a remarkable immunity, not conferred by favour (it is true), but not on that account the less valued and envied; I mean the exemption from military service.

II.—THE JEWS OF EGYPT.

The Jews, in every country in which they are dispersed (unlike any other collective class of people residing in a country which is not their own by inheritance from the original possessors, or by conquest achieved by themselves or their ancestors), form permanent members of the community among whom they dwell: a few words respecting the Jews in Egypt will therefore be not inappropriate in the present work.

There are in this country about five thousand Jews (in Arabic, called “Yahood;” singular, “Yahoodee”), most of whom reside in the metropolis, in a miserable, close, and dirty quarter, intersected by lanes, many of which are so narrow as hardly to admit of two persons passing each other in them.

In features, and in the general expression of countenance, the Oriental Jews differ less from other Eastern nations than do those in European countries from the people among whom they live. Many of the Egyptian Jews have sore eyes, and a bloated complexion; the result, it is supposed, of their making an immoderate use of the oil of sesame in their food. In their dress, as well as in their persons, they are generally slovenly and dirty. The colours of their turbans are the same as those of the Christian subjects. Their women veil themselves, and dress in every respect, in public, like the other women of Egypt.

The Jews have eight synagogues in their quarter in Cairo; and not only enjoy religious toleration, but are under a less oppressive government in Egypt than in any other country of the Turkish empire. In Cairo, they pay for the exemption of their quarter from the visits of the Mohtes′ib; and they did the same also with respect to the Wálee, as long as his office existed. Being consequently privileged to sell articles of provision at higher prices than the other inhabitants of the metropolis, they can afford to purchase such things at higher rates, and therefore stock their shops with provisions, and especially fruits, of better qualities than are to be found in other parts of the town. Like the Copts, and for a like reason, the Jews pay tribute, and are exempted from military service.

They are held in the utmost contempt and abhorrence by the Muslims in general; and are said to bear a more inveterate hatred than any other people to the Muslims and the Muslim religion. It is said, in the Kur-án,[646] “Thou shall surely find the most violent of [all] men in enmity to those who have believed [to be] the Jews, and those who have attributed partners to God; and thou shall surely find the most inclinable of them to [entertain] friendship to those who have believed [to be] those who say, We are Christians.” On my mentioning to a Muslim friend this trait in the character of the Jews, he related to me, in proof of what I remarked, an event which had occurred a few days before.—“A Jew,” said he, “early one morning last week, was passing by a coffee-shop kept by a Muslim with whom he was acquainted, named Mohammad. Seeing a person standing there, and supposing that it was the master of the shop (for it was yet dusk), he said, ‘Good morning, sheykh Mohammad;’ but the only answer he received to his salutation was a furious rebuke for thus addressing a Jew, by a name the most odious, to a person of that sect, of any that could be uttered. He (the offender) was dragged before his high-priest, who caused him to receive a severe bastinading for the alleged offence, in spite of his protesting that it was unintentional.” It is a common saying among the Muslims in this country, “Such a one hates me with the hate of the Jews.” We cannot wonder, then, that the Jews are detested by the Muslims far more than are the Christians. Not long ago, they used often to be jostled in the streets of Cairo, and sometimes beaten merely for passing on the right hand of a Muslim. At present, they are less oppressed; but still they scarcely ever dare to utter a word of abuse when reviled or beaten unjustly by the meanest Arab or Turk; for many a Jew has been put to death upon a false and malicious accusation of uttering disrespectful words against the Kur-án or the Prophet. It is common to hear an Arab abuse his jaded ass, and, after applying to him various opprobrious epithets, end by calling the beast a Jew.

A Jew has often been sacrificed to save a Muslim, as happened in the following case.—A Turkish soldier, having occasion to change some money, received from the seyrefee (or money-changer), who was a Muslim, some Turkish coins called ’adleeyehs, reckoned at sixteen piasters each. These he offered to a shopkeeper, in payment for some goods; but the latter refused to allow him more than fifteen piasters to the ’adleeyeh; telling him that the Básha had given orders, many days before, that this coin should no longer pass for sixteen. The soldier took back the ’adleeyehs to the seyrefee, and demanded an additional piaster to each; which was refused: he therefore complained to the Básha himself, who, enraged that his orders had been disregarded, sent for the seyrefee. This man confessed that he had been guilty of an offence; but endeavoured to palliate it by asserting that almost every money-changer in the city had done the same, and that he received ’adleeyehs at the same rate. The Básha, however, disbelieving him, or thinking it necessary to make a public example, gave a signal with his hand, intimating that the delinquent should be beheaded. The interpreter of the court, moved with compassion for the unfortunate man, begged the Básha to spare his life. “This man,” said he, “has done no more than all the money changers of the city: I, myself, no longer ago than yesterday, received ’adleeyehs at the same rate.” “From whom?” exclaimed the Básha, “From a Jew,” answered the interpreter, “with whom I have transacted business for many years.” The Jew was brought, and sentenced to be hanged; while the Muslim was pardoned. The interpreter, in the greatest distress of mind, pleaded earnestly for the life of the poor Jew: but the Básha was inexorable: it was necessary that an example should be made; and it was deemed better to take the life of a Jew than that of a more guilty Muslim. I saw the wretched man hanging at a window of a public fountain which forms part of a mosque in the main street of the city.[647] One end of the rope being passed over one of the upper bars of the grated window, he was hauled up; and as he hung close against the window, he was enabled, in some slight degree, to support himself by his feet against the lower bars; by which his suffering was dreadfully protracted. His relations offered large sums of money for his pardon; but the only favour they could purchase was that of having his face turned towards the window, so as not to be seen by the passengers. He was a man much respected by all who knew him (Muslims, of course, excepted); and he left a family in a very destitute state; but the interpreter who was the unintending cause of his death contributed to their support.

The Jews in Egypt generally lead a very quiet life: indeed, they find few but persons of their own sect who will associate with them. Their diet is extremely gross; but they are commonly regarded as a sober people. The more wealthy among them dress handsomely at home; but put on a plain or even shabby dress before they go out: and though their houses have a mean and dirty appearance from without, many of them contain fine and well-furnished rooms. In the house they are not so strict as most other Orientals in concealing their women from strange men, or, at least, from persons of their own nation, and from Franks: it often happens that a European visitor is introduced into an apartment where the women of the Jew’s family are sitting unveiled, and is waited upon by these women. The same custom also prevails among many of the Syrian Christians residing in Cairo. Intrigues are said to be common with the Jewesses; but there are no avowed courtesans among them. The condition of the lower orders is very wretched; many of them having no other means of subsistence than alms bestowed upon them by their superiors of the same sect.

Avarice is more particularly a characteristic of the Jews in Egypt than of those in other countries where they are less oppressed. They are careful, by every means in their power, to avoid the suspicion of being possessed of much wealth. It is for this reason that they make so shabby a figure in public, and neglect the exterior appearance of their houses. They are generally strict in the performance of their religious ordinances; and, though over-reaching in commercial transactions, are honest in the fulfilment of their contracts.

Many of the Egyptian Jews are “sarráfs” (or bankers and money-lenders): others are seyrefees, and are esteemed men of strict probity. Some are goldsmiths or silversmiths; and others pursue the trades of retail grocers or fruiterers, etc. A few of the more wealthy are general merchants.

III.—OF LATE INNOVATIONS IN EGYPT.

THE exaggerated reports which have been spread in Europe respecting late innovations, and the general advance of civilization, in Egypt, induce me to add a few lines on these subjects. European customs have not yet begun to spread among the Egyptians themselves; but they probably will ere long; and in the expectation that this will soon be the case, I have been most anxious to become well acquainted (before it be too late to make the attempt) with a state of society which has existed, and excited a high degree of interest, for many centuries, and which many persons have deemed almost immutable.

The account which I have given of the present state of the government of this country shows how absurd is the assertion, that Egypt possesses a legislative assembly that can, with any degree of propriety, be called representative of the people. The will of the Básha is almost absolute; but he has certainly effected a great reform, by the introduction of European military and naval tactics, the results of which have already been considerable, and will be yet more extensive, and, in most respects, desirable. Already it has removed a great portion of that weight of prejudice which has so long prevented the Turks from maintaining their relative rank among the nations of the civilized world: by convincing them that one of our branches of science and practice is so far superior to that to which they were accustomed, it has made them in general willing, if not desirous, to learn what more we are able to teach them. One of its effects already manifest might be regarded by an unreflecting mind as of no importance; but is considered by the philosophical Muslim as awfully portentous, and hailed by the Christian as an omen of the brightest promise. The Turks have been led to imitate us in our luxuries: several of the more wealthy began by adopting the use of the knife and fork: the habit of openly drinking wine immediately followed; and has become common among a great number of the higher officers of the government. That a remarkable indifference to religion is indicated by this innovation is evident; and the principles of the dominant class will doubtless spread (though they have not yet done so) among the inferior members of the community. The former have begun to undermine the foundations of El-Islám: the latter as yet seem to look on with apathy, or at least with resignation to the decrees of Providence; but they will probably soon assist in the work; and the overthrow of the whole fabric may reasonably be expected to ensue at a period not very remote.

The acquisition of a powerful empire, independent of the Porte, appears to have been the grand, and almost the sole, object of the present Básha of Egypt. He has introduced many European sciences, arts, and manufactures; but all in furtherance of this project; for his new manufactures have impoverished his people. He has established a printing office; but the works which have issued from it are almost solely intended for the instruction of his military, naval, and civil servants.[648] A newspaper is printed at another press, in the Citadel: its paragraphs, however, are seldom on any other subject than the affairs of the government. It is in Turkish and Arabic. Sometimes, three numbers of it appear in a week: at other times, only one is published in a month.[649]

I have candidly stated my opinion, that the policy of Mohammad ’Alee is in several respects erroneous; and that his people are severely oppressed: but the circumstances in which he has been placed offer large excuses for his severity. To judge of his character fairly, we should compare him with another Turkish reformer, his [late] nominal sovereign, the Sultán Mahmood. In every point of view, he has shown his superiority to the latter; and especially in the discipline of his forces. While the Sultán was more closely imitating us in trivial matters (as, for instance, in the new military dress which he introduced), Mohammad ’Alee aimed at, and attained, more important objects.[650] When we would estimate his character by the massacre of the Memlooks, a fact most painful to reflect upon, we should admit that he had recourse to this horrid expedient for a most desirable end; and may at the same time place in the opposite scale the asylum which he granted to the Greek refugees when the blood of their countrymen ran in the gutters of Constantinople.

Since the publication of the previous editions of this work, events have occurred which will doubtless occasion still more important changes in Egypt. Many changes in its government have, indeed, already been made; but the country is still in a state of transition; and under such circumstances, I can only express a hope, that Mohammad ’Alee, knowing his true interests, and acting upon those sentiments which he has frequently avowed, of anxiety for the welfare of his people, and for the general improvement of his territories, will fulfil those expectations which his numerous admirers have so often and so strongly expressed. It is difficult even to form a just estimate of the general conduct of Mohammad ’Alee in past times, since the commencement of his career in Egypt, on account of the secrecy which is maintained in the East in the most important political affairs: this, however, may be said with certainty—the people whom he governs have been greatly impoverished under his rule; but they have exchanged anarchy for tranquillity, and undisguised fanaticism for an affected toleration; while many of them have been instructed in sciences and arts which must eventually be highly beneficial to the nation at large.

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Footnote 634:

Καθαριότητος εἵνεκεν. Compare the account given by Herodotus of the habits of the priests of ancient Egypt: lib. ii., cap. 37.

Footnote 635:

I have neglected to write the name of this appendage; but if my memory do not deceive me, I was told that it is termed “kalás’weh,” which word seems to be a corruption of “kalensuweh.” Mengin calls it “kaloucyeh” (“Hist. de l’Egypte sous Mohammed-Aly,” tome ii., p. 290).

Footnote 636:

Mengin, ubi supra, pp. 284-289.

Footnote 637:

This has been shown by Quatremère, in his “Researches on the Language and Literature of Egypt.”

Footnote 638:

They chant nearly in the same manner as the Muslims reciting the Kur-án.

Footnote 639:

Acts xv. 20 and 29.

Footnote 640:

The ball and bird are called “el-kubbeh wa-t-teyr.” It is said that the Muslims of Egypt, on some occasions, as on the inauguration of a Sultán, used to observe the custom here described; but this appears to be an error, arising from a misunderstanding of the term “el-kubbeh wa-t-teyr” applied by historians to an umbrella surmounted by the figure of a bird, which was borne over the head of a Sultán in certain pompous processions.

Footnote 641:

The custom mentioned by Burckhardt, in his Arabic Proverbs, page 117, as prevailing “among the lower classes of Muslims at Cairo,” is observed by the Copts.

Footnote 642:

Thus pronounced for “Mo’allim.” It signifies “teacher” or “master;” and is a title given to all Copts but those of the poorer class, or peasants. The registrar of the taxes of a village is simply called “the M’allim of the village.”

Footnote 643:

If the reader desire further and fuller details on this subject, he may consult Et. Quatremère’s ‘Mémoires Géogr. et Hist. sur l’Egypte,’ tome ii., pp. 220-266.

Footnote 644:

Equivalent (at that period) to about thirteen shillings, or, as some say, a little more than half a guinea.

Footnote 645:

It should be observed here, that the cases alluded to form exceptions to the general toleration exhibited by the Muslims; and that the Copts who have been converted to El-Islám by oppression have been few in comparison with those who have changed their religion voluntarily. Many have done this through love of Muslim women.

Footnote 646:

Chap. v., ver. 85.

Footnote 647:

It is surprising that Muslims should hang a Jew against a window of a mosque, when they consider him so unclean a creature that his blood would defile the sword. For this reason a Jew, in Egypt, is never beheaded.

Footnote 648:

I have transmitted a list of these works to the Royal Asiatic Society.

Footnote 649:

One of the less important acts of Mohammad ’Alee I should mention, as it is one which renders my description of the streets and shops of Cairo not altogether applicable to their present state. He has lately caused the mastab′ahs in most of the thoroughfare-streets to be pulled down, and only allowed them to be rebuilt in the wider parts, generally to the width of about two spans. At the same time, he has obliged the tradesmen to paint their shops, and to remove the unsightly “sakeefehs” (or coverings) of matting which shaded many of the sooks; prohibiting the replacing of them unless by coverings of wood. Cairo has, in consequence, lost much of its Arabian aspect.

Footnote 650:

The dress worn by the military and some other officers of the Básha of Egypt is still quite Turkish in everything but the want of the turban, which is now worn by few of those persons, and only in winter; the red cap alone, over which the muslin or Kashmeer shawl used always to be wound, being at present the regular head-dress. The trousers are very full from the waist to a little below the knee, overhanging a pair of tight leggings which form parts of them. A tight vest (the sleeves of which are divided from the wrist nearly to the elbow, but generally buttoned at this part), a girdle, a jacket with hanging sleeves, socks, and a pair of red shoes, complete the outward dress generally worn: but the jacket is sometimes made with sleeves like those of the vest above described, and the vest without sleeves; and black European shoes are worn by some persons. The sword is now hung in our manner, by a waist-belt. The dress of the private soldiers consists of a vest and trousers (the latter similar to those above described, but not so full), of a kind of coarse red serge, or, in summer, of white cotton, with the girdle, red cap, and red shoes.

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APPENDIX A.

FEMALE ORNAMENTS.

The ornaments of the women of Egypt are so various, that a description of them all would far exceed the limits which the nature of this work allows, and would require a great number of engravings, or be useless. I shall, however, describe all the principal kinds; and these will convey some idea of the rest. If the subject be not interesting to general readers, it may at least be of some use to artists, who are often left almost entirely to their own imagination in representing Arabian costumes and ornaments. I first describe those which are worn by ladies, and females of the middle orders.

The head-dress has already been mentioned, as composed of a “tarboosh” and “faroodeeyeh” (or kerchief), which latter, when wound round the former, is called “rabtah.” The front part of the rabtah is often ornamented with spangles of gilt or plain silver, disposed in fanciful patterns; and in this case, the rabtah itself is generally of black or rose-coloured muslin or crape, and always plain. The more common kinds of rabtah have been described.

The “mizágee” is an ornament very generally worn. It is composed of a strip of muslin, most commonly black or rose-coloured, folded together several times, so as to form a narrow band, about the breadth of a finger, or less. Its length is about five feet. The central part, for the space of about twelve or thirteen inches, is ornamented with spangles, which are placed close together, or in the form of diamonds, etc., or of bosses; and at each end, for about the same length, are a few other spangles, with an edging, and small tassels, of various-coloured silks. Sometimes there is also a similar edging, with spangles suspended to it, along the lower edge of the ornamented part in the middle. The mizágee is bound round the head; the ornamented central part being over the forehead, generally above the edge of the rabtah; it is tied behind, at the upper part of the rabtah, and the ornamented ends, drawn forward, hang over the bosom.

The “kurs” is a round, convex ornament, commonly about five inches in diameter, which is very generally worn by ladies. It is sewed upon the crown of the tarboosh. There are two kinds. The first that I shall describe (the only kind that is worn by ladies, or by the wives of tradesmen of moderate property) is the “kurs almás,” or diamond kurs. This is composed of diamonds, set generally in gold; and is of open work, representing roses, leaves, etc. The diamonds are commonly of a very poor and shallow kind; and the gold of this and all other diamond ornaments worn in Egypt is much alloyed with copper. The value of a moderately handsome diamond kurs is about a hundred and twenty-five or a hundred and fifty pounds sterling. It is very seldom made of silver; and I think that those of gold, when attached to the deep-red tarboosh, have a richer effect, though not in accordance with our general taste. The wives even of petty tradesmen sometimes wear the diamond kurs: they are extremely fond of diamonds, and generally endeavour to get some, however bad. The kurs, being of considerable weight, is at first painful to wear; and women who are in the habit of wearing it complain of headache when they take it off: hence they retain it day and night; but some have an inferior one for the bed. Some ladies have one for ordinary wearing; another for particular occasions, a little larger and handsomer; and a third merely to wear in bed.—The other kind of kurs, “kurs dahab” (or, of gold), is a convex plate of very thin embossed gold, usually of the form represented above; and almost always with a false emerald (a piece of green glass), not cut with facets, set in the centre. Neither the emerald nor the ruby is here cut with facets: if so cut, they would generally be considered false. The simple gold kurs is lined with a thick coat of wax, which is covered with a piece of paper. It is worn by many women who cannot afford to purchase diamonds; and even by some servants.

The kussah is an ornament generally from seven to eight inches in length, composed of diamonds set in gold, and sometimes with emeralds, rubies, and pearls; having drops of diamonds or emeralds, etc., suspended to it. It is worn on the front of the rabtah, attached by little hooks at the back. I have seen several kussahs of diamonds, etc., set in silver instead of gold. The kussah is generally placed on the head of a bride, outside her shawl covering, as also is the kurs; and these ornaments are likewise employed to decorate the bier of a female. The former, like the latter, is worn by females of the higher and middle classes.

“’Enebeh” is another name for the same kind of ornament, worn in the same manner. If of full size, it is fourteen or fifteen inches in length, and rather more than half encircles the head-dress.

The “shawáteh” (in the singular, “sháteh”) are two ornaments, each consisting of three or more strings of pearls, about the length of the kussah, with a pierced emerald uniting them in the centre, like the usual pearl necklace hereafter described: or they are composed of pearls arranged in the manner of a narrow lace, and often with the addition of a few small emeralds. They are attached to the rabtah in the form of two festoons, one on each side of the head, from the extremity of the kussah to the back part of the head-dress, or, sometimes, to the ear-ring.

Instead of the kussah and shawáteh, and sometimes in addition to them, are worn some other ornaments which I proceed to describe.

The “reesheh” (literally, “feather”) is a sprig of diamonds set in gold or silver. It is worn on the front or side of the head-dress.

The “hilál” is a crescent of diamonds set in gold or silver, and worn like the reesheh. In form it resembles the phasis of the moon when between two and three nights old; its width being small, and its outward edge not more than half a circle.

The “kamarah” (or moon) is an ornament formed of a thin plate of gold, embossed with fanciful work, and sometimes with Arabic words, and having about seven little flat pieces of gold, called “bark,” attached to the lower part; or it is composed of gold with diamonds, rubies, etc. Two specimens of the former kind are here represented. One of these consists of three kamarahs connected together, to be worn on the front of the head-dress: the central contains the words “Yá Káfee Yá Sháfee” (O Sufficient! O Restorer to health!): that on the left, “Yá Háfiz” (O Preserver!): that on the right, “Yá Emeen” (O Trustworthy!): these, therefore, are charms as well as ornaments.

The “sákiyeh” (or water-wheel), so called from its form, is a circular flat ornament of gold filigree-work, with small pearls, and with a diamond or other precious stone in the centre, and bark and emeralds suspended from the lower part. It is worn in the same manner as the kamarah, or with the latter ornament.

The “’ood es-saleeb” (or wood of the cross) is a kind of ornament undoubtedly borrowed from the Christians; and it is surprising that Mohammadan women should wear it, and give it this appellation. It is a little round and slender piece of wood, rather smaller towards the extremities than in the middle, enclosed in a case of gold, of the same form, composed of two pieces which unite in the middle, having two chains and a hook by which to suspend it, and a row of bark along the bottom. It is worn in the place of, or with, the two ornaments just before described.

The “misht” (or comb) is a little comb of gold, worn in the same manner as the three kinds of ornament described next before this, and generally with one or more of those ornaments. It is suspended by small chains and a hook, having four or five bark attached.

There is also an ornament somewhat similar to those just mentioned, composed of a carnelian, or a piece of crystal or of colourless glass, set in gold, suspended by two chains and a hook, and having bark attached to the bottom. The former kind is called “’akeek” (which signifies “carnelian”), and the latter, “belloor” (“crystal”).

Several ornaments in the shapes of flowers, butterflies, etc., are also worn upon the head-dress; but seldom alone.

Of ear-rings (“halak”) there is a great variety. Some of the more usual kinds are here represented. The first is of diamonds set in silver. It consists of a drop suspended within a wreath hanging from a sprig. The back of the silver is gilt, to prevent its being tarnished by perspiration. The specimen here given is that for the right ear: its fellow is similar; but with the sprig reversed. This pair of ear-rings is suited for a lady of wealth.—So also is the second, which resembles the former, excepting that it has a large pearl in the place of the diamond drop and wreath, and that the diamonds of the sprig are set in gold. No. 3 is a side view of the same.—The next consists of gold, and an emerald pierced through the middle, with a small diamond above the emerald. Emeralds are generally pierced in Egypt, and spoiled by this process as much as by not being cut with facets.—The last is of gold, with a small ruby in the centre. The ruby is set in fine filigree-work, which is surrounded by fifteen balls of gold. To the seven lower balls are suspended as many circular bark.

The necklace (“’ekd”) is another description of ornament of which the Egyptians have a great variety; but almost all of them are similar in the following particulars. 1st. The beads, etc., of which they are composed are, altogether, not more than ten inches in length; so that they would not entirely encircle the neck if tied quite tight, which is never done: the string extends about six or seven inches beyond each extremity of the series of beads; and when the necklace is tied in the usual manner, there is generally a space of three inches or more between these extremities; but the plaits of hair conceal these parts of the string. 2dly. There is generally, in the centre, one bead or other ornament (and sometimes there are three, or five, or seven) differing in size, form, material, or colour, from the others.—The necklaces mostly worn by ladies are of diamonds or pearls.—In the annexed engraving, the first necklace is of diamonds set in gold.—The second consists of several strings of pearls, with a pierced flattish emerald in the centre. Most of the pearl necklaces are of this description.—The third is called “libbeh.” It is composed of hollow gold beads, with a bead of a different kind (sometimes of a precious stone, and sometimes of coral) in the centre. This and the following are seldom worn by any but females of the middle and lower orders.—The fourth is called, from its peculiar form, “sha’eer” (which signifies “barley”). It is composed of hollow gold. I give a side view (A) and a back view (B) of one of the appendages of this necklace.—There is also a long kind of necklace, reaching to the girdle, and composed of diamonds or other precious stones, which is called “kiládeh.” Some women form a long necklace of this kind with Venetian sequins, or Turkish or Egyptian gold coins.

The finger-rings (“khátims”) differ so little from those common among ourselves, excepting in the clumsiness of their workmanship, and the badness of the jewels, that I need not describe them. A finger-ring without a stone is called “debleh,” or “dibleh.”

Bracelets (“asáwir”) are of diamonds or other precious stones set in gold, or of pearls, or of gold alone. The more common kinds are represented in an engraving here inserted.—No. 1 is a side view of a diamond bracelet, with a front view of a portion of the same.—No. 2 is the most fashionable kind of gold bracelet, which is formed of a simple twist.—No. 3 is a very common, but less fashionable kind of bracelet of twisted gold.—No. 4 is also of gold.—These bracelets of gold are pulled open a little to be put on the wrist. They are generally made of fine Venetian gold, which is very flexible.

The ornaments of the hair I shall next describe.—It has been mentioned, that all the hair of the head, excepting a little over the forehead and temples, is arranged in plaits, or braids, which hang down the back. These plaits are generally from eleven to twenty-five in number; but always of an uneven number: eleven is considered a scanty number: thirteen and fifteen are more common. Three times the number of black silk strings (three to each plait of hair, and each three united at the top), from sixteen to eighteen inches in length, are braided with the hair for about a quarter of their length; or they are attached to a lace or band of black silk which is bound round the head, and in this case hang entirely separate from the plaits of hair, which they almost conceal. These strings are called “keytáns;” and together with certain ornaments of gold, etc., the more common of which are here represented, compose what is termed the “safa.”[651] Along each string, excepting from the upper extremity to about a quarter or (at most) a third of its length, are generally attached nine or more of the little flat ornaments of gold called “bark.” These are commonly all of the same form, and about an inch, or a little more, apart; but those of each string are purposely placed so as not exactly to correspond with those of the others. The most usual forms of bark are Nos. 1 and 2 of the specimens given on p. 529. At the end of each string is a small gold tube, called “másoorah,” about three-eighths of an inch long, or a kind of gold bead in the form of a cube with a portion cut off from each angle, called “habbeh.” Beneath the másoorah or habbeh is a little ring, to which is most commonly suspended a Turkish gold coin called “Ruba Fenduklee,” equivalent to nearly 1_s._ 8_d._ of our money, and a little more than half an inch in diameter. Such is the most general description of safa; but there are more genteel kinds, in which the habbeh is usually preferred to the másoorah, and instead of the Ruba Fenduklee is a flat ornament of gold, called, from its form, “kummetrë,” or “pear.” There are also other and more approved substitutes for the gold coin; the most usual of which is called “shiftish′eh,” composed of open gold work, with a pearl in the centre. Some ladies substitute a little tassel of pearls for the gold coin; or suspend alternately pearls and emeralds to the bottom of the triple strings; and attach a pearl with each of the bark. The safa thus composed with pearls is called “safa loolee.” Coral beads are also sometimes attached in the same manner as the pearls.—From what has been said above, it appears that a moderate safa of thirteen plaits will consist of 39 strings, 351 bark, 39 másoorahs or habbehs, and 39 gold coins or other ornaments; and that a safa of twenty-five plaits, with twelve bark to each string, will contain no fewer than 900 bark, and seventy-five of each of the other appendages. The safa appears to me the prettiest, as well as the most singular, of all the ornaments worn by the ladies of Egypt. The glittering of the bark, etc., and their chinking together as the wearer walks, have a peculiarly lively effect.

Anklets (“khulkhál”), of solid gold or silver, and of the form here sketched, are worn by some ladies; but are more uncommon than they formerly were. They are of course very heavy, and, knocking together as the wearer walks, make a ringing noise: hence it is said in a song, “The ringing of thine anklets has deprived me of my reason.” Isaiah alludes to this,[652] or perhaps to the sound produced by another kind of anklet which will be mentioned hereafter.

The only description of ladies’ ornaments that I have yet to describe is the “hegáb,” or amulet. This is a writing of one or other of the kinds that I have described in the eleventh chapter, covered with waxed cloth, to preserve it from accidental pollution, or injury by moisture, and enclosed in a case of thin embossed gold, or silver, which is attached to a silk string, or a chain, and generally hung on the right side, above the girdle; the string or chain being passed over the left shoulder. Sometimes these cases bear Arabic inscriptions; such as “Má sháallah” (“What God willeth [cometh to pass]”) and “Yá kadi-l-hágát” (“O decreer of the things that are needful!”). I insert an engraving of three hegábs of gold attached to a string, to be worn together. The central one is a thin, flat case, containing a folded paper: it is about a third of an inch thick: the others are cylindrical cases, with hemispherical ends, and contain scrolls: each has a row of bark along the bottom. Hegábs such as these, or of a triangular form, are worn by many children, as well as women; and those of the latter form are often attached to a child’s head-dress.

The ornaments worn by females of the lower orders must now be described.

It is necessary, perhaps, to remind the reader, that the head-dress of these women, with the exception of some of the poor in the villages, generally consists of an ’asbeh, which has been described in page 40; and that some wear, instead of this, the tarboosh and faroodeeyeh. Sometimes, a string of Venetian sequins (which is called “sheddeh benád’kah”) is worn along the front of the ’asbeh or rabtah. The tarboosh is also sometimes decorated with the gold kurs and the faroodeeyeh, with some other ornaments before described, as the gold kamarahs, sakiyeh, misht, etc.

The “halak,” or ear-rings, are of a great variety of forms. Some are of gold and precious stones; but the more common, of brass; and many of the latter have coloured beads attached to them. A few are of silver.

The “khizám,” or nose-ring, commonly called “khuzám,” is worn by a few of the women of the lower orders in Cairo, and by many of those in the country towns and villages both of Upper and Lower Egypt. It is most commonly made of brass; is from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter; and has usually three or more coloured glass beads, generally red and blue, attached to it. It is almost always passed through the right ala of the nose; and hangs partly before the mouth; so that the wearer is obliged to hold it up with one hand when she puts anything into her mouth. It is sometimes of gold. This ornament is as ancient as the time of the patriarch Abraham;[653] and is mentioned by Isaiah[654] and by Ezekiel.[655] To those who are unaccustomed to the sight of it, the nose-ring is certainly the reverse of an ornament.

The “’ekd,” or necklace, is generally of a style similar to those which I have already described. I have before mentioned that the libbeh and sha’eer are worn by some women of the lower orders; but their necklaces are most commonly composed of coloured glass beads: sometimes, of a single string; and sometimes, of several strings, with one or more larger beads in the centre: or they are made in the form of net-work. The Egyptian women, being excessively fond of ornaments, often wear two or three necklaces of the value of a penny each, or less. Some necklaces are composed of large beads of transparent amber.

Another ornament worn by many of them on the neck is a ring, called “tók,” of silver or brass or pewter. Little girls, also, sometimes wear this ornament. Some of the smaller tóks are made of iron.

Finger-rings of silver or of brass are almost universally worn. Brass rings, with pieces of coloured glass set in them, may be purchased in Cairo for scarcely more than a farthing each; and many women wear two, three, or more, of these.

The “asáwir,” or bracelets, are of various kinds. Some are of silver; and some, of brass or copper; and of the same form as those of gold before described. Those of brass are the more common. There are also bracelets composed of large amber beads, and others of bone; and there is a very common kind, called “ghuweyshát,” of opaque, coloured glass, generally blue or green, but sometimes variegated with other colours. These, and the bone bracelets, are drawn over the hand.

Some of the women of the lower orders imitate their superiors in arranging their hair in several plaits, and plaiting, with each of these, the black silk strings which are worn by the ladies; but it is the general practice of the women of these classes to divide their hair into only two tresses behind, and to plait, with each of these tresses, three red silk strings, each of which has a tassel at the end, and reaches more than half-way towards the ground; so that they are usually obliged to draw aside the tassels before they sit down. These appendages are called “’okoos.”

“Khulkhál,” or anklets of solid silver, already described, are worn by the wives of some of the richer peasants, and of the sheykhs of villages; and small khulkháls of iron are worn by many children. It was also a common custom among the Arabs, for girls or young women to wear a string of bells on their feet. I have seen many little girls in Cairo with small round bells attached to their anklets. Perhaps it is to the sound of ornaments of this kind, rather than that of the more common anklet, that Isaiah alludes in chapter iii., verse 16.

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Footnote 651:

See, again, the engraving on page 36.

Footnote 652:

Chap. iii. ver. 16.

Footnote 653:

See Genesis xxiv. 47, where in our common version, “ear-ring” is improperly put for “nose-ring.”

Footnote 654:

Chap. iii. ver. 21.

Footnote 655:

Chap. xvi. ver. 12. Here, again, a mistake is made in our common version, but corrected in the margin.

APPENDIX B.

EGYPTIAN MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEYS.

Of the measures and weights used in Egypt, I am not able to give an exact account; for, after diligent search, I have not succeeded in finding any two specimens of the same denomination perfectly agreeing with each other, and generally the difference has been very considerable: but in those cases in which I have given the minimum and maximum, the former may be received as approximating very nearly to the just equivalent. The tradesmen in Egypt, from fear of the Mohtes′ib, mostly have measures and weights a little exceeding the true standards, though stamped by the government, which takes care to have such measures and weights employed in the purchases which it makes, and equal care, no doubt, to use those which are more true in selling.

MEASURES OF LENGTH AND LAND.

The “fitr” is the space measured by the extension of the thumb and first finger.

The “shibr” is the common span, measured by the extension of the thumb and little finger.

The “diráa beledee” (or “cubit of the country”—the common Egyptian cubit), which is used for measuring the linen, etc., manufactured in Egypt, is equal to 22 inches and two-thirds.

The “diráa hindázeh,” chiefly used for measuring Indian goods, is about 25 inches.

The “diráa Istamboolee” (or “cubit of Constantinople”), which is used for measuring European cloth, etc., is about 26 inches and a half.

The “feddán,” the most common measure of land, was, a few years ago, equal to about an English acre and one-tenth. It is now less than an acre. It is divided into “keeráts” (or twenty-fourth parts); and consists of 333 square “kasabahs” (or rods) and one-third. The kasabah was 24 “kabdahs;” but is now 22. The kabdah is the measure of a man’s fist with the thumb erect, or about 6 inches and a quarter.

The “malakah,” or Egyptian league, is a measure of which I have not been able to obtain any better definition than this:—That it is the distance between two villages. It is different in Upper and Lower Egypt; as was the ancient schœnus, with which it nearly corresponds. In Lower Egypt it is about an hour’s journey, or from 2½ to 3 miles: in Upper Egypt, about an hour and a half or from 3¾ miles to 4½, or even more.

CORN MEASURES.

The “ardebb” is equivalent, very nearly, to five English bushels.

The “weybeh” is the sixth of an ardebb.

The “ruba” is the fourth of a weybeh.

WEIGHTS.

The “kamhah” (or grain of wheat) is the 64th part of a dirhem, or fourth of a keerát; about three-quarters of an English grain.

The “habbeh” (or grain of barley) is the 48th part of a dirhem, or third of a keerát; equal to 127୵128 of an English grain, or in commerce fully equal to an English grain.

The “keerát” (or carat), which is 4 kamhahs, or 3 habbehs, as above mentioned, is the 24th part of a mitkál or from 2123୵128 to three English grains.

The “dirhem” (or drachm), the subdivisions of which have been mentioned above, is from 476୵8 to 48 English grains.

The “mitkál” (or the weight of a “deenár”) is a dirhem and a half;—from 717୵16 to 72 English grains.

The “ukeeyeh,” or “wukeeyeh” (the ounce), is 12 dirhems, or the 12th part of a ratl;—from 571½ to 576 English grains.

The “ratl” (or pound), being 144 dirhems, or 12 ukeeyehs, is from 1 lb. 2 oz. 5ã dwt. to about 1 lb. 2 oz. 8 dwt., Troy; or from 15 oz. 10 dr. 221୵16 grains to nearly 15 oz. 13 dr., Avoirdupois.

The “ukkah,” or “wukkah,” is 400 dirhems (or 2 ratls and seven-ninths);—from 3 lb. 3 oz. 13¾ dwt. to 3 lb. 4 oz., Troy; or from 2 lb. 11 oz. 8 dr. 18¾ grains to about, or nearly, 2 lb. 12 oz., or 2 lb. and three-quarters, Avoirdupois.

The “kantár” (or hundred-weight, i.e. 100 ratls) is from 98 lb. minus 200 grains to about 98 lb. and three-quarters, Avoirdupois.

MONEYS.

The pound sterling is now, and is likely to continue for some years, equivalent to 100 Egyptian piasters: it has risen, in two years, from 72 piasters; which was the rate of exchange for several preceding years.

A “faddah” is the smallest Egyptian coin. It is called, in the singular, “nuss” (a corruption of “nusf,” which signifies “half”) or “nuss faddah:” it is also called “meyyedee,” or “meiyedee” (an abbreviation of “mu-eiyadee”). These names were originally given to the half-dirhems which were coined in the reign of the Sultán El-Mu-eiyad, in the early part of the ninth century of the Flight, or of the fifteenth of our era. The Turks call it “párah.” The faddah is made of a mixture of silver and copper (its name signifies “silver”); and is the fortieth part of a piaster; consequently equivalent to six twenty-fifths, or nearly a quarter, of a farthing.

There are pieces of 5, 10, and 20 faddahs, “khamseh faddah,” “’asharah faddah,” and “’eshreen faddah” (so called for “khamset ansáf faddah,” etc.), or “kat’ah bi-khamseh,” “kat’ah bi-’asharah,” and “kat’ah bi-’eshreen” (i.e. “pieces of five,” etc.): the last is also called “nus kirsh” (or “half a piaster”). These pieces, which are equivalent respectively to a farthing and one-fifth, two farthings and two-fifths, and a penny and one-fifth, are of the same composition as the single faddahs.

The “kirsh,” or Egyptian piaster, has already been shown to be equivalent to the hundredth part of a pound sterling, or the fifth of a shilling; that is, two pence and two-fifths. It is of the same composition as the pieces above mentioned, and an inch and one-eighth in diameter. On one face it bears the Sultán’s cypher; and on the other, in Arabic, “duriba fee Misr” (“coined in Misr,” commonly called Masr, i.e. Cairo), with the date of the present Básha’s accession to the government below (1223 of the Flight, or 1808-9 of our era), and the year of his government in which it was coined above. The inscriptions of the other coins are almost exactly similar.

The “saadeeyeh,” commonly called “kheyreeyeh bi-arba’′ah” (i.e. “the kheyreeyeh of four”), or the “small kheyreeyeh,” is a small gold coin, of the value of four piasters, or nine pence and three-fifths.

The “kheyreeyeh” properly so called, or “kheyreeyeh bi-tis’ah” (i.e. “kheyreeyeh of nine”), is a gold coin of the value of nine piasters, or twenty-one pence and three-fifths.

The above are the only Egyptian coins.

The coins of Constantinople are current in Egypt; but scarce.

European and American dollars are also current in Egypt: most of them are equivalent to twenty Egyptian piasters: the Spanish pillared dollar, to twenty-one. The name of “riyál faránsa” is given to every kind; but the pillared dollar is called “aboo midfa’” (or, “having a cannon”); the pillars being mistaken for cannons. The others have also distinguishing names. The Spanish doubloon (called in Arabic “debloon”), the value of which is sixteen dollars, is likewise current in this country: so also are the Venetian sequin (called “benduk′ee,” for “bunduk′ee”), and the English sovereign (which is called “ginyeh,” for guinea).

The “riyál” of Egypt is a nominal money, the value of ninety faddahs, or five pence and two-fifths. In, or about, the year of the Flight 1185 (A.D. 1771-2), the Spanish dollar passed for ninety faddahs, by order of ’Alee Béy. The dollar was then simply called “riyál;” and from that period, the above-mentioned number of faddahs has continued to be called by this name.

The “kees,” or purse, is the sum of five hundred piasters, or five pounds sterling.

The “khazneh,” or treasury, is a thousand purses, or five thousand pounds sterling.

----------------------------

APPENDIX C.

PRAYER OF MUSLIM SCHOOL-BOYS.

My friend Mr. Burton (who, in the course of his long residence in Egypt, has acquired an ample fund of valuable information respecting its modern inhabitants, as well as other subjects) has kindly communicated to me an Arabic paper containing the forms of imprecation to which I have alluded in a note subjoined to page 255 of this work. They are expressed in a “hezb” (or prayer) which the Muslim youths in many of the schools of Cairo recite, before they return to their homes, every day of their attendance, at the period of the “’asr,” excepting on Thursday, when they recite it at noon; being allowed to leave the school, on this day, at the early hour of the “duhr,” in consideration of the approach of Friday, their sabbath and holiday. This prayer is not recited in the schools that are held within mosques. It is similar to a portion of the “khutbet en-naat.”[656] I here translate it.

“I seek refuge with God from Satan the accursed![657] In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful! O God! aid El-Islám, and exalt the word of truth, and the faith, by the preservation of thy servant, and the son of thy servant, the Sultán of the two continents,[658] and Khákán[659] of the two seas,[660] the Sultán, son of the Sultán, the Sultán [Mahmood[661]] Khán. O God! assist him, and assist his armies, and all the forces of the Muslims! O Lord of all creatures! O God! destroy the infidels and polytheists, thine enemies, the enemies of the religion! O God! make their children orphans, and defile their abodes, and cause their feet to slip, and give them and their families and their households and their women and their children and their relations by marriage and their brothers and their friends and their possessions and their race and their wealth and their lands as booty to the Muslims! O Lord of all creatures!”

Not to convey too harsh a censure of the Muslims of Egypt, by the insertion of this prayer, I should add, that the excessive fanaticism which it indicates is not to be imputed to this people universally.

-----

Footnote 656:

See p. 75.

Footnote 657:

Or “driven away with stones.”

Footnote 658:

Europe and Asia.

Footnote 659:

Emperor, or monarch.

Footnote 660:

The Mediterranean and Black Seas.

Footnote 661:

The reigning Sultán at the time when the above was written.

----------------------------

INDEX.

’Abáyeh, 25, 27, 289. ’Abbásees, their costume, 28. ’Abd-Er-Rahmán El-Gabartee, 197. Abdál. See Bedeel. ’Abdalláwee melon, 294, 298. Ablutions. See Wudoó, Tayemmum, Ghusl, and Death. Aboo, 115; -Farrág, 63; -midfa’, 535; -Ru-oos, the sheykh Isma’eel, 244; -Zeyd, romance of, 361. Abrár, 441, 474. Adán, or adhán, 60, 72; manner in which it is chanted, 343. ’A’dileeyeh (The), 370. Admiration, proper and improper modes of expressing, 229, 230. Adultery, law respecting, 95; punishment of men who accuse women of this crime without the testimony required by law, 96; manner in which women guilty of this crime are sometimes punished, 107, 179, 279, 280. ’Afeefeeyeh darweeshes, 223. Afiyoon, and Afiyoonee, 306. ’Agam, 72. Agathodæmon, modern, 207. Age, respect paid to, 180, 272. A’gha of the Police. See Zábit. Agriculture, 309. ’Ahd, 223. Ahl-Far’oon, 22. Ahmad, a name of the Arabian Prophet, 387; El-Bedawee, the seyyid, 63; Moolids of, 220, 222. Ahmar, significations of, 229. Ahmedeeyeh darweeshes, or Ahmedees, 222. ’Akabeh, 459. ’Akd en-nikáh, 146. ’Akeek, 524. ’Akeekah, 44. Akhdar, significations of, 229. ’Akkád, 294. ’A’isheh, the occasion of a singular law, 95. A’látees, or áláteeyeh, 173, 325, 464. Alchemy, 198, 243. ’Alee Bey, cruelty of a wretch of this name, 112. ’A’lim, 29, 106. Alláh, or God, passim; kereem, 262. Alláhu akbar, 63. Almanac, 201. ’A’l’mehs, or ’Awálim, 151, 173, 325, 463, 464. Alms-giving, 56, 78; of Moharram, or the ’Ashr, 392. Aloe-plant used as a charm, 236. Aloes-wood. See ’Ood. Alum, virtue of, 230. Ambergris, used for fumigation, 185; used to impart a perfume to coffee, 126. Amsheer, 200. Amulets. See Hegábs, and Charms. ’Anátireh. See ’Anter’ee. Anatomy, 107, 198. Angáb. See Negeeb. Angels, 54, 203, 242; Attendant, 66. Anklets, 160, 529. ’Annáb, 134. ’Antar, romance of, 380, 381. ’Anter’ee (a kind of vest), 35; (a reciter of ’Antar), 380. Antichrist, 53. Apostasy punished with death, 96. ’Arab, 22. ’Arafát (Mount), 79. ’Arakeeyeh, 25. Arba’’a Eiyoob, 452. Arba’een (El-), 466, 488. Architecture, 286. Ardebb, 533. ’Areef, 50. Arghool, 224, 335, 336. Arithmetic, 50. Armenians in Egypt, number of, 19. ’Arooseh, 128, 457. Arts and manufactures, 286. Asáwir, 527, 532. ’Asbeh, 40. ’Asha, 129. As-háb el-Ahzáb, 478; ed-Darak, 213; el-Kahf, 228. Ashbeen, 504. ’A’shoora, customs of, 231, 394. ’Ashr, 392, 487. ’Asr, 60, 200. Ass, how equipped for riding, for use of men, 127; for use of ladies, 173; part performed by one, 222. Assassin, origin of the word, 306, 379. Astaghfir Alláh, 258. Astrolabe, 198. Astrology, 42, 198, 243. Astronomy, 198. ’Attár, 294. Auguration, 239, 453, 454. A’yát el-hefz, 227; esh-shifë, 233. A’yet el-Kursee, 66. Azhar (El-), Great Mosque, 71, 73, 188, 191; students of, 191; studies pursued there, 191; sheykh of, 192, 193, 196; professors of, 192, 194; blind students of, 193. ’A’z’kee, 126.

Báb el-hareem, 9; sirr, 16; Zuweyleh, 211. Bábeh, 199. Báboog, 37, 39. Bádingán, 133, 278. Baghlet el-’Ashr, 393. Bahluwáns, 356. Bakhoor el-barr, 126. Balance in which good and evil works are to be weighed, 54. Bámiyeh, 133. Ba-ooneh, 200. Baráhimeh darweeshes, 223. Barámikeh, 349, 356. Bark, 40, 529. Barmahát, 200. Barmek’ees. See Barámikeh. Barmoodeh, 200. Barrenness considered a curse and reproach, 45. Barsh, 307. Básh Kátib of the Kádee, 101; Rusul, 101; Turgumán, 101. Bast, 306. Bastinading, 95, 99, 164. Bat, use made of its blood, 35. Bath, 151, 157, 307. Batrak, 492. Batteekh, 134. Báz, 224, 333. Beard, mode of trimming the, 23; few shave it off, 23; shaven off as a punishment, 23; respect paid to the, 24; seldom dyed, 24. Beasts and birds, language of, 226. Bed, 139. Bedawee and Bedaweeyeh, 27, 257. Bedeel, 210. Bedouins. See Bedawee. Beer. See Boozeh. Beer el-yarakán, 238. Beetles, singular use made of them, 172, 467. Beggars, 299. Beiyoomeeyeh darweeshes, or Beiyoomees, 222, 420. Bekreeyeh darweeshes, 223. Bekreg, or bakrag, 125. Belah meblool, 297. Beleed, 209. Belláneh, 149, 314. Belloor, 524. Benduk’ee, 535; musháharah, 236. Beng, 379. Benish, or Beneesh, 25. Benzoin. See Gáwee. Beshens, 200. Beybars. See Ez-Záhir. Beyt, 315, 317; el-mál, 92; el-owwal, 310. Biers, 476, 478, 480. Bigotry inculcated into the minds of children, 48. Bint el-Beled, 22; el-Masr, 22. Birds, charity to, 434; and beasts, language of, 226. Birgás, game of the, 365. Bisháreen, strange custom of, 268. Bi-smi-llah, 64, 131, 205. Blasphemy, law respecting, 97. Blind, asylum and college for the, 193. Blindness prevalent in Egypt, 23. Blood, unlawful food to Muslims, 82; and to the Copts, 501. Blood-revenge, 94, 178. Boatmen and boats of the Nile, 302. Books, 190; copying of, 191. Booksellers, 190. Boozeh, a kind of beer, 82, 307. Bowwáb, 70, 121. Bread, 122; respect paid to it, 269; of the seyyid El-Bedawee, 399, 429, 430, 431. Bribery practised at the Kádee’s court, 101, 103, 104. Bugs, 3, 140; charm to exterminate them, 453. Bunn, 125. Burckhardt referred to, 148, 153, 156, 159, 264, 268, 405, 504. Burdeh, 228, 475, 478. Burhámeeyeh. See Baráhimeh. Burko’, 38, 39, 41; of the door of the Kaabeh, 446. Burnus, or burnoos, 289. Buying and selling, 293.

Cadi. See Kádee. Caftan. See Kuftán. Cairo, or El-Káhireh, now called Masr, 4, 19, 21; population of, 4, 19; streets of, 4, 290, 517; quarters of, 5, 113; districts of, 113; private houses of, 5; the best school of Arabic literature, 188. Calf, feats performed by a, 225. Camel, its flesh lawful food to Muslims, 82; and considered unlawful by the Copts, 501; its hump a provision against hunger, 400; litters, 402. Canal of Cairo, opening of the, 457. Cats, endowment for the support of, 266. Ceilings, decorations of, 11. Chant of the water-carrier, 297; muëddin, 343; a shá’er, 361; men and boys at funerals, 476, 477. Chanting of the Kur-án, specimen of the, 346; darweeshes in zikrs, 411, 414. Character of the Muslim Egyptians, 255; Copts, 506; Jews of Egypt, 515. Charity of the Egyptians, 263. Charms, 198, 203, 211, 226, 243, 399, 453, 530. Cheerfulness of the Egyptians, 267. Chemistry, 198. Chibook, 122. Chicken-ovens, 287. Children, education and general treatment of, 42-47; how long the mother may retain them under her care, 88; of foreigners in Egypt seldom live to mature age, 143. Christians prior to the time of Mohammad held by the Muslims to be true believers, 54. Circumcision of the Muslim Egyptians, 47, 153, 469; a similar custom to, prevailing among them and the Copts, 48, 491; of the Copts, 491, 495. Cleanliness of the Egyptians, 270; practices observed for the sake of, 24, 56. Climate of Egypt, 2. Coffee, 122, 125, 304; disallowed by some Muslims, 82, 304; when first introduced into Egypt, 304. Coffee-cups. See Fingán. Coffee-shops, 305. Commerce, 289. Compliments, 182, 186. Concubinage, laws respecting, 85, 86, 88. Concubines. See Slaves. Conscription, 177. Copts, their number, etc., 19, 489; political state, 113, 501; dress, 491; language, 489, 495, 497; education, 495; religion, 491, 496; patriarch, etc., 113, 492, 506; churches and church-service, 497; fasts, etc., 498; domestic habits, 502; marriages, 502; character, 506; occupations, 506; funeral ceremonies, 507; notices of their history under the Muslim domination, 507. Cosmetics, 171, 467. Cotton, 20. Councils of administration, 100. Courtesy and affability of the Egyptians, 187, 266. Courts of judicature, 99, 101. Cowries, virtue of, 230. Cries of watchmen in Cairo, 108, 262; the hawkers of vegetables, etc., 294; beggars, 299; the persons who announce the daily rise of the Nile, 454, 456, 462; joy. See Zagháreet; lamentation. See Welwel’eh. Cupidity of the Egyptians, 282. Customs not particularized in this Index, 24, 183, 184, 186, 203, 205, 216, 232.

Dabbeh, 15. Dakhákhinee, 294. Dakk, 34. Dámeh, 315. Dancing Girls. See Gházeeyehs; Men and Boys. See Khäwal, and Gink. Dár, 318. Darabukkeh, 173, 334. Darb el-mendel, 243, 247; er-ramal, 243. Darweeshes, 209, 210, 220-226, 396, 397, 408, 409; whirling, 398; barking, or howling, 420; dancing. See ’Eesáweeyeh. Dawáyeh, 26, 190. Day, Mohammadan, 200. Days, fortunate and unfortunate, 441. Dáyeh, 149. Death, and funeral-rites, 473. Debleh, 527. Debloon, 535. Debtors, law respecting, 92. Decrees of God, 56, 259, 436. Deen, 52. Deenár, 93, 95. Deewán, 10; el-Khideewee, 99; et-Tuggár, 100. Delhem’eh, romance of, 381. Dellál, 293. Delláleh, 144, 174. Demeereh, 301. Demirdásheyeh darweeshes, 223. Depilatories, 35, 314. Dervises. See Darweeshes. Destoor, 162, 203. Devil, and devils in general, 54, 202. Diet, 122, 133, 171, 174. Diffeeyeh, 27. Dikkeh, 24, 69, 464. Dilk, 208, 225. Diodorus Siculus referred to, 20, 45, 113. Diráas, 533. Dirhem, 78, 93, 534. Divan. See Deewán. Divorce, 85, 87; effects of the facility of, 166. Dogs, opinions and conduct of Muslims with regard to, 83, 263, 265; eaten by some Muslims, 270. Domestic life of Muslim Egyptians of the higher and middle orders (men), 120; of women of the same classes, 159; of the lower orders, 174. Doors of houses, etc., 5, 11. Dóraks, 135. Dóseh, 416, 432, 433, 434. Dowry, 86, 87, 88, 145, 147, 157, 175. Dreams, faith in, 194, 241. Dress, of men, 24; of females, 35; new military (or Nizámee), 517. Drinking-cups, 135, 136, 137. Drunkenness, how punished, 96. Duhr, 60. Dukkah, 122, 175, 499. Dukkán, 291. Durah, 301, 302. Durrah, for Darrah, 167. Dust, excessive quantity of, 3. Dysentery, when most prevalent, 2.

Eating, manner and etiquette of, 129. Ebed, 62, 441. Ebeeb, 200. ’Eddeh, 87. Education of boys, 42, 48; of females, 51; higher branches of, 191. ’Eed (El-) el-Kebeer, 80, 451; es-Sugheiyir, 80, 442. ’Eeds of the Copts, 449, 507. Eemán, 52. ’Eesa. See Jesus Christ. ’Eesáweeyeh darweeshes, 424. Eezár, 39. Efendee, 128. ’Efreets, 204, 207. ’Eggeh, 320. ’Egl El-’Azab, 225. Egypt, its physical character, 1, 20; its population, 19. Egyptians. See Muslim Egyptians, and Copts. Ehrám, 80. Eiyám en-Nesee, 200. ’Ekd, 525, 531. Elijah, allusions to, 211. Embroidery, 172. Emeer (El-), el-Hágg, 403, 449; el-Kebeer, anecdote of, 194. ’Enáneeyeh darweeshes, 221. ’Enebeh, 521. Envious disposition of the Egyptians, 282. Epileptic fits induced by religious excitement, 415. ’Eree, 26, 140. ’Erk-soos, 297. ’Erk-soosee, 297. ’Eshë, 60, 200. Eswed, used to signify dark blue, 252. Eunuchs, 121, 161. Europeans in Egypt. See Franks. Evil eye, and modes of counteracting or preventing its effects, 46, 47, 132. Eyes, modern and ancient modes of ornamenting, with kohl, 30, 31. ’Eyn, 321. ’Eysh bi-lahm, 434.

Faddah, 534. Fakeers, 225. Fákihánee, 294. Falakah, 95. Fánoos, 138. Farageeyeh, 25. Farce-players, 357. Fard, 59, 84, 294. Faroodeeyeh, 36. Farrán, 294. Faskeeyeh. See Fountain. Fasting, 56, 75, 79, 394. See Ramadán. Fatátiree, 294. Fateereh, 122. Fát’hah, 50, et passim; specimen of the mode in which it is chanted, 346. Fatoor, 122. Fawátim, costume of the, 28. Fedáwees, 379. Feddán, 118, 533. Fegr, 60. Felláhah, 22. Fellahs, or Felláheen, 19, 22; political condition, 114, 117; domestic life and occupations, 174, 300. Fesahah, or Fes-hah, 15, 139. Festivals, two Grand (or Minor and Great), 59, 79; periodical public, 391, 421, 451. See ’Eed. Festivities, private, 463. Fetteh, 451. Fetwa, 102. Fida, 80. Fikee, 48, 146, 471. Fingán, 125. Firdeh, 119, 501. Fire, eating of, 221, 426. Firkilleh, 223. Fish without scales generally unwholesome in Egypt, 83. Fitr, 533. Fleas excessively numerous in Egypt, 3, 140. Flies extremely annoying in Egypt, 3, 140. Flight, era of the. See Higreh. Fool mudemmes, 122; nábit, 452. Foot, the right, more honoured than the left, 187. Foot-rasps, 310. Footah, 130. Fornication, law respecting, 95; manner in which women guilty of this crime are sometimes punished, 107, 179. Fortune-telling, 355. Fountains in private houses, 9; in baths, 308, 311; public. See Sebeels. Fowwál, 294. Franks in Egypt, 113, 255. Frankincense. See Libán. Friday, the Sabbath of the Muslims, 59, 67. See Gum’ah. Fruits of Egypt, 134. Fukara. See Fakeers. Funeral. See Death; ceremonies after a, 339. Furn, 17. Furniture of a room, 10, 15; of a peasant’s dwelling, 17.

Gád El-Mowla, sermon of, 73. Gaház, 147. Galen referred to, 48. Gambling forbidden, 84. Gáme’, 61, 67. Games, 315; of chance forbidden, 84. Gánn Ibn-Gánn, 204. See Ginn. Gáriyeh, 169. Garmash’ak, 122. Gebr el-Bahr, 458. Gellábs, 170. Gelleh, 175, 288. Gemb, 183. Generosity of the Egyptians, 282. Genii. See Ginn. Geography, 201. Geomancy, 243. Gereed, game of the, 322. Geydee. See Keydee. Gezzár, 294. Ghada, 129. Ghagar, or Ghajar, 356. Gháïsh, 351. Gháwázee. See Gházeeyehs. Gházee, 347. Gházeeyehs, or Gháwázee, 158, 173, 347, 395, 463, 467. Gheyt el-kuttah, 266. Ghools, 207. Ghosts, 207. Ghubeyra, 452. Ghung, 171. Ghusl, 59. Ghuweyshát, 532. Ghuzz, 98. Gibbeh, or Jubbeh, 25. Gink, 352, 423. Ginn, Gánn, Ginnees, or Genii, 54, 202, 242; good, how they pay their alms, 393. Ginyeh, 535. Gipsies. See Ghagar. Gizyeh (or tribute), 501, 512. Glass, eating of, 221, 427. God, his absolute unity, 52; virtues of the fifty-seven names of, 227. Góhargee, 293. Gold ornaments disapproved of by Mohammad, 26; and silver utensils disallowed by many Muslims, 125. Government of Egypt, 20, 98, 515. Gózeh, 125. Gratitude wanting in the Egyptian character, 269. Grave, torment of the, 55, 483, 485. See Tomb. Greeks in Egypt, their number, 19. Guards, military, in Cairo, 99, 107. Gumád el-Owwal, 199; et-Tánee, 199. Gum’ah (El-), or Friday, 67; prayers of, 67, 71, 72.

Habarah, 38. Habbák, 294. Habbeh, 529. Hadd, 96. Hágg, Hájj, or Hájjee, 80, 120, 399. Hággeh, 120, 128. Hair, women’s, mode of dressing and ornamenting, 37. Haláweh, 295. Halak, 524, 530. Hamah, 159. Hambel’ees, 52, 106. Hamdu li-lláh (El-), 135. Hammám, 307. Hanafees, 52, 56, 106. Hanafeeyeh, 57, 311. Hand, right, honoured above the left, 187; left, used for unclean purposes, 134, 187. Harág, or Haráj, 293. Harárah, 310. Harem. See Hareem. Hareem, 9, 12, 16, 120, 159; persons admissible into the apartments of the, 160, 162; customs observed by men on approaching the hareems of others, 162; generally necessary to qualify a man to be a tenant of a private house in Cairo, 17, 142. See also Wives and Women. Hâris, 313. Hasa, 315. Hasan El-’Attár, the sheykh, 196. Hasaneyn (El-), mosque of, 217, 218, 395, 421, 429. See Moolid. Hasheesh, 125, 305, 379. Hashreeyeh, 477. Hashshásh, 306. Hasweh, 315. Hatching of eggs in ovens, 287. Hátoor, 200. Háwees, 353. Head, woman’s, the upper and back part of it most carefully veiled, 42; man’s and boy’s, generally shaven, 24, 44. Hefnáweeyeh darweeshes, 223. Hegábs, 227, 529. Hegira. See Higreh. Hekr, 266. Hemalees, 296. Heml of the barber, 47; kanádeel, 148; musattah. See Musattah. Hemp used to induce intoxication, 125, 305; when first used for this purpose in Egypt, 305. Heneeän, 132. Henna, 32, 152, 446, 448, 503. Herám, 80, 289. Herodotus referred to, 23, 82, 135 (twice), 180, 478, 488, 492. Heykel, 497. Hezám, 445. Hezbs, 224, 479. Higreh, or Hijrah, era of the, 199. Hilál, 522. Hiláleeyeh, 361. Hilbeh, 467. Hoboob, 394. Hods, 48. Hogget el-bahr. Homár ’álee, or —— mughattee, 173. Hommus, 122. Hooreeyehs, 55. Horses, how equipped for riding, 127. Hoseyn (El-), place of his head, 194. See Moolid, and ’A’shoora. Hósh, 8. Hospitality of the Egyptians, 267. Houris. See Hooreeyehs. Hours, Mohammadan, 200. Houses of Cairo, 417; of the peasantry, 417. Howáh. See Háwees. Hulaleeyeh, 41. Huroobeh, 158.

Ibn el-beled, or Ibn-Masr, 22; Hambal, his scrupulosity, 260. Ibráheem, the patriarch Abraham, 76; Básha, anecdote of, 501; the eyyids, Ed-Dasookee, his moolids, 220. Ibreek, 130, 296. Idiots, respect paid to, 208. Idolaters, law respecting, 81. Ikámeh, 65, 78. ’Ilm en-nugoom, 243; er-rukkeh, 235. See Astrology. ’Ilwáneeyeh darweeshes, 221. ’Ilwee, 242. Images of things that have life forbidden, 84. Imáms, 70, 84, 192. Imsák, 439, 442. Indolence of the Egyptians, 273. Industry, 285. Infancy, 42. Inheritance, laws of, 90. Ink, 190. See Dawáyeh. Innovations, late, in Egypt, 515. Inquisitiveness of the Egyptians, 187. Inscriptions on doors, etc., 5, 15, 232, 233. Insha, 196. Intrigues of Egyptian women, 275. Irrigation, 300. Irritable disposition of the Egyptians, 284. Ishárah, 409, 422. Islám (El-), 52. Ism el-Aazam (El-), 243. Isma’eel, or Ishmael, according to the Muslims, the son whom Ibráheem, or Abraham, designed to sacrifice, 80. Isráfeel, 55. Istikhárah, 240.

Jesus Christ, opinions of the Muslims respecting, 53. Jews of Egypt, their number, etc., 19, 512; political state of, 113, 512; domestic life of, 514; character and occupations of, 515. Jocular disposition of the Egyptians, 285. Jubbeh. See Gibbeh. Jugglers, 355. Juvenal referred to, 348.

Kaabeh, 80, 444. See Kisweh. Ká’ah, 12. Kabdah, 533. Kádee of Cairo, 101; court of the, 101; and bribery practised there, 102, 103. Kádees in general, 106, 192. Kádireeyeh darweeshes, or Kádirees, 222, 446. Káf, mountains of, 201, 202. Kafal-wood, 135. Kaffárah, 485. Kaftán. See Kuftán. Kahk, 438. Kahweh, 125, 304, 305. Kahweg’ee, 305. Káïm, 408. Káïm-makám, 114. Kalás’weh, 494. Kamarah, 522. Kamareeyeh, 14. Kamhah, 533. Kandeel, 138. Kánoon, 326, 328. Kantár, 534. Kara-gyooz, 359. Kara-kól, and kárakón, 99. Kara kooseh, 133. Karámeh, 210. Karrás, 190. Kás, 334. Kasabah, 533. Kaseedeh, 156, 197, 412. Kasees, 493. Káshif, 114. Kat’ah bi-khamseh, etc., 534. Kawárë, 378. Káwurmeh, 133. Kebáb, 133, 294. Keemiya (El-), 243. Keerát, 92, 533, 534. Kees, 535; el-hammám, 312. Keeyem, and Keiyim, 152, 355. Kefen, 475. Kelb, 318, 320. Kemengeh, 326. Ketb el-kitáb, 146. Ketkhud’a. See Kikhya. Keydee, 301. Keyf, 303. Keytán, 528. Khalboos, 464. Khaleefeh, 28. Khaleeg, 457. See Canal. Khaleel El-Medábighee, anecdote of, 204. Khaltah, 452. Khalwet’ee, 224. Khamáseen, 2, 452, 500; winds, 2. Khamees el-’Ahd, 552. Khát’beh, 143. Khateeb, 70. Khátim, 25, 527; Suleymán, 148. Khatmeh, 113, 148, 217, 258, 427, 444, 464, 475, 488. Khawágeh, 128. Khäwals, 158, 351, 467. Khazneh, 15, 139, 535. Kheiyát, 293. Kheyreeyeh, 535. Khidr (El-), 211. Khilweh, 314. Khiyár, 133. Khizám, 530. Khoos, 218. Khudaree, 293. Khuff, 39. Khulkhál, 529, 532. Khurdagee, 293. Khusháf, 134. Khutbeh on Mount ’Arafát, 80; of marriage, 174. Khutbet el-waaz, 73; en-naat, 75; es-Siráfeh, 470. Khutt, 439. Khuzam, 530. Kibleeyeh, 198. Kibleh, 63, 198. Kibt, 489. Kikhya, 99. Kiládeh, 527. Kirbeh, 295. Kirsh, 535. Kishk, 452, 467. Kisweh of the Kaabeh, 444; procession of the, 445; pieces of the, used as charms, 234. Kiyahk and Kiyák, 200. Kohl, 30, 403, 452, 491. Kubbeh, 195; wa-t-teyr (El-), 503. Kubt, 489. Kuftán, or Kaftán, 24. Kullehs for water, 135; for sherbet, 137. Kulluk, 99. Kumedyeh, 206. Kumkum, 150, 184. Kummetrë, 528. Kummus, 493. Kunáfeh, 134. Kur-án, quoted, passim; printed translations, etc., of the, 53, 234; taught at schools, 48, 49; recitation or chanting of the, 63, 155, 258, 434, 475, 478, 485; specimen of the mode of chanting the, 346; petition offered up before reciting the, 63, 64 (note); the chief foundation of the laws, 84; respect paid to the, 261; sometimes quoted in jest, 258; the whole and portions of it used as charms, 227, 233. Kurbág, 95, 289. Kureydátee, 357. Kurs, 37, 519. Kursee, 130; el-wiládeh, 466. Kussah, 521. Kutb, 210. Kuttáb, 48. Kuweysinee (the Sheykh El-), 193, 195.

Labolanum, 172. Lamps, 138, 149. Language of the Modern Egyptians, 19, 188. Lanterns, 138, 149. Lattice-work of windows, 7. Laws, 56, 84. Láwingee, 310. Leab el-kumár, 315. Learned men in Egypt, 196. Learning, decline of, 188, 198, 197; respect paid to, 198. Leef, 313, 403. Leewán, 17, 110. Leewángee. See Láwingee. Legacies, law respecting, 90, 91. Leylet ed-Dukhleh, 147, 153; el-Henna, 152; el-Mearág. See Mearág; en-Nusf min Shaabán, 435; er-Roo-yeh, 436; el-Kadr, 442; en-Nuktah, 453; es-Saratán, 453; el-Wahsheh, 485; el-Wahdeh, 485; el-Gheetás, 499. Leymoonáteh, 137. Leyseeyeh darweeshes, 223. Libábeh, 467. Libán, or frankincense, 30, 172, 403; Shámee, 35. Libás, 24. Libbeh, 525. Libraries, 190. Lice, 3, 139, 427. Litám or Lithám, 388. Literature, 189, 197. Lock, wooden, 15. Lodging-houses, 16. Love of the Egyptians for their country, 272. Lunatics, 208. Lute, 330.

Maagoon and Maagungee, 307. Maamal el-firákh or Maamal el-farroog, 287. Mád’neh or menaret, 60. Maghrib, 60. Maghsil es-Sultán, 237. Maghtas, 311. Magic and Magicians, 226, 242, 244. Magnetic compasses, 198. Mahdee (the sheykh El-), Muftee of Cairo, 103, 105. Mahkem’eh, the Great, 101. Mahkem’ehs, minor, 106. Mahmal, or Mahmil, 403, 404, 447; return of the, 403; grand procession of the, 448. Mahr, 145. Mahrookee, the seyyid Mohammad, 103. Mahshee, 133. Mahshesh’eh, 307. Mahzam, 310. Mak’ad, 11. Makhba, 16, 282. Makra, 422. Makra’′ah, 320. Makreezee (El-), cited, 458, 496, 507. Maksoorah, 71, 217. Malakah, 533. Málikees, 52, 106. Malkaf, 15. M’allim, 128, 308, 506. M’allim’eh, 51. Ma-moor, 114. Mandar’ah, 9. Mankal, 127. Mankal’ah, game of the, 315. Manufactures, 286. Márid, 204. Máristán, 278. Markaz, 211. Markets of Cairo, 110. See Sooks. Marriage, laws respecting, 84, 141, 164; duty of, 141; when contracted, 143; how conducted in the case of a virgin, 143; among the lower orders, 151, 157, 158; of widows and divorced women, 157; ceremonies and festivities after, 158, 466. Martial referred to, 348. Martyrs, 54. Má-sháa-lláh, 229. Másh’tah, 314. Másoorah, 529. Masr. See Cairo. Masree and Masreeyeh, 22. Mastab’ah, 8, 291, 305, 310. Mastic, 126, 135. Mathematics, 198. Matrán, 493. Meals, 121, 129, 138. Mearág, festival of the, 431. Measures, 532. Meats, lawful and unlawful, 82; scrupulosity of Muslims respecting, 270. Mecca. See Mekkeh. Meded, 414. Medicine, 198. Meglis, 411; el-Meshwar’ah, 100; el-Gihádeeyeh, 100. Megzoob, 209. Mehráb, 69. Mekkeh and Mount ’Arafát, the objects of pilgrimage, 79. Melboos, 415. Melekees or Melekeeyeh, 491. Memlooks, 19, 98, 121, 143, 155. Memrak, 14. Mendacity of the Egyptians, 283. Menseg, 172. Menwar, 409. Mesh’al, 154. Mesh-hed of El-Hoseyn. See Hasaneyn. Meshrebeeyeh, 8. Meslakh, 308. Mesloob, 209. Mey’ah mubárakah, 231, 392. Meydaäh, 56. Meyyedee, or Meiyedee, 534. Mezz, mezd, or mest, 37. Mibkhar’ah, 135, 150, 184. Mikattah, 190. Miláyeh, 27, 40. Mimbar, 69. Mina (vulgò Muna), 80. Ministers of Mosques, 70. Miracles of saints and darweeshes, 210, 219, 220, 221, 416, 426, 428, 432, 447, 479; of prophets, 209; of Mohammad, 215. Mirwed, 30. Misht, 524. Misned’eh, 190. Misra, 200. Mistar’ah, 190. Miswák, 57, 403. Mitkál, or Mithkál, 78, 534. Mizágee, 519. Moagiz’eh, 210. Mohabbazeen, 357. Mohaddits, 367. Mohallil. See Mustahall. Mohammad, called by the Muslims “God’s Apostle,” and “the Prophet,” etc., 53; respect paid to, 53, 98, 259; regarded and invoked as an intercessor, 78, 259; appears to Muslims in their sleep, 194, 195; his miracles, 215; respect paid to his tomb, 216, 259; virtues of his 99 names, 228; virtues of the names of his relics, 228; virtues of dust from his tomb, 234; evils counteracted by blessing him, 229, 241; sworn by, and imitated in trivial matters, 259; his illiteracy, 436. Mohammad ’Alee (present Básha of Egypt), his character, policy, etc., 21, 97, 98, 99, 117, 202, 515; his revenue, 117. Mohammad Bey, Deftardár, anecdote of, 115. Mohammad El-Baháee, anecdote of, 194. Mohammad Shiháb, the sheykh, 197. Moharram, 146, 198, 231, 392. Mohtes’ib, 110; anecdotes of a, 111. Money, its value in Cairo, 290, 535. Moneys of Egypt, 534. Months, Mohammadan, 198; Coptic, 199; sacred, 73. Moolids of saints, 219. Moolid of the seyyid Ahmad El-Bedawee, 220; Ibráheem Ed-Dasookee, 220; en-Nebee (the Prophet’s Moolid), 408; of the Sheykh Darweesh El-’Ashmáwee, 410; El-Hasaneyn, 421, 429; Es-Sáleh, 428; of the seyyideh Zeyneb, 430; of the Imám Esh-Sháfe’ee, 434. Mooskee, 99. Mósim el-Khaleeg, 459. Mosques, 67, 70, 119, 191, 396; eating, sleeping, etc., allowed in them, excepting at the times of prayer, 70; not entered by persons with their shoes on, 71; ministers and inferior servants of, 70; thefts committed in, 424. Mourning, 487. Móyet zahr, 296. Muballigh, 72, 112. Mudám, 137. Mudnát, 150. Muëddin, 60, 70. Mufattak’ah, 467. Muftee (supreme) of Cairo, 101, 103; an honest, 106. Muftees in general, 192. Mugáwireen, or Mugáwirs, 191. Mughassil, 475. Mukeyyisátee, 311. Mukhallafát en-Nebee, 228. Muk-hul’ah, 30. Mukleh, 28, 193. Mulakkin, 484. Mumezzezeh, 443. Munádee en-Neel, 454, 456, 462. Munkar and Nekeer, 56, 484. Munshids at zikrs, 410. Murábit, 209. Murakkee, 72. Murder, law respecting, 93. Mureed, 223. Muristán, 278. Musáfir, 267. Musahhir, his cry, etc., 439, 440, 442. Musáre’, 322. Musattah, 402. Musellikátee, 298. Mus-haf, 227. Music, 323. See Chant. Musical Instruments, 326. Musicians, 325. See A’látees. Muslim, 319. Muslim Egyptians, their number, origin, and personal characteristics, 19, 21, 22, 29. For other particulars respecting them, see the Tables of Contents, or the words, “Dress,” “Infancy,” “Education,” etc., in this Index. Musquitoes, 3. Musquito-curtain, 139. Mustaches, 23. Mustahall, or Mustahill, 165. Mustaf’a, a name of the Arabian Prophet, 387; Káshif, anecdotes of, 111. Mutawellee (El-), 211. Muwatwat’ah, 35. Muweshshah, 155, 412, 469.

Nabk, 475, 480. Nahhás, 293. Náïb of the Kádee, 101. Nakeeb, 210, 472; el-Ashráf, 106, 221. Nákir. See Munkar. Nakkárah, 333. Nakshibendeeyeh darweeshes, 223. Naming of children, 42. Námooseeyeh, 139. Nárgeeleh, 125. Náring, 296. Nasára and Nasránee, 319. Náshizeh, 88, 157. Náy, 224, 331. Názir, 70, 114. Nebboot, 321. Nebeed, or Nebeedh, 82, 137. Neddábeh, 474. Nedr, 219. Nefeeseh, the seyyiddeh, tomb of, 217. Negeeb, 210. Negefeh, 409. Newspaper, Egyptian, 516. Nezleh, feast of the, 403. Nezlet el-Hágg, 399. Nifás, 468. Nile, 1; its rise, 1, 453; its fall, 1; its fertilizing effect, 2; rise of its bed, 1, 18; navigation of the, 302. Nizám troops, 99, 517. Noorah, 314. Nórooz, 462. Nubians, 19, 140, 489, 492. Nukalee, 294. Nukl, 438. Nukoot or largess, 152, 156, 158, 464, 468, 472. Nuss, or nuss-faddah, 534.

Oath in law courts, 102; various forms of, 256, 283. Obstinacy of the Egyptians, 273. ’Okoos, 532.; Omens. See Auguration. ’Ood (or pipe), 122; (or lute), 330; es-saleeb, 524. Oola, 61, 441. Ophthalmia, 2, 3, 139; charms for the cure of, 236. Opium, use of, 82, 306. ’Orbán, 22. Ornaments, female, 519. ’Osmánlees, or Turks, their number in Egypt, 19. Owlád-Masr, or Owlád-el-beled, 22; ’Enán, darweeshes so called, 221; ’Ilwán, darweeshes so called, 221, 447; Nooh, darweeshes so called, 223. ’Oyoon, 40.

Painters and sculptors of living beings, their future punishment, 84. Paintings on the walls of rooms, etc., 14, 286. Palm-trees, tax on, 117, 119. Panel-work, 11. Paradise. See Genneh. Párah, 534. Parents, respect to, 45, 272. Pavements, ornamental, 9. Peasantry. See Felláhs. Perfumes, 126, 171, 184. Piaster of Egypt, 535. Pictures of living beings forbidden, 34. Pigeon-houses, 17. Piláv, 134. Pilgrimage of the Muslims, 56, 79; Copts, 501. Pilgrims, return of the, 399; mode of ornamenting the doors of their houses, 403; Turkish, their arrival in Egypt, on their way to Mekkeh, 430; procession of their officers and escort, with the Mahmal, departing for Mekkeh, 448; their journey, 450. Pipe, 26, 122; different names and kinds of, 122. Plague, 171; its ravages in 1835, 3, 4. Police of Cairo, 107. Pollution, scrupulosity of the Egyptians respecting, 270, 473. Polygamy, 84, 121, 163, 165; influence of, 84; limited by Mohammad, 85. Population of Egypt, its present amount, 18; in ancient times, 19; late decrease of, 18. Population of Cairo, 4, 19. Pottery employed in the construction of pigeon-houses, 17. Prayer of Muslims, 56, 59, 108, 121, 138, 139, 299; times of, 60, 200; calls to, 60, 343; postures and form of, 63; of the night of the Middle of Shaabán, 435; over the dead, 481. Prayers of Friday, 67, 71, 72; the marriage night, 154, 156; at the tombs of saints, 217, 398; of Ramádan, 439; of the two grand festivals, 442, 451; on other occasions, 78. Prayer-carpet. See Seggádeh. Predestination, 56, 436; its influence upon the character of the Muslims, 266. Presents given on occasions of private festivities, etc., 148, 152, 156, 158, 185, 464, 468, 472; by servants, 186, 443; to servants, 140, 185, 443, 451. Prices of articles of food, etc., in Cairo, 290. Printing, scruples of the Muslims respecting, 260. Printing Office at Boolák, 201, 516. Professors. See Azhar. Prophets and apostles, 53. Prostitutes. See Gházeeyehs, 107. Psylli, 352. Punishments for various offences, 99; of dishonest tradesmen, 11; See “Laws,” “Adultery,” “Fornication,” and “Apostasy.” Puppets, 359. Purifications. See “Wudoo,” “Tayemmum,” and “Ghusl.” Purse, sum of money so called, 103, 535.

Quarters of Cairo, 5, 113. Quatremère, referred to, 495, 507.

Raaráa, Eiyoob, 452. Raba, 17. Rabáb, 332. Rabeea el-Owwal; et-Tánee, 199. Rabtah, 37, 519. Ráhib, 494. Rahmánee, 242. Ramadán, 79, 206, 436. Rasools of the Kádee, 101. Ratl, 534. Ráyeh, 455. Reciters of Romances, 333, 359, 367-380. Reesheh, 522. Reffa, 294. Regeb, 199. Regm, 205. Rei (water-skins), 295; lands, 301. Rek’ah, 63. Reland referred to, 48, 56, 59. Religion of the Muslims, 52; present state of the, 262. Religious education of the Muslim Egyptians, 48, 51; character of the same, 255. Remedies for diseases, etc., charms used as, 233, 399. Retaliation for wounds and mutilations, 94. Revelations, successive, 53. Rifá’eeyeh darweeshes, or Rifá’ees, 221, 352, 447. Rikk, 331. Riwáks. See Azhar. Riyál, sum of money so called, 535; Faránsa, 535. Rope dancers, 356. Rosary. See Sebhah. Róshan, 6. Ruba, 533; Fenduklee, 528. Ruzz mufelfel, 134.

Saad and Harám, 178. Saadeeyeh darweeshes, or Saadees, 220, 222, 352, 416, 419, 450; (a coin), 535. Sabáheeyeh, 158. Sabbágh, 294. Sabbath of the Muslims. See Friday, and Gum’ah. Sacrifice performed by the pilgrims, 80; performed by others on the same day, 80, 81, 451; at the tombs of saints, 44, 219; on the burial of the dead, 479, 485; at a Coptic marriage, 504; by the Copts at the tombs of their relations, 507. Sacy, De, 83, 188, 304, 306, 379. Sadakah, 78. Sadr, 183. Sa’eed, 52. Safa, 37, 528. Safar, 198. Ságát, 334. Sáheb seggádeh, 221. Sahhár, 246. Sahlab, 298. Sahoor, 439, 440. Sáïgh, 293. Saints, Muslim, 208, 432, 433; respect paid to, 98, 208, 216; regarded and invoked as intercessors, 78, 217; tombs and cenotaphs of, 216, 220; the visits to these, 217; the prayers, sacrifices, votive offerings, and other ceremonies performed on such visits, 44, 217, 296, 398. See also Moolids, and Miracles. Sáïs, 121, 140. Sakkas, 121, 295. Sakka sharbeh, 295; el-’ashr, 393. Sakeefeh, 517. Sákiyeh, 301, 524. Salah, 59, 155. See Prayer. Sale referred to, or quoted, 53, 69, 91, 95, 442; his translation of the Kur-án, 53. Saleeb, festival of the, 462. Salk, 157. Saltah, 36. Salubrity of Egypt, 2. Salutations, 179. Samoom, 2. Sáneeyeh. See Seeneeyeh. Santeer, 332. Sáree, 408. Sarráf, 515. Sarrág báshee, 461. Satreng, 315. Schools of the Muslims, 48, 119; Copts, 495; for needle-work, 51. Schoolmasters, 49, 56, 192. Sciences, 191. Scorpions, feats performed with, 222, 419. Scripture, references to the following texts of:— Gen. xvi. 4, 167; xxiii. 11, 293; xxiv., 143; ibid. 47, 531; ibid. 65, 39; xxix. 26, 144; ibid. 27, 466; xli. 42, 26; l. 3, 488. Exod. i. 16, 466; iii. 5, 10; xxii. 26 and 27, 141; xxxix. 30, 26. Lev. xi. 9-12, 83; ibid. 22, 172; xii. 2-5, 468; xix. 32, 272; xx. 10, 95; ibid. 13-15, 96. Num. xi. 5, 174. Deut. xix. 15, 102; xxi. 17, 90; xxiv. 1, 87. Josh. v. 15, 10. Judg. xiv. 12, 466. Ruth ii. 14, 133. 2 Sam. x. 4, 23. 1 Kings xviii. 12, 212. 2 Kings ii. 9-16, 212; ix. 30, 31; xvii. 4-6, 212. 2 Chron. xxxv. 25, 474. Ps. lviii. 4 and 5, 352. Eccles. x. 11, 352. S. Song, passim, 412. Isa. iii. 16, 529, 532; ibid. 21, 531; ibid. 23, 39; xlix. 22, 44. Jer. viii. 17, 352; ix. 17, 474; xxii. 14, 11; xxxvii. 21, 291. Ezek. ix. 2, 3, and 11, 26; xvi. 12, 531; xxiii. 40, 31. Matt. ix. 23, 474; xiv. 6 and 7, 349; xxiii. 29, 220; xxvi. 23, 133. Mark vi. 22 and 23, 349; vii. 3, 130. John iii. 33, 26; vii. 15, 436; viii. 4 and 5, 95; xiii. 26, 133. Acts xv. 20 and 29, 501. 1 Cor. xi. 10, 39. Eph. v. 19, 465. Rev., passim, 55. Scriptures, Jewish and Christian, held, by the Muslims, to be almost totally corrupted, 54. Sculptors. See Painters. Seal-rings, 26. Sebeels, or public fountains, 48, 119, 263. Sebhah, 67, 403; ceremony of the, 486. Sebleh, 37. Sebt en-Noor, 452, 500. Sects of Muslims, four great, 52, 106. Seega, 318, 320. Seemiya, 242, 243. Seeneeyeh, or sáneeyeh, 130. Seeret Aboo-Zeyd, etc. See Aboo-Zeyd, Ez-Záhir, ’Antar, and Delhem’eh. Seewán, 408. Seggádeh, 59, 127, 173, 221, 289. Sehr, 243. Sekeeneh, the seyyideh, 217. Selám to the Prophet, 71, 72, 441. Selámát, 181. Sensuality of the Egyptians, 274. Sermon in a mosque, 73. Serpents, eating of, 220, 222, 419. Serpent-charmers, 222, 352. Servants, 23, 113, 121, 140, 182, 183, 443; female, 170. Seven Sleepers, virtues of the names of the, 228. Seyf Zu-l-Yezen, romance of, 381. Seyfee, 301. Seyrefee, 245. Seyyib, 146. Seyyid, or Seyd, 120; Ahmad El-Bedawee. See Ahmad; and for other seyyids, see their proper names. Seyyideh Zeyneb. See Zeyneb; and for other seyyidehs, see their proper names. Seyyidna, 53. Shaaban, 199; Leylet en-Nusf min, 435. Shaaráweeyeh darweeshes, 222. Shádoof, 300. Sha’eer, 525. Sha’eereeyeh, 358. Shá’ers, 333, 360. Sháfe’ee, the Imam Esh-, his tomb, 217, 218; his Moolid, 434. Sháfe’ees, 52, 106. Sháhad, use of this word, 272. Sháh-bandar, 100. Shahháteh, 237. Sháhids of the Kádee’s court, 102; of biers, and of tombs, 480, 484. Sháleesh, 433. Shara Allah, 164. Sharákee, 301. Sharbát, 137. Sharbetlee, 294, 297. Sháteh, 521. Shaving the head, etc., 23, 44. Shawáteh, 521. Sháweesh, el-Hágg, 399. Sházilees, 224. Shealeg’ee, and Shealeh, 108. Shedd el-weled, 473. Sheddeh benád’kah, 530. Sheeh, 231. Sheehah, 380. Sheera, 306. Sheesheh, 124. Shemm en-Neseem, 452, 453. Shemmás, 494. Shems el-Kebeereh (Esh-), 220. Sherbet, 137; cups, or kullehs, 137, 297. Shereefs, 25, 120, 128, 221. Sheykh, 29, 48, 120, 128, 209; former and present condition of a literary, 193; of each of the four great sects, 106; el-Hárah, 113; et-Tumn, 113; of a trade or manufacture, 113; of servants, 113; of thieves, 113; el-Beled, 114; el-Bekree, 221; es-Sádát, 221; of darweeshes, 221, 223. Sheytánee, 242. Shibr, 533. Shibreeyeh, 402. Shibuk, 122. Shibukshee, 294. Shiftish’eh, 509. Shiháb, 204. Shinnáweeyeh darweeshes, 222. Shintiyán, 35. Shitawee, 301. Shiya’ees, 52. Shóbash, 464. Shoes taken off before entering a mosque, or stepping on a mat or carpet, etc., 10, 71, 292. Shoosheh, 24. Shops, 290, 291, 517. Showwál, 199. Shureyk, 443. Sidr, 435, 475. Silk clothing forbidden to men, 24. Silver. See Gold. Siráfeh, 469. Sirát (Es-), 54. Sitt, 120. Slaughtering of animals for food, how performed, 83. Slaves, 19, 85, 88, 121, 141, 160, 161, 168, 177; emancipation of, 89, 169; rights of, 89, 170. See Memlooks. Slave-traders. See Gellábs. Sleeping, 139. Smoking, 121, 123, 171, 175. Sneezing, custom observed on, 186. Social usages, 179. Soil of Egypt, 286, 300; produce of the, 20, 301; insufficient cultivation of the, 19, 20. Sóms, or fasts, of the Copts, 499. Songs, 257, 336; at zikrs, 411. Soobiya, 298. Sooks, 291, 293, 517. Soul, state of the, between death and the judgment, 485, 486. Star, falling or shooting, superstition respecting, 204. Strabo referred to, 48. Strangled animals, their flesh unlawful as food to the Muslims, 82; and to the Copts, 501. Streets of Cairo, 4, 291, 517. Students. See Azhar. Subh, 60. Subooa after a birth, 362, 466, 467; after a marriage, 466; after return from pilgrimage, 403. Sudeyree, 24. Suffeh, 10. Suflee, 242. Sufrah, 130. Suleymán, preadamite kings so named, 204; A’gha, Silahdár, anecdote of, 114. Sultán, a title given to some eminent saints, 399. Sunnees, 52. Sunneh, 60, 84. Superstitions, 194, 202, 226, 453, 467, 471. Surgery, 198. Surnames, 43, 115. Swearing by God, the Prophet, etc., 23, 37, 102, 256, 283. Swine’s flesh forbidden to the Muslim, 82; not eaten by the Copts, 501. Sword used by the Khateeb on Friday, and why, 72, 73. Syrians in Egypt, their number, 19.

Táb, game of, 317. Tabbákh, 94. Tabls, 333. Tablat el-musahhir, 440. Táboot, 216, 301. Tafaddal, 131. Tágir, 293. Tá-Há, a name of the Arabian Prophet, 387. Tákeeyeh, 25. Takhtabósh, 11. Takht’rawán, 402. Talák reg’ee, 87. Talkeen of the dead, 484. Tamboor, 332. Tár, 173, 334, 474. Taráweeh prayers, 439. Tarboosh, 25, 289. Tareekah, 209. Tarhah, 37, 39. Tarkeebeh, 216, 484. Tarskháneh, 100. Tartoor, 223. Tattooing, 24, 33, 491. Táwulah, 315. Taxes, 117, 119, 501. Tayemmum, 59. Tebweez, 316. Teeb. See Táb. Teen meblool, 297. Teiyibeen, 181, 183. Tekbeer, 63, 482. Tekleel, 504. Tekyees, 301. Temperance of the Egyptians, 269. Temperature of the climate of Egypt, 2. Tesbeel, 297. Testimony. See Witnesses. Teymeeneh, 181. Tezyeereh, 37. Theatrical performances in London, described by an Algerine, 206. See Farce-players. Theft, laws respecting, 94. Thieves, 113. Thousand and One Nights referred to, 109, 136, 203, 275, 303, 413; recitations of the, 381. Tikkeh. See Dikkeh. Tirmis, 94. Tób, 37, 41. Tobacco, 124, 175, 303; disallowed by some Muslims, 82, 98; when first introduced into the East, 303. Tók, 531. Tombs, 162, 443, 451, 483, 488. Toobeh, 200. Toot, 199. Tooth-ache prevalent in Egypt, 23. Trades, 293; sheykhs of, 113; customs on admission into, 472. Tradesmen, 138, 292. Traditions of the Prophet, 84. Treasure, custom of hiding, 16, 282. Tribes of Egyptian peasantry, 22, 178. Tufeylees, 268. Tukeyseh, 335. Tumbák, 124. Turban, 25, 28, 29; different colours of, distinguishing different classes, 28, 491, 493, 509, 510, 512; green, when first assumed by shereefs as distinctive of their race, 28; black and blue, when first worn by Christians, 509; of the ’Ulama, 28; much respected, 28; ladies’, 37. Tureiya, 148. Turks. See ’Osmánlees. Tyranny of officers of the government, 111, 112, 114, 115.

Ukeeyeh, 534. Ukkah, 534. ’Ulama, 28, 106, 192, 196; bribed in law proceedings, 104. Unbelievers, Muslims ordered to wage war with, 81, 255; Muslims in Egypt often taught to hate, 48, 255, 536; general conduct of Muslims to, 99, 255. Urquhart, Mr., referred to, 45, 81, 95, 140. Uskuf, 493. Usury forbidden, 84.

Veil, head-, 37, 39; face, 37, 39, 159; antiquity of the, 39; importance and obligation of the, 42, 44, 160; men in whose presence it is not required, 86, 160, 161, 162. Vermin, 3, 140. Villages, 18. Visits, 182, 443, 451; of women, 172, 173.

Wahhábees, or Wahabees, 97. Wakf, 119. Wálee, 107. Wa-llah, or wa-lláhi, 256. War against unbelievers, 81, 259. Warak mahshee, 133. Washing before and after meals, 130, 135; clothes, 272. Watchmen in Cairo, 108, 262. Water of the Nile, 1, 135; gratuitous distribution of, 297; -bottles, 135; -carriers. See Sakkas. Watwát, 35. Wefa en-Neel, or Wefa el-Bahr, 455, 458. Weights, 533. Wekálehs, 17, 290. Wekeel, 86, 145. Welees, 63, 194, 209, 243, 479. Weleeds, 55. Welwel’eh, 474. Weybeh, 533. Wilád el-layálee, 155. Wilwál, 474. Winds, hot, 2. Windows of lattice-work, 6-8; of coloured glass, 14. Wine forbidden to Muslims, 82; drunk in secret by many persons, 82, 136; by some openly, 82; allowed in paradise, 55. Wird es-sahar, 224. Witnesses, 88, 102. Wives, lawful number of, 85; their rights to dowry, etc., 86; with regard to the nurture of their children, 88; rebellious, law respecting, 88; their feelings with regard to the restraint or seclusion to which they are subject, 163, 281. See Marriage, Divorce, and Adultery. Women not destitute of souls, nor excluded from paradise, according to the Muslims, 55; not admitted into mosques during the regular times of prayer, 69; seldom pray even at home, 69; whom a man is allowed to see unveiled, 86, 160, 168; guilty of capital crimes, how put to death, 94; when marriageable, 143; their domestic life, condition, and habits, 159, 175. See Wives, Hareem, and Veil. Writing, manner of, and apparatus for, 49, 50, 190. Wudoó, 51, 56. Wukkah, and Wukeeyeh, 534.

Yaakoobes, or Ya’ákibeh, 491. Yahood, 512. Yakhnee, 133. Yá Sátir, 162. Yá-Seen, a name of the Arabian Prophet, 387. Yawning, custom observed on, 186, 187. Year, Mohammadan, 198; Coptic, 199. Yelek, 35. Yemeneeyeh, 476.

Zaaboot, 26. Zaatar, 122. Zábit, 99, 107, 108. Zaghábeh, 361. Zagháreet, 150, 151, 156, 479. Záhir (Ez-), romance of, 367. Záhireeyeh, 367. Záïrgeh, 239. Zarf, 125. Záwiyeh, 294. Záwiyet el-’Omyán, 193. Zebeeb, 137, 297. Zeffehs (festive parades or processions), i. 78, 150, 151, 153, 155, 157, 158, 469, 504. Zeiyát, 294. Zekah, 78, 392. Zemr, 333. Zemzem, water of, 237, 403. Zeyneb, seyyideh, mosque of, 217, 218, 430. See Moolid. Zikkeer, 410. Zikrs, i. 149, 220, 234, 258, 331, 336, 396, 423, 432, 439, 465; particular descriptions of, 398, 409, 418, 420. Zináteeyeh, 361. Zóba’ah, 203. Zughbeeyeh, 361. Zu-l-Heggeh, 199. Zu-l-Himmeh. See Delhem’eh. Zu-l-Kaadeh, 199. Zummárah, 336.

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Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.

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Transcriber’s Note

The phrase ‘ground floor’ appears on occasion as ‘ground-floor’, with no preponderance of either. Both are kept as found. ‘Daybreak’ and ‘day-break’ are used interchangeably as well.

The first complete footnote on p. 8 refers to styles of latticework. However, the anchor in the text is missing. It has been added at the end of the paragraph, presuming that the discussion is now about ‘inferior houses’, but the placement is otherwise arbitrary.

Lapses of punctuation in the Index have been corrected without comment.

The index entries for ‘Paradise’ and ‘Benzoin’ cross-reference ‘Genneh’ and ‘Gáwee’, respectively. However, neither entry exists. The index entry for ‘Hogget el-bahr’ has no page reference, nor does the phrase appear in the text. The page reference for ‘Jugglers‘ was transposed from ‘355’ to ‘553’. The page reference for ‘Copts’, under the ‘Pilgrimage’ item was incorrectly as ’561’, rather than ‘501’. An apparently specious (because out-of-order) reference regarding printed translations of the Ku-rán should be ‘234’ rather than ‘44’. The page reference for the virtues of Mohammed’s ninety-nine names is missing, and p. 228 has been provided as the most likely.

Other errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have been corrected, and are noted here. The references are to the page and line in the original.

xi.19 to witness any Muslim ri[ght/te] Replaced. xvi.11 said he, [“]the salutation Added. 17.21 are mere hovels[.] Added. 17.35 or of millet-stalks, etc.[,] Added. 52.33 called by the Arabs “El-Islám.[”] Added. 54.20 in the bridge “Es-Sirát[”] Added. 76.17 greet him with a salutation![”/’] Replaced. 77.1 ’A’[i/ï]sheh, the mother of the faithful Replaced. 80.36 [‘/“]el-’Eed el-Kebeer,” Replaced. 82.21 chiefly [a/o]n account of Replaced. 89.42 who is a Muslim’eh[./,] or a Christian Replaced. 93.40 the homicide is a member[.] Added. 100.18 The “Meglis el-Meshwar′ah[”] Added. 119.35 Mustaf[’]a Káshif Inserted. 127.10 (or prayer-carpet[)] Added. 137.16 as its name implies[;] Added. 149.6 the “belláneh[”] Added. 187.4 of the present company[;/,] Replaced. 189.17 the literary and vulga[r] Restored. 206.31 peal of thunder was heard[;/,] Replaced. 214.40 but some per[s]ons assert Inserted. 217.10 Imá[n/m] ’Alee Replaced. 217.11 Imá[n/m] El-Hoseyn Replaced. 228.19 [(]or the vessel Added. 229.22 “What God willeth [cometh to pass![”]]/[]”) Transposed. 229.25 “M[a/á] sháa-lláh!” Replaced. 230.37 are especially consid[er]ed preservatives Inserted. 235.28 the sheyk[h] Ibráheem Added. 244.23 in [in] this place Repeated. 245.2 took the latter[;/,] Replaced. 263.20 “God is all-knowing[”] Added. 295.7 and [to ]give them Removed. 309.2 a small kind of stall, for coffee[.] Added. 333.37 They are placed upon[ ]a camel Inserted. 369.32 The We[ez/ze]er Sháheen Transposed. 370.5 The We[ez/ze]er Sháheen Transposed. 370.9 ’Aláy-ed[./-]Deen Replaced. 370.21 The We[ez[ze]er said to him Transposed. 371.26 The King answered[./,] Replaced. 377.33 He exclaimed[,] Added. 379.12 The Sult[a/á]n answered, Replaced. 387.31 to the fortress of Esh[ /-]Shamta Replaced. 392.17 required[ by] their law Inserted. 398.40 relatively few persons collec[t]ed Inserted. 413.29 and not feared the watchmen?[’] Added. 415.19 Yá ’amme[e] ’Ashmáwee! Added. 432.33 have been carr[r]ied from Removed. 435.33 “Soorat Yá-Seen Yá-Seen[”] Added.”“ 451.4 “El-’Eed el-Kebeer;[”] Added. 465.17 and so on[.] Added. 472.13 w[f/i]th one or two Replaced. 483.23 “Soorat el-Bakarah el-Bakarah[”] Added. 514.8 to spare his life[.] Added. 546.21 For other particulars [r]especting> them Added.

The errors below appear in footnotes and are referenced by page upon which the note begins, the original note number, and the line within it.

x.2.24 There is one wor[d/k] Replaced. 27.1.1 (called “miláyeh”[)] Added. 28.1.1 or [‘/“]Khalif.” Replaced. 54.2.2 is, however, disputed[.] Added. 65.1.3 the “ikámeh[”] Added. 122.1.1 I believe it is maple[.] Added. 126.1.2 (for “’ázikee[”]) Added. 133.3.2 the same[.] Added. 150.1.1 [“]From the verb ‘adna,’ [“]he brought,” etc. Misplaced. 227.1.1 to return to E[u/n]gland Inverted. 229.2.1 “Yá selá[n/m],” Replaced. 312.1.1 “kees el-hammán el-hammán[,]” Added.

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