A Military Dictionary and Gazetteer Comprising ancient and modern military technical terms, historical accounts of all North American Indians, as well as ancient warlike tribes; also notices of battles from the earliest period to the present time, with a concise explanation of terms used in heraldry and the offices thereof. The work also gives valuable geographical information. Compiled from the best authorities of all nations. With an appendix containing the Articles of war, etc. (part 5 of 8)

A Military Dictionary and Gazetteer Comprising ancient and modern military technical terms, historical accounts of all North American Indians, as well as ancient warlike tribes; also notices of battles from the earliest period to the present time, with a concise explanation of terms used in heraldry and the offices thereof. The work also gives valuable geographical information. Compiled from the best authorities of all nations. With an appendix containing the Articles of war, etc. (part 5 of 8)

=Pandour= (from Pandur, a mountainous district of Hungary). The name has been applied to that portion of the light-armed infantry in the Austrian service which is raised in the Slavonian districts on the Turkish frontier. The Pandours originally fought under the orders of their own proper chief, who was called Harun-Basha, and rendered essential service to the Austrians during the Spanish War of Succession, and afterwards in the Seven Years’ War. They originally fought after the fashion of the “free lances,” and were a terror to the enemy, whom they annoyed incessantly. Their appearance was exceedingly picturesque, being somewhat oriental in character, and their arms consisted of a musket, pistol, a Hungarian sabre, and two Turkish poniards. Their habits of brigandage and cruelty rendered them, however, as much a terror to the people they defended as to the enemy. Since 1750 they have been gradually put under a stricter discipline, and are now incorporated with the Austrian frontier regiments.

=Panic.= A sudden fright; especially, a sudden fright without real cause, or terror inspired by a trifling cause, or misapprehension of danger; as, the troops were seized with a panic; they fled in a panic. These terrors are attributed to Pan, as some say, because when Osiris was bound by Typho, Pan and the satyrs appearing, cast him into a fright; or because he frightened all the giants that waged war against Jupiter; or, as others say, that when Pan was Bacchus’s lieutenant-general in his Indian expedition, being encompassed in a valley by an army of enemies far superior to them in number, he advised the god to order his men to give a general shout, which so surprised the enemy that they immediately fled from their camp. And hence it came to pass that all sudden fears impressed upon men’s spirits without any just reason were, by the Greeks and Romans, called panic terrors.

=Panic-stricken.= Struck with a panic or sudden fear; as, the troops were panic-stricken.

=Paniput=, or =Paneeput=. A town of British India, capital of a district of the same name in the territorial division of Delhi, Northwest Provinces, 78 miles north of Delhi, and 965 miles northwest of Calcutta. The neighborhood of Paniput, lying in the great military highway between Eastern India and Afghanistan, has been at various times the field of great battles. The first great battle of Paniput was fought in 1526, and gained by Mirza Baber, the ex-ruler of Ferghana, at the head of 12,000 Mongols, over Ibrahim, the emperor of Delhi, whose unwarlike array numbered 100,000 men, with 1000 elephants. This victory seated Baber on the throne of Hindostan as the first of the “Great Mogul” dynasty. The second great battle was fought in 1556 by the Mongols under Akbar, grandson of Baber, and third of the Mogul emperors, against Hemu, an Indian prince, who had usurped the throne of Delhi. Hemu’s army was defeated with great slaughter, and himself slain. The third battle was fought on January 14, 1761, between Ahmed Abdalli, ruler of Afghanistan, and the till then invincible Mahrattas. The Jats, who had been forced to join the Mahrattas, deserted to the Afghans at a time when victory seemed to be declaring for the former; and this act of treachery, together with the loss of their leaders, threw the Mahrattas into confusion, and in spite of their most resolute valor they suffered a total defeat. They left 50,000 slain on the field of battle, including all their leaders except Holkar, and 30,000 men were killed in the pursuit, which was continued for four days. It was at Kurnaul, a town a little to the north of Paniput, that Nadir Shah of Persia, in 1739, won the celebrated battle over the Mogul emperor, which placed Northwestern India at his feet.

=Pannels.= Are the carriages upon which mortars and their beds are conveyed upon a march.

=Pannier.= A shield of basket-work formerly used by archers, who set them up in their front. Also a basket, usually slung in pairs over the back of a beast of burden to carry a load. The term is also applied to leather bags to be used in the same way, and especially to cases for carrying medicines.

=Pannonia.= A province of the ancient Roman empire, bounded on the north and east by the Danube, on the west by the mountains of Noricum, and on the south reaching a little way across the Save; and thus including part of modern Hungary, Slavonia, parts of Bosnia, of Croatia, and of Carniola, Styria, and Lower Austria. The Pannonians (Pannonii) were a brave, warlike people. They maintained their independence of Rome till Augustus, after his conquest of the Illyrians (35 B.C.), turned his arms against them; they were shortly afterwards subdued by his general Vibius. In 7, the Pannonians joined the Dalmatians and the other Illyrian tribes in their revolt from Rome, and were with difficulty conquered by Tiberius, after a desperate struggle, which lasted three years (7-9). The dangerous mutiny (14) of the Roman troops which were garrisoned in Pannonia was with difficulty quelled by Drusus. Fifteen legions had to be assembled against the Pannonians, who mustered 200,000 warriors. Great numbers of the Pannonian youth were drafted into the Roman legions, and proved, when disciplined, among the bravest and most effective soldiers in the imperial army. Pannonia was subsequently divided into Upper and Lower Pannonia. Upper Pannonia was the scene of the Marcomannic war in the 2d century. In the 5th century it was transferred from the Western to the Eastern empire, and afterwards given up to the Huns. After Attila’s death, in 453, the Ostrogoths obtained possession of it. The Longobards under Alboin made themselves masters of it in 527, and relinquished it to the Avari upon commencing their expedition to Italy. The Magyars, or Hungarians, took it in the end of the 9th century.

=Panonceau= (Fr.). An ancient name for an ensign or banner.

=Panoply.= Complete armor, or harness.

=Papagos.= A tribe of Indians closely allied to the Pimas, who reside on a reservation on the Santa Cruz River, in Arizona. They were converted to Christianity by Spanish missionaries at an early date, and are a peaceable and industrious race.

=Papal States=, or =States of the Church=. A territory, or rather group of states in Central Italy, formerly united into one sovereignty, with the pope for its head. The Papal States were bounded on the north by the Po, on the south by Naples, on the east by the Gulf of Venice and Naples, and on the west by Modena, Tuscany, and the Tyrrhenian Sea. Detached portions, as Benevento and Pontecorvo, lay within the Neapolitan territory. About 720, Gregory III. having quarreled with the emperor Leo the Isaurian, declared the independence of Rome. In 726, Pepin le Bref compelled the Lombard king to hand over Ravenna, Rimini, Pesaro, Fano, Cesena, Urbino, Forli, Comacchio, and fifteen other towns to the pope, who now assumed the state of a temporal sovereign. Pepin’s example was followed by his son Charlemagne. In the 11th century the Normans greatly aided to increase the papal temporal authority, and in 1053 the duchy of Benevento was annexed. In 1278 the emperor Rodolf I. confirmed the popes in the acquisitions thus obtained, defined the boundaries of the Papal States, and absolved their inhabitants from their oath of allegiance to the empire. Sixtus IV. in the end of the 15th century annexed the Romagna to his dominions. By the victory of the French at Marignan (1515), the very existence of the papal power was threatened. In 1598 the possessions of the house of Este, viz.: Ferrara, Comacchio, and a part of the Romagna, were seized by Pope Clement VIII.; and the Papal States received their final additions in Urbino (1623), Ronciglione, and the duchy of Castro (1650). The Romagna was seized by Napoleon in 1797, and incorporated in the Cisalpine Republic; and in the following year Rome was taken by the French, and the Papal States erected into the Roman Republic. Pius VII., in 1800, obtained possession of his states, but they were almost immediately retaken by the French. In 1814, the pope returned to his dominions, and was formally reinstated by the treaty of Vienna. In 1830, the people of Ancona and Bologna rose in rebellion; they were put down by the aid of an Austrian army. The Bolognese again rebelled; and this revolt supplied Austria with a pretext for occupying the northern Legations, and the French at the same time garrisoned Ancona. Occasional risings took place from time to time up to 1846. In 1848, the people rose, and Pius IX. fled to Gaeta, whilst Rome was proclaimed a republic. He was restored and his subjects reduced to submission by the arms of France, Austria, Naples, and Spain. The Austrians held the Legations in subjection to the pope’s authority till 1859; the French occupied Rome in his behalf till 1870. In July, 1859, the four northern Legations (the Romagna) taking advantage of the withdrawal of the Austrian troops, threw off the papal authority, and proclaimed their annexation to Sardinia, which was formally acknowledged by Victor Emmanuel in March, 1860. The pope now raised a large body of troops, appointing Lamoricière, an eminent French general, to command them, for the purpose of resisting any further encroachments on his dominions; but the news of Garibaldi’s success in Sicily and Naples produced revolt in the Legation of Urbino and in the Marches, the people proclaiming Victor Emmanuel. The Sardinians accordingly marched into the Papal States, defeated Lamoricière, who retired into Ancona, where he was compelled to surrender with his whole army. The revolted provinces of Umbria, Urbino, and the Marches, and part of Frosinone were annexed to Sardinia. In September, 1870, the remaining states were occupied by the Italian troops, and the pope was removed from temporal power. On October 2, 1870, the people pronounced their annexation to the kingdom of Italy, with which the territory of the States of the Church was incorporated by decree of October 9, and Gen. Marmora appointed governor of the new provinces.

=Papegai= (Fr.). A popinjay; a bird made of wood or pasteboard, stuck upon a lance, and used as a mark when practicing with the bow, cross-bow, musket, etc.

=Paper Shell.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Paper Time-fuze.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Paphlagonia.= Was a country of Asia Minor, separated from Pontus on the east by the river Halys (Kizil Ermak), and from Bithynia on the west by the river Parthenius (Bartan-Su), and bounded on the north by the Euxine, and on the south by Galatia. Its limits, however, were somewhat different at different times. The Paphlagonians are supposed to have been of Syrian, or at least of Semitic origin, and were a wild and warlike people. Crœsus made Paphlagonia a part of the kingdom of Lydia, and Cyrus united it to Persia; it subsequently became part of the empire of Alexander the Great, and afterwards of the kingdom of Pontus, was included in the Roman province of Galatia, and in the 4th century of the Christian era was made a separate province by Constantine.

=Papilio= (Fr.). A square Roman tent for eight men.

=Parachute Light Ball.= A thin shell, the upper half of which is blown off by the charge at a certain height. The lower half filled with composition, which is kindled by the explosion, is kept floating in the air by means of a small parachute, which is set free when the upper half of the shell flies off.

=Parade.= Signifies in its original sense a prepared ground, and was applied to the court-yard of a castle, or to any inclosed and level plain. From the practice of reviewing troops at such a spot, the review itself has acquired the name of parade.

=Parade.= To assemble troops in a uniform manner for the purpose of regular muster, exercise, and inspection. The parades are general, regimental, or private (troop, battery, or company), according to the strength of the force assembled.

=Parade.= In camp, is that spot of ground in the front of each encampment, between the camp colors, on the right and left wings.

=Parade, Dress.= A parade which takes place in the U. S. army at the troop or retreat on each evening, when the soldiers appear in full uniform and under arms.

=Parade, Evening.= The hour generally fixed for the evening parade is at sunset. When troops are encamped, the signal for evening parade is given from the park of artillery, by the discharge of a piece of ordnance called the evening gun.

=Parade Guard Mounting.= The parading of the soldiers who are to go on guard.

=Parade, Morning.= In every garrison town, fortified place, and camp, as well as in every town through which soldiers pass, or occasionally halt, a certain hour in the morning is fixed for the assembling of the different corps, troops, or companies, in regular order.

=Parade Officer.= An officer who attends to the minutiæ of regimental duty, but who is not remarkable for military science.

=Parade Rest.= A position of rest for soldiers, in which, however, they are required to be silent and motionless, used specially at parade; also, the command for the position.

=Parade, Troop.= Morning parade (which see).

=Parade-ground.= The piece of ground on which soldiers are paraded.

=Parados.= An elevation of earth which is effected behind fortified places, to secure them from any sudden attack that may be made in reverse.

=Parætonium=, or =Ammonia=. Formerly an important city on the northeast coast of Africa. It was a strong fortress; restored by Justinian, and continued a place of some consequence till its complete destruction by Mehemet Ali in 1820.

=Paraguay.= A republic in South America, discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1526; conquered by Alvarez Nuñez in 1535, and civilized by the Jesuits, who in 1608 commenced their missions there, and established an exclusive government, which they held until their expulsion in 1768. Paraguay rose against the Spanish yoke in 1811, and achieved its independence. Paraguay was recognized as an independent state by the Argentine Confederation in 1852, and by Great Britain in 1853. On November 11, 1864, hostilities between Paraguay and Brazil began, when a Brazilian steamer was captured as an intruder on Paraguayan waters; in the same year Brazil was invaded by the Paraguayans, and on April 14, 1865, Lopez (president of the republic) invaded the territories of the Argentine Republic, which immediately made alliance with Brazil. In September, 1865, the army of Lopez was defeated. The war continued almost without intermission until 1870, when Lopez was killed. Since that time Paraguay, though nominally independent, has been almost completely under control of Brazil.

=Parallels.= Are trenches cut in the ground before a fortress, roughly parallel to its defenses, for the purpose of giving cover to the besiegers from the guns of the place. The parallels are usually three, with zigzag trenches leading from one to another. The old rule used to be to dig the first at 600 yards’ distance; but the improvements in artillery have rendered a greater distance necessary, and at Sebastopol the allies made their first trench 2000 yards from the walls. The third trench is very near to the besieged works, and from it saps and zigzag approaches are directed to the covert way. See SIEGE.

=Paramount.= The highest in rank or order; the chief.

=Parapets= (Ital. parapetto, “breastguard”). In fortifications, are breastworks, walls, or bulwarks of earth, brick, wood, iron, stone, or other material. The battlement around a flat roof, or the railing of a bridge is also called a parapet. The parapets of field-works are always made of earth, which is also largely used in permanent fortifications. Earth has great advantages for this purpose, being readily obtained, easily handled, and affords good cover on account of the absence of splinters and flying fragments when struck by a shot. The presence of rock or large gravel in the earth is objectionable for this reason. Of the different earths, sand, hard clay, tufa, etc., resist penetration better than rich soils. The profile of the parapet is determined by its location and purpose. The earth to form it is taken from the ditch, which is sometimes in front and sometimes in rear. In inclosed works, or works built at leisure, the ditch is always on the outside, leaving the natural surface for the parade. Works built hastily, or under fire, have the ditch on the inside. In this way cover is more rapidly obtained. This form of parapet is used in all the trenches in siege operations and the temporary lines thrown up on the field of battle. The command of a parapet is the height of the interior crest above the site. For isolated works the command should be at least 8 feet, as the chances of a successful resistance increase with the command. The profile of a parapet is a section taken at right angles to its length. In infantry parapets the banquette is the bank of earth in rear of the parapet, on which the troops stand to deliver their fire. This is usually about 4 feet wide, and about 4 feet 3 inches below the interior crest. The height of the banquette depends upon the command of the parapet. The interior slope of the parapet, against which the soldier leans in firing, has a slope of 3 on 1. To support the earth at this inclination a revetment of sand-bags, fascines, gabions, sod, pisa, or plank, is used. The superior slope of the parapet is usually 1 on 6. It should be steep enough to give a fire just above the farther edge of the ditch, but not so steep as to weaken the parapet. The exterior slope is 1 on 1, or the natural slope of the earth. If it is made steeper than this it will be beaten down by the projectiles of the enemy; if less steep, it will offer a less obstacle to open assault. The berme, or space between the foot of the exterior slope and the edge of the ditch, is objectionable, in offering a breathing-place to the enemy in the assault, but it is usually necessary to prevent the weight of the parapet from crushing in the scarp. The dimensions of the ditch are regulated by the amount of earth necessary to form the parapet. The scarp and counterscarp are made as steep as the stiffness of the soil will allow. As a general rule, the depth of the ditch should not be less than 6 feet, and its width should not be less than 12. The greatest width is regulated by the superior scope of the parapet, the line of which produced should not pass below the crest of the counterscarp. In excavating near a salient it will be found that more earth is furnished than in re-enterings. On this account the width of the ditch is usually made variable, being less at the salients than elsewhere.

The thickness of a parapet is the horizontal distance between the interior and exterior crests. This thickness should be one-half greater than the penetration of the projectiles it is designed to resist. As the rifled guns now in use have much greater penetration than the smooth-bores of former times, a proportionate increase in the dimensions of parapets has become necessary. The parapets of semi-permanent field-works are usually calculated to resist the fire of siege-guns; those of permanent works to resist the most powerful ordnance in use. The trenches so much used in modern times to cover operations of armies in the field are shallow ditches, with the earth thrown outwards.

=Parasang.= A Persian military measure, sometimes assumed as a league, but equal to about 4 English miles.

=Parbuckle.= To hoist or lower by means of a parbuckle.

=Parbuckles.= Are 4-inch ropes, 12 feet long, with a hook at one end and a loop at the other. To parbuckle a gun, is to roll it in either direction from the spot in which it rests. To do this, place the gun on skids, and if it is to be moved up or down a slope, two 4¹⁄₂-inch ropes are made fast to some place on the upper part of the slope, the ends are carried under the chase and breech of the gun respectively, round it and up the slope. If the running ends of these ropes are hauled upon, the gun ascends; if eased off, it descends. If the ground is horizontal, handspikes only are necessary to move the gun.

=Parcourir= (Fr.). In a military sense, to run over the ground during an action. This word is particularly applicable to those movements which are made by general officers, officers commanding brigades, etc., for the purpose of encouraging their soldiers in the heat of an engagement.

=Pardon and Mitigation of Sentences.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 112.

=Parga.= A town of European Turkey, eyalet of Yanina, stands on a rocky peninsula on the shore of the Mediterranean, and is defended by a citadel which is nearly impregnable. It has played a part of some importance in history since the beginning of the 15th century. It maintained its independence, under the protection of Venice, from this period till the fall of the Venetian power in 1797, when it was for a short time garrisoned by the French. Ali Pasha, the governor of Yanina, obtained command of it in 1800, and in 1814 besieged it, on account of the inhabitants refusing to submit to his rule; and as the French would not defend them, the inhabitants applied for aid to the British, who took possession of the citadel. Parga was finally given up to Turkey by the treaty of 1819; but the inhabitants, not wishing to come under the Ottoman sway, migrated to the Ionian Islands, and the town was then occupied by the Turks.

=Paris= (anc. Lutetia Parisiorum). The metropolis of France, and after London, the most populous city in Christendom, is situated on both sides of the Seine, and is surrounded by walls and a strong line of fortifications. When Cæsar conquered Gaul, he rebuilt Lutetia, which had been nearly destroyed through the obstinacy of the Celtic tribe who here had their stronghold, and it rose to be a place of considerable importance during the 500 years of Roman dominion. In the beginning of the 5th century it suffered much from the northern hordes, and ultimately fell into the hands of the Franks, headed by Clovis, who, having embraced Christianity, made it his residence in 508. In 845 the city was ravaged by the Normans, and in 845 and 920 suffered from famine; in 885 it was gallantly defended by the Count Eudes and the Bishop Goslin against the Danes; in 1231 it was rebuilt; and in 1411-18 suffered by the factions of the Armagnacs and Burgundians; taken by the English in 1420, and retaken by the French in 1436; on August 24, 1572, the massacre of St. Bartholomew occurred; in 1589-90 Henry IV. vainly besieged it, and he entered it in March, 1594; surrendered to the allies on March 30, 1814. Paris was the scene of many revolutions from July, 1830, to February 22, 1848. The following are the great treaties of Paris: Between England, France, Spain, and Portugal, cession of Canada to Great Britain by France, and Florida by Spain, on February 10, 1763; between France and Sardinia; the latter ceding Savoy, May 15, 1796; France and Sweden, whereby Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rugen were given up to the Swedes, who agreed to adopt the French prohibitory system against Great Britain, January 6, 1810; on April 11, 1814, Paris capitulated, and Napoleon renounced the sovereignty of France; the convention of Paris, between France and the allied powers, the boundaries of France to be the same as on the first day of January, 1792; peace of Paris ratified by France and all the allies on May 14, 1814; convention of St. Cloud, between Marshal Davoust, Wellington, and Blücher, for the surrender of Paris, July 3, 1815, and the allies entered it on July 6; treaty of Paris, between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, styling Napoleon the prisoner of those powers, and confiding his safeguard to England on August 2, 1815; establishing the boundaries of France, and stipulating for the occupation of certain fortresses by foreign troops for three years, on November 20, same year, and the treaty of Paris, confirming the treaties of Chaumont and Vienna, same day; treaty between Russia and Turkey, England, France, and Sardinia, March 30, 1856; another between England and Persia, March 4, 1857; the treaty between the European powers, Prussia, and Switzerland, respecting Neufchâtel, May 26, 1857; and the convention between France and Italy for withdrawal of French troops from Rome, September 15, 1864. In the late war with Prussia the armies of France having been defeated by the Germans, on August 7, 1870, Paris was declared in a state of siege. On September 4, a republic was proclaimed and a “provisional government of national defense” instituted under the presidency of Gen. Trochu. On September 20, Paris was invested by the Germans, and communication was kept up with the outer world by means of pigeons and balloon mails. On October 30, riot reigned in Paris, and the members of the provisional government were arrested and held prisoners for several hours. On November 28, 300,000 troops supported by 700 field-pieces, divided into three corps, were concentrated at points around the city under Gen. Trochu as commander-in-chief. Early in January the bombardment was begun, and continued most of the month without serious injury. The city, nearly reduced to starvation and threatened with intestine commotion, surrendered on January 28, with 1900 pieces of artillery, 180,000 prisoners, a forced contribution of 200,000,000 francs having been levied by the enemy. The National Assembly having ratified the preliminaries of peace on February 28, the German troops, who, to the number of 30,000, had occupied a quarter of Paris, quietly withdrew. The terms of peace proving distasteful to the populace, Paris was soon plunged into political chaos, and sanguinary conflicts followed between the government of the Commune, or Red Republicans, and the Versailles government under the presidency of Thiers.

=Park.= The space occupied by the animals, wagons, pontons, and materials of all kinds, whether of powder, ordnance stores, hospital stores, provisions, etc., of an army when brought together; as, a park of wagons; a park of artillery; a park of provisions; engineer park, and the like.

=Park.= To bring together in a park, or compact body; as, to park the artillery, etc.

=Parley.= An oral conference with an enemy. It takes place under a flag of truce, and usually at some spot--for the time neutral--between the two armies. To beat a parley, is to give a signal for such a conference by beat of drum or sound of trumpet.

=Parma.= A kind of round buckler used by the velites in the Roman army. It was 3 feet in diameter, made of wood and covered with leather. Its form was round, and its substance strong; but Servius on the Æneid, and even Virgil, say that it was a light piece of armor in comparison with the clypeus, though larger than the pelta.

=Parma.= A city of Italy, situated on a river of the same name, about 72 miles southeast of Milan. It is supposed to be of Etruscan origin, but is first mentioned as a Roman colony, having become of considerable importance in the time of the republic. It took a prominent part against Antony in 43 B.C., and was in consequence taken by that general and plundered by his troops. Under Augustus it received a fresh colony, and it again rose to be one of the principal towns of this populous and flourishing part of Italy. In 377 a colony of Goths was settled in the territory of Parma by order of Gratian; Attila devastated and plundered it; and it was taken by Narses in his wars against the Goths and their allies. In 1247, Frederick II. besieged it without success. It subsequently became a prey to feudal lords, and afterwards fell into the hands of the popes. Parma is now part of the province of Æmilia, in the kingdom of Italy, to which it was annexed March 18, 1860.

=Parma, Battles of.= An indecisive engagement took place at Parma, June 29, 1734, between the confederated armies of England, France, and Spain and the Austrians; and on June 19, 1799, the French under Macdonald were routed by the Russians under Suwarrow, with a loss of 4 generals and 10,000 men.

=Paroi= (Fr.). A stout wooden frame having long, sharp-pointed stakes driven into it horizontally; it is placed upon the parapet to oppose scaling parties.

=Parole.= A watch-word differing from the countersign (which see) in that it is only communicated to officers of guards, while the countersign is given to all the members. The parole is usually the name of a person, generally a distinguished officer, while the countersign is the name of a place, as of a battle-field. It is also the declaration made on honor by an officer, in a case in which there is no more than his sense of honor to restrain him from breaking his word. Thus, a prisoner of war may be released from actual prison on his parole that he will not go beyond certain designated limits; or he may even be allowed to return to his own country on his parole not to fight again during the existing war against his captors. To break parole is accounted infamous in all civilized nations, and an officer who has so far forgotten his position as a gentleman ceases to have any claim to the treatment of an honorable man, nor can he expect quarter should he again fall into the hands of the enemy he has deceived.

=Paros.= One of the larger islands of the Grecian archipelago, situated west of Naxos. In ancient times, it is said to have been colonized by Cretans, and was very wealthy and powerful. It submitted to the Persians; and after the battle of Marathon was assailed ineffectually by Miltiades, who received here the wound of which he soon after died. After the death of Xerxes, Paros came under the supremacy of Athens, and shared the fate of the other Cyclades.

=Parrain= (Fr.). In military orders, the person who introduces or presents a newly-elected knight. The term is also used to signify the comrade who is selected by a soldier who is condemned to be shot to bind the handkerchief over his eyes.

=Parrott Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Parrott Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Parry.= To ward off; to stop or to put or turn off; to prevent; as, to parry a thrust, a blow, or the like, or anything that means or threatens harm.

=Parry.= A defensive movement in sword and bayonet exercises; also a command; as, tierce parry, quarte parry, etc.

=Parrying.= The action of warding off the push or blow aimed at one by the other.

=Parsees=, or =Guebres=. The followers of Zerdusht, dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at the battle of Kadseah, their army was decimated by the Arabs, and the monarchy annihilated at the battle of Náhárand in 641. Many submitted to the conquerors (and their descendants are termed Guebres), but others fled to India, and their descendants still reside at Bombay (where they are termed Parsees), where they numbered 114,698 in 1849.

=Parsons Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Parsonstown= (anc. Birr). A considerable inland town on the river Brosna, in King’s Co., Ireland, 69 miles west-southwest from Dublin. Birr was the scene of many important events, both in the Irish and in the post-invasion period. The castle, which was anciently the seat of the O’Carrols, was granted by Henry II. to Philip de Worcester; but it frequently changed masters, and even alternated between English and Irish hands. Through the entire period of the civil wars it was constantly disputed, until after 1690, when the Parsons family was finally established in possession of the castle and adjoining lands. Parsonstown is a large military station.

=Partheniæ.= A word derived from the Greek, signifying children born of unmarried women. The name was applied to a particular class of citizens in Sparta after the Messenian war, whose origin was ascribed to the following circumstances: The Spartans having been at war with the Messenians for twenty years, and having by that means very much depopulated their country, and apprehending that if the war continued it might eventually strip Sparta of all its male inhabitants, they sent some of their young men from the army into the city, with license to be familiar with as many unmarried women as they would; and the children begotten by them in this manner were called partheniæ, on account of the uncertainty as to who were their fathers. At the end of the war, this brood were deemed bastards, and were denied the bearing of any office in the government, etc. This unjust exclusion enraged them so much that they conspired with the slaves to destroy all the nobility; but, on the discovery of their plot, they were driven out of the city; after which, being headed by Phalantus, a bold and enterprising son of chance, they traveled into Magna Grecia in Italy, and built Tarentum.

=Parthenopean Republic.= Was the name given to the state into which the kingdom of Naples was transformed by the French republicans, January 23, 1799, and which only lasted till the following June, when the invading army was forced to retreat.

=Parthia.= Anciently a country of Western Asia, lying at the southeast end of the Caspian Sea, from which it was separated by a narrow strip, known as Hyrcania, now forms the northern portion of Khorassan, and is an almost wholly mountainous region. The original inhabitants are believed to have been of Scythian race, as shown by their language as well as by their manners, and to belong to the great Indo-Germanic family. The Parthians, during the time of the Roman republic, were distinguished by primitive simplicity of life and extreme bravery, though, at the same time, much given to bacchanalian and voluptuous pleasures. They neglected agriculture and commerce, devoting their whole time to predatory expeditions and warfare. They fought on horseback, and after a peculiar fashion. Being armed solely with bows and arrows, they were rendered defenseless after the first discharge, and, to gain time for adjusting a second arrow to the bow, turned their horses, and retired, as if in full flight; but an enemy incautiously pursuing was immediately assailed by a second flight of arrows; a second pretended flight followed, and the conflict was thus carried on till the Parthians gained the victory, or exhausted their quivers. They generally discharged their arrows backwards, holding the bow behind the shoulder; a mode of attack more dangerous to a pursuing enemy than to one in order of battle. The Parthians first appeared in history as subject to the great Persian empire. After the death of Alexander the Great, Parthia formed part of the Syrian kingdom, but revolted under Antiochus II., and constituted itself into an independent kingdom under the Arsacidæ, 250 B.C., a race of kings who exercised the most completely despotic authority ever known. The Parthian dominion rapidly became a most powerful and flourishing empire. In spite of repeated attacks on the part of the Romans, the Parthians maintained their independence; and though Trajan, in 115-116, seized certain portions of the country, the Romans were soon compelled to abandon them. In 214, during the reign of Artabanus IV., the last of the Arsacidæ, a revolt headed by Ardshir, son of Babegan, broke out in Persia, and the Parthian monarch, beaten in three engagements, lost his throne and life, while the victor substituted the Persian dynasty of the Sassanidæ for that of the Arsacidæ. Some scions of the Parthian royal family continued for several centuries to rule over the mountainous district of Armenia, under the protection of the Romans, and made frequent descents upon Assyria and Babylonia.

=Partiality.= An unequal state of judgment or leaning in favor of one of two parties. Every member of a court-martial is sworn to do justice, without partiality, favor, or affection. A previous opinion expressed by a member, before the court is sworn, is deemed a good and sufficient cause of challenge by either the prisoner or prosecutor, and the individual cannot sit on the trial and judgment of the case.

=Partisan.= The name given to small corps detached from the main body of an army, and acting independently against the enemy. In partisan warfare much liberty is allowed to partisans. Continually annoying the flanks and rear of columns, they intercept convoys, cut off communications, attack detachments, and endeavor to spread terror everywhere. This kind of warfare is advantageously pursued only in mountainous or thickly-wooded districts. In an open country, cavalry very readily destroys partisans. The Spanish race make active partisans. The party is called guerrilla, the partisan a guerrillero.

=Partisan.= A term formerly applied to a pike or halbert.

=Partition Lines.= In heraldry, lines dividing the shield in directions corresponding to the ordinaries. According to the direction of the partition lines, a shield is said to be party or parted per fess, per pale, per bend, per chevron, per saltire; a shield divided by lines in the direction of a cross is said to be quartered; and a shield parted at once per cross and per saltire is said to be gironné of eight. The partition lines are not always plain; they may be engrailed, invected, embattled, wavy, nebuly, indented, dancetté, or raguly.

=Partridges.= In artillery, were very large bombards, formerly in use at sieges and in defensive works.

=Parts, Bridges By.= See PONTONS.

=Party.= A small detachment of men, horse or foot, sent upon any kind of duty; as, into an enemy’s country, to pillage, to take prisoners, and oblige the country to come under contribution.

=Party.= In heraldry, parted or divided;--used with reference to any division of a field or charge.

=Party, Firing.= Are those who are selected to fire over the grave of any one interred with military honors.

=Party, Recruiting.= Is a certain number of men, under an officer or non-commissioned officer, detached from their respective regiments for the purpose of enlisting men.

=Party, Working.= See WORKING PARTY.

=Pas de Sours= (Fr.). Steps leading from the bottom to the top of a ditch in permanent fortification.

=Pasha=, or =Bashaw= (from the Persian padishah, “powerful ruler”). A title applied in the Ottoman empire to governors of provinces, or military and naval commanders of high rank. The distinctive badge of a pasha is a horse-tail, waving from the end of a staff crowned with a gilt ball; in war, this badge is always carried before him when he goes abroad, and is at other times planted in front of his tent. There are three grades of pashas, which are distinguished by the number of horse-tails on their standards; those of the highest rank are pashas of three tails, and include, in general, the highest functionaries, civil and military. All pashas of this class have the title of vizier. The pashas of two tails are the governors of provinces, who are generally called by the simple title “pasha.” The pashas of one tail, the lowest rank of pashas, are provincial governors. See HORSE-TAIL.

=Pass.= A straight, difficult, and narrow passage, which, well defended, shuts up the entrance to a country.

=Pass.= A certificate of leave of absence given to a soldier for a short period.

=Pass of Arms.= In ancient chivalry, a bridge, road, etc., which the knights undertook to defend, and which was not to be passed without fighting the person who kept it. He who was disposed to dispute the pass touched one of the armories of the other knight who held the pass, that were hung on pales, columns, etc., erected for the purpose; and this was a challenge which the other was obliged to accept. The vanquished gave the conqueror such prize as was agreed on.

=Pass, To.= Is to march in review by open order of columns, for the purpose of saluting.

=Passable.= Capable of being passed, traveled, traversed, or the like; as, the roads are not passable for troops.

=Passade=, or =Passado=. In fencing, a push or thrust; also, a sudden movement to the front.

=Passage.= A pass or encounter; as, a passage at arms.

=Passage of Ditches.= In siege operations the passage of a dry ditch consists in the descent (which is by a blindage, if the ditch is not too deep, or a blindage and gallery for deep ditches) and a full sap, which leads from the outlet of the descent to the bottom of the breach. The passage of a wet ditch is more difficult, and specially perilous if the besieged can produce sudden freshets by flood-gates or other contrivance. The method usually followed is to build a dike or bridge of fascines and hurdles across the ditch. The abutment for this bridge is formed by excavating a grand gallery behind the counterscarp and throwing the earth taken from it into the ditch through the outlet of the descent. The dike is carried forward from this abutment by sappers, who work on a raft carrying a musket-proof mask on the side of the enemy. A gabionade parapet on the exposed side of the dike serves to protect the men in bringing forward the fascines, hurdles, etc., to extend the dike.

=Passage of Rivers.= The passage is effected by surprise or by main force, and detachments are thrown by one means or the other upon the enemy’s bank of the river before proceeding to the construction of bridges. The passage by force ought always to be favored by diversions upon other points. Infantry cross bridges without keeping step. Cavalry dismount in crossing, leading their horses. Wagons heavily loaded pass at a gallop.

=Passages.= Are openings cut in the parapet of the covered way, close to the traverses, in order to continue the communication through all parts of the covered way. See TRAVERSES.

=Passandeau= (Fr.). An ancient 8-pounder gun, which was 15 feet long, and weighed about 3500 pounds.

=Passant.= A heraldic term, used to express the attitude of an animal in a walking position, with his head straight before him.

=Passarowitz.= A well-built town of European Turkey, in the province of Servia, 5 miles south of the Danube, and 15 miles east of Semendria. The town is chiefly noteworthy for the treaty which was signed here by Prince Eugène and the grand viziers, July 21, 1718. By this treaty, which put an end to the war undertaken by the Turks against Venice in 1714 for the conquest of the Morea, a truce of twenty-five years was established, and the Banat of Temesvars, the western portion of Wallachia and Servia, the town and territory of Belgrade, and a part of Bosnia, were secured to the house of Austria.

=Passau.= A picturesque, fortified, frontier town of Bavaria, at the confluence of the Inn and the Ilz with the Danube, 90 miles east-northeast from Munich. Fort Oberhaus, on the left bank of the Danube, stands on steep wooded cliffs, at an elevation of upwards of 400 feet, and commands the passage of both the Inn and Danube, besides which the town is further defended by the castle of Niederhause, and by ten detached forts. The treaty whereby religious freedom was established, was ratified here between the emperor Charles V. and the Protestant princes of Germany, July 31, 1552.

=Pass-box.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Passegardes.= In ancient armor, were ridges on the shoulder-pieces to turn the blow of a lance.

=Passe-Mur.= An ancient 16-pounder gun, 18 feet long, weighing 4200 pounds.

=Passes-Balles= (Fr.). Boards or machines made of iron or brass, used in disparting cannon, and fitted to every species of caliber.

=Passion Cross.= A cross of the form on which our Saviour suffered, with a long stem and a short traverse near the top. It is of occasional occurrence as a heraldic charge, though less frequent than many other varieties of cross. A passion cross, when elevated on three steps or degrees (which have been said by heralds to represent the virtues of Faith, Hope, and Charity), is called a Cross Calvary.

=Passive Operations.= Are operations the object of which is solely to repel an attack of the enemy and thus prevent his advance.

=Pass-parole.= An order passed from front to rear of an army by word of mouth.

=Passport.= A document given by the competent officer of a state, which permits the person therein named to pass or travel from place to place by land or water. Also a license granted in time of war for the removal of persons and effects from a hostile country; a safe-conduct.

=Pataremo.= A sort of small swivel artillery, having a movable chamber.

=Patavium= (now Padova, or Padua). An ancient town of the Veneti in the north of Italy, on the Medoacus Minor, and on the road from Mutina to Altinum. In 302 B.C. it was powerful enough to drive back the Spartan king Cleomenes with great loss when he attempted to plunder the surrounding country. It was plundered by Attila; and in consequence of a revolt of its citizens, it was subsequently destroyed by Agilolf, king of the Longobards, and razed to the ground.

=Patay.= A town of France, department of Loiret, 14 miles northwest of Orleans, where John of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, was present, when the Earl of Richemont signally defeated the English, June 18, 1429. Talbot was taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe was forced to fly. In consequence, Charles VII. of France entered Rheims in triumph, and was crowned July 17, following year, Joan of Arc assisting in the ceremony in full armor, and holding the sword of state.

=Patched-up Peace, The.= In French history, the name given to a treaty of peace between the Duke of Orleans and John of Burgundy, in 1409.

=Paté= (Fr.). In fortification, a sort of horseshoe, that is, a platform or terre-plein, irregularly built, yet generally constructed in an oval form. It is surrounded by a parapet, without anything to flank it, and having no other defense than what is front or fore right. Patés are usually erected in marshy grounds to cover the gate of a fortified town or place. Also an iron or earthen pot filled with powder and grenades for throwing against besiegers; some were used at Lille in 1708.

=Patereros.= Were small pieces of ordnance, now obsolete, worked on swivels; most commonly used on board of ships, where they were mounted on the gunwale, and discharged showers of old nails, etc., into hostile boats. The French called them Pierriers, from loading them with stones.

=Patience.= The power or faculty of suffering; endurance; the power of expecting long, without rage or discontent; the power of supporting faults or injuries, without revenge; long suffering. In military life, patience is an essential requisite. Without patience half the toils of war would be insupportable; with patience there are scarcely any hardships but what coolness, courage, and ability may overcome. It is one of the greatest virtues, indeed, in an officer or soldier patiently to support, not only the rigor of discipline, but the keen and vexatious circumstances of disappointment.

=Patna=, or =Pattana=. A town of British India, capital of a district of the same name, in the presidency of Bengal, on the right bank of the Ganges, 10 miles east of Dinapore, and 377 miles northwest of Calcutta. Factories were established here at an early period by the British. In 1763 disputes began to arise between Meer Cossim, the nawaub of Bengal and Behar, and the servants of the East India Company, about the transit dues levied on native traders, from which the English claimed exemption. The nawaub for some time refused to accede to these demands; but finally he abolished all the imposts, both on British and native goods, a step which was not desired by the Company, and which must have greatly diminished his revenues. In revenge for this injury, he proceeded in various ways to annoy the British; and at length went so far as to seize some of their boats on the Ganges. On this Mr. Ellis, the chief of the factory at Patna, made an attack on the city and took possession of it, although Meer Cossim soon afterwards recovered it, and forced the British to take refuge in the factory. For four months hostilities continued between the two parties, in the course of which the nawaub was several times defeated, until he became so exasperated at the loss of the city of Monghyr, that he ordered the murder in cold blood of 200 prisoners. On November 6, in the same year, Patna was taken by the British; and in May, 1764, Meer Cossim’s troops were totally defeated under the walls. Since that time the place has remained undisturbed in the hands of the British.

=Patomemeter.= An instrument for measuring the force of currents.

=Patonce, Cross.= In heraldry (Lat. patens, “expanding”), a cross with its terminations expanding like early vegetation or an opening blossom.

=Patoo-patoo.= A formidable weapon with sharp edges, used by the Polynesian Islanders and New Zealanders as a sort of battle-axe to cleave the skulls of their enemies.

=Patræ= (now Patras). One of the twelve cities of Achaia, was situated west of Rhium, near the opening of the Corinthian Gulf. The town was chiefly of importance as the place from which the Peloponnesians directed their attacks against the opposite coast of Ætolia. Patræ was one of the four towns which took the leading part in founding the second Achæan League. Patræ assisted the Ætolians against the Gauls in 279 B.C.

=Patriarchal Cross.= A cross which, like the patriarchal crosier, has its upright part crossed by two horizontal bars, the upper shorter than the lower. A cross patriarchal fimbriated or was a badge of the Knights Templar.

=Patrick, St., Order of.= A national order of knighthood for Ireland, established by George III. on February 5, 1783, and enlarged in 1833. As originally constituted, it consisted of the sovereign, the grand master (who was always the lord-lieutenant of Ireland for the time being), and 15 knights. By the statutes of 1833 the number of knights was increased to 22. The collar of the order (of gold) is composed of roses alternating with harps, tied together with a knot of gold, the roses being enameled alternately white within red, and red within white, and in the centre is an imperial crown surmounting a harp of gold, from which the badge is suspended. The badge or jewel is of gold, and oval; surrounding it is a wreath of shamrock proper on a gold field; within this is a band of sky-blue enamel charged with the motto of the order, Quis Separabit MDCCLXXXIII. in gold letters; and within this hand a saltire gules (the cross of St. Patrick) surmounted by a shamrock or trefoil slipped vert, having on each of its leaves an imperial crown or. The field of the cross is either argent or pierced, and left open. A sky-blue ribbon, worn over the right shoulder, sustains the badge when the collar is not worn. The star, worn on the left side, differs from the badge only in being circular in place of oval, and in substituting for the exterior wreath of shamrocks eight rays of silver, four rays of which are larger than the other four. The mantle is of rich sky-blue tabinet, lined with white silk, and fastened by a cordon of blue silk and gold with tassels. On the right shoulder is the hood, of the same materials as the mantle. The order is indicated by the initials K.P.

=Patriot.= A sincere and unbiased friend to his country; an advocate for general civilization, uniting in his conduct through life, moral rectitude with political integrity. Such a character is seldom found in any country; but the specious appearance of it is to be seen everywhere, most especially in Europe. It is difficult to say how far the term can be used in a military sense, although it is not uncommon to read of a citizen soldier, and a patriot soldier. Individually considered the term may be just, but it is hardly to be understood collectively.

=Patrol.= To go the rounds in a camp or garrison; to march about and observe what passes as a guard. To pass round as a sentinel; as, to patrol the city.

=Patrolling.= Performing the duties of a patrol.

=Patrols.= A patrol is a detachment which is employed to obtain information respecting the enemy’s movements and position, and relating to the nature of the country over which the army has to move, and to keep open the communications between the different portions of a command. Patrols are generally composed entirely of cavalry, although they are sometimes composed of infantry and cavalry; and in very much broken and obstructed ground, it might be necessary that they contain only infantry.

=Patte= (Fr.). A term used in mining; when a well or excavation is made in loose or crumbling earth, and it becomes necessary to frame it in, the rafters must be laid horizontally to support the boards in proportion as the workmen gain depth. The ends of the rafters that are first laid run 10 or 12 inches beyond the border of the well, for the purpose of sustaining the platform. These supports are called oreilles; consequently, that every frame may be supported the second is attached or made firm to the first by means of the ends of boards which are nailed together. In this manner the third is joined to the second, and the fourth to the third. These ends are called pattes, or handles.

=Pattée, Cross=, or =Cross Formeé= (Lat. patulus, “spreading”). In heraldry, a cross with its arms expanding towards the ends, and flat at their outer edges.

=Patte d’Oie= (Fr.). A term used in mining to describe three small branches which are run out at the extremity of a gallery. They are so called from their resemblance to the foot of a goose.

=Pattern Regiment.= A phrase of distinction which is applied to a corps of officers and soldiers who are remarkable for their observance of good order and discipline.

=Paulus Hook.= A point on the Jersey shore which ran into the Hudson River near where the Pavonia ferries now are. The first settlement was made here in 1633. A British fort erected at this point was taken on the morning of August 19, 1779, by the Americans under Maj. Harry Lee, who made a descent on it by way of the Point of Rocks, and captured 179 prisoners, a number of guns, and a quantity of stores.

=Pavade.= Formerly a short dagger was so called in Scotland.

=Pavecheur=, or =Pavesier=. An ancient militia who carried the (pavois) shield.

=Pavia= (anc. Ticinum). A city of Northern Italy, capital of the province of the same name, on the left bank of the Ticino, 20 miles south of Milan, and 3 miles above the confluence of the Ticino and the Po. Pavia was founded by the Ligurii; it was sacked by Brennus and by Hannibal; burned by the Huns; conquered by the Romans, and became a place of considerable importance at the end of the Roman empire. Then it came into the possession of the Goths and Lombards, and the kings of the latter made it the capital of the kingdom of Italy. It became independent in the 12th century, then, weakened by civil wars, it was conquered by Matthew Visconti in 1345. Since that period, its history is merged in that of the conquerors of Lombardy. Here, in 1525, the French were defeated by the Imperialists, and their king taken prisoner; but in 1527, and again in the following year it was taken and laid waste by the French. It was stormed and pillaged by Napoleon in 1796, and came into the possession of Austria by the peace of 1814. Since 1859 it has been included within the reorganized kingdom of Italy.

=Pavilion.= A tent raised on posts; a flag, colors, ensign, or banner; in heraldry, a covering in form of a tent, investing the armories of kings.

=Pavilion, To.= To furnish or cover with tents; to shelter with a tent.

=Pavise= (written also Pavais, Pavese, and Pavesse). A large shield covering the whole body, having an inward curve, managed by a pavisor, who with it screened an archer.

=Pavisor.= In military antiquity, a soldier who managed a pavise.

=Pavon.= An ancient military flag shaped like a right-angled triangle.

=Pawnees.= A warlike tribe of Indians who formerly resided in Nebraska, but are now located in Indian Territory. Their numbers have been greatly reduced, owing to their wars with the Sioux, with whom they maintained a hereditary warfare. They now number about 2000 souls, and are divided in four bands.

=Pay.= Is the stipend or salary allowed for each individual serving in the army.

=Pay Bills.= In the British service, accounts regularly tendered by captains of troops or companies of the money required by them for the effectives of such troop or company.

=Pay, Colonial.= In the British service is a certain allowance which is made to troops serving in the colonies.

=Pay Department.= Is that department of a government which takes charge of all matters relating to the pay of the army. In the U. S. army the pay department consists of 1 paymaster-general, with the rank, pay, and emoluments of a brigadier-general; 2 assistant paymaster-generals, with the rank, pay, and emoluments of colonels of cavalry; 2 deputy paymaster-generals, with the rank, pay, and emoluments of lieutenant-colonels of cavalry; and 50 paymasters, with the rank, pay, and emoluments of majors of cavalry.

=Pay, Half-.= Sec HALF-PAY.

=Pay, Full.= See FULL PAY.

=Pay, Staff.= Is the pay and allowances which are made to officers serving on the staff of an army, or in any particular division or department.

=Paymaster-General.= In the U. S. army, is the chief officer of the pay department, with the rank of brigadier-general. Under the direction of the Secretary of War, the paymaster-general assigns paymasters to districts; he receives from the treasurer all the moneys which are intrusted to him for the purpose of paying the pay, the arrears of pay, etc., appertaining to the army. He is also charged with all necessary instructions to his subordinates in reference to the supply and distribution of funds for the payment of the army, and all other things appertaining to the financial duties of his department and the accountability of its officers. In these and all other matters having relation specially to the internal administration of the pay department, the correspondence and orders is direct between the paymaster-general and his subordinates, and between the department and district chiefs and their subordinates.

=Paymasters.= Are officers appointed in the army for the purpose of keeping its pay accounts, and the disbursing of moneys in payment of troops. In the U. S. service it is the duty of paymasters to pay all the regular and other troops; and to insure punctuality and responsibility, correct reports shall be made to the paymaster-general once in two months, showing the disposition of the funds previously transmitted, with accurate estimates for the next payment of such regiment, garrison, or department, as may be assigned to each. In the British service a paymaster is attached to each regiment.

=Paymaster-Sergeant.= In the English army, a non-commissioned officer who assists the paymaster.

=Pay-roll.= A roll or list of persons entitled to payment, with the sums which are to be paid on them. In the U. S. army, commanders of companies are required to prepare at each regular muster, beside one muster-roll, three copies of the “muster- and pay-roll,” two for the paymaster, and one to be retained in the company files. When the paymaster’s rolls have been computed and returned to the company for examination and signature, the calculations thereon will be transcribed on the triplicate muster- and pay-roll, under the direction of or by the company commander, who is responsible for the correct performance of this duty.

=Pay-Sergeant.= In the British service, a sergeant who, on the responsibility of the captain of a troop, battery, or company, keeps the men’s accounts. He is generally, but not invariably, the color-sergeant in the infantry, or the troop or battery sergeant-major in the cavalry or artillery.

=Pea Ridge.= A range of hills in Benton Co., Ark., which gives its name to the battle fought here March 6-8, 1862, between the Union forces under Gen. Curtis and the Confederates under Van Dorn, in which the latter were defeated with loss of over 2500 killed, wounded, and captured.

=Peabody-Martini Rifle.= A breech-loading rifle invented by an American--Peabody--and improved by a Swiss. It is called Martini-Henry in England, in which country it is the official arm. More than half a million of these rifles were manufactured for the Turkish government during the late Russo-Turkish war by the Providence Tool Company of Rhode Island. The gun has a great reputation on account of its long range.

=Peace.= Freedom from war, exemption from, or cessation of, hostilities. This condition of affairs is effected and maintained by treaties between independent powers.

=Peace Establishment.= The reduced number of effective men in the army during a period of peace.

=Peal.= A long sound, or a succession of long sounds, as of cannon, etc.

=Pean= (Old Fr. pannes, “furs”). One of the furs borne in heraldry, differing from ermine only in the tinctures,--the ground being sable and the spots of gold.

=Pea-rifle.= A rifle of small bore carrying a ball of the size of a pea.

=Peasants’ War.= In German history, the name given to that great insurrection of the peasantry which broke out in the beginning of the year 1525. The oppression of the peasants had gradually increased in severity, as the nobility became more extravagant and the clergy more sensual and degenerate. The example of Switzerland encouraged the hope of success, and from 1476 to 1517 there were risings here and there among the peasants of the south of Germany. A peasant rebellion, called from its cognizance, the Bundschuh (laced shoe), took place in the Rhine countries in 1502, and another called the “League of Poor Conrad,” in Würtemberg, in 1514, both of which were put down without any abatement of the grievances which occasioned them. The Reformation, by the mental awakening which it produced, and the diffusion of sentiments favorable to freedom, must be reckoned among the causes of the great insurrection itself. The Anabaptists, and in particular Münzer, encouraged and excited them, and a peasant insurrection took place in the Hegau in 1522. Another known as the “Latin War” arose in 1523 in Salzburg, against an unpopular archbishop, but these were quickly suppressed. On January 1, 1525, the peasantry of the abbacy of Kempten, along with the towns-people, suddenly assailed and plundered the convent; this event proved the signal for a general rising of the peasantry on all sides throughout the south of Germany. They organized themselves into bands of from 9000 to 30,000, and destroyed convents and castles, murdered, pillaged, and were guilty of the greatest excesses, which must indeed be regarded as partly in revenge for the cruelties practiced against them. In May and June, 1525, they sustained a number of severe defeats from the regular forces under Truchsess von Waldburg, in which large bodies of them were destroyed. The landgraf Philip of Hesse was also successful against them in the north of Germany. The peasants after they had been subjugated were everywhere treated with terrible cruelty; a great body of them were massacred; multitudes were hanged in the streets, and many were put to death with the greatest tortures. It is supposed that more than 150,000 persons lost their lives in this war. The lot of the defeated insurgents became harder than ever.

=Pebble Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Pecq, Le.= A village of France, on the right bank of the Seine, about half a mile east from St. Germain en Laye. The allied forces crossed the Seine at this spot in 1815.

=Pectoral= (Fr. pectorale). A breastplate. Among the Romans the poorer soldiers, who were rated under 1000 drachmas, instead of the lorica, or brigantine (a leathern coat of mail) wore a pectoral, or breastplate of thin brass, about twelve fingers square. Some modern troops, such as the cuirassiers, etc., wear pectorals for the direct purposes of defense and bodily protection; but in general small ornamental plates with clasps have been substituted.

=Peculation.= A term used in a military sense for embezzling public moneys, stores, arms, or ammunition. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 60.

=Pedro.= An early gun of large caliber for throwing stone balls.

=Peel.= To strip; to plunder; to pillage; as, to peel a province or conquered people.

=Peel.= A small tower or fort.

=Peel-house.= A small fortified place.

=Peel-towers.= The name given to the towers erected on the Scottish borders for defense. They are square, with turrets at the angles, and the door is sometimes at a height from the ground. The lower story is usually vaulted, and forms a stable for horses, cattle, etc.

=Peep o’ Day Boys.= Were insurgents in Ireland, who visited the houses of their antagonists at break of day, in search of arms. They first appeared July 4, 1784, and for a long period were the terror of the country.

=Pegu.= A British province of Eastern India, is bounded on the north by the Burmese empire, east by the Tenasserim provinces, south by the Gulf of Martaban, and west by the Bay of Bengal and the province of Arracan. It was discovered by the Portuguese in 1520. The early history of Pegu consists of little more than a narrative of barbarous and cruel contests between that country and the kingdom of Ava, in which the latter was finally successful, and reduced Pegu to a province of that kingdom, or, as it is generally called, the Burman empire. Pegu, the capital, was taken by Maj. Cotton, with 300 men, in June, 1852, without loss; and afterwards abandoned. It was again occupied by the Burmese and strongly fortified, with a garrison of 4000 men. It was recaptured by Gen. Godwin with 1200 men and 2 guns, in two hours, with the loss of 6 killed and 32 wounded. The province was annexed to the British possessions, by proclamation, December 20, 1852, and has since prospered. In February, 1862, it was united with Arracan and Tenasserim as British Burmah.

=Pei-ho.= A river of China, which rising on the confines of Tartary, traverses the northern part of the province of Chih-le or Pe-chih-le, and falls into the Gulf of Pe-chih-le, in about 38° 30′ N. lat. The attack on the escort of the British and French ambassadors whilst ascending the Pei-ho to Pekin (June, 1859), led to the war with China of 1860, in which year the Taku forts on this river were taken by the British.

=Peishwa.= The title of the military governor of the Mahrattas, whose office became hereditary in the family of Balajee Biswanath, its first possessor, who fixed his residence at Poonah.

=Peking=, or =Pekin=. The capital of the Chinese empire, situated between the Pei-ho and Hoen-ho, 100 miles northwest from the mouth of the Pei-ho River. About 5 miles north from the city the famous Yuen-ming-yuen palaces are situated, which were sacked and destroyed by the allies in October, 1860; these were 30 in number. Here had been heaped up for centuries all the movable riches and presents of the emperors of China. At the approach of the allies Hien-fung fled in haste; and when Lord Elgin learned that it was in those grounds that the British and French prisoners, captured by treachery, had been tortured, he gave the order to sack and destroy this favorite residence of the emperor’s, as it could not fail to be a blow to his pride as well as his feelings; and it became a solemn act of retribution. Peking has thus been rendered memorable by this march of the British and French forces (1860) to the walls of the city, on which the British and French flags were raised. The provisions of the treaty of Tien-tsin (1858) were subsequently ratified and supplemented by the convention of Peking, which was signed in the English and French languages at Peking, October 24, 1860.

=Pelican.= An ancient name for a 6-pounder culverin, 9 feet long and weighing 2400 pounds.

=Pelican.= In heraldry, the pelican is drawn with her wings endorsed, and wounding her breast with her beak. When represented in her nest feeding her young with her blood, she is called a pelican in her piety.

=Peligni.= A brave and warlike people of Sabine origin, in Central Italy, bounded southeast by the Marsi, north by the Marrucini, south by Samium and the Frentani, and east by the Frentani likewise. They offered a brave resistance to the Romans, but concluded a peace with the republic along with their neighbors the Marsi, Marrucini, and Frentani, in 304 B.C. They took an active part in the Social war (90, 89). They were subdued by Pompeius Strabo, after which time they are rarely mentioned.

=Pelinna=, or more commonly =Pelinnæum= (now Gardhiki). A town of Thessaly, in Hestiæotis, on the left bank of the Peneus, was taken by the Romans in their war with Antiochus.

=Pellene.= A city in Achaia, bordering on Sicyonia, the most easterly of the twelve Achæan cities, was situated on a hill 60 stadia from the sea, and was strongly fortified. Its port-town was Aristonautæ. In the Peloponnesian war Pellene sided with Sparta. In the later wars of Greece between the Achæan and Ætolian leagues, the town was several times taken by the contending parties.

=Pellet.= An old word for shot or bullet.

=Pellet=, or =Ogress=. In English heraldry, a roundle sable.

=Pell-mell.= In utter confusion; with disorderly mixture; with confused violence; as, the battle was a confused heap, the ground unequal, men, horses, chariots, crowded pell-mell.

=Peloponnesian War.= One of the most celebrated and important of the wars carried on between the different states of Greece; the particulars of which are related in the writings of Xenophon and Thucydides. It existed for twenty-seven years, during which time the Athenians and the inhabitants of the Peloponnesus, the most southern peninsula of Greece, were the principal belligerents. After the Athenians had sustained immense losses, it was at best agreed that to establish the peace the fortifications of the Athenian harbors should be demolished, and all their ships, except twelve, be surrendered to the enemy. They were to resign every pretension to their dominions abroad; to follow the Spartans in war, and in time of peace to frame their constitutions according to the will and prescription of their Peloponnesian conquerors. Their walls and fortifications were instantly leveled to the ground; and the conquerors observed that in the demolition of Athens, succeeding ages would fix the era of Grecian freedom. This memorable event happened about 404 years before the Christian era; and thirty “tyrants” were appointed by Lysander over the government of the city.

=Pelta.= A small light shield, sometimes attributed to the Amazons, but used by numerous nations of antiquity, such as the inhabitants of Thrace, Spain, and Mauritania, before its general introduction among the Greeks. It consisted mainly of a frame of wood or wicker-work covered with skin or leather, without the metallic rim, and of a great variety of shapes. It was sometimes round, as in the special case of the cetra, sometimes elliptical, sometimes variously situated round the rim, sometimes even quadrangular, but most commonly crescent-shaped or lunated, as alluded to in the “Amazonidum lunatis agmina peltis” of Virgil. Soldiers bearing the pelta were called peltastæ.

=Pelusium.= The Greek name of an ancient Egyptian city situated on the northeastern angle of the Delta, and important as the key of Egypt on the Asiatic side. Pelusium is called Sin in the Old Testament. It first figures in semi-authentic history as the scene of Sennacherib’s defeat, when (according to the Egyptian tradition, as reported by Herodotus) the camp of the Assyrians was invaded at night by a host of field-mice, who gnawed their bow-strings and shield-straps, so that in the morning, when the Egyptians fell upon them, they were defenseless. In 525 B.C., Cambyses overthrew, near Pelusium, the forces of Pharaoh-Psammetichus. It surrendered to Alexander in 333 B.C. The city was also taken by the Persians in 309 B.C.; and in 173 B.C., it was the scene of the defeat of Ptolemy Philometor by Antiochus Epiphanes. Mark Antony captured it 55 B.C., and it opened its gates to Octavian after his victory at Actium, 31 B.C. It was taken after a protracted resistance by Amrou, the Saracen, in 618.

=Pembroke.= A seaport town of South Wales, on a navigable creek of Milford Haven, 210 miles west of London. In 1648 its castle was beleaguered by Cromwell, and taken after a siege of six weeks.

=Penalba=, or =Penalva=. A village of Spain, province of Huesca, 18 miles northwest of Mequinenza. During the War of the Succession the troops of Philip V. were here defeated in a bloody battle by the army of the Archduke Charles, August 15, 1710.

=Penalty.= In a military sense, signifies forfeiture for non-performance, likewise punishment for embezzlement, etc.

=Pencel.= A small flag or streamer which was formerly carried at the top of a lance;--called also pennoncel.

=Pend d’Oreilles=, or =Kalispels= (Calispels). A tribe of partially civilized Indians, divided into several bands aggregating about 2000, who reside in Washington, Idaho, and Montana Territories. A few of this tribe are also to be found in British Columbia.

=Pendant.= In heraldry, a part hanging from the label, resembling the drops in the Doric frieze.

=Pendulum, Ballistic.= See BALLISTIC PENDULUM.

=Pendulum Hausse.= See HAUSSE, PENDULUM.

=Penetrating.= Having the power of entering or piercing another body.

=Penetration of Spherical Projectiles.= Their penetration when of the same size, with different velocities or charges, is nearly as the squares of the velocities; when of different sizes the penetration will be proportionate to their diameters multiplied by the density, and inversely as the tenacity of the medium. The depth of penetration of a projectile fired from field-pieces at the distance of 500 or 600 yards, is from 4¹⁄₂ to 6 feet in parapets recently constructed, and will traverse walls of ordinary construction; but a 12-pounder is necessary to make a breach in walls of good masonry and of 4 feet in thickness, and in this case the position of the battery must be favorable, and the operation a slow one. The depth of penetration of projectiles fired from the 4¹⁄₂-inch siege-gun, is about the same as that of projectiles fired from the 30-pounder Parrott gun, namely, 12 feet. Sand, sandy earth mixed with gravel, small stones, chalk, and tufa, resist shot better than the productive earths. Shells may be considered as round shot of a lower specific gravity, and their penetrations are therefore proportionally less. A bank of earth, to afford a secure cover from heavy guns, will require a thickness from 18 to 24 feet. In guns below 18-pounders, if the number of the feet in thickness of the bank be made equal to the number of pounds in the weight of the shot by which it is to be assailed, the requisite protection will be obtained. Earth possesses advantages over every other material. It is easily obtained, regains its position after displacement, and the injury done to an earthen battery by day can be readily repaired at night. Where masonry is liable to be breached, it should be covered with earth. Wrought-iron plates 4¹⁄₂ inches in thickness will withstand the effects of 32-pound shots, and of all inferior calibers at short ranges, as 400 yards. Plates of this thickness, however, are soon destroyed by 68-pound shots, and afford little protection from the elongated shots of the new rifled ordnance. To resist successfully the fall of heavy shells, buildings must be covered with arches of good masonry, not less than 3 feet thick, having bearings not greater than 25 feet, and these must be again protected by a covering of several feet of earth. Iron plates half an inch thick, oak planks 4 inches thick, or a 9-inch brick wall, are proof against musketry or canister at a range of 100 yards. Iron plates 1 inch thick, oak from 8 to 10 inches thick, a good wall a foot thick or a firm bank of earth 4 feet thick, will afford secure cover from grape-shot, from any but the largest guns at short ranges. The common musket will drive its bullet about a foot and a half into well-rammed earth, or it will penetrate from 6 to 10 half-inch elm boards placed at intervals of an inch. The penetration of the rifled musket is about twice that of the common musket. A rope matting or mantlet 3¹⁄₂ inches thick is found to resist small-arm projectiles at all distances; it may therefore be employed as a screen against riflemen.

=Peninsular War.= A war which had for its theatre the kingdoms of Spain and Portugal, and in which England, Spain, and Portugal fought against France. It lasted from March, 1808, until May, 1814, when the former powers were completely victorious.

=Pennetière=, or =Panetière= (Fr.). A pocket or small bag in which slingers carried stones and leaden balls.

=Pennon= (Fr.). Formerly a copper wing of a long, light arrow (vireton), substituted for a feather.

=Pennon.= In former times was something like a banner, but with the addition of a triangular point, charged with arms, and borne before knights-bachelors.

=Pennsylvania.= One of the Middle States of the Atlantic slope, the second in population in the Union, and one of the thirteen of the original confederacy. The earliest settlements were made in 1627 by a colony of Swedes and Finns, who established themselves on the Delaware River, going as far northward as the locality of Philadelphia. In 1665 a Dutch expedition from New Amsterdam took formal possession of the country. The Dutch in their turn were superseded by the English after the capture of New York in 1664; and in 1681 the territory was granted by Charles II. to William Penn, who with his co-religionists of the Society of Friends established a Christian government “founded on peace, reason, and right.” Having purchased the lands of the Indians, and conciliated them by kindness and good will, he secured their friendship during seventy years. Previous to the French and Indian war in 1755, the contests waged between the French and English colonists had not reached Pennsylvania; but in that year occurred the disastrous defeat of Braddock, near Pittsburgh, in which Washington, then a young man, distinguished himself. Pennsylvania took an active part in the Revolutionary contest, and on her soil occurred the battles of Brandywine and Germantown, September and October, 1777, the massacres of Wyoming and Paoli, and the suffering winter encampment at Valley Forge in 1777-78. The most prosperous of the colonies, and in a central position, it became the seat of the congress held by the colonies both before and after the decision of the struggle. Independence was proclaimed here, and it remained the seat of the general government until 1800. No State in the confederacy has been more loyal to the Constitution. During the war of 1812 she promptly furnished her quota of troops, and during the civil war she sent nearly 400,000 men into the field. During this trying period her territory was three times invaded: in 1862, when Chambersburg (which see) was captured, and in 1864, when it was burned; and in 1863, when it was invaded by Lee, and the battle of Gettysburg fought on its soil.

=Penobscots.= A tribe of Indians, of Algonkin stock (numbering about 500), who reside on an island in the Penobscot River, about 8 miles north of Bangor, Me. They were allies of the colonists in the war of the Revolution, and received for their services a large tract of land, the greater part of which has been from time to time disposed of.

=Penon de Velez.= A fortified town, built on a high and steep rock, lying off the north coast of Morocco, 75 miles southeast from Ceuta. It belongs to Spain, and was founded by Pedro of Navarre in 1508. It was taken by the Moors in 1522; but recovered by the Spaniards in 1664.

=Penrith.= A town of England, county of Cumberland, 282 miles north-northwest of London. On a knoll to the west of the town stand the ruins of a castle, which was built by the Nevilles during the wars of the Roses, and dismantled in the civil war by the Parliamentary party. The town is a place of considerable antiquity, and it formerly played a conspicuous part in the border warfare. It was taken by the Scots several times in the 14th century, and in 1715 and 1745 was occupied by the insurgents.

=Pensacola.= City and capital of Escambia Co., Fla., situated on the west shore of Pensacola Bay, about 10 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, has an excellent harbor, and is one of the safest in the Gulf. Pensacola was settled by the Spaniards, occupied by the British in 1814, and acquired by the United States in 1821. It contains a navy-yard, and is defended by Forts Pickens and McRae. During the civil war, 1861-65, it was the scene of several military and naval operations. The navy-yard was surrendered to the Confederates in 1861, but was recovered by the Union forces in the following year.

=Pension.= Specifically, a stated allowance to a person in consideration of past services; payment made to one retired from service, for age, disability, or other cause; especially a yearly stipend paid by government to retired officers, disabled soldiers, the families of soldiers killed, etc.

=Pensioner.= In the British army, is a soldier maintained in Chelsea Hospital.

=Pensioner, Out-.= In the British army, is a soldier receiving a pension, but not maintained in Chelsea Hospital. Those who are capable of bearing arms are available for military service when required.

=Pensioners, Gentlemen.= See GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS.

=Penstock.= A machine composed of timber, which, by means of a movable board, enables the defenders of a fortress to allow such a rush of water from the batardeaux as to inundate and destroy the works which the enemy may have constructed in the ditch.

=Pentagon.= In fortification, a figure bounded by five sides, which form so many angles, capable of being fortified with an equal number of bastions. It also denotes a fort with five bastions.

=Pentathlon.= The five exercises performed in the Grecian games, namely, leaping, running, quoiting, darting, and wrestling.

=Penthouse.= A shed hanging forward in a sloping direction from the main wall of a place.

=Pentland Hills.= A range of hills in Scotland, commencing about 4 miles west from Edinburgh. Here the Scotch Presbyterians, since called Cameronians, who had risen against the government, on account of the establishment of Episcopacy, were defeated by the royal troops, November 28, 1666.

=Pentri.= One of the most important of the tribes in Samnium; were conquered by the Romans along with the other Samnites, and were the only one of the Samnite tribes who remained faithful to the Romans when the rest of the nation revolted to Hannibal in the second Punic war.

=Peons.= East Indian municipal foot-soldiers. These men are chiefly employed to assist in collecting the revenues, and carry a pike or staff. Most persons in India keep servants, who wear a belt with their master’s name on it. These are called peadahs.

=Peoria Indians.= A tribe of aborigines who formerly resided in Illinois, but are now settled on the Quapaw agency, in Indian Territory, in confederation with the Kaskaskias and other tribes. They are but few in number, the northern tribes having nearly exterminated them in 1769, in revenge for the murder of Pontiac.

=Pequots=, or =Pequods=. A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, closely allied to the Mohegans, who resided in Eastern Connecticut. The tribe was nearly exterminated by the colonists in the Pequot war (1637).

=Perclose=, or =Demi-Garter=. In heraldry, the lower half of a garter with the buckle.

=Percussion.= Is the impression which a body makes in falling or striking against another, or the shock of two moving bodies. It is either direct or oblique.

=Percussion, Centre of.= That point wherein the shock of the percutient bodies is the greatest.

=Percussion, Direct.= Is where the impulse is given in the direction of a right line perpendicular to the point of contact.

=Percussion, Oblique.= Is where the impulse is given in the direction of a line oblique to the point of contact.

=Percussion-bullet.= A bullet made by placing a small quantity of percussion powder in a copper envelope in the point of an ordinary rifled-musket bullet.

=Percussion-caps.= See CAPS, PERCUSSION-.

=Percussion-fuze.= See FUZE.

=Percussion-lock.= A lock of a gun in which gunpowder is exploded by fire obtained from the percussion of fulminating powder.

=Percussion-match.= A match which ignites by percussion.

=Percussion-powder.= Powder composed of such materials as to ignite by slight percussion; fulminating powder.

=Percutient.= That which strikes or has power to strike.

=Perdu.= A word adopted from the French, signifying to lie flat and closely in wait. It likewise means employed on desperate purposes; accustomed to desperate enterprises.

=Pered= (Hungary). Here the Hungarians under Görgey were defeated by Wohlgemuth and the Russians, June 21, 1849.

=Perekop.= An isthmus 5 miles broad, connecting the Crimea with the mainland. It was called by the Tartars Orkapou, “gate of the Isthmus,” which the Russians changed to its present name, which signifies a barren ditch. The Tartar fortress of the same name, which was situated on this isthmus, was taken and destroyed by the Russian marshal Münich in 1736, by assault, although it was defended by 1000 Janissaries and 100,000 Tartars. It was again strongly fortified by the khan, but was again taken by the Russians in 1771, who have since retained it.

=Peremptory.= Whatever is absolute and final, not to be altered, renewed, or restrained. Peremptory execution, what takes place immediately.

=Perfidious.= Treacherous; false to trust; guilty of violated faith; hence a perfidious foe. War, however melancholy in its effects, and frequently unjustifiable in its cause and progress, is nevertheless, among civilized nations, so far governed by certain principles of honor as to render the observance of established laws and customs an object of general acquiescence. When two or more countries are engaged in a hostile contest, whatever belligerent party grossly deviates from those rules is deservedly stamped with infamy, and justly called a perfidious foe.

=Perfidy.= Want of faith; treachery.

=Perforated Cake Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Périgueux.= A town of France, capital of the department of Dordogne, 296 miles south-southwest from Paris. Périgueux occupies the site of the ancient Vesunna, which was at the time of the Roman invasion the capital of the Petrocorii. Under the empire, it was a place of no small importance, as it stood at the junction of five roads, and was strongly fortified. It was ceded, along with Aquitaine, to the English by Louis IX. After having been recovered by the French, the town was again lost; but it was finally taken from the English by Charles V. During the civil wars of the Reformation, it was a stronghold of the Protestants till the year 1581; and it was not till 1653 that it came into the power of the crown.

=Peril.= Instant or impending danger; risk; hazard; jeopardy; exposure to injury, loss, or destruction.

=Peril.= To expose to danger; to hazard; to risk, etc.

=Perim.= A small island belonging to Great Britain, situated in the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, at the entrance to the Red Sea, about 1 mile distant from the Arabian, and about 13 miles from the African coast. On its southwest side is an excellent harbor, capable of accommodating 40 men-of-war. Fortifications have been erected on the island, and the guns command the strait on both sides. It was first occupied by the English in 1799, and held by them as a check upon the designs of the French, who were then in Egypt. It was abandoned in 1801, but was reoccupied by Great Britain in February, 1857, with a view to the protection of her Indian possessions, which were thought to be exposed to some chance of danger from the opening of the Suez Canal.

=Perjury.= False swearing; the act or crime of willfully making a false oath, when lawfully administered; or the crime committed when a lawful oath is administered, in some judicial proceeding, to a person who swears willfully, absolutely, and falsely in a matter material to the issue. For punishment of persons convicted of perjury, see APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 60 and 62.

=Perkernucka.= Petty officers are so called in India.

=Perm.= A government of Russia, situated partly in Russia in Europe and partly in Russia in Asia. It was invaded and ruined by the Mongols in the 13th century.

=Permanent Fortification.= See FORTIFICATION.

=Permanent Rank.= A rank in the military service which does not cease with any particular service, or locality of circumstances; in opposition to local or temporary rank.

=Péronne.= A town of France, in the department of Somme, 30 miles east of Amiens. Louis XI. of France, having placed himself in the power of the Duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign the treaty of Péronne, confirming those of Arras and Conflans, with several humiliating stipulations, October 14, 1468. Louis XI. had promised Champagne and Brié as appanages to his brother Charles, duke of Berry, not intending to keep his word, apprehending that those provinces, being so near Burgundy, would prove a fresh source of broils and disputes. Péronne was a place of much importance in the Middle Ages, and bore the name of La Pucelle (“The Maiden City”), as it was never captured till Wellington took it eight days after the battle of Waterloo.

=Perpendicular Direction.= In the march of a line, is the direction at right angles to the line which each man should take in a direct movement to the front. Without the strictest attention is paid to this essential principle in all movements, the greatest irregularity, and ultimately the greatest confusion, must ensue. Perpendicular and parallel movements constitute, indeed, the whole system of good marching. When several columns, divisions, or companies advance, the lines and directions of marching must be strictly perpendicular and parallel to each other, otherwise the distance will be lost, and the ultimate object of forming a correct line must be defeated.

=Perpendicular Fortification.= Owes its origin to the Marquis de Montalembert, a distinguished French general, who published his works upon the subject in 1776. Vauban had, it was admitted, rendered the art of attack superior to that of defense. Montalembert strove to reverse this relation, and in his endeavors, rejected entirely the bastion system of the older engineers. Instead of the occasional bastions, with intervening curtains, with which they surrounded their enceinte, he broke the whole polygon into salient and re-entering angles, the latter being generally at right angles. Before the connected redans thus formed were counterguards of low elevation and ravelins, to which the approaches were through casemated caponnieres. In the salient angle of each redan he built a brick tower, 40 feet in diameter, twelve-sided, and four stories high. The second and third tiers were built for heavy guns, and the upper loop-holed for musketry. In the centre of the tower was a circular reduit, intended as a last refuge for the garrison. Montalembert maintained that from these towers every possible approach could be commanded, which to a great extent is true; but it must be also remembered that the greater space a gun commands, by so much the more is it raised above the plain, and rendered visible. These towers would have little chance against the rifled ordnance of the present day. Montalembert’s system was violently attacked by the French engineers, but Carnot subsequently adopted it, with some modifications, and it enters largely into the modern German defensive works. The system has never, however, found favor with British engineers.

=Perpendicular, Gunner’s.= See GUNNER’S LEVEL.

=Perpignan.= A town of France, in the department of the Eastern Pyrenees, situated on the Tet, 35 miles from Narbonne. It commands the passage by the Eastern Pyrenees from Spain into France, and is defended on the south by a citadel and by ramparts flanked with bastions, and protected by raised works. Perpignan now ranks as one of the first strongholds in France. In 1474 the town was taken by Louis XI. of France, but having been restored to Spain, it was again taken by Louis XIII. in 1642, and, along with the province of Roussillon, finally ceded to France by the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. In 1793 a battle was fought in its neighborhood between the Spaniards and the French, in which the former were defeated.

=Perrhæbi.= A powerful and warlike Pelasgis people, who, according to Strabo, migrated from Eubœa to the mainland, and settled in the districts of Hestiætos and Pelasgiotis in Thessaly. The Perrhæbi were members of the Amphictyonic League. At an early period they were subdued by the Lapithæ; at the time of the Peloponnesian war they were subject to the Thessalians, and subsequently to Philip of Macedon; but at the time of the Roman wars in Greece they appear independent of Macedonia.

=Perrières.= A kind of short mortars formerly much used for throwing stone shot.

=Persepolis.= An ancient city, the capital of Persia at the time of the invasion of Alexander the Great, and the seat of the chief palaces of the Persian kings. The city is said to have been burned by Alexander, and is not subsequently mentioned in history except in the second book of the Maccabees, where it is stated that Antiochus Epiphanes made a fruitless effort to plunder its temples. In the later times of the Mohammedan rule, the fortress of Istakhr seems to have occupied the place of Persepolis.

=Persia= (Per. Iran). A country of Asia, which may be considered as the most opulent and powerful of any that lie to the west of India; it is bounded on the west by Turkey in Asia, north by Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, and Asiatic Russia, east by Afghanistan and Beloochistan, and south by the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea. The Persians, as a nation, first rose into notice on the ruins of the great empires founded on the Euphrates. Babylon was taken by Cyrus in 638 B.C., and soon after he extended it more widely than any that had been previously established in the world. It comprised, on one side, the west of India, and on the other, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt; and the valor, indeed, with which the Greeks defended their small territory, alone prevented him from annexing a considerable part of Europe to his domains. After a feeble struggle, it succumbed to the brave and disciplined armies of Alexander, who won the entire empire of Darius Codomanus for his own by force of arms, in 331. After his death, his immense possessions were divided among his generals; but Greeks and Greek sovereigns continued during several centuries to reign over Western Asia. About 2 B.C. Artaxerxes founded the monarchy of the Parthians; and in 3 A.D. the dynasty of the Sassanidæ arose, who restored the name, with the religion and laws, of ancient Persia. They were overthrown by the Mohammedan invaders, who suffered in their turn from the successive invasions of the country by the descendants of Genghis Khan, Tamerlane, and the Turks, who entirely changed the aspect of Western Asia. At length, in 1501, a native dynasty again arose, under Ismael Shah, who placed himself on the throne. After the reign of Abbas the Great, who died in 1628, the princes of the Safi dynasty became enervated by luxury and dissipation, and Persia, in the beginning of the last century, was overrun by the Afghans, who carried fire and sword throughout the whole country, and reduced its proudest capitals to ashes. The atrocities of the Afghans were avenged, and the independence of Persia vindicated, by Nadir Shah; but though the victories of this daring chief threw a lustre on his country, it was almost torn to pieces after his death by civil war, till the fortune of arms gave a decided superiority to Kerim Khan. His death gave rise to another disputed succession, with civil wars as furious as before. At length Aga-Mohammed, a eunuch, raised himself in 1795 by crimes and daring to the sovereignty, and not only held it during his lifetime, but transmitted it to his nephew, who assumed the title of Feth Ali Shah, and subdued the rebellious tribes in Khorassan, but was dragged into a war with Russia, in which he lost the power of Derbend and several districts on the Kur. In 1848, Nasr-ed-Din, the great-grandson of Feth Ali, succeeded to the throne, and in consequence of the capture of Herat by the Persians in 1856, war was declared against them by Great Britain. Bushire was occupied, and the Persian troops were twice defeated by Gen. Outram at Kooshab and Mohammerah in the following year. These victories were followed by the conclusion of a treaty of peace, April, 1857, and the evacuation of Herat by the Persians in the month of July.

=Personnel= (Fr.). All the officers and men, military and civil, composing an army, or any part of one, as opposed to matériel.

=Personnel of a Battery.= All officers and men necessary for the manœuvre, management, and care of a battery.

=Perspective.= Is the art of drawing the resemblance of objects on a plane surface, as the objects themselves appear to the eye, etc.

=Perth.= The principal town of Perthshire, and formerly the metropolis of Scotland, situated on the Tay, which is crossed here by a fine stone bridge, 33 miles from Edinburgh. It is one of the most ancient towns of Scotland. It is a generally received opinion that Perth was built and fortified by Agricola, who erected a citadel to maintain his conquests, and check the wild spirit of the savage natives. In 1298, after the battle of Falkirk, Edward I. fortified Perth and rebuilt the walls in the strongest manner. The worthy burgesses of this town seem to have been men of mettle in those days, and on various occasions sallying forth from behind their walls, set fire to the castles of their haughty neighbors, when the latter had forbidden their vassals to carry provisions to the city. In the year 1311, Robert Bruce laid siege to the town, but was obliged to withdraw his troops, after various unsuccessful attempts to take it; but subsequently, choosing a dark night, he led a selected band of determined men against it, scaled the walls, and carried the town sword in hand, the king himself being the second man who entered the place. About the beginning of the 14th century, the famous combat between the Clan Chattan and the Clan Quhele, or Clan Kay, took place on the North Inch, and was decided in favor of the former, partly by the bravery of a citizen or burgess called Harry Wind, whom the chief of the Clan Chattan had engaged on the spot to supply the place of one of his men who had failed to appear. In 1544, the regent, at the instigation of Cardinal Bethune, turned Lord Ruthven, provost of the town, out of his office, and conferred it upon Chartres of Kinfauns. The citizens, however, resisted the attempt, and repulsed, in a smart skirmish, the cardinal’s nominee, who came to enter upon his duties at the head of an armed force. In 1559, after a riotous insurrection, during which the Catholic churches were demolished, the queen determined to inflict the severest vengeance on the Reformers. Both parties took the field; negotiations ensued; Perth was thrown open to the queen, and occupied by a French garrison. Relief from the insolence and exactions of the garrison was only obtained after a regular siege by the Reformers. On June 26, Lord Ruthven attacked the town on the west, and Provost Halyburton of Dundee fired into it from the bridge, and speedily obliged the garrison to capitulate. Subsequently, Argyle, and Stewart, prior of St. Andrews, marched out of Perth with 300 citizens, resolved to prosecute the Reformation, or perish in the attempt. The people joined them everywhere as they proceeded, and before they reached Stirling their numbers had increased to 5000. The gates of Stirling and every other town in their way were thrown open to receive them. They, without violence, took possession of Edinburgh, cast the images out of its churches, and placed in them ministers of the Reformation.

=Peru.= A republic of South America, formed out of the former Spanish viceroyalty of the same name. The first information received of the country by the Spaniards was obtained from a young cacique in the neighborhood of the Isthmus of Darien about the year 1511. In 1513, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa crossed the mountains which separated the two oceans, and took possession of the Pacific in the name of the king of Castile. He extended his discoveries many leagues southward, but appears not to have reached the territory of Peru. In 1525, Francisco Pizarro, a soldier of mean birth but of daring spirit, who had accompanied Balboa in the previous expedition, embarking at Panama with about 100 men, landed in Peru, and spent three years in exploring the country. Having returned to Spain with presents of gold and jewels for the king, he was sent out with orders to effect the conquest of the newly-discovered country. Recrossing the ocean with 180 men and 27 horses, he again set sail from Panama, and receiving some further reinforcements at Puerto Viejo and Puna, now considered himself in a fit position to enter upon the proper scene of his labors. He accordingly crossed over to Tumbez, and there learned that the country had for some time been distracted by a civil war between Huascar and Atahuallpa, two sons of the late inca. Pizarro saw at once the importance to him and his cause of this state of the country. After some time spent in reconnoitring, he fixed upon a fertile spot in the rich valley of Tangarala as a site for a settlement. Here he established a town which he called San Miguel. On September 24, 1532, leaving 50 men as a guard for this new settlement, he started out with 167 men, 67 of whom were cavalry, to meet the inca Atahuallpa, who now victorious over his brother was encamped with his army about ten or twelve days’ journey off. His force was everywhere received with kindness; an envoy from the inca was sent with presents to meet and invite him to an interview at Caxamarca. The Spaniards arrived here November 15, 1532, and treacherously prepared to use the unsuspecting kindness of the Peruvians as the means of their destruction. When at the appointed time the inca accompanied by his nobles and retinue was proceeding to the place of interview, he and his followers were assailed by the Spaniards who were concealed in the neighboring buildings, thousands of the unsuspecting and unarmed natives were slain, and Atahuallpa himself taken prisoner. An immense ransom was offered for him; it was accepted by Pizarro, who, however, basely refused to give up his prisoner, but after a mockery of a trial put him to death. For many years the country was in a state of war and anarchy, resulting finally in Pizarro becoming master of Peru in 1546, and it became a viceroyalty of Spain. In its subsequent history there is matter of little interest till the war of independence, which was proclaimed in 1821 by Gen. San Martin, and successfully terminated by Bolivar, who, after a succession of engagements, the most notable of which was that of Ayacucho (which see), finally drove the Spaniards from Callao, their last stronghold, July 29, 1826. The country has since on several occasions been the scene of those insurrections to which the states of Spanish America have been subject. In 1879 war was proclaimed between Peru and Chili, which has recently terminated in a complete victory for the latter.

=Perugia= (anc. Perusia). A city of Central Italy, 10 miles east of the lake of the same name, and 85 north of Rome. It formed in ancient times one of the twelve Etrurian republics. In conjunction with other cities of Etruria, it long resisted the power of the Romans, but was finally ruined by the latter, having been defeated in two engagements, 309 and 295 B.C., and becoming subject to Rome in 294. It is memorable in the civil wars as the refuge of L. Antonius, the brother of the triumvir, when unable to oppose the progress of Octavianus. It was held by the latter for some months and was compelled to surrender through famine, and burned to the ground in 40 B.C. It was afterwards rebuilt by Augustus, and was captured by the Goths under Totila at the fall of the Western empire. It was afterwards united to the Papal States, and in 1860 became part of the kingdom of Italy.

=Perugia, Lake of.= See TRASIMENUS LACUS.

=Perusia.= See PERUGIA.

=Pescara.= A town of Italy, province of Chieti. It was formerly strongly fortified, and has stood many sieges.

=Peschiera.= A frontier town and fortress of Italy, in Lombardy, at the south extremity of the Lake of Garda, 20 miles north-northwest from Mantua. Peschiera commands the right bank of the river Mincio. During the French republican war, it was a simple pentagon. Its fortifications, however, have been greatly strengthened by the Austrians. It is defended by walls and by forts, lunettes, fosses, and a covered way; and the purpose which it is mainly intended to serve, besides that of forming an intrenched camp capable of accommodating a considerable number of troops, is to harass an army attempting to cross the Mincio by Goito or Valeggio. It has been taken frequently by siege, by the French in 1796; by the Austrians and Russians, 1799; by the French again, 1801; given up by them, 1814; taken by the Sardinian troops under Charles Albert, May 30, 1848; retaken by Radetzky, 1849. It was invested by the Sardinians in June, 1859, after the battle of Solferino. The conclusion of the treaty of Villafranca, however (July 11, 1859), relieved Peschiera from a siege, and it was included in the kingdom of Italy by treaty of Vienna, 1866.

=Peshawur.= A city of British India, capital of the province of Peshawur (or Peshawer), about 18 miles east of the eastern extremity of the Khyber Pass. It was founded by the Mogul emperor Akbar. Runjeet Singh took it after his victory over the Afghans at Noushera, and destroyed many of its finest buildings.

=Pesth.= A city of Hungary, situated on the Danube, opposite to Buda, with which it is connected by a bridge of boats three-quarters of a mile in length. It was repeatedly taken and besieged in the wars of Hungary, particularly in the long contests with the Turks. The great insurrection broke out here September 28, 1848. Buda-Pesth was taken by the Imperialists, January 5, 1849. The Hungarians afterwards defeated the Austrians, who were obliged to evacuate it April 18, 1849; but the latter, under Gen. Hentzi, occupied Buda, and a severe contest began between the two parties. On May 4, Görgei, with an army of 40,000 Hungarians, occupied the heights above Buda, and began to bombard that town; while the Austrians in their turn directed their artillery against the lower city of Pesth. On May 16, the Hungarians made an unsuccessful attack on Buda, but on the 20th the place was taken by assault, after an obstinate and bloody struggle.

=Pestle.= An instrument used in the fabrication of gunpowder.

=Petards.= Are instruments used for blowing open gates, demolishing palisades, etc. They consist of a half-cone of thick iron, filled with powder and ball; they are usually fastened to a plank, and the latter is provided with hooks to allow of its being attached securely to a gate, etc. The petard has been almost universally superseded by the use of powder-bags.

=Petardeer=, or =Petardier=. One who manages petards.

=Petelia=, or =Petilia= (now Strongoli). An ancient Greek town on the eastern coast of Bruttium; founded, according to tradition, by Philoctetes. It was situated north of Croton, to whose territory it originally belonged, but it was afterward conquered by the Lucanians. It remained faithful to the Romans when the other cities of Bruttium revolted to Hannibal, and it was not till after a long and desperate resistance that it was taken by one of Hannibal’s generals.

=Peterero=, or =Pedrero=. A short piece of chambered ordnance was formerly so called.

=Petersburg.= A city of Dinwiddie Co., Va., on the south bank of the Appomattox River, about 25 miles from Richmond. The city is one of historic interest. It was twice occupied by the British forces as headquarters during the Revolutionary war; but it is principally noted as the scene of several sanguinary encounters during the civil war, and for the obstinate and bloody defense which it made. On June 15-16, 1864, two formidable assaults were made on it by the Army of the Potomac under Gen. Grant, but they were repulsed with heavy loss. It was then determined to invest the city, which was done a few days later. On July 30, another attempt was made to take it by storm, but without success. The siege was prolonged with many indecisive operations until April 3, 1865, after a week’s bombardment it was evacuated by Gen. Lee, who surrendered six days later.

=Petersburg, St.= The capital and most populous city of the Russian empire, at the mouth of the Neva in the Gulf of Finland, 16 miles east of Cronstadt, and 400 miles northwest of Moscow. It was founded by Peter the Great, May 27, 1703. The peace of St. Petersburg, between Russia and Prussia, the former restoring all her conquests to the latter, was signed May 5, 1762. Treaty of St. Petersburg for the partition of Poland, August 5, 1772. Treaty of St. Petersburg, led to a coalition against France, September 8, 1805. Treaty of Alliance, signed at St. Petersburg, between Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, and the emperor Alexander; the former agreeing to join in the campaign against France, in return for which Sweden was to receive Norway, March 24, 1812.

=Peterwalden= (Germany), Convention of. Between Great Britain and Russia, by which a firm and decisive alliance between these powers was made against France and the course of action against Napoleon Bonaparte was planned, signed July 8, 1813. This alliance led to the overthrow of Bonaparte in the next year.

=Peterwardein=, or =Varadin=. The capital town of Slavonia, Austria, and the strongest fortress on the Danube, is situated on a scarped rock, on the right bank of the Danube, opposite Neusatz, with which town it is connected by a bridge of boats, defended by a strong tête-de-pont, 44 miles northwest of Belgrade. It is the residence of the general commandant of the Slavonian military frontier, and of several subordinate military authorities. It derives its present name from Peter the Hermit, who here marshaled the soldiers of the first Crusade. Peterwardein was taken by the Turks, July, 1526. In 1688, the fortifications were blown up by the Imperialists, and the town was soon after burned to the ground by the Turks; but at the peace of Passarowitz, on July 21, 1718, it remained in the possession of the emperor. It was here that, on August 5, 1716, the Austrians, under Prince Eugène, obtained a great victory over the Turks under Grand Vizer Ali; the latter then lost their last footing in Central Europe.

=Petra.= The Sela of the Old Testament, the chief town of Arabia Petræa, once the capital of the Idumeans, and subsequently of the Nabatæi. It was subdued by A. Cornelius Palma, a lieutenant of Trajan’s, and remained under the dominion of the Romans a considerable time, and its destruction is supposed at length to have been wrought by the Mohammedans.

=Petra.= An ancient town of Colchis, in the land of the Lazi, founded by Joannes Tzibus, a general of Justinian, to keep these people in subjection. It was situated on a rock near the coast, and was very strongly fortified. It was taken by Chosroes in 541 A.D., and its subsequent siege by the Romans is described by Gibbon as one of the most remarkable actions of the age. The first siege was relieved; but it was again attacked by the Romans, and was at length taken by assault, after a long protracted resistance, in 551 A.D. It was then destroyed by the Romans, and from that time disappears from history.

=Petra.= An ancient and strong fortress in Sogdiana, held by Arimazes when Alexander attacked it.

=Petronel= (Fr. petrinal, or poitronal). A piece between a carbine and a pistol (with a wheel-lock), which was used by the French during the reign of Francis I.; it was held against the breast when fired. To prevent any injury from its recoil, the soldier who used it was provided with a pad.

=Petropaulovski.= A fortified town on the east coast of Kamtschatka, was attacked by an English and French squadron August 30, 1854. They destroyed the batteries, and a party of 700 sailors and marines landed to assault the place, but fell into an ambuscade, and many were killed. After this the Russians greatly strengthened their defenses, but on May 30, 1855, the allied squadron in the Pacific arriving here found the place deserted. The fortifications were destroyed, but the town was spared.

=Pettah.= In Southern India, a term applied to the enceinte of a town, as distinguished from the fortress by which it is protected.

=Pettman Fuze.= See FUZE.

=Pfaffendorf and Liegnitz.= See LIEGNITZ.

=Pfedersheim.= A town of Germany, in Hesse-Darmstadt, 4 miles northwest from Worms. A battle was fought here, in 1555, which brought the “Peasants’ war” to a termination.

=Phalanx.= The ancient Greek formation for heavy infantry, which won for itself a reputation of invincibility. It may be described as a line of parallel columns, rendered by its depth and solidity capable of penetrating any line of troops. The oldest phalanx was the Lacedæmonian, or Spartan, in which the soldiers stood 8 deep, but this was reduced to 4 men by Miltiades, in order to increase his front at the battle of Marathon, 480 B.C. The Macedonian phalanx, as the latest form that organization assumed, and as the shape in which the phalanx encountered the military skill of the West, is deserving of description. The line was 16 deep: a grand-phalanx comprising 16,384 men, composed of four phalanxes or divisions, each under a general officer, called a phalangarch; his command was divided into two brigades, or merarchies, each of these comprising two regiments, or chiliarches, of four battalions, or syntagmata, each, and each syntagma of 16 men each way, making a perfect square. The Roman legion was far superior to the phalanx.

=Phalsbourg.= A strong town of Alsace, department of La Meurthe, Northeast France. It was ceded to France in 1661, and its fortress erected by Vauban, 1679. It checked the progress of the victorious allies both in 1814 and 1815, and withstood the Germans from August 16 to December 12, 1870, when it capitulated unconditionally.

=Pharax.= One of the council of ten appointed by the Spartans in 418 B.C. to control Agis. At the battle of Mantinea in that year, he restrained the Lacedæmonians from pressing too much on the defeated enemy, and so running the risk of driving them to despair. In 396 B.C. he laid siege with 120 ships to Caunus, where Conon was stationed, but was compelled to withdraw by the approach of a large force.

=Pharsalus= (now Fersala, or Pharsalia). Anciently a town of Thessaly, to the south of Larissa, on the river Enipeus, a branch of the Peneus (now the Salambria), and historically notable mainly for the great battle fought here between Cæsar and Pompey, August 9, 48 B.C. Pompey had about 45,000 legionaries, 7000 cavalry, and a great number of light-armed auxiliaries. Cæsar had 22,000 legionaries and 1000 German and Gallic cavalry. The battle-cry of Cæsar’s army was “Venus victrix” that of Pompey’s “Hercules invictus.” Cæsar’s right wing began the battle by an attack on the left wing of Pompey, which was speedily routed. Pompey fled into the camp, and his army broke up; Cæsar’s troop stormed his camp about mid-day, and he himself, awaking as from stupefaction, fled to Larissa, whither Cæsar followed him next day. Cæsar lost about 1200 men. On Pompey’s side about 6000 legionaries fell in battle, and more than 24,000 who had fled, were taken, whom Cæsar pardoned and distributed among his troops.

=Pheon.= In heraldry, the barbed iron head of a dart; used also as a royal mark, to denote crown property, and termed the broad, or broad arrow.

=Philadelphia.= A city and metropolis of Pennsylvania, situated between the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers. The city was settled and planned by William Penn in 1682, and its name (City of Brotherly Love) given through the Society of Friends, of whom he was the great leader in America. It had a prominent position in the Revolution, and was in possession of the British troops after the disastrous battles of Brandywine and Germantown, until 1778. Being the second city of the United States in wealth and importance, it has been ever forward in promoting her interests.

=Philibeg.= See FILLIBEG.

=Philiphaugh.= Near Selkirk, Southern Scotland, where the Marquis of Montrose and the royalists were defeated by David Leslie and the Scotch Covenanters, September 13, 1645.

=Philippi.= A city of Macedonia. It was named after Philip II. of Macedon, who conquered it from Thrace. Here Antony and Octavianus, in two battles, defeated the republican forces of Cassius and Brutus, who both committed suicide, October, 42 B.C.; this ended the republican government of Rome.

=Phocæa.= The most northern of the cities of Ionia, was situated about 25 miles northwest from Smyrna. It was founded by a colony of Phocians, led by two Athenians, Philogenes and Damon. Its citizens are said to have been the first among the Greeks who extended their commercial voyages to great distances; and its inhabitants abandoned their city rather than submit to the Persians, 544 B.C. They settled in Italy, and founded Velia. Massilia in France, and Alalia in Corsica, were colonies of the Phocæans.

=Phocis.= A province of Greece Proper, or Hellas, bounded on the north by the Ozolian Lokri, on the north by Doris, on the east by the Opuntian Lokri, and on the south by the Gulf of Corinth. During the Peloponnesian war, the Phocians were close allies of the Athenians. In 357 B.C. they seized Delphi, and commenced the second Sacred war. They were opposed by Thebes and other states, and were utterly subdued by Philip II. of Macedon in 346.

=Phœnicia.= Is the name given by the Greeks and Romans to a certain territory situated about 34°-36° N. lat., bounded by the Mediterranean on the west, by Syria to the north and east, and Judæa to the south. Its length may be said to have been about 200 miles, while its breadth never exceeded 20 miles. The natives were the most eminent navigators and traders of antiquity; their cities or allied states being Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripolis, Byblos, and Ptolemais, or Acre. From the 19th to the 13th century B.C., they established colonies on the shores or isles of the Mediterranean, Carthage, Hippo, Utica, Gades, Panormus, and are said to have visited the British Isles. Phœnicia was conquered by Cyrus, 537 B.C.; by Alexander, 332; by the Romans, 47; and after partaking of the fortunes of Palestine, was added to the Ottoman empire, 1516.

=Phous-dan.= An East Indian term for a commander of a large body of forces.

=Phrygia.= A country of Asia Minor. According to the division of the provinces under the Roman empire, Phrygia formed the eastern part of the province of Asia, and was bounded on the west by Mysia, Lydia, and Caria, on the south by Lycia and Pisidia, on the east by Lycaonia (which is often reckoned as a part of Phrygia) and Galatia (which formerly belonged to Phrygia), and on the north by Bithynia. The kingdom of Phrygia was conquered by Crœsus, and formed part of the Persian, Macedonian, and Syro-Grecian empires; but, under the last, the northwestern part was conquered by the Gauls; and a part west of this was subjected by the kings of Bithynia; this last portion was the object of a contest between the kings of Bithynia and Pergamus. The whole of Phrygia was assigned by the Romans to the kingdom of Pergamus, after the overthrow of Antiochus the Great in 190 B.C.

=Piacenza= (anc. Placentia). A city of Northern Italy, in the province of the same name, on the right bank of the Po, 2 miles below the confluence of the Trebbia. It is of an oblong form, surrounded by ancient walls and ditches, and defended by a citadel, which was garrisoned by the Austrians till 1859. Piacenza is first mentioned in 219 B.C., when a Roman colony was settled there. In 200 B.C. it was plundered and burned by the Gauls, but rapidly recovered its prosperity, and was long an important military station. It was the western terminus of the great Æmilian road, which began at Ariminum on the Adriatic. In later history, it plays an important part as one of the independent Lombard cities.

=Pianosa.= An island in the Mediterranean, about 10 miles south-southwest of Elba. Pianosa was annexed to Elba and granted to Napoleon I. after his first abdication.

=Pibroch= (Gael. piobaireachd). A wild, irregular species of music, peculiar to the Highlands of Scotland. It is performed on a bagpipe, and adapted to excite or assuage passion, and particularly to rouse a martial spirit among troops going to battle.

=Picador= (Sp.). A horseman armed with a lance, who commences the exercises of a bull-fight by attacking the animal without attempting to kill him.

=Picardy.= An ancient province in the north of France, was bounded on the west by the English Channel, and on the east by Champagne. The name does not occur till the 13th century. It was conquered by the English in 1346, and by the Duke of Burgundy in 1417, to whom it was ceded by the treaty of Arras, September 21, 1435, and annexed to France by Louis XI., 1463.

=Picaroon.= A pillager, one who plunders; one who violates the laws.

=Picentia= (Picentinus; now Acerno). A town in the south of Campania, at the head of the Sinus Pæstanus, and between Salernum and the frontiers of Lucania, the inhabitants of which were compelled by the Romans, in consequence of their revolt to Hannibal, to abandon their town and live in the neighboring villages. Between the town and the frontiers of Lucania, there was an ancient temple of the Argive Juno, said to have been founded by Jason, the Argonaut. The name of Picentia was not confined to the inhabitants of Picentia, but was given to the inhabitants of the whole coast of the Sinus Pæstanus, from the promontory of Minerva to the river Silarus. They were a portion of the Sabine Picentes, who were transplanted by the Romans to this part of Campania after the conquest of Picenum, 268 B.C., at which time they founded the town of Picentia.

=Picentines= (Picentes). A Sabine tribe, subdued by the Romans, and their capital, Asculum, taken, 268 B.C. They began the Social war in 90, and were conquered in 89 B.C.

=Picenum.= An ancient province of Italy, was bounded on the north by the Galli Senones, on the west by the Umbrians and Sabines, on the south by the Vestini, and on the east by the Adriatic Sea. The Picentes, its inhabitants, remained long in undisturbed tranquillity, while the neighboring tribes were vainly struggling against the all-usurping ambition of Rome. That power condescended in 299 B.C. to enter into an alliance with them. Even when they were at length obliged, in 268 B.C., to bow before the resistless destinies of the Romans, they suffered little injury. It was not until the outbreak of the Social war, in 90 B.C., that the Picentes appear to have experienced the toils and calamities of a great struggle. Then they assumed an active and zealous part in the general revolt against Rome. Their capital city, Asculum, gave the signal of insurrection, by assassinating the Roman proconsul. Their armies kept the Roman general Cn. Pompeius Strabo for a long time at bay. Nor when the tide of battle began to turn against them did their courage waver. They continued to fight until 89 B.C., and were put down by sheer force.

=Pichegru’s Conspiracy.= See GEORGES CONSPIRACY.

=Pickeer.= To pillage; to pirate. To skirmish, as soldiers on the outpost of an army, or in pillaging parties.

=Picker.= A small, pointed brass wire, which was formerly supplied to every infantry soldier for the purpose of cleaning the vent of his musket.

=Picket.= A detachment composed of cavalry or infantry, whose principal duty is to guard an army from surprise and oppose such small parties as the enemy may push forward for the purpose of reconnoitring.

=Picket.= A sharp stake used for securing the fascines of a battery, or fastening the tent-ropes of a camp, etc.

=Picket.= To fortify with pickets or pointed stakes. Also, to fasten to a picket, as a horse while grazing.

=Picket, Inlying.= See INLYING PICKET.

=Picket, Outlying.= Is a detachment of troops, sometimes with light guns, posted on the front and flanks of an army in the field, in order to guard against surprise, and to keep reconnoitring parties at a proper distance.

=Picket-guard.= A guard of horse and foot, always in readiness in case of alarm.

=Picket-line.= A rope to which horses are secured when groomed.

=Picket-line.= A position held and guarded by small bodies of men placed at intervals.

=Picket-pin.= An iron pin with a ring at the top. It is driven in the ground and the lariat is attached to it to secure a horse while grazing.

=Pickets, Tracing.= See TRACING PICKETS.

=Picqueering=, =Pickering=, or =Pickerooning=. A little flying skirmish, which marauders make when detached for pillage, or before a main battle.

=Picrate.= See EXPLOSIVES.

=Picric Acid.= See EXPLOSIVES.

=Picric Powder.= See EXPLOSIVES.

=Picts= (Picti). The ancient inhabitants of the northeast provinces of Scotland. The Pictish territory extended along the whole sea-coast from the Firth of Forth to the Pentland Firth. It was bounded on the west by the country of the Scots, which extended along the western coast from the Firth of Clyde to the modern Ross-shire; but the precise line between the two nations cannot be ascertained. The country of the Picts was bounded on the south by the Firth of Forth and the province of Lothian, then possessed by the English; while the country of the Scots had for its southern boundaries the Firth of Clyde and the kingdom of Cumbria, held by the independent Britons. In the middle of the 7th century, a portion of the southern province of the Pictish territories was subdued by Oswy, king of Northumbria. Egfrid, Oswy’s son and successor, seems to have contemplated the subjugation of the whole Pictish kingdom. He advanced northwards with his army; Brude, son of Bili, king of the Picts, retreating before him. The English sovereign passed the Tay, and the Picts made a stand at Nechtansmere, supposed to be Dunnichen, in Anchus; the English were utterly defeated, and their king slain, May 20, 685. The most active of all the Pictish sovereigns was Hungus, son of Urgust, who succeeded, in 730, and reigned for thirty years. He was in constant wars with the Scots, the Britons, and the English, in which he was generally victorious. After his death the kingdom began to decline. Between 838 and 842, the Scots under Kenneth II. totally subdued the Picts, and seized all their kingdom. Their incursions in England led to the Saxon invasion.

=Picts’ Wall.= One of the barriers erected by the Romans across the northern part of England to restrain the incursions of the Picts (which see).

=Piece.= A general name for any kind of ordnance or musket.

=Piece.= In heraldry, an ordinary or charge; as, the fesse, the bend, the pale, the bar, the cross, the saltire, the chevron, are called honorable pieces.

=Piece, Battering-.= See BATTERING-PIECES.

=Piece, Field-.= See FIELD-PIECE.

=Piedmont.= An Italian principality, which now forms the northwest part of the kingdom of Italy. In 1796 it was seized by the French, and parceled out into six departments, five being incorporated with France, and one with the kingdom of Italy, but after the fall of Napoleon, the house of Savoy recovered possession of it. Since 1860 the name Piedmont, as a provincial designation, has been disused; and in the new division of Italy into provinces, the boundaries of Piedmont as a distinct country have been disregarded.

=Piegans.= A tribe of Blackfeet Indians, numbering about 2000, who reside in Montana, and were frequently at war with the Shoshones, Flat Heads, and Gros Ventres. Like the majority of nomadic tribes, they at various times make raids on the settlers, and as a natural result require the correctionary discipline of the military forces. In 1870 they were severely punished by Col. Baker, and, owing to disease and pestilence, they will probably soon cease to exist.

=Pierced.= In heraldry, a term used to indicate that a charge is perforated so as to show the field beneath it. The aperture is presumed to be circular, unless some other form, as square-pierced or lozenge-pierced, be specified in the blazon.

=Piercer.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF, BORING AND TURNING.

=Pieria.= A narrow slip of country on the southeastern coast of Macedonia, extending from the mouth of the Peneus in Thessaly to the Haliacmon, and bounded on the west by Mount Olympus and its offshoots. The inhabitants of this country, the Pieres, were a Thracian people, and are celebrated in the early history of Greek poetry and music. After the establishment of the Macedonian kingdom in Emathia in the 7th century B.C., Pieria was conquered by the Macedonians, and the inhabitants were driven out of the country.

=Pierrier.= Was a term originally applied to an engine for casting stones; then to a small kind of cannon; now to a mortar for discharging stones, etc.

=Piers.= The columns upon which a bridge is erected.

=Pies= (Fr.). Counts palatine who were created in 1560, by Pope Pius IV., and who had precedence at Rome over knights of the Teutonic order and order of Malta.

=Pike=, =Pikeman=. Previously to the use of the bayonet, infantry of the line--that is, the heavy-armed troops--were from the earliest times armed with pikes or spears. The Macedonians carried pikes 24 feet long; those of modern warfare averaged 12 or 14 feet. They were of stout wood, and tipped with a flat iron spear-head, which sometimes had cutting edges. As a defense against cavalry, the pike, from its length and rigidity, was of great value; but though it long survived the introduction of gunpowder, that event was really fatal to it. For success with the pike, especially in offensive war, a depth of several men was essential, and this depth rendered the fire of artillery peculiarly fatal. The pike is now superseded by the bayonet on the end of the musket.

=Pikestaff.= The wooden pole or handle of a pike.

=Pile.= A beam of wood driven into the ground to form a solid foundation for building. Also a heap, as a pile of balls. Balls are piled according to kind and caliber, under cover if practicable, in a place where there is a free circulation of air, to facilitate which the piles should be made narrow if the locality permits; the width of the bottom tier may be from twelve to fourteen balls, according to the caliber. Prepare the ground for the base of the pile by raising it above the surrounding ground so as to throw off the water; level it, ram it well, and cover it with a layer of screened sand. Make the bottom of the pile with a tier of unserviceable balls buried about two-thirds of their diameter in the sand; this base may be made permanent; clean the base well and form the pile, putting the fuze-holes of shells downwards, in the intervals, and not resting on the shells below. Each pile is marked with the number of serviceable balls it contains. The base may be made of bricks, concrete, stone, or with borders and braces of iron. Grape- and canister-shot should be oiled or lackered, put in piles, or in strong boxes, on the ground-floor, or in dry cellars; each parcel marked with its kind, caliber, and number.

=Pile.= In heraldry, one of the lesser ordinaries, having the form of a wedge, usually placed pale-wise, with the broadest end uppermost, resembling a pile used in laying the foundations of buildings in watery places, whence it has its name.

=Pile.= The head of an arrow was formerly so called.

=Pile Arms, To.= To place three guns together in such a manner that they may stand upright steadily. Also called stack arms.

=Pile-bridge.= A bridge of which the piers are built with piles. These may be either temporary wooden structures, in which wooden piles, driven into the ground, serve also as piers, or they may be permanent bridges, with iron cylinders forming the piles below the surface, and piers above.

=Piletus.= A kind of arrow formerly used, having a knob upon the shaft, near the head, to prevent it from penetrating the object aimed at too deeply.

=Piling Balls.= See PILE.

=Pillage.= The act of plundering. Also that which is taken from another by open force, particularly and chiefly from enemies in war; plunder; spoil.

=Pillage.= To strip of money or goods by open violence; to plunder; to spoil; as, troops pillage the camp or towns of an enemy.

=Pillnitz=, or =Pilnitz=. A palace and ordinary summer residence of the royal family of Saxony, in a beautiful situation 7 miles southeast of Dresden. Pillnitz acquires a historic interest from the meeting of princes held in the castle in August, 1791, when the Declaration of Pillnitz was framed, according to which Austria and Prussia agreed to declare the circumstances of the king of France (then a prisoner in the Tuileries, after his ineffective flight to Varennes) to be a matter of common interest to the sovereigns of Europe, and to express the hope that common cause would be made for his restoration. The convention of Pillnitz took place between the emperor Leopold and the king of Prussia, July 20, 1791. On August 27, 1791, the treaty of Pillnitz, or as some style it, the Partition Treaty, was finally agreed upon at Pavia by the courts in concert. It was to the effect “that the emperor should retake all that Louis XIV. had conquered in the Austrian Netherlands, and uniting these provinces to the Netherlands, give them to his serene highness the elector palatine, to be added to the palatinate; Bavaria to be added to Austrian possessions,” etc.

=Pillow, Fort.= See FORT PILLOW.

=Pilon= (Fr.). A half-pike, 7 feet long exclusive of the iron, which was 18 inches. It consisted of a fir tube covered with parchment and varnished. Marshal Saxe proposed to draw up an army four deep, the two front ranks armed with muskets, and the two rear with pilons and muskets too.

=Pilum.= A missile weapon, used by the Roman soldiers, and in a charge darted upon the enemy. Each man of the legionary soldiers carried two of these pila.

=Pimas=, or =Névomes=. A tribe of aborigines, about 4000 in number, who are located on a reservation along the Gila River, in Pima and Maricopa Counties, Arizona. They are an active, athletic race, cultivate the soil and pursue a few crude industries, and are at hereditary enmity with the Apaches.

=Pin.= See ORDNANCE.

=Pincers, Gunner’s.= See GUNNER’S PINCERS.

=Pindarees.= In the East Indies, are plunderers and marauders, who accompany a Mahratta army. The name is properly that of persons who travel with grain and merchandise; but war affording so many opportunities and creating so many necessities, the merchants, as it is all over the world, become plunderers and the worst of enemies.

=Pinerolo=, or =Pignerol=. A town of Northern Italy, province of Turin. It is surrounded by a wall of no great strength, and though originally a part of Piedmont, was in possession of France from 1631 till the peace of Utrecht in 1713. It was once very strongly fortified; but its defenses were blown up by the French in 1713.

=Ping.= The whistle of a shot, especially the rifle-bullets in their flight.

=Pinion.= To bind the hands or arms of a person so as to prevent his having the free use of them.

=Pinkie= (near Edinburgh). Here the English under the Earl of Hertford, protector, totally defeated the Scots, September 10, 1547. About 10,000 of the Scots were slain, and about 1500 taken prisoners. The English loss was scarcely 200.

=Pintle=. In artillery, is the vertical bolt around which the chassis is traversed. In the centre-pintle carriage it is the centre of the chassis, but in the front-pintle carriage it is in the centre of the front transom. It is a stout cylinder of wrought iron inserted in a block of stone, if the battery be a fixed one; or it is secured to cross-pieces of timber bolted to a platform firmly imbedded in the ground, if it be of a temporary nature. In casemate batteries the pintle is placed immediately under the throat of the embrasure, and the chassis is connected with it by a stout strap of iron, called the tongue.

=Pintle-hole.= An oval-shaped aperture made in the trail transom of a field-carriage, wider above than below, to leave room for the pintle to play in.

=Pintle-hook.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY CARRIAGE.

=Pintle-plate.= Is a flat iron through which the pintle passes, and is nailed to both sides of the bolster.

=Pintle-washer.= An iron ring through which the pintle passes, placed close to the bolster for the trail to move upon.

=Piombino.= A town of Italy, province of Pisa, opposite the island of Elba. Here is a large metallurgic establishment for the manufacture of Bessemer steel and military projectiles of great hardness and perfection.

=Pioneer Sergeant.= In the British service, the non-commissioned officer who commands the pioneers.

=Pioneers.= Are soldiers sometimes detailed from the different companies of a regiment and formed under a non-commissioned officer, furnished with saws, felling axes, spades, mattocks, pickaxes, and bill-hooks. Their services are very important, and no regiment is well fitted for service without pioneers completely equipped. In European armies there are a certain number of pioneers to each regiment.

=Pipe of Peace.= See CALUMET.

=Pipe-clay.= A composition which soldiers use for the purpose of keeping their buff cross-belts, etc., clean.

=Piquichins= (Fr.). Irregular and ill-armed soldiers, of which mention is made in the history of the reign of Philip Augustus. They were attached to the infantry.

=Piquier= (Fr.). A pikeman, or one who is armed with a pike.

=Pirmasens=, or =Pirmasenz=. A town of Rhenish Bavaria. Here Moreau and the French were defeated by the Duke of Brunswick and the Prussians, September 14, 1793.

=Pirogue.= American Indian canoe, dug out, formed out of the trunk of a tree; or two canoes united. A term also applied in the United States to a narrow ferry-boat carrying two masts and a leeboard.

=Pisa= (anc. Pisæ). One of the oldest and most beautiful cities of Italy, and, till lately, the capital of the now extinct grand duchy of Tuscany, on the banks of the river Arno. Pisæ was one of the twelve cities of Etruria; it is frequently mentioned in the Ligurian wars as the headquarters of the Roman legions. Early in the 11th century, Pisa had risen to the rank of a powerful republic. Its troops took part in all the great events of the Holy Land; and its fleet in turn gave aid to the pope in Southern Italy, to the emperor in Northern France, chastised the Moors, and exacted its own terms from the Eastern emperors. In their wars with the Saracens of Sardinia, the Pisans had conquered Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands, and for a time maintained their ground against their hereditary enemies, the Genoese; but having sided with the Ghibellines in the long wars which desolated the empire, Pisa suffered severely at the hands of the victorious Guelphic party. Indeed, the rivalry of the Guelphic cities of Florence, Lucca, and Siena nearly brought Pisa to the brink of ruin at the close of the 13th century; and after struggling for more than a hundred years against external foes and the internal dissensions between the democratic mob and the Ghibelline nobles, without losing their character for indomitable valor, the Pisans finally threw themselves under the protection of Galeazzo Visconti of Milan. It became subject to Florence after a long siege, 1405-6. In 1494, Pisa became independent under the protection of Charles VIII. of France. When the French left Italy, the old struggle was renewed; and after offering a desperate resistance, the Pisans, in 1509, were compelled by hunger to surrender the city to the Florentine army besieging the walls.

=Pisidia.= A district of Asia Minor, originally included within Pamphylia, or Phrygia, was constituted a separate province in the division of the Roman empire under Constantine the Great. It was bounded north and west by Phrygia and Lycia, and south by Pamphylia, and east by Cilicia and Isauria. The inhabitants were a lawless and freebooting people, spurning the advance of civilization, and daring any invader to follow them into their rugged fastnesses. Rome conquered them only to find that their spirit of independence was not broken. They would not brook the establishment of a single garrison or colony. It was only their towns that paid tribute. They carried their invincible dispositions down to modern times; and under the appellation of Karamanians they still continue to be wild, rapacious, and suspicious of strangers.

=Pistol.= Is the smallest description of fire-arm, and is intended to be used with one hand only. Pistols were first used by the cavalry of England about 1544. They vary in size from the delicate saloon-pistol, often not 6 inches long, to the horse-pistol, which may measure 18 inches, and sometimes even 2 feet. They are carried in holsters at the saddle-bow, in the belt, or in the pocket. Every cavalry soldier should have pistols, for a fire-arm is often of great service for personal defense, and almost indispensable in giving an alarm or signal. Of late years pistols have been made with revolving cylinder breeches, in which are formed several chambers for receiving cartridges, and bringing them in succession into a line with the barrel ready for firing. See REVOLVERS.

=Pistol-carbine.= A horseman’s pistol with a detachable gun-stock.

=Pistolet.= A little pistol.

=Pistol-grip.= A shape given to the small of the stock in shot-guns and rifles, to give a better hold for the hand.

=Pistolier= (Fr.). Soldier armed with a pistol; a good pistol shot.

=Pitan Nabobs.= Certain chiefs in India are so called, namely, of Cudapa, Carroul, and Savanare.

=Pitans=, or =Patans=. A tribe in the East Indies, who are supposed to be the descendants of the northern Indians, and who were early converted to Mohammedanism. They are very fierce, and have been reckoned among the best troops in India.

=Pitaux= (Fr.). This word is sometimes written petaux, and was formerly used to distinguish those peasants that were pressed into the service, in contradistinction to soldiers who were regularly enlisted.

=Pitch.= To fix firmly; to plant; to set in array; as, to pitch a tent; to pitch a camp.

=Pitched Battle.= A battle in which the hostile forces have firm or fixed positions, in distinction from a skirmish.

=Pitched Fascines.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Pitch-field.= A pitched battle.

=Pittsburgh.= A city and port of entry of Alleghany Co., Pa. Pittsburgh was first settled in 1754, a stockade having been erected here which was occupied by the French as a trading-post, and given the name of Fort Duquesne. An English expedition against this fort under Gen. Braddock was defeated by the French and Indians, July 9, 1755. In 1758 another English expedition marched against this post, which was then regarded by the youthful Washington as the key of the West. An advanced detachment under Capt. Grant having encamped on what is still called Grant’s Hill, was attacked and defeated by a party of French and Indians from Fort Duquesne. But on the approach of Gen. Forbes, with a force of 6200 men, the disheartened garrison set fire to the fort and descended the Ohio River. The victorious troops, on entering, November 25, by general acclamation called the place Pittsburgh, in honor of William Pitt, then prime minister of England. The town of Pittsburgh was incorporated as a borough in 1804, and chartered as a city in 1816.

=Pivot.= That officer or soldier upon whom the company wheels.

The pivot flank in a column is that which when wheeled up preserves the proper front of divisions of the line in their natural order. The opposite flank of the column is called the reverse flank.

=Pivot-gun.= A cannon which turns on a pivot in any direction.

=Pivot-man.= The same as pivot (which see).

=Pizzo.= A city of Italy, in the Neapolitan province of Calabria Ultra II., situated on the Gulf of Santa Euphemia, 6 miles northeast from Monteleone. It was at Pizzo that Murat, the ex-king of Naples, landed with a few followers, October 8, 1815, with the view of recovering his kingdom, He was immediately taken prisoner and shot in the castle of Pizzo on the 13th. In 1860 it was taken by Garibaldi.

=Placage= (Fr.). In fortification, a kind of revetment, which is made of thick plastic earth laid along the talus of such parapets as have no mason-work, and which is covered with turf.

=Place.= In fortification, signifies, in general terms, a fortified town, a fortress; hence we say it is a strong place.

=Place Basse= (Fr.). In fortification, the lower flanks according to certain systems are so called.

=Placed, To be.= This expression is frequently used in military matters, to signify the appointment or reduction of officers. Hence, to be placed upon full or half-pay. It is more generally applicable to the latter.

=Placentia.= See PIACENZA.

=Places of Arms.= This term has various significations, although it uniformly means places which are calculated for the rendezvous of men in arms, etc. When an army takes the field, every stronghold or fortress which supports its operations by affording a safe retreat to its depots, heavy artillery, magazines, hospitals, etc., is called a place of arms. In offensive operations, those lines are called places of arms, or parallels, which unite the different means of attack, secure the regular approaches, etc., and contain bodies of troops who either do duty in the trenches, protect the workmen, or are destined to make an impression upon the enemy’s outworks. There are demi-places of arms between the places of arms. These are more or less numerous in proportion to the resistance made by the besieged. See RE-ENTERING PLACES OF ARMS.

=Plain.= A field of battle.

=Plan.= A scheme devised; a method of action or procedure expressed or described in language; a project. A plan of campaign (says Napoleon) should anticipate all that an enemy may do, and combine within itself the means necessary to baffle it. Plans of campaign are modified by circumstances, the genius of the chief, the nature of the troops, and topography. There are good and bad plans of campaign, but sometimes the good fail from misfortune or mismanagement, while the bad succeed by caprices of fortune.

=Plan of a Work.= A plan shows the tracing; also the horizontal lengths and breadths of the works; the thickness of the ramparts and parapets; the width of the ditches, etc. It exhibits the extent, division, and distribution of the works; but the depth of the ditches and the height of the works are not represented in a plan.

=Plane of Comparison.= In the plan of a fortress, and of the surrounding country, are expressed the distances of the principal points from a horizontal plane, imagined to pass through the highest or lowest points of ground, in the survey. This imaginary plane is called a plane of comparison.

=Plane of Defilade.= Is a plane supposed to pass through the summit or crest of a work, and parallel to the plane of site.

=Plane of Fire.= See POINTING.

=Plane of Sight.= See POINTING.

=Plane of Site.= The general level of the ground or ground line, upon which the works are constructed, is called the plane of site, whether that plane be horizontal or oblique to the horizon.

=Plane Table.= A surveying instrument, consisting of a table or board and arrangements for leveling and traversing it. It is much used in military surveys and in gunnery in getting the ranges of projectiles by the method of intersections.

=Plant, To.= In a military sense, to place; to fix; as, to plant a standard. It likewise signifies to arrange different pieces of ordnance for the purpose of doing execution against an enemy or his works; hence, to plant a battery. Some authors apply this word to the act of directing a cannon properly.

=Plantagenet.= The surname of a dynasty of English kings who ruled from 1154 to 1485. Henry II. was the founder, and Richard III., who was killed at Bosworth, the last of the line. They were generally warlike and ambitious rulers, being engaged in contests at home (see ROSES, WARS OF THE) and in France. The name belonged to the house of Anjou, and is said to have been derived from the circumstance of the first count of this house having caused himself to be scourged with branches of broom (planta genista) as a penance for some crime. The name passed to the English line of kings through the extinction of the old Norman dynasty in the male line in the person of Henry II., and the marriage of Matilda, his daughter, to Geoffrey, count of Anjou, their son succeeding to the throne.

=Plassey.= A village of British India, in the district of Nuddea, presidency of Bengal, on the left bank of the Hooghly, 96 miles north of Calcutta. It is memorable as the scene of the victory that laid the foundation of the British-Indian empire. On June 23, 1757, Clive, with a force of 900 Europeans and 2100 Sepoys, crossed the river to attack 68,000 men under Sooraj-oo-Dowlah, soubahdar of Bengal. After much cannonading on both sides, Meer Jaffier, who was in the interest of the British, advised the soubahdar to retreat. Clive immediately advanced, routed the army, and took the camp of the soubahdar, who was dethroned to make way for the traitor Meer Jaffier.

=Plastron= (Fr.). Stuffed pad or cushion, formerly worn at the shoulder to sustain the recoil of heavy muskets and other fire-arms, still used by fencers upon the right side; also a breastplate or half cuirass. In the old French service, the gens d’armes, the heavy cavalry, the light horse, etc., were obliged to wear them on all occasions, at reviews, etc.

=Platæa= (more commonly Platææ). An ancient city of Bœotia, on the northern slope of Mount Cithæron, on the frontiers of Attica. At an early period, the Platæans deserted the Bœotian confederacy, and placed themselves under the protection of Athens; and when the Persians invaded Attica in 490 B.C., they sent 1000 men to the assistance of the Athenians, and had the honor of fighting on their side at the battle of Marathon. Ten years afterwards (480 B.C.) their city was destroyed by the Persian army under Xerxes at the instigation of the Thebans. It was the site of the battle between Mardonius, commander of the army of Xerxes of Persia, and Pausanias, commanding the Lacedæmonians and Athenians, 479 B.C.; the same day as the battle of Mycale. Of 300,000 Persians, scarce 3000 escaped with their lives. The Grecian army, about 110,000, lost but few men. The Greeks obtained immense plunder, and were henceforth delivered from the fear of Persian invasions. In the third year of the Peloponnesian war (429), the Thebans persuaded the Spartans to attack Platæa, and after a siege of two years at length succeeded in obtaining possession of the place (427). Platæa was then razed to the ground, but was again rebuilt after the peace of Antalcidas (387 B.C.). It was destroyed the third time by its inveterate enemies, the Thebans, in 374 B.C. It was rebuilt by Philip II. of Macedon, after his victory at Chæronea, 338 B.C.

=Plate.= Metallic armor composed of broad pieces, and thus distinguished from mail.

=Plate.= To arm with plate or metal for defense. “Why plated in habiliments of war?”

=Plate-armor.= Armor of strong metal plates for protecting fortifications and the like; also mail consisting entirely of metallic plates, formerly worn to protect the person.

=Platform.= Is a strong flooring upon which a piece of ordnance, mounted on its carriage, is manœuvred when in battery. Its object is to facilitate the service of heavy guns and mortars, and to insure accuracy of fire. Fixed platforms are used for casemate and barbette batteries in fortifications, and are constructed with the works; siege-platforms for guns and howitzers; and siege-platforms for mortars; the other kinds are the rail-platform, the ricochet-platform, and the platforms for sea-coast mortars. Platforms should possess strength and portability, and the pieces composing them should be constructed of the same dimensions, viz.: 9 feet long, 5 inches wide, and 3¹⁄₂ inches thick. The weight of each piece in a platform is about 50 pounds; and in a siege-platform for guns and howitzers, there are 49 pieces, 1 being used as a hurter on the front part of the platform to prevent the carriage from running too far forward, and 12 for sleepers. The weight of this platform complete is 2601¹⁄₂ pounds. This platform is laid with an elevation to the rear, of 1¹⁄₂ inches to the yard, or 4¹⁄₂ inches in the whole length. This elevation is given to diminish the recoil of the piece and to permit the water to run off. The length of this platform is 15 feet by 9 feet. The platform for a siege-mortar is composed of only 6 sleepers and 21 deck-planks. It is laid level, and the front and rear deck-planks are connected by eye-bolts to every sleeper. This platform is about 9 feet deep by 9 feet wide, and weighs 1220 pounds. The rail-platform for siege-mortars consists of 3 sleepers and 2 rails for the cheeks of the mortar-bed to slide on, instead of the deck-plank, and is very strong, and easily constructed and laid. For method of laying platforms for siege-gun or howitzer, and for mortars, see “Hand-book of Artillery,” by Roberts, pages 143-47.

=Platform Wagon.= A sort of wagon used for transporting heavy ordnance.

=Platoon.= Probably from the French peloton, a “ball of thread,” a “knot,” was a term formerly used in the English service to designate a body of men who fired together. In U. S. tactics, it is now a recognized subdivision of a company, being one-half.

=Plattsburg.= A township and capital of Clinton Co., N. Y., situated on both banks of the Saranac River, at its entrance into Lake Champlain. In the bay was fought the naval battle of Champlain, in which the British flotilla, under Commodore Downie, was defeated by the American commodore McDonough, September 11, 1814; while the land forces amounting to 14,000 men, under Sir George Prevost, were defeated by Gen. Macomb.

=Play.= Is occasionally applied to a military action; as, the guns played upon the enemy.

=Plea.= That which is alleged by a party in support of his cause; in a stricter sense, an allegation of fact in a cause, as distinguished from a demurrer; in a still more limited sense, and in modern practice, the defendant’s answer to the plaintiff’s declaration and demand. That which the plaintiff alleges in his declaration is answered and repelled or justified by the defendant’s plea.

=Plevna.= A town of Bulgaria, which became important in a military sense through the battles which took place around it during the Russo-Turkish war. The first battle took place July 15-16, 1877, resulting in the capture of Nikopolis. The second took place July 30, with considerable loss to both sides, but without any decisive results. The third took place September 11.

=Plombée= (Fr.). An ancient war-club, whose head was loaded with lead.

=Plongée.= In artillery and fortification, means a slope toward the front. Thus, in speaking of the course of a shell through the air, its plongée is from the point of greatest altitude to the point at which it strikes the earth. So, in fortification, the plongée is the top of the parapet, sloping gently toward the front. This depression varies from one-fourth to one-sixth of the thickness of the parapet.

=Ploy.= To form a column from a line of battle on some designated subdivision.

=Ployments.= A general term for all tactical movements by which a column is formed from line upon a designated subdivision.

=Pluck.= Spirit; perseverance under opposition or discouragement; indomitableness; courage.

=Plume.= A large and handsome feather worn as an ornament on a helmet, on a military hat, and the like.

=Plummet.= In gunnery, is a simple line and bob for pointing mortars. A plummet is also used for regulating the march of infantry. It is made by means of a musket-ball, suspended by a silk string, upon which the required lengths are marked; the length is measured from the point of suspension to the centre of the ball. The different lengths of these plummets are as follows: for common time, 90 steps in a minute, 17.37 inches; quick time, 110 steps in a minute, 11.6 inches; double time, 165 steps in a minute, 5.17 inches.

=Plunder.= To take the goods of another by force; to take from by robbery; to spoil; to strip; to rob; as, to plunder a place. Also to take by pillage or open force; as, the enemy plundered all the goods they found.

=Plunder.= That which is taken from an enemy; pillage; spoil.

=Plunging Fire.= See FIRE, PLUNGING.

=Pluteus.= A kind of wicker helmet covered with raw ox-hide, worn by the ancient Greeks when engaged in sapping walls. Others were made of hurdles, covered in the same way, running upon three wheels, and affording cover to 7 or 8 miners.

=Plymouth.= A seaport town in England, county of Devon, on the east side of a peninsula, between the rivers Plym and Tamar, at the head of Plymouth Sound, 37 miles southwest of Exeter. Prior to the time of the Norman conquest it was called South Town, or Sutton; under the Saxon dynasty it was called Tamerweorth. The growing prosperity of the town excited the jealousy of France; and in 1339 a force from thence landed, and attempted to burn it. They succeeded in burning a portion, but were ultimately repulsed, with the loss of 500 men, by Hugh Courtenay, earl of Devon, aided by a number of “knights and men of the countrie.” A similar attempt was made in 1377, but with no great result; and after each, the fortifications were extended and strengthened. In 1335 the Black Prince embarked from Plymouth for France, and on his return to England he landed here with his prisoner, King John of France, who had been captured at the famous battle of Poitiers. During the civil war between Charles I. and the Parliament, Plymouth was held by the troops of the latter party, who, though besieged, and almost reduced by famine, resisted for three years every effort of the royalists. After the restoration the citadel was erected, and in the reign of William III. the dock-yard and the naval arsenal were established toward the west, upon the eastern shore of Hamoaze.

=Plymouth.= A town of Washington Co., N. C., on the south bank of Roanoke River about 8 miles from its mouth, where it empties into Albemarle Sound. During the civil war it was held for some time by the Union troops as a key to the river, and was strongly fortified. On April 17, 1864, a Confederate force under Gen. Hoke attacked this place, and after four days’ severe fighting, being five times repulsed with great slaughter, succeeded in capturing it, by the powerful assistance of an ironclad ram and a floating sharpshooter battery.

=Pocket Ledger.= In the British service, is a small book in the possession of each soldier, containing the result of the monthly settlement of pay, the state of his savings-bank account, the date of his enlistment, his services, wounds, decorations, date of birth, next of kin, a summary of the regulations which affect him, and many other useful particulars.

=Podoll= (Bohemia). The site of a severe conflict between the Austrians and a part of the army of Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia, June 26, 1866, in which the latter had the advantage.

=Point.= In heraldry, a triangular figure issuing from the dexter and sinister base of the shield. It is common in French and German heraldry, and occurs in the shield of Hanover, which was a part of the royal arms of Great Britain from the accession of George I. till that of the present sovereign. A shield charged with a point is in heraldic drawing hardly distinguishable from one parted per chevron.

=Point d’Appui.= Any particular given point or body, upon which troops are formed, or by which they are marched, in line or column. Points d’appui also signify the different advantageous posts, such as castles, fortified villages, etc., which the general of an army takes possession of in order to secure his natural position.

=Point of Alignment.= The point which troops form upon and dress by.

=Point of Formation.= A point taken, upon which troops are formed in military order.

Perpendicular points, the points upon which troops march in a straight-forward direction.

Relative points, the points by which the parallelism of a march is preserved.

=Point of Honor.= See HONOR, POINT OF.

=Point of War.= A loud and impressive beat of the drum, the perfect execution of which requires great skill and activity. The point of war is beat when a battalion charges.

=Point-blank.= The second point at which the line of sight intersects the trajectory of a projectile. See POINTING.

=Point-blank.= Directed in a line toward the object aimed at; aimed directly toward the mark.

=Point-blank Range.= Is the distance from the muzzle of the piece to that point in a projectile’s trajectory where it cuts the prolongation of the natural line of sight, a second time, the natural line of sight being horizontal. The British define point-blank range as, “the distance from the muzzle to the first graze when the axis of the piece is parallel to the horizontal plane upon which the carriage stands.” This definition is being adopted in the U. S. service.--See POINTING.

=Point-blank Shot.= The shot of a gun pointed directly toward the object to be hit.

=Pointing.= To point or aim a fire-arm is, to give it such direction and elevation that the projectile shall strike the object.

Definitions.--The axis of the piece is the centre line of the bore.

The line of fire is the axis of the piece prolonged.

The plane of fire is a vertical plane through the line of fire.

The line of sight is the right line from the eye to the object to be hit, passing through the front and rear sights.

The plane of sight is a vertical plane through the line of sight.

The angle of sight, or the elevation, is the vertical angle included between the line of sight and the plane containing the axis of the piece and a horizontal line at right angles to it.

The natural line of sight is the line of sight nearest to the axis of the piece. In guns without rear sights it is the right line through the highest point of the base-ring and swell of the muzzle or top of the front sight when there is one. It is sometimes called the line of metal, as in mortars. For convenience and accuracy the natural line of sight is usually parallel to the axis of the piece. When special breech-sights are used, it passes through the zero of the scale, which in the pendulum hausse and other vibrating scales coincides with the axis of vibration. All other lines of sight are called artificial lines of sight.

Point-blank, in small-arms, is the second point in which the natural line of sight (when horizontal) cuts the trajectory. In artillery, it is the point where the projectile first strikes the horizontal plane on which the gun stands, the axis of the piece being horizontal.

Pointing Guns and Howitzers.--In pointing old model guns and howitzers under ordinary angles of elevation, the piece is first directed toward the object, and then elevated to suit the distance. The accuracy of the aim depends: (1) On the fact that the object is situated in the plane of sight; (2) That the projectile moves in the plane of fire, and that the planes of sight and fire coincide, or are parallel and near to each other; and (3) On the accuracy of the elevation. The first of these conditions depends on the eye of the gunner, and the accuracy and delicacy of the sights; the errors under this head are of but little practical importance. When the trunnions of the piece are horizontal, and the sights are properly placed on the surface of the piece, the planes of sight and fire will coincide; but when the axis of the trunnions is inclined, and the natural line of sight is oblique to the axis of the bore, the planes are neither parallel nor coincident, but will intersect at a short distance from the muzzle, and the aim will be incorrect. If the natural line of sight be made parallel to the line of fire, by making the height of the front sight equal to the dispart of the piece, the planes of sight and fire will be parallel. Field-guns of the present day have special breech-sights or pendulum-sights. The zero of the scale and top of front sight are in a line parallel to the axis of the piece, and in pendulum-sights this zero coincides with the pivot at which the scale vibrates. Siege and sea-coast cannon are generally fired from fixed platforms, which renders the axis of the trunnions horizontal; they are, therefore, not furnished with pendulum-sights, but usually with breech-sights set in sockets at the breech. In the absence of a breech-sight the piece can be pointed with a natural line of sight so as to strike objects not situated at point-blank distance. Owing to the shape and size of the reinforce of sea-coast cannon, the natural line of sight is formed by affixing a front sight to the muzzle, or to a projection cast on the piece between the trunnions. Although the latter arrangement does not give quite so long a distance between the sights as is desirable, it permits the use of a shorter breech-sight, and the front sight does not interfere with the roof of the embrasure, when the piece is fired under high elevation.

Errors in Pointing.--When the platform or ground upon which the gun stands is not level there is an error in pointing (except when compensating sights such as the pendulum hausse are used), which varies in direction with the circumstances of the pointing and in amount with the elevation of the piece.

If the natural line of sight is pointed upon the object and the elevation then given by a gunner’s quadrant or other device, the shot will go to the side of the lower wheel. If the gun be depressed, it will go to the side of the upper wheel.

If the tangent scale or old pattern breech-sight is used with the ordinary fixed muzzle-sight, and it be placed on a chalk-mark just determined, the shot will fall on the side of the upper wheel. If the scale is placed on the permanent mark, the contrary will hold.

If a socket or fixed breech-sight is used, the shot will fall on the lower or upper side according as the gun is elevated or depressed.

Pointing Mortars.--In pointing mortars, the piece is first given the elevation, and then the direction necessary to attain the object. Mortars are generally fired from behind epaulements, which screen the object from the eye of the gunner. The elevation is first given by a gunner’s quadrant, and the direction is given by moving the mortar-bed with a handspike, so as to bring the line of metal into the plane of sight, which passes through the object and the centre of the platform. The plane of sight may be determined in several ways; the method prescribed is to plant two stakes, one on the crest of the epaulement, and the other a little in advance of the first, so that the two shall be in a line with the object, and the gunner standing in the middle of the rear edge of the platform; a cord is attached to the second stake and held so as to touch the first stake; a third stake is driven in a line with the cord, in rear of the platform, and a plummet is attached to this cord so as to fall a little in rear of the mortar. The cord and plummet determine the required plane of sight into which the line of metal of the mortar must be brought. With the 13-inch mortar mounted upon centre-pintle chassis, the plane of sight must be so determined as to pass through the pintle to obtain perfect accuracy. One of the best methods of pointing mortars so mounted, is to place on the crest of the parapet in line with the axis of the platform a goniometer, the alidade of which can be directed upon the object,--the angle is read from the vertical plane containing the axis of the platform. The traverse circle is similarly graduated from the axis of the platform. A pointer attached to the chassis enables the gunner to lay the mortar very nearly in the vertical plane passing through the object,--the error being the perpendicular distance from the pintle to the plane of sight. This is the method of Lieut. A. B. Dyer, 4th U. S. Artillery. Gen. Abbot of the U. S. Engineer Corps used a similar principle during the late war, 1861-65. The usual angle of fire of mortars is 45°, which corresponds nearly with the maximum range. The advantages of the angle of greatest range are: (1) Economy of powder; (2) Diminished recoil, and strain on the piece, bed, and platform; (3) More uniform ranges. When the distance is not great, and the object is to penetrate the roofs of magazines, buildings, etc., the force of fall may be increased by firing under an angle of 60°. The ranges obtained under an angle of 60° are about one-tenth less than those obtained with an angle of 45°. If the object be to produce effect by the bursting of the projectile, the penetration should be diminished by firing under an angle of 30°. When the object is not on a level with the piece, the angle of greatest range is considered in practice to be 45° increased or diminished by one-half the angle of elevation or depression of the object. The angle of fire being fixed at 45° for objects on the same level with the piece, the range is varied by varying the charge of powder. Stone-mortars are pointed in the same manner as common mortars; the angle of fire for stones is from 60° to 72°, in order that they may have great force in falling; the angle for grenades is about 33°, in order that their bursting effect may not be destroyed by their penetration into the earth.

Night-firing.--Cannon are pointed at night by means of certain marks, or measurements, on the carriage and platform, which are accurately determined during the day.

Pointing Small-arms.--The rear-sights of small-arms are graduated with elevation marks for certain distances, generally every hundred yards; in aiming with these as with all other arms, it is first necessary to know the distance of the object. This being known and the slider being placed opposite the mark corresponding to this distance, the bottom of the rear-sight notch, and the top of the front-sight, are brought into a line joining the object and the eye of the marksman. The term coarse-sight is used when a considerable portion of the front-sight is seen above the bottom of the rear-sight notch; and the term fine-sight, when but a small portion of it is seen. The graduation marks being determined for a fine-sight, the effect of a coarse-sight is to increase the true range of the projectile.

Graduation of Rear-sights.--If the form of the trajectory be known, the rear-sight of a fire-arm can be graduated by calculation; the more accurate and reliable method, however, is by trial.

Distance of Objects.--Various instruments have been devised to determine the distance of objects, based on the measurement of the visual angles subtended by a foot or cavalry soldier, of mean height, at different distances, and upon other principles. (See RANGE-FINDER.) The range being known, the proper elevation (or charge of powder in mortars) and length of fuze is given by tables of fire obtained from calculation or experiment. The ranges for guns of position are determined by thorough surveys of the surrounding country or harbor channels, by which the distances of all prominent points in the route of an approaching enemy are fixed beforehand. The ranges in field artillery are usually obtained by trial shots at the enemy. For small-arm and field-gun firing, the importance of at once getting the range cannot be overvalued; hence the importance of estimating distances without instrumental aid. The soldier is guided by his experience of aerial perspective, by the apparent size of known objects, and numerous other aids too delicate for enunciation. The art can be acquired to a high degree of perfection by practice, which now forms a very important part of the soldier’s training.

=Pointing-board.= See BOARD, POINTING.

=Pointing-cord.= Cord used in pointing mortars (which see). See POINTING-STAKES.

=Pointing-rings.= See ORDNANCE.

=Pointing-stakes.= Are used in pointing mortars, and by them one of the fixed points is established upon the crest of the parapet or at the foot of the interior slope, and another in rear of the piece. Then by a cord called the pointing-cord, stretched between these two points, with the plummet suspended from it, a vertical plane is determined with which the line of metal is made to coincide. Mortars are also pointed by means of pointing-wires.

=Pointing-wires.= Are wires which are used in directing mortars. The two fixed points required in directing a mortar are determined by planting two wires upon the epaulement, one upon its crest, and the other about a yard in advance of it, both as nearly as possible in the vertical plane passing through the centre of the platform and the object. The points being thus established, the direction is thus given to the mortar, by causing a plummet held in rear of it to cover the wires and the line of metal. This method is defective both in accuracy of aim and the liability of the wires being deranged by the shots of the enemy or by other causes.

=Points of Passing.= The ground on which one or more bodies of armed men march by a reviewing general.

=Points of the Escutcheon.= In heraldry, in order to facilitate the description of a coat of arms, it is the practice to suppose the shield to be divided into nine points, which are known by the following names: The dexter chief point, the middle chief, the sinister chief, the collar, or honor point, the fess point, the nombril, or navel point, the dexter base point, the middle base point, and the sinister base point. The dexter and sinister sides of the shield are so called, not in relation to the eye of the spectator, but from the right and left sides of the supposed bearer of the shield.

=Poitiers=, or =Poictiers=. A town of France, capital of the department of Vienne, on the Clain, 58 miles south-southwest of Tours. In the vicinity of Poitiers, Alaric II., the Visigoth, was defeated and slain by Clovis in 507. Somewhere between Poitiers and Tours a great battle took place on October 10, 732, between the Franks under Charles Martel and the Saracens under Abder-Rahman. The Saracens were routed with enormous slaughter,--357,000 of them (according to one old chronicler, and supposed to be exaggerated) being left dead on the field. Near here was fought the battle between Edward the Black Prince and John, king of France, September 19, 1356, in which Edward, with some 12,000 or 14,000 Englishmen and Gascons, defeated 60,000 of the troops of King John, and took the monarch himself and one of his sons prisoners. See TOURS.

=Poitou.= A former province of Western France, now mainly comprised in the departments of Deux Sèvres, Vendée, and Vienne. It became an English possession in 1152. In 1204, Philip Augustus regained it by conquest from England, and in 1295 it was formally ceded to France. It again reverted to England in 1360 by the peace of Bretigny, but was retaken by Charles V., and incorporated with the French crown.

=Poitrel= (Fr.). Armor for the breast of a horse.

=Pokanokets.= See MASSACHUSETTS INDIANS.

=Poland.= Called by the natives Polska, “a plain,” a former kingdom of Europe,--renowned, in mediæval history, as the sole champion of Christendom against the Turks, and more recently, and at present, an object of general and profound sympathy throughout Western Europe, from its unprecedented misfortunes. The natives belong to the great Slavonic family. The word Pole is not older than the 10th century. Poland first took rank as one of the political powers of Europe, when Micislas I. (962-992) occupied the throne and became a convert to Christianity. Boleslas I. (992-1025) surnamed “the Great,” reunited the separate portions of the kingdom (which had been divided by Micislas among his sons) and extended it beyond the Oder, the Carpathians, and the Dniester, and sustained a successful war with the emperor Henry II. of Germany, conquering Cracovia, Moravia, Lusatia, and Misnia. He also took part in the dissensions among the petty Russian princes. Boleslas was recognized as “king” by the German emperors. After a period of anarchy he was succeeded by his son, Casimir (1040-1058), whose reign, and that of his warlike son, Boleslas II. (1058-1081), though brilliant, were of little real profit to the country. Boleslas III. (1102-1139), an energetic monarch, annexed Pomerania, defeated the pagan Prussians, and defended Silesia against the German emperors. A division of the kingdom among his sons was productive of much internal dissensions, under cover of which Silesia was severed from Poland; ultimately, Casimir II. (1177-1194) reunited the severed portions, with the exception of Silesia. His death was the signal for a contest among the various claimants for the throne, which was speedily followed, as usual, by a division of the country, and during this disturbance Pomerania emancipated itself from Polish rule. About the same time the Teutonic Knights were summoned by the Duke of Masovia to aid him against the pagan Prussians, but they soon became as formidable enemies to Poland as the Prussians; and conquered a great part of Podlachia and Lithuania. The Mongols swept over the country in 1241, reducing it to the verge of ruin, and defeating the Poles in a great battle near Wahlstatt. From this time Poland began to decline; various districts were ceded to the markgrafs of Brandenburg, while many districts began to be colonized by Germans. Ladislaus (1305-1333), surnamed Lokietek, “the Short,” again restored unity to the country. In conjunction with Gedymin, grand duke of Lithuania, a vigorous war was carried on against the Teutonic Knights, on returning from which the aged monarch (he was now seventy years old) experienced a triumphant reception from his subjects, who hailed him as the “father of his country.” His son, Casimir III. the Great (1333-1370), greatly increased the power and prosperity of Poland. In the latter part of his reign he was compelled to defend sundry new acquisitions against the Tartars, Lithuanians, and Wallachians, which he did successfully. With Casimir, the Piast dynasty became extinct. Jagello (Ladislaus IV.), grand duke of Lithuania, the son-in-law of Louis the Great, king of Hungary, founded the dynasty of the Jagellons (1386-1572), and for the first time united Lithuania and Poland. Casimir IV. (1444-1492) recovered West Prussia from the Teutonic Knights. The Wallachian invaders carried off 100,000 Poles, and sold them to the Turks as slaves, 1498. Sigismund I. (1506-1548) surnamed “the Great,” raised the country to the utmost pitch of prosperity; he was forced into a war with Russia, in which he lost Smolensk. Sigismund II., Augustus, was a successor worthy of him; Lithuania was finally joined indissolubly to Poland. Livonia was conquered from the Knights Sword-bearers. (See SWORD-BEARERS, KNIGHTS.) Stephen Battory (1575-1586), voivode of Transylvania, the second elective monarch, a man of energy and talent, carried on war successfully against the Russians, pursued them into the very heart of their own country, and compelled the czar to sue for peace; he also subdued the semi-independent Cossacks of the Ukraine. His successor, Sigismund III. (1586-1632), who was succeeded by his sons, Ladislaus VI. (1632-1648) and John Casimir (1648-1672), was of the Vasa family, and was the crown prince of Sweden. These three monarchs were most unworthy successors of Poland’s ablest king. They were always quarreling with their neighbors, declaring war with Russia, Sweden, or Turkey, in the most imprudent and reckless manner, and often without valid pretext. But the Polish armies, though as little fostered and cared for as the other portion of the nation, were everywhere victorious; the Swedish and Muscovite armies were successively annihilated; Moscow was taken, and the Russians reduced to such an abject condition that they offered to make Sigismund’s son, Ladislaus, their czar. Sweden made a similar offer to another son of the Polish monarch; but the latter’s absurd behavior lost for Poland this rich result of her great victories; and the foolish policy of the whole three not only rendered fruitless all the lavish expenditure of Polish blood and treasure, but lost the country many of her richest provinces, and left her without a single ally. During the reign of this dynasty Wallachia and Moldavia were snatched by the Turks from under the Polish protectorate; Livonia with Riga was conquered (1605-1621), along with a part of Prussia (1629) by Sweden; and Brandenburg established itself in complete independence. The Cossacks rose in rebellion to a man, put themselves under the protection of Russia, and ever afterwards proved themselves the most inveterate enemies of the Poles. In the reign of John Casimir, Poland was attacked simultaneously by Russia, Sweden, Brandenburg, the Transylvanians and the Cossacks; the country was entirely overrun; Warsaw, Wilna, and Lemburg taken; but Czarniecki, after defeating Poland’s enemies in detail, ignominiously expelled them from the country. But in subsequent treaties Ducal or East Prussia was given up to Brandenburg; almost all Livonia to Sweden, and Smolensk, Severia, or Tchernigov, and the Ukraine beyond the Dnieper were given to Russia. During the reign of Michael Wisniowiecki (1668-1674) a war with Turkey, concluded by an ignominious peace, was the chief event. But the senate rejected the shameful treaty, the Polish army was reinforced, the Polish monarch resigned the command to John Sobieski, and the Turks were routed with great slaughter at Choczim (1673). After the reign of Sobieski, Augustus II. of Saxony entered Poland at the head of a Saxon army, and succeeded in obtaining the throne. His war with the Turks restored to Poland part of the Ukraine and the fortress of Kaminiec; but that with Charles XII. brought nothing but misfortune. Augustus returned after the battle of Poltava; his rival retired without a contest; a close alliance was formed with Russia, and the Russian troops which had campaigned in Poland against the Swedes were, along with his Saxon army, retained. The Poles demanded their extradition, but in vain; and the Russian cabinet interfered (1717) between the king and his subjects, compelling both parties to sign a treaty of peace. This was the commencement of Poland’s dependence on Russia and her consequent decline. By the instigation of Peter the Great, the Polish army was reduced from 80,000 to 18,000. For the massacre of Protestants at Thorn see MASSACRE. Civil war so weakened the kingdom that it fell an easy prey to Russia, Austria, and Prussia, in 1772, when the first partition was effected. Catherine II. of Russia, on various pretexts, advanced her army into Poland (1792), and the fruitless resistance to the united Prussians and Russians, headed by Joseph Antony Poniatowski and Kosciusko, was followed by a second partition (1793) between Russia and Prussia, which the diet were forced to sanction at the point of the bayonet. A general rising took place (1794); the Prussians were compelled to retreat to their own country; the Russians were several times routed; but an Austrian army advanced, compelling the Poles to retreat; and fresh hordes of the Russians arriving, Kosciusko at the head of the last patriot army, was defeated; and the sack of Praga, followed by the capture of Warsaw, finally annihilated the Polish monarchy. The third and last partition (1795) distributed the remainder of the country between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. King Stanislaus resigned the crown, and died broken-hearted at St. Petersburg in 1798. Napoleon I. established the duchy of Warsaw (1807), chiefly out of the Prussian share of Poland, with the elector of Saxony at its head. The division of Poland was re-arranged by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. On November 30, 1830, Constantine (brother of the czar and military governor) and his Russians were driven out of Warsaw, and a general insurrection of the people, headed by the aristocracy, took place; and military leaders, as Radzivil, Dembinski, Bem, etc., were soon found. From January, 1831, till September 8 of the same year, a series of bloody conflicts were fought, in which the Prussians and Austrians, with pitiable subservience, aided the czar. At first, the Poles were successful; but the taking of the capital by Paskievitch soon ended the war, which was followed, as a matter of course, by imprisonment, banishment, confiscation, and enforced service in the Russian army. From this time, the independence of Poland was suppressed, and in 1832 it was declared to be an integral part of the Russian empire, and the most severe and arbitrary measures taken to Russianize the people. The outbreaks of 1833 and 1846 were punished by the gallows. Simultaneous disturbances (1846) in the Prussian and Austrian portions of Poland were summarily suppressed; their leaders in Prussia were imprisoned, and only saved from death by the revolution of March, 1848, at Berlin; and those in Austria were butchered by the peasantry, who preferred the Austrian to a national government. On November 6, 1846, the republic of Cracow was incorporated with Austria. In 1861 another insurrection broke out, and Poland was declared (in October) in a state of siege; the country continued in a state of commotion without any very decided outbreak; and on January 13, 1863, Lithuania and Volhynia were also put in a state of siege. In February, 1863, Mieroslavski raised the standard of insurrection in the northwest, on the Posen frontier, and many districts of Augustovo, Radom, Lublin, Volhynia, and Lithuania, were speedily in insurrection. It was a mere guerrilla war, and no great or decisive conflicts took place, but the whole populations of villages were put to the sword by the Russians; while murders and assassinations marked the reign of terror of the National Committee. At last, with the officious assistance of Prussia, and the secret sympathy and support of Austria, the czar’s troops succeeded in trampling out (1864) the last embers of insurrection. In 1868 the government of Poland was absolutely incorporated with that of Russia.

=Polans.= Knee-pieces in armor.

=Pole.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY CARRIAGE.

=Poleaxe.= An axe fixed to a pole or handle; or rather, a sort of hatchet with a handle about 15 inches in length, and often a point or claw bending downward, or projecting from the back of its head. It was formerly used by mounted soldiers.

=Polemarch.= In Grecian antiquity, was originally the commander-in-chief, but afterwards, a civil magistrate who had under his care all strangers and sojourners in the city.

=Pole-pad.= A pad placed on the end of the pole in field-gun carriages to prevent injury to the horses.

=Pole-prop.= A short stick attached to the under side of the pole in field-gun carriages.

=Pole-strap.= See ORDNANCE, LIMBER.

=Pole-yoke.= See ORDNANCE, LIMBER.

=Pole-yoke Branches.= See ORDNANCE, LIMBER.

=Polibole=, or =Palintonne= (Fr.). A ballista which was capable of throwing both arrows and stones.

=Police.= The cleaning of a camp or garrison; the state of a camp in regard to cleanliness.

=Police Guard.= An interior guard having care of the arms, property, and prisoners of the regiment; also charged with the regulation of the camp in regard to order and cleanliness. A guard for prisoners occupied in cleaning the camp.

=Police, Military.= This word has two significations: (1) The organized body employed within an army to preserve civil order, as distinct from military discipline. (2) A civil police with a military organization. The police of an army commonly consists of steady intelligent soldiers, who act under the orders of the provost-marshal, and arrest all persons out of bounds, civilians not authorized to pass the lines, disorderly soldiers, etc.; they also attend to sanitary arrangements. As in all military matters, the police of an army possess summary powers, and a sentence of the provost-marshal is carried out immediately after it is pronounced. Of civil police with military organization may be instanced, as specimens, the gendarmerie of France, the sbirri of Italy, and, in an eminent degree, the Irish constabulary.

=Police Party.= A working party engaged in cleaning the camp or garrison.

=Police Sergeant.= A sergeant specially charged with cleaning the camp.

=Polkownick.= Colonel of a Polish regiment.

=Pollentia= (now Polenza, Northern Italy). A town of the Statielli in Liguria, at the continence of the Sturia and the Tanarus, and subsequently a Roman municipum. In its neighborhood Stilicho, the imperial general, defeated Alaric the Goth, March 29, 403.

=Polotzk=, =Polotsk=, or =Polock=. A town of Russian Poland, 60 miles west-northwest of Vitebsk, at the continence of the Dwina and the Polota. It was taken by the Russians from the Poles in 1579, and again in 1655. The French under Marshal Oudinot were here defeated by the Russians under Gen. Wittgenstein, July 30-31, 1812, the next day the Russians were defeated. After several smaller actions with various results, Polotzk was stormed by the Russians, and retaken October, 1812.

=Polron.= That part of the armor which covered the neck and shoulders.

=Poltava=, or =Pultowa=. A town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, situated on the Vorskla, about 934 miles south-southeast from St. Petersburg. Here Charles XII. of Sweden was defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, July 8, 1709.

=Polygars=, or =Paleagas=. Chiefs of mountainous and woody districts in the peninsula of India, who pay only a temporary homage.

=Polygon.= The name applied to the many-angled forms in which the outer walls of all fortified places are built.

=Polygon.= A school of practice for artillery is so called in Japan.

=Polyorcetes.= Taker of cities; a name applied by the Greeks to a very successful general.

=Polytechnic School.= See MILITARY ACADEMIES.

=Pomada.= An exercise of vaulting the wooden horse, by laying one hand over the pommel of the saddle.

=Pomerania.= A province of Prussia, bounded north by the Baltic, east by West Prussia, south by Brandenburg, and west by the Mecklenburg duchies. It was held by the Poles, 980, and by Denmark, 1210; made an independent duchy, 1479; occupied by the Swedes in the Thirty Years’ War, and divided between Sweden and Brandenburg, 1648. The Swedish part, awarded to Denmark in 1814, was given up to Prussia for Lauenburg, 1815.

=Pomerium.= In ancient architecture, that space of ground which lay between the walls of a fortified town and the inhabitants’ houses. The term is still used among modern architects, particularly by the Italians, to describe the breadth of the terre-plein of the rampart, its inward talus, and the vacant space which is usually left between this talus and the houses of the town.

=Pomfret.= See PONTEFRACT.

=Pomme.= In heraldry, a bearing or device representing, or in the form of, an apple.

=Pommee.= In heraldry, having the ends terminating in rounded protuberances resembling apples;--said of crosses.

=Pommel.= The knob on the hilt of a sword. Also the protuberant part of a saddle-bow.

=Pommeled=, or =Pommelled=. In heraldry, furnished or mounted, with one or more pommels, as a sword, dagger, or the like.

=Pommelion.= The cascabel, or hindmost knob of a cannon.

=Pompon.= A tuft of wool, sometimes worn by soldiers on the top of the hat in front, instead of a feather.

=Poncho.= A Spanish-American garment, consisting of a piece of woolen cloth, 5 to 7 feet long, 3 to 4 feet broad, having in the middle a slit through which the wearer passes his head, so that the poncho rests upon the shoulders and hangs down before and behind. In the U. S. army mounted troops are issued a waterproof poncho, consisting of painted cotton or rubber cloth.

=Pondicherry.= A maritime town, and the capital of the French settlements in India, on the Coromandel coast, 83 miles south-southwest from Madras. Pondicherry was first settled by the French in 1674, they having purchased the town two years before from the rajah of Bejapoor. The Dutch took the town in 1693; but by the treaty of Ryswick it was restored to the French in 1697. In 1748 it was besieged by the English under Admiral Boscawen, who, two months later, was compelled to raise the siege. In 1758, Count de Lally became governor-general, and attacked the English settlement of Fort St. David, which surrendered, and was totally destroyed. In 1761 it was taken by the English, under Col. Coote. By the peace of Paris, Pondicherry was restored to the French in 1763 with reduced territory. It was again taken by the English under Sir Hector Monro in 1778, and restored in 1783. In 1793 the English again repossessed themselves of Pondicherry, but the treaty of Amiens in 1802 again restored it, but only till the following year. From this time it was held by the English till, by the treaties of 1814 and 1815, it was for the last time restored to France, reduced to the narrow limits assigned by the treaty of 1783.

=Poniard.= A pointed instrument for stabbing; borne in the hand, or at the girdle, or in the pocket; a small dagger.

=Poniard.= To pierce with a poniard; to stab.

=Pont à Noyelles.= At this place near Amiens, France, took place a fierce indecisive conflict lasting from 11 A.M. to 6 P.M. between the Germans under Manteuffel and the French Army of the North under Faidherbe, December 23, 1870. Both sides claimed a victory.

=Pontefract=, or =Pomfret=. A town of England, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, near the river Aire, and 21 miles southwest from York. Its castle, which was finished in 1080, was taken after three successive and desperate sieges, by the Parliamentary army, and demolished by order of the Parliament.

=Pontia= (now Ponza). A rocky island off the coast of Latium, opposite Formiæ, which was taken by the Romans from the Volscians, and colonized, 313 B.C. Under the Romans it was used as a place of banishment for state criminals. There is a group of smaller islands round Pontia which are sometimes called Insulæ Pontiæ.

=Pontianak.= The capital of the kingdom of the same name on the west coast of Borneo, is situated near the junction of the Landak and Kapuas. There has been constant war on the southeast coast of the kingdom since 1859. The interior of the kingdom was very much disturbed in 1864.

=Pontifical States.= See PAPAL STATES.

=Pontones.= Ancient square-built ferry-boats for passing rivers, as described by Cæsar and Aulus Gellius.

=Pontonier=, or =Pontonnier=. A soldier having the charge of constructing bridges.

=Pontons.= A kind of portable boats specially adapted for the formation of floating bridges required by armies. They are constructed in various ways, of wood, metal, or prepared canvas, stretched over frames made for the purpose (the latter it is said are much in favor), and have the necessary gear placed with them for transport. The ponton used in the U. S. army is constructed as follows:

The ponton frame is composed of two side frames, of twelve narrow and of two wide transoms. The former are strengthened at the ends by iron straps, which are countersunk and perfectly smooth; all the edges of the frame and transoms are well rounded to prevent chafing the canvas. The wide transoms are of 10-inch by 1¹⁄₂-inch plank, provided with tenons to fit the mortises in the frame. The narrow transoms are of 4-inch by 2¹⁄₂-inch scantling. The articles of each of the above classes are made exactly alike, so that they may be interchanged. Two of the narrow transoms are provided with an iron mooring becket.

The frame when assembled is held together by a rope passed through the rings in the ends of the side frame, and tightened with a rack-stick.

The ponton cover is of 0000 cotton duck, double-seamed, with the border double for 1¹⁄₂ inches in width. The clew-line eyelets are of metal. The lashings are of 1-inch rope 18 feet in length, and looped at one end, and the cable used is of 3-inch Manilla rope, 30 fathoms long.

Bridge Equipage.--The United States bridge equipage is composed of reserve and of advance-guard trains. The former are intended to accompany large bodies of troops in the field, and are provided with the material necessary for the construction of bridges of sufficient capacity to pass large armies with their heaviest trains over rivers of any size and rapidity.

The advance-guard equipage is intended for the use of light troops, such as advance-guards, cavalry expeditions, etc. It is organized, both as regards material and carriages, with a view to rapidity of movement. At the same time, it is capable of furnishing a bridge which will fulfill all the requirements of troops engaged on such service.

Organization.--The reserve equipage is divided into trains, each of which is composed of four ponton divisions and one supply division. Each division is accompanied by tool-wagon and traveling-forge.

Each ponton division is complete in itself, containing all the material necessary for constructing a bridge of eleven bays, or 225 feet in length.

Each of these divisions is subdivided into four sections, two of which are ponton and two abutment sections; the former contain three ponton-wagons and one chess-wagon; the latter, one ponton-, one chess-, and one trestle-wagon each.

The ponton section contains the material for three bays, and should never be subdivided. The division may be increased or diminished at pleasure, by the changing the number of its ponton sections.

The carriages are loaded as follows: Each ponton-wagon contains 1 ponton, 7 long balks, 1 anchor, 1 cable, 5 oars, 2 boat-hooks, 20 lashings, 6 rack-sticks, 1 scoop-shovel, 2 small scoops, 1 axe, 1 hatchet, 1 bucket, and 20 pounds of spun yarn.

Each trestle-wagon (identical with ponton-wagon) contains 7 long balks, 7 trestle balks, 1 trestle complete, 2 abutment sills, 2 coils of 3-inch rope.

Each chess-wagon contains 60 chess.

The forge is identical with forge A furnished by the ordnance department.

Each tool-wagon contains 50 axes, 20 shovels, 20 spades, 15 picks, 25 hatchets, 4 broad-axes, 4 adzes, 4 cross-cut saws, 12 augers (assorted), 2 crow-bars, 2 calking-irons, 12 tin lanterns, 2 monkey-wrenches, 1 sledge, 1 steel square, 1 grindstone, 1 spirit-level, 1 coil telegraph wire, 1 coil 3-inch rope, 1 coil 1-inch rope, 1 coil spun yarn, 50 pounds iron (assorted), 25 pounds paint, 6 paint-brushes, 1 dozen chalk lines, 1 pound red chalk, 4 pounds white chalk, 6 sail-needles, 1 palm, 6 balls twine, 50 pounds 6-inch spikes, 100 pounds 6-, 8-, 10- and 20-penny nails, 2 sets blocks and falls, 2 gross each of 1-, 2- and 5-inch screws, 1 roll canvas, 20 pounds calking cotton. Also 4 boxes of carpenters’ and saddlers’ tools nearly identical with those furnished by the ordnance department for battery-wagon C. If desirable, extra stores to the amount of 500 pounds may be added to the load.

The supply division is provided with articles necessary to replace material lost or worn out, such as balk, chess, spare parts of carriages, a few complete carriages, etc.

The carriages of this division consist of ponton-, chess-, and tool-wagons, and of forges. Their number and proportion will be determined by the nature of the country in which the army is operating, and by the proximity of the main depot.

The ponton-wagon contains 17 long and 7 trestle balks. The chess-wagon, 60 chess. Tool-wagon No. 1 carries the same load as that attached to a ponton division. Tool-wagon No. 2 contains 80 rack-collars; of 6-, 8-, 10-, and 20-penny nails, 2 kegs each; of 4- and 6-inch spikes, 2 kegs each; of 1-, 2-, and 5-inch screws, 4 gross each; of 1- and 3-inch rope, 2 coils each.

The loads may be increased to the extent that circumstances will permit, by adding spare parts of carriages.

The forges are of the patterns A and B issued by the ordnance department.

Advance-guard Equipage.--The trains of this equipage are composed of 4 ponton divisions, each of which consists of 8 ponton-, 2 chess-, and 2 trestle-wagons.

The load of the ponton-wagon consists of 7 balks, 16 chess, 2 side frames, 1 cable, 1 anchor, and a ponton-chest containing 1 ponton cover, 14 transoms, 5 paddles, 2 scoops, 2 mallets, 20 lashings, 2 boat-hooks, 1 scoop-shovel, and 8 rack-sticks.

The chess-wagon contains 50 chess and 2 spare ponton covers.

The trestle-wagon carries 14 balks, 1 trestle complete, 1 abutment sill, and 1 coil of 3-inch rope and 1 of 1-inch rope.

The forge is forge A of the ordnance department.

When necessary, this load may be reduced by transferring a part of the tools and coal to a forage-wagon.

The ponton-wagon carries all the material necessary for constructing a complete bay. The division may, therefore, be increased or diminished by one or more ponton-wagons without disorganizing it. When a forced march is to be made, and it is desirable to lighten the loads, the chess may be removed from the ponton-wagons, the rope from the trestle-wagons, and the load of the chess-wagons may be reduced to 40 chess. The number of the latter wagons in this case must be increased to five.

The tool-wagon is loaded with the necessary tools, materials, etc., suitable to the advance-guard equipage.

There are four methods of constructing a ponton-bridge: by successive pontons; by parts; by rafts; and by conversion.

By Successive Pontons.--The location of the bridge having been selected, the ponton-wagons are brought as near the river-bank as practicable, with the rear of the carriage toward the stream. The pontons are unlashed and slid from the wagon-bed into the water; cables are attached to the anchors; one of the former is coiled in the bow of each ponton with its anchor on the top, the flukes projecting over the gunwale.

Those pontons which cast up-stream anchors are moored above the approach to the bridge, and the others below.

A trench about 1 foot in width and depth is excavated to receive the abutment sill; this should be laid horizontally, and exactly perpendicular to the axis of the bridge; it is secured by four pickets, two driven in front and two in rear, about 8 inches from each end. A ponton is brought up opposite to the abutment, and close to the shore. The ponton is then pushed off and adjusted in its place by means of shore-lines, which are made fast to mooring-posts.

As soon as the first set of balks is laid, a chess is placed on edge in the trench above mentioned, and in contact with the ends of the balks. Its upper edge should be 1¹⁄₂ inches above the balks. Earth is rammed behind it, crowding it firmly against the balks. The chess is then laid on.

The ponton which has cast the first up-stream anchor, having dropped down to the head of the bridge, is entered by the pontoniers. Five balks are then brought up and delivered to the lashers in the second ponton, which is pushed off; the shore ends of the balks are delivered to the lashers in the first ponton, who place them on the down-stream side, and in contact with those of the first set, their cleats against the outside of the interior gunwale. They lash the balks firmly together and to the lashing-hooks at both gunwales, and then step into the third ponton.

When a bay is covered with chess, the side-rails are laid. They are placed directly over the outside balks, to which they are lashed at three points,--at the middle and immediately over the axis of each ponton, at which point the two side-rails and balks of two bays lap and are all lashed together.

In constructing a ponton-bridge there are two points that require particular attention: the anchorage, and the lashing; the men who are intrusted with their execution should be selected from the most intelligent and experienced pontoniers in the command.

The Anchorage.--The distance of the anchor from the bridge should be at least ten times the depth of the stream; with a less distance the bows of the ponton would sink too deeply in the water.

The direction of the cable when made fast to the bridge must coincide with that of the current,--i.e., a ponton in the bridge must have the same position which it would assume if riding freely at anchor. It will be remembered that the cable is not finally made fast to the ponton which casts its anchor, but to the one following it in the bridge; and due allowance must be made for this in selecting the place for casting anchor.

The number of anchors required will depend somewhat on the strength of the current. It is generally sufficient to cast an anchor up-stream for every alternate ponton, and half that number down-stream; but where the current is very rapid it may be necessary to anchor every up-stream boat, especially near the middle of the bridge. The number of anchors cannot be much diminished, however moderate the current, as the anchorage has a very marked effect in checking the horizontal oscillation to which bridges are subject when troops are marching over them.

The Lashings.--With respect to the lashings, the corresponding balks of adjacent bays lap each other by 6 feet, and are lashed together and to the gunwales at two points about 5 feet apart. Thus a strong splice is formed, making five continuous beams running the entire length of the bridge. The stability of the bridge is further increased by the manner of placing and securing the side-rails.

By Parts.--The abutment bay is formed as in the previous method. The parts are constructed at suitable points along the shore above the bridge, and for each is required the material for three bays. They are constructed as follows:

A ponton is moored bow and stern close to the shore, and five chess are temporarily laid from the bank to its interior gunwale, for the convenience of the pontoniers during the construction of the part.

The other two pontons are brought up in succession, and two bays are constructed in the ordinary manner, except that six chess are omitted from the roadway at both ends. Twenty-six chess and seven balks are loaded on the parts thus formed, which is then pushed off and conducted to the line of up-stream anchors, where it casts its anchor and drops down to its place in the bridge.

The first part is connected with the abutment bay by the pontoniers on shore, who construct one length of bridge flooring in the usual manner, to join the abutment ponton with the first ponton of the part.

The other parts are united as they come in position, by bays formed from the balks and chess with which they are loaded.

The down-stream anchors are cast by separate pontons provided for the purpose; and it may sometimes be necessary to cast the up-stream anchors in the same way, as the parts are not easily managed in a rapid current.

When the current is moderate, the parts may be constructed below as well as above the bridge.

By Rafts.--The abutment bay is laid in the same manner as in the last method, and the rafts differ from the parts only in having the roadway completed,--that is, the six chess at each end are not omitted. The rafts are not loaded with extra balks and chess, but are provided with two false balks, 6 feet 9 inches by 5 feet 5 inches, and with four rack-collars and wedges.

The rafts cast their up-stream anchors, and drop down to their places in the bridge. The outer pontons of the adjacent rafts are in contact, and are lashed together bow and stern by their mooring-posts. False balks are laid over the side-rails of the two rafts at their junction; and two rack-collars embrace each false balk, and the side-rails and balks under them. These collars are placed on each side, and 2 feet from, the junction of the side-rails. The wedges are driven between the false balks and the tops of the collars.

By Conversion.--The position of the bridge having been determined, and the width of the stream accurately measured, a suitable place at some distance above the position of the abutment is selected for the construction of the bridge. This place may be at a considerable distance from that which the bridge is to occupy; it is frequently on some tributary of the stream to be bridged, out of sight of the enemy’s shore.

The bridge is constructed parallel to the shore; side-rails are lashed on all except the extreme bays. The balks, chess, etc., for the abutment bay on the enemy’s side, are embarked on the next to the last bay of the bridge; a ponton is lashed to the last ponton in the bridge; this contains, in addition to the articles necessary for constructing the abutment, two strong pickets. The up-stream anchors are deposited in the bows of the boats on the wheeling flank, 10 or 15 yards of their cables coiled, the remainder stretched along the bridge. Two strong spring-lines are extended and lashed, the one over the bows, the other over the sterns of all the pontons; these lines should be considerably longer than the bridge, and the ends coiled on the platform. The bridge is then allowed to float down to within 15 yards of the first abutment.

The material for the first abutment and bay is brought down in a ponton. Two strong pickets are planted to receive the spring-lines and two to receive the shore-lines, which are coiled on the platform between the first and second pontons.

The wheeling flank is pushed off, and men are stationed in the bow and stern of each ponton with oars and boat-hooks to increase or retard the progress of their ponton, as may be necessary. A detachment is stationed at the first abutment to manœuvre the spring-lines; another to prevent the pivot flank from touching shore; a turn of the shore-line is also taken around the mooring-post of the ponton, and this line is eased off, as the case may require. The anchors are cast as the pontons in which they are carried come in their proper places, and their cables are shifted to the pontons to which they are to be attached. The progress of the bridge is checked when it arrives opposite the abutments, which should be constructed during the conversion of the bridge, if the force be strong enough.

The down-stream anchors are cast by the spare pontons, as in the bridge by successive pontons.

Flying Bridge.--This term is applied to any floating support anchored to a fixed point (usually in the stream), and driven from shore to shore by the oblique action of the current on its sides.

Although these bridges do not afford a continuous communication, yet they possess some decided advantages, viz.:

They are readily established, even over the most rapid streams.

They require but little material for their construction.

They may be worked by very few men.

They permit the passage of troops of all arms, and of the heaviest carriages.

The entrance to and exit from them is easy.

They do not interrupt navigation; and they are not liable to be injured by floating bodies which, either by accident or design, are carried down-stream by the current.

The current should not be less than one yard per second.

To Construct the Raft.--The raft is formed of six pontons. Two pontons are lashed stern to stern, and to these a third, breaking joints. A second set similar to the above are placed at a distance from the first of 26 feet from set to set. The two sets are connected by six balks over which four courses are lashed. Then fifteen balks in a manner suitable for receiving chess. The extreme chess are nailed down, and the outer courses secured by side-rails. The length of the cable should be at least one and a half times the width of the river. One, two, or three anchors are used, depending on the strength of the current. The cable is supported by pontons. The boat nearest the anchor is the largest; the distance between the boats should be such that the cable shall not touch the water between the first boat and the raft; each boat is fitted with a staging, composed of two short balks, and a supporting block, on which the cable rests and to which it is lashed. The cable is also connected with the bow of the boat by a line of such length that the boat is allowed to turn just enough to keep parallel with the raft. After the raft is attached to the cable it is passed from shore to shore once or twice, using a stern veering-line if necessary, until the anchors are firmly imbedded and the cable is stretched; the two abutments are then constructed; these do not differ from the first bay of the ordinary bridge.

The proper angle for the axis of the boat to make with the current is about 55°. This angle is gradually increased on nearing the shore, until the way of the raft is diminished sufficiently to prevent it from striking the abutment with a shock.

Trail Bridges.--When the river is not more than 150 yards wide, a sheer-line may be used in place of the anchor and cable; the sheer-line must be taut enough to keep above water.

If the banks are not high enough, the sheer-line should be elevated at each shore by passing it over a frame formed by three poles, arranged like an artillery gin. Upon this line a pulley is fixed, so that it can run freely from shore to shore; through the eye of the pulley-block a line is passed, one end of which is attached to the bow of the first, and the other to the bow of the second, boat forming the raft. The raft is manœuvred in the same manner as the flying bridge; or one end of a line may be made fast to the running-block on the sheer-line, while the other passes through a snatch-block near the stern of the raft on the up-stream side; by hauling in or letting out this line the proper direction is given to the raft.

Rope-ferries.--The rope-ferry is used when the velocity of the current is not sufficient to propel the raft. It consists of a raft or flat, provided with a standard near each end on the up-stream side. These standards are forked on top to receive the sheer-line, which is stretched across the stream in the same manner as for the trail bridge. The raft is propelled across the stream by men on its deck hauling on the sheer-line.

Prairie Raft.--It frequently occurs in the Western country that expeditions, unaccompanied by regular ponton-trains, are compelled to cross streams so situated that it is impossible to obtain timber or other material suitable for the construction of rafts or bridges. Under these circumstances, a raft may be constructed of two canvas pontons, by means of which loaded wagons may readily be ferried over the stream. All the material required for such a raft is easily carried in one ponton-wagon. The construction is as follows: The wagon to be floated is backed into the stream until the rear wheels stand in about one foot of water. A canvas ponton is placed on each side of the wagon, parallel to and one foot from it. A balk is placed against the tail-board of the wagon, and resting upon the gunwales of the pontons. A second balk is similarly placed against the front-board of the wagon. On each side of the wagon a strong rope is made fast to the front balk, passed under the axle-trees round the rear balk, and thence back to the starting-point, where it is made fast. The raft and wagon are pushed into the stream, and, as soon as the latter is clear of the bottom, the balks are lashed to the gunwales of the pontons. A line is attached to the wagon-pole, and coiled in the bow of one of the pontons. This raft may be conveyed across the stream either by rowing, or in the manner of a trail bridge. On approaching the opposite shore, it should be turned with the wagon-pole toward the bank. As soon as the wagon grounds, the balks are removed and the wagon is drawn on shore by means of the rope attached to its pole. A single hinged canvas ponton, which is readily packed in an ordinary quartermaster wagon, will suffice for the crossing, if the wagons are unloaded and taken apart.

Box Pontons.--In localities where plank and boards can be conveniently procured, pontons may be constructed very expeditiously, by placing ten partitions of 2-inch plank, each 5 feet long, and 2¹⁄₂ inches high, in parallel positions, on the top and sides of which boards are nailed: the box thus formed to be covered with pitched canvas, as described in the mode of constructing crib pontons.

Wagon-body Pontons.--Ordinary wagon-bodies, covered with pitched canvas or india-rubber blankets, may be used either as boats or pontons. The small capacity of the wagon-body requires such pontons to be placed more closely to compensate for it.

=Ponton-train.= See PONTONS, BRIDGE EQUIPAGE.

=Pontus.= An ancient kingdom in the northeast of Asia Minor, which derived its name from its being on the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea), extending from the river Colchis in the east to the river Halys in the west. In early times, its various parts were designated after the tribes which inhabited them. The most important of those tribes are,--the Leucosyri, Tibareni, Chalybes, Mosynœci, Heptacometæ, Drilæ, Bechires, Byzeres, Colchi, Macrones, Mares, Taochi, and Phasiani. From the middle of the 7th century B.C., many of those tribes inhabiting the coast rose to great power and opulence, spreading Greek culture and civilization around them; while many of those of the interior were extremely savage and wild. According to tradition, it was conquered by Ninus, founder of the Assyrian empire; and it was certainly under the Persian dominion after the time of Cyrus the Great. In the reign of Artaxerxes II., Ariobarzanes conquered several of the Pontian tribes, and laid the foundation of an independent kingdom. Mithridates II. succeeded him 337 B.C., who by availing himself of the disputes of the successors of Alexander, considerably enlarged his dominions. Under Mithridates VI., from 120 to 63 B.C., the kingdom of Pontus rose to its highest dignity. In his war with the Romans his kingdom was dismembered by Pompey in 65 B.C., who annexed the western part of the nation, and gave the remainder to the native chiefs. In 63 A.D. Pontus was made a Roman province, and in the changes which transpired under Constantine the province was divided into two parts.

=Pontvalent.= A kind of light bridge, used in sieges, for surprising a post or outwork which has but a narrow moat; a flying bridge.

=Poor Knights of Windsor.= See KNIGHTS, MILITARY.

=Port Royal.= In Beaufort Co., S. C., noted as one of the earliest settlements made by the Spaniards within the present limits of the United States, and for important events during the war of the Rebellion.

=Portable Forge.= A light and compact blacksmith’s forge, with bellows, etc., that may be moved from place to place; used frequently in the quartermaster’s department.

=Portate.= In heraldry, borne not erect, but athwart an escutcheon; as, a portate cross.

=Portcullis.= Is an assemblage of several large pieces of wood, joined across one another like a harrow, and each pointed with iron at the bottom. They are sometimes suspended over the gateway of old fortified towns and castles, ready to be let down in the case of surprise, when the gates cannot be shut.

=Portcullis.= In heraldry, the portcullis is represented with rings at its uppermost angles, from which chains depend on either side. It was a badge of the Beaufort family, and borne in virtue of their Beaufort descent by their Tudor sovereigns. Portcullis is the title of one of the pursuviants belonging to the English College of Arms, whose office was instituted by Henry VII.

=Port-fire.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Portfolio.= A portable case for keeping loose papers in. Hence, also, the office and functions of a minister of state or member of the cabinet; as, to receive the portfolio of war.

=Portglave.= An ancient name for a sword-bearer.

=Portland Isle.= An island off the coast of Dorset, England, which was fortified before 1142.

=Porto= (or =Puerto=) =Bello=. A seaport town of South America, on the north coast of the Isthmus of Darien.

=Porto Novo.= A seaport of British India, in the Presidency of Madras, at the mouth of the Vellaur. It suffered severely in the wars of the British government against Mysore, and fell into a state of decay. At Porto Novo, Hyder Ali, with an immensely superior army, was totally defeated by the British under Sir Eyre Coote in 1791.

=Porto Rico.= A Spanish possession, one of the group of West India Islands called the Great Antilles. Porto Rico was invaded in 1509 by Spaniards from Hayti, and the natives were soon exterminated by them. Towards the end of the 17th century the island was captured by the British, but was abandoned by them soon afterwards. In 1820 a revolution took place in Porto Rico, which was finally put down in 1823.

=Portugal= (anc. Lusitania). A kingdom in the southwest of Europe, forming the western part of the Spanish peninsula. After nine years’ struggle, under Viriathes, a brave and able leader, the Lusitanians submitted to the Roman arms about 137 B.C. In the 5th century the Suevi, Vandals, and Visigoths became possessors of the country. In the beginning of the 8th century Portugal shared the fate of Spain, and was overrun by the Moors. After a long struggle, during which many battles were fought, and many illustrious deeds achieved, the Portuguese monarchy was formally established by the Cortes at Lamego in 1143, with Alfonso I. (of the Burgundian house) as king. The immediate successors of Alfonso I. were engaged in many severe struggles with the clergy, who were always ready to combine against the sovereign; but on the whole, the dignity of the kingdom was well maintained by the representatives of this family, who are, moreover, distinguished as the promoters and upholders of the maritime glory of Portugal. Alfonso, surnamed “the Brave,” ascended the throne in 1325, and his reign was almost wholly occupied in wars with the Castilians and the Moslems. With his grandson, Ferdinand I., the legitimate branch of the Burgundian house became extinct in 1383. During the reign of John II., the Azores, Madeira, Cape de Verde, and other islands were seized. The discovery of Brazil and the settlements made there and on the western coast of India increased the maritime power and fame of Portugal, which were further extended under John III., who ascended the throne in 1521, and during whose reign the Inquisition was introduced. At this period Portugal ranked as one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe. Sebastian (grandson of John III.), urged by the Jesuits, entered upon a fatal expedition to Africa against the infidels. The defeat of the Portuguese, and the capture and death of their young king at the battle of Alcazar in 1578, and the extinction of the old Burgundian line in 1580, plunged the country into difficulties and misfortunes of every kind. Philip II. of Spain succeeded in securing to himself the crown of Portugal, and annexing the Portuguese kingdom to the Spanish monarchy. This event proved disastrous in the extreme to Portugal, involving it in all the ruinous wars of Spain in the Low Countries and in Germany, the greater part of the expenses of which it bore; while the Dutch, in retaliation for Spanish aggression at home, attacked the Portuguese settlements in Brazil, and almost completely deprived them of their possessions in the Indian Archipelago. In 1640, after a forced union of 160 years, Portugal was freed, by a bold and successful conspiracy of the nobles, from all connection with Spain, and the Duke de Braganza placed on the throne, under the title of John IV. The war with Spain, which was the natural result of this act, terminated in 1668, when by the treaty of Lisbon, the independence of Portugal was formally recognized by the Spanish government. For the next hundred years, Portugal vegetated in a state of inglorious apathy. It was invaded by the French in 1807,--a measure which gave rise to the Peninsular war. The victory of Vimeira, gained by the combined English and Portuguese army in 1808, freed the land from its French assailants. A revolution broke out in Lisbon in 1820. In 1832, Dom Pedro raised a fleet and made a landing at Oporto. Admiral Napier in the mean while operated on the coast of Algarve successfully in favor of the young queen Doña Maria de Gloria, whose cause, by these victories and the support of an alliance with the great powers, finally proved victorious. Doña Maria made her entry into Lisbon in 1833; and in the following year Dom Miguel (who had disputed the throne) signed the convention of Evora, by which he renounced all pretensions to the throne. During the reign of Doña Maria insurrections and counter-insurrections were of frequent occurrence, the troops were not to be depended on in moments of emergency; guerrilla bands scoured the country at will, and openly defied the queen’s authority. An armed intervention of the great powers in 1847 produced a partial abatement of the national disorders; but the queen’s partiality for her unpopular ministers, Count Thomar and his brother Cabral, led to the insurrection which, without bloodshed, made the national idol, the Marquis de Saldanha, de facto military dictator of Portugal. The eldest son of the queen ascended the throne in 1853, as Pedro V., under the regency of the king-consort his father. The latter used his power discreetly, and the financial disorders were partially adjusted, and since that period the general condition of the nation is more promising.

=Positions, Military.= The sites occupied by armies, either for the purpose of covering and defending certain tracts of country, or preparatory to the commencement of offensive operations against an enemy. A position is considered as advantageously chosen when it is on elevated ground; when it is not commanded by eminences within the range of artillery; and when, from the existence of natural obstacles, as rivers or marshes, on the wings, it is incapable of being turned,--that is, the enemy cannot, without making an extensive movement, get to the rear of the army by which the position is occupied. In the event of such points of support being wanting, the position, whether it be a plain or an eminence, should have its flanks protected by villages, or by redoubts raised for the purpose. A village, or even a single building, on the ground occupied by the army, may become the key of the position; and as, not unfrequently, on the preservation of this point depends the field of battle, such point should be well supported by troops and artillery. The highest point of ground, particularly if near the lines of operation, may also constitute the key, and is usually strengthened by one or more redoubts. Artillery should always be placed where it can act with the most effect; and when the ground occupied by an army presents alternately salient and retired points along the front of the line, the batteries should be placed at such points. Infantry may occupy any kind of ground, but should, if possible, always form a close line. It is usually placed between the batteries; and if exposed to a distant cannonade, the troops may be drawn up in a trench, the earth from which will serve to cover them without preventing them from marching out in line to meet the enemy. Cavalry must be posted on a level plain, over which it may advance with regularity when a charge is to be made; if compelled to act on broken ground, it is formed in small detachments behind the infantry, through whose intervals it may pass at proper opportunities. The power of readily appreciating the character of ground for military purposes is what is called by foreign writers the military coup d’œil; and this can only be acquired by a profound knowledge of military tactics of war, joined to much experience in the practice of executing military surveys, and of contemplating the appearance of ground from all possible points of view.

=Posse Comitatus.= A sheriff or marshal, for the purpose of keeping the peace and pursuing felons, may command all the people of his county above fifteen years old to attend him, which is called the posse comitatus, or “power of the county.”--Blackstone.

=Possession.= To take possession, is the act of occupying any post, camp, fortress, etc., which might facilitate the operations of an army, or which previously belonged to the enemy.

=Post.= Any sort of ground, fortified or not, where a body of men can be in a condition of resisting the enemy.

Advance post, a spot of ground seized by a party to secure their front, and the post behind them.

Post is also the walk or position of a sentinel.

=Post.= In the British service, a bugle-sound. The first post is the bugling which precedes the tattoo; the last post that which follows it. Also, the piece of ground to which a sentinel’s walk is limited; any place or office assigned to a soldier or body of soldiers on duty.

=Post, Abandoning a.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 42.

=Post, Advantageous.= Every situation is so called which an enemy occupies in such a manner that not only mere force of arms, but great military skill, and many stratagems, are required to dislodge him.

=Post of Honor.= The advanced guard is a post of honor; the right of the two lines is the post of honor, and is generally given to the eldest corps; the left is the next post, and given to the next eldest, and so on. But the laws of military discipline forbid an inconvenient accordance with this practice, as the circumstances of the case may require a very different arrangement, which it would be wanton to oppose.

=Post, Sleeping Upon.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 39.

=Post, To.= In a military sense, means to station; as, to post a sentinel. To be posted, in military tactics signifies to be formed ready for action. Thus, when troops are brought up in column, and ordered to deploy, it frequently happens that some part of the line is refused, in order to flank an enemy, or to cover a weak position; the part that is aligned is said to be posted. To be posted also means, in a familiar sense, to be publicly announced as an infamous or degraded character. Hence, to post a man as a coward is to stick his name up in a conspicuous place, and to accuse him of want of spirit, etc.

=Postern=, or =Sally-port=. Is a passage usually vaulted, and constructed under the rampart, to afford a communication from the interior into the ditch. The passages from the covered way into the country are likewise called sally-ports, as they afford free egress and ingress to troops engaged in making a sally or sortie.

=Post-traders.= Traders are allowed in the American army at the rate of one to each military camp or post, who have the exclusive privilege to trade upon the military reserve to which they are appointed, and no other person will be allowed to trade or sell goods by sample or otherwise, within the limits of the reserve, except producers of fresh fruit and vegetables, by permission of the post commander. Post-traders are selected for the appointment by a council of administration, consisting of the three senior officers, next to the commanding officer, on duty at the post, and upon the recommendation of these officers, approved by the post commander, are appointed by the Secretary of War. The trader is authorized to keep on hand for sales to the troops, articles of wholesome food, such clothing as soldiers may be permitted to purchase, tobacco, blacking, etc., the prices to be regulated by the council of administration. At remote military posts in the United States, traders are authorized to keep on hand the necessary supplies for sales to miners, settlers, and emigrants. See CANTEEN, and SUTLER.

=Pot.= The paper cylinder forming the head of a signal-rocket and containing the decorations. To diminish the resistance of the air the pot is surmounted by a paper cone.

=Pot, Stink-.= See STINK-POT.

=Potence= (Fr.). Troops are ranged en potence by breaking a straight line, and throwing a certain proportion of it, either forward or backward, from the right or left, according to circumstances, for the purpose of securing that line. An army may be posted en potence by means of a village, a river, or a wood.

=Potent Counter-potent.= In heraldry, one of the heraldic furs, in which the field is filled with crutch-shaped figures alternately of metal and color, those of opposite tinctures being placed base against base, and point against point. The metal and colors are understood to be argent and azure, unless they be specifically blazoned otherwise. Potent counter-potent is sometimes blazoned Vairycuppy.

=Potent, Cross.= In heraldry, a cross crutch-shaped at each extremity. It is also called a Jerusalem cross, from its occurrence in the insignia of the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem, which are, argent a cross potent between four crosslets or. This coat is remarkable as being a departure from the usual heraldic rule which prohibits the placing of metal upon metal.

=Potentee.= A heraldic line of division which takes the form of the outline of a succession of crutch-shaped figures.

=Potgun.= Formerly a short, wide cannon, formed like a pot.

=Potidæa.= A town in Macedonia, on the narrow isthmus of the peninsula Pallene, was a strongly fortified place, and one of considerable importance. It was a colony of the Corinthians, and was founded before the Persian wars. It afterwards became tributary to Athens, and its revolt from the latter city in 432 B.C. was one of the immediate causes of the Peloponnesian war. It was taken by the Athenians in 429, after a siege of more than two years, its inhabitants expelled, and their place supplied by Athenian colonists. In 356 it was taken by Philip of Macedon, who destroyed the city, and sold the inhabitants into slavery. Cassander, however, built a new city on the same site, to which he gave the name of Cassandria, and which he peopled with the remains of the old population, and the inhabitants of the surrounding towns. It was taken and plundered by the Huns, but was restored by Justinian.

=Potomac.= A river of the United States, formed by two branches, which rise in the Alleghany Mountains, and unite 20 miles southeast of Cumberland, Md., from which point the river flows in a generally southeasterly course, 400 miles, and falls into Chesapeake Bay, where it is 6 to 8 miles broad, 75 miles from the ocean. Line-of-battle ships ascend to Washington, 120 miles from its mouth. The Potomac forms the greater part of the boundary between Virginia and Maryland. During the civil war, both Federal and Confederate armies crossed several times the fords of the Upper Potomac, and severe actions were fought upon its banks. The largest army of the Union was named after it.

=Pottawatomies.= A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, who formerly occupied a great part of Michigan, where a few still remain. They fought against the settlers in the Pontiac war, and against the Americans in the war of the Revolution; and were allies of the British in the war of 1812, soon after which they removed to Kansas, where they now reside in a partial state of civilization, only about 500 of what is known as the Prairie band being located on a reservation.

=Pouch.= A case of strong leather, lined with tin divisions, for the purpose of carrying a soldier’s ammunition. It is covered by a flap to preserve the cartridges from wet. The leather cases containing primers, lanyard, etc., in field and heavy artillery, and those containing a gunner’s level, vent-punch, gimlet, etc., in heavy artillery, are also called pouches.

=Pounder.= The term used in describing the force of a cannon employed in firing solid shot; as, a 9-pounder field-gun, a 300-pounder Armstrong, etc.

=Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Powder-cart.= A two-wheeled carriage covered with an angular roof of boards. To prevent the powder from getting damp, a tarred canvas is put over the roof; and on each side are lockers to hold shot, in proportion to the quantity of powder.

=Powdered=, or =Semée=. In heraldry, strewn with an indefinite number of small charges.

=Powder-magazine.= See MAGAZINE.

=Powder-measure.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Powder-mill.= See MILL, GUNPOWDER-.

=Power.= In military affairs as well as in all others, is knowledge--of human passions--of arms--of distance--of the skill and numbers of an enemy. To be in the power of an enemy, is to have taken up, injudiciously, such a position as to expose you to a defeat whenever the enemy may think proper to attack you.

=Powerful.= Full of power; capable of producing great effects of any kind; as, a powerful army or navy.

=Powldron.= In heraldry, that part of armor which covers the shoulders.

=Powwow.= A priest or conjurer among the North American Indians. Also conjurations performed for the cure of diseases and other purposes, attended with great noise and confusion, and often with dancing.

=Poynado.= A poniard was formerly so called.

=Pozzuoli.= A city of Southern Italy, at the east of the Bay of Naples. It is first mentioned in history during the second Punic war, when it was surrounded by strong walls. In 214 B.C. it repulsed Hannibal, and subsequently became a place of importance. It was destroyed by Alaric, Genseric, and Totila. It was afterwards rebuilt by the Byzantine Greeks, but being exposed to new devastations, to earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions, it sank into decay.

=Practicable.= A word frequently used in military matters to express the possible accomplishment of any object. Hence, a practicable breach.

=Practice, To.= In a military sense, to go through the manual and platoon exercises, or through the various manœuvres, etc., for the purpose of becoming thoroughly master of military movements. Practice is likewise used to signify the act of effecting or executing any military operation.

=Præliares.= Among the Romans, fighting days, on which they thought it lawful to engage in acts of hostility; for during the time of some particular feasts, they reckoned it a piece of impiety to raise, march, or exercise men for war, or to encounter the enemy, unless first attacked.

=Prætorians.= Was, during the Roman republic, a select cohort that attended the prætor or commander of an army. They frequently decided the fate of battles. After the overthrow of the republic, Augustus formed them into nine cohorts, and fixed their station in the capital as body-guards. They became, in short, under the emperors, what “the guards” are to the monarchies of Europe. They, in addition to their military duties, frequently had the charge of state prisoners, and often acted the part of executioners. They were all picked men, chosen for the most part from Italy. Their power increased greatly under the empire until they frequently determined the fate of an emperor. Diocletian reduced their number, and Constantine disbanded them.

=Prætorium.= See PRETORIUM.

=Praga.= A town of Poland, on the Vistula, opposite to Warsaw, with which it communicates by a bridge of boats. In 1794 the Polish insurgents took refuge here, and it was stormed by Suwarrow, and given up to pillage and massacre, when about 20,000 were slain. In 1830 the Grand Duke Constantine of Russia was forced to retreat from this town with his troops, at the beginning of the Polish revolution in that year, which unfortunately proved unsuccessful.

=Prague.= A city of Austria, the capital of Bohemia, situated on the Moldau. Prague was conquered and almost destroyed by the Hussites in 1424; but after the subsequent defeat and submission of the Hussites, the city was rebuilt. In the Thirty Years’ War it suffered severely, and in 1620 the battle was fought at the White Mountain, near the city, in which Frederick V. (the “Winter King”), son-in-law of James I. of England, was completely defeated, and compelled to renounce his assumed crown, and to give up the town into the power of the emperor of Austria. Swedes and Imperialists successively gained possession of it during the war; and a century later, during the Seven Years’ War, it again fell into the hands of different victors, being compelled, in 1744, to capitulate to Frederick the Great of Prussia; but he was obliged to abandon it the same year. In 1757 the king of Prussia again besieged it, but his efforts to reduce it proved ineffectual. In 1848 it was bombarded, the inhabitants having risen against the Austrian government, when great cruelties were perpetrated by the Austrian troops. A treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia was signed at Prague, August 23, 1866.

=Praguerie, War of= (so named from Prague, then celebrated for its civil disorders). Was the name given to the revolt of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI., against his father, Charles VII., aided by Alexander, the bastard, of Bourbon, and other nobles. It was soon quelled; Louis was exiled, and Alexander put to death by drowning, July, 1440.

=Prairie Raft.= See PONTONS.

=Prairie-carriage.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Prance.= To spring or bound, as a horse in high mettle. To walk or strut about in a showy manner, or with warlike parade.

=Precedence.= Priority in rank or precedence in military life, is regulated by the date of an officer’s commission, or the standing in the corps to which he may belong.

=Precedent.= Any act which can be interpreted into an example for future times, is called a precedent. Persons in high office are extremely scrupulous with respect to precedents, especially in military matters.

=Precision.= Exact limitation, scrupulous observance of certain given rules.

=Predal=, or =Predatory War=. A war carried on by plunder and rapine.

=Prefect= (Lat. præfectus). A Roman officer who was over, or who superintended, a particular command, charge, department, and the like. Of this class there were several, as the prefect of a camp, of a fleet, of the city guards, etc.

=Prefect Pretorian.= In Roman antiquity, was the commander of the pretorian guards.

=Preferment.= The state of being advanced to a higher post.

=Prejudice.= An opinion or decision of mind formed without due examination; prejudgment; a bias or leaning toward one side or the other of a question from other considerations than those belonging to it; an unreasonable predilection or prepossession for or against anything; especially, an opinion or leaning adverse to anything formed without proper grounds, or before suitable knowledge.

=Prejudicial to Military Discipline, Conduct.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 62.

=Prenzlow.= A town of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg, 71 miles north-northeast from Berlin. Here, in October, 1806, a body of Prussians, 10,000 strong, under the Prince of Hohenlohe, surrendered, after the defeat of Jena, to the French under Murat.

=Prepare for Action.= A word of command used in the artillery.

=Preponderance.= In gunnery, is the excess of weight of the part in rear of the trunnions over that in front; it is measured by the lifting force in pounds, which must be applied at the rear of the base-ring, at the base-line, or at the bottom of the ratchet, to balance the piece when suspended freely on the axis of the trunnions. Preponderance was given to prevent the sudden dipping of the muzzle, in firing, and violent concussion on the carriage at the breech. Most of the heavy pieces of the late models have no preponderance, the axis of the trunnions intersecting the axis of the piece, at the centre of gravity.

=Presburg.= A town of Hungary, situated on the Danube, 36 miles east from Vienna. This town was once the capital of Hungary, and the emperors of Austria are still crowned here as kings of Hungary. It is noted for the treaty concluded there between France and Austria in 1805, when the Tyrol was given to Bavaria, and Venice to the French.

=Prescott= (Upper Canada). On November 17, 1838, the Canadian rebels were attacked by the British under Maj. Young, and (on the 18th) by Lieut.-Col. Dundas, who dispersed the insurgents, several of whom were killed, and many taken prisoners, the remainder surrendering. The troops also suffered considerably.

=Presence of Mind.= Ready conceptions of expedient, producing promptitude of action under difficult and alarming circumstances. A quality indispensable in a general.

=Present.= In the British service, means to level; to aim; to bring the musket to a horizontal position, the butt resting against the right shoulder for the purpose of discharging its contents at a given object.

=Present.= To offer openly; to exhibit; to give in ceremony; as, to present the colors.

=Present Arms, To.= In tactics is to bring the musket to a certain prescribed position, for the purpose of paying a military compliment.

=Preservation of Cannon and Ammunition.= See LACKER.

=President.= The President of the United States is commander-in-chief of the army, navy, and militia, called into service. His functions as such are assigned by Congress, but embrace of course whatever authority may be assigned to any military commander, on the principle that the authority of the greater includes that of the less. For the command, government, and regulation of the army, however, Congress has created a military hierarchy or range of subordination in the army with rights and duties regulated by Congress, and the commander-in-chief cannot make use of any other agents in exercising his command; and all orders issued by him must be according to the rules and articles made by Congress for the government of the army. In his capacity of chief magistrate of the Union, Congress has also invested the President with many administrative functions relating to military affairs; and for the performance of the latter duties the secretary of the department of war has been made his minister, upon matters connected with matériel, accounts, returns, the support of troops, and the raising of troops.

=President.= The president of a court-martial is the senior member. He preserves order in court; administers the oath taken by the judge-advocate, and the proceedings of the court are authenticated by his signature and that of the judge-advocate.

=Presidio= (Sp.). A place of defense; a garrison or guard-house.

=Pressure-gauge.= Called also pressure-plug. An apparatus invented by Gen. Rodman for measuring the pressure exerted by the gases of exploded powder. It consists essentially of a steel plunger, on the head of which the pressure is exerted. The other end of the plunger is widened out into two cutting edges which meet at an obtuse angle. This point rests on a disk of copper, into which the cutter is driven by the pressure. The pressure is deduced from the length of the cut. Two forms of the instrument are used,--one is placed in a hole bored through the side of the gun. The other is complete in itself and is placed at the bottom of the cartridge-bag. Lieut. Metcalfe’s (U. S. Ordnance Corps) modification of the pressure-gauge has a cutter with a helicoidal edge. To measure the cut he uses a circular scale with a hole in the centre (in which the inducted copper is placed), and a radial arm to show the extent of the spiral cut. The English modification of Rodman’s instrument is called the crusher-gauge,--a short cylinder of copper is substituted for the disk,--the reduction in its length gives a measure of the pressure. The crusher-gauge is frequently attached to the base of the shot. A similar modification is used to test the power of the high explosives, such as dynamite, dualin, etc. A lead cylinder is crushed in this case. A very small charge is used. The reaction is obtained by placing a heavy cylindrical shot over the charge, which rests directly in a cavity on the top of the plunger.

=Preston.= A town of England, in Lancashire, on the north bank of the Ribble. This town was partially destroyed by Bruce in 1322; and after declaring for the king, it was taken by the forces of the Parliament under Gen. Fairfax. Here also ended the ill-fated Jacobite rising of 1715, when, after a brave resistance, the insurgents were compelled to surrender.

=Prestonpans.= A village of Haddingtonshire, 8 miles east of Edinburgh. In the vicinity, on September 21, 1745, was fought the famous battle of Prestonpans, between the royal troops under Sir John Cope and the Jacobites under Prince Charles, in which the latter, with a loss of only about 10 officers and 120 men in killed and wounded, routed the royal forces with great slaughter, and captured their cannon, baggage, and military chest.

=Pretence, Escutcheon of=, or =Escutcheon Surtout=. In heraldry, a small shield placed in the centre of the field of another shield. The husband of an heiress may bear the arms of his wife in an escutcheon of pretence, instead of impaling them. Feudal arms are also sometimes placed on an escutcheon of pretence, particularly in the insignia of elective sovereigns, who have been in use of bearing their own proper arms in surtout over those of the dominions to which they are entitled.

=Pretorian.= Appertaining to pretor; also the general’s guard among the ancient Romans.

=Pretorium.= The hall or court where the pretor lived and administered justice. It also denoted the tent of the Roman general, in which councils of war were held. The place where the pretorian guards were quartered or lodged, was likewise called pretorium.

=Prevesa.= A fortified town of European Turkey, in Albania, on the north shore of the Gulf of Arta, 58 miles south-southwest of Yanina. Prevesa belonged to the Venetians from 1684 until the fall of that republic in 1797. It was then held by the French for a time, but was afterwards taken by the Turks.

=Prey.= Anything, as goods, etc., taken by force from an enemy in war; spoil; booty; plunder.

=Pricker.= A light horseman was formerly so called.

=Pricker.= A priming-wire (which see).

=Pride.= In heraldry, a peacock or other bird, when the tail is spread out in a circular form, and the wings drooped, is said to be “in his pride.”

=Priest-cap.= In fortification, a work so named from its shape; called also swallow-tail. See REDAN.

=Prime.= To charge with the powder, percussion-cap, or other device for communicating fire to the charge, as a fire-arm.

=Primer.= A wafer, cap, tube, or other device for communicating fire to the charge of powder in a cannon. The cap or tube usually contains a friction- or percussion-powder. The friction-primer is generally used in the land service. (See FRICTION-PRIMER.) For service on shipboard, a quill filled with rifle-powder, having on the top a capsule of fulminate of mercury, is generally employed. The capsule is exploded by a blow from the lock-hammer. The tape-primer, used sometimes in blasting, is formed of long, flexible strips of paper or fabric containing fulminate or other quick-burning substance. The electric primer is used to fire simultaneous discharges, both in ordnance and blasting. In firing wet gun-cotton, the small charge of dry gun-cotton used in conjunction with the detonating exploder is called a primer. In small-arms the term is specially applied, at the present time, to the percussion-caps used in reloading metallic cartridge-cases. The cap is set in a recess in the head of the shell. When the firing-pin strikes the outside end of the cap, the fulminate is exploded by being driven against a perforated cone called the anvil. This anvil is usually a part of the shell. In the Winchester primer, recently invented, the anvil is a part of the primer itself, being inserted upon the fulminate. A shoulder in the recess holds the anvil when the cap is struck.

=Priming.= The powder, percussion-cap, or other device used to communicate fire to the charge in a fire-arm.

=Priming-tubes.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Priming-wire.= A pointed wire, used to penetrate the vent of a piece, for examining the powder of the charge, or for piercing the cartridge.

=Primipilarii=, =Primopilarii=, or =Primipilares=. Among the Romans, were such as had formerly borne the office of primipulus of a legion. The banner was intrusted to his care. Among other privileges which the primipilarii enjoyed, they became heirs to what little property was left by the soldiers who died in the campaign.

=Primipilus.= The centurion belonging to the first cohort of a legion. He had charge of the Roman eagle.

=Princeton.= A town of Mercer Co., N. J., about 40 miles northeast of Philadelphia. This place was the scene of an important engagement during the Revolutionary struggle, although the numbers engaged were comparatively small. On hearing of the English reverse at Trenton (which see), Gen. Howe immediately ordered Cornwallis, who was in New York, to proceed with his forces to Princeton. Leaving a part of his troops at this place, he proceeded towards Trenton with the intention of giving battle to the Americans, and arrived with his vanguard on January 1, 1777. Washington, learning that only three regiments were left at Princeton, by a circuitous night march arrived there by daybreak of January 3, surprised and completely routed the enemy with a loss of 200 killed and wounded, and as many prisoners. The American loss did not exceed 30. This event greatly aroused the drooping spirits of the colonists, who had been previously disheartened by a series of reverses.

=Principes.= In the Roman armies, were the infantry, who formed the second line in the order of battle. They were armed like the hastati, with this difference, that the former had half-pikes instead of whole ones.

=Principles, Military.= The basis or ground-work upon which every military movement is made, and by which every operation is conducted.

=Prismatic Compass.= A surveying instrument, much used on account of its convenient size and form in military sketching, and for filling up the details of a map where great accuracy is not required.

=Prismatic Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Prisoners.= Are persons under arrest or in custody, whether in prison or not. Whenever any officer is charged with a crime, he is to be arrested and deprived of his sword by the commanding officer; and soldiers charged with crimes are to be confined until tried by a court-martial, or released by proper authority. (See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 65 and 66.) When brought into court, a prisoner should be without irons, or any manner of shackles or bands, unless there is danger of an escape, and then he may be secured with irons.--Blackstone.

=Prisoners of War.= Are soldiers captured during an engagement, siege, or continuance of hostilities, who are deprived of their liberty until regularly exchanged.

=Prisons, Military.= Are buildings constructed for the retention of prisoners of war, or for the safe-keeping and punishment of offenders against military law. Sometimes during war forts and other strong buildings are utilized for these purposes. The following were noted prisons during the civil war, 1861-65, for the retention of Federal prisoners of war:

Andersonville (which see).

Belle Isle.--An island in the James River near the city of Richmond, Va. The unfortunate prisoners taken were placed on this island without shelter of any kind to protect them from the scorching rays of the sun during the day or the chilly cold mists of the night, until death or exchange released them from their sufferings.

Castle Thunder.--A fort in Charleston harbor, S. C., which was used for the same purpose.

Libby.--An old tobacco warehouse in Richmond, Va., which was temporarily converted into a military prison; and for cruelty and torture to the Union prisoners this place was second only to Andersonville.

Salisbury.--A town in North Carolina, which had another depot for prisoners.

There were also prisons established for the retention of Confederate prisoners at Camp Douglas, Chicago, Camp Chase, Ohio, Elmira, N. Y., Point Lookout, Md., and Rock Island, Ill.

At Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, a permanent military prison was established in accordance with an act of Congress passed March 3, 1873, in which soldiers of the U. S. army are confined for serious offenses against military law.

At Dartmoor, a desolate region in England, a prison was constructed in 1809 for the confinement of French prisoners of war which deserves a passing notice, inasmuch as Americans were confined there during the war of 1812. It comprised 30 acres, inclosed with double walls, with seven distinct prison-houses with inclosures. In 1812 there were 6000 American prisoners of war within its walls who were treated with much cruelty, and, in consequence of the appearance of mutinous intentions of some of the prisoners on account of the tardiness of the English officials in releasing them after the treaty of peace was ratified, they were fired upon by the English soldiers, which resulted in the killing of 5 and wounding of 33 prisoners. This act was regarded in America as a wanton massacre.

=Privas.= A town of France, capital of the department of Ardèche, 26 miles southwest from Valence. In the civil wars of the 16th and 17th centuries in France, Privas, which was then a strongly-fortified town, played a conspicuous part, being always favorable to the Protestant party. In 1629 it was bravely defended by a small garrison under St. André de Montbrun against Louis XIII., but after a siege of two months had to be abandoned. Montbrun being soon afterwards taken was hanged, and the fortifications of Privas were leveled to the ground.

=Private.= The title applied in the British army to a common soldier of the cavalry and infantry; the corresponding rank in the artillery being gunner or driver, and in the engineers, the sapper. A private in the cavalry is sometimes called a trooper. In the U. S. army all the soldiers who are below the grade of non-commissioned officers are called privates.

=Privy-coat.= A light coat or defense of mail, concealed under the ordinary dress.

=Prize.= That which is taken from another; a thing seized by force, stratagem, or superior power. Hence, specifically, anything captured by a belligerent using the right of war.

=Prize.= The application of a lever to move any weighty body, as a cask, cannon, or the like.

=Prize Agent.= In the British service, a person appointed for the distribution of such shares of money as may become due to officers and soldiers after battle, siege, or capture.

=Prize-bolt.= A manœuvring-bolt of a mortar-bed.

=Prize-money.= The proportion which is paid to the troops who are present at the capture or surrender of a place, etc., which yields booty.

=Prizing.= The same as prize, which see.

=Proclamation.= The act of publishing abroad; conspicuous announcements; official or general notice; publication; that which is put forth by way of public notice; an official public announcement or declaration; a published ordinance; as, the proclamation of a king. A proclamation may be issued to declare the intention of the head of a government to exercise some prerogative or enforce some law which has for a long time been dormant or suspended. In time of war, the head of the government by a proclamation may lay an embargo on shipping, and order the ports to be shut. But the most usual class of proclamations are admonitory notices for the prevention of offenses, consisting of formal declarations of existing laws and penalties, and of the intention to enforce them. Proclamations are only binding when they do not contradict existing laws, or tend to establish new ones, but only enforce the execution of those which are already in being, in such manner as the head of the government judges necessary.

=Proconsul.= In Roman antiquity, an officer who discharged the duties of a consul without being himself consul; a governor of a province, or a military commander under a governor. He was usually one who had previously been consul, and his power was nearly equal to that of a regular consul.

=Prodd.= A cross-bow, used for throwing bullets in ancient times.

=Profile.= A section of a parapet or other work in fortification.

=Projectile.= A body projected or impelled forward by force, especially through the air. In a limited military sense the term is applied to a body intended to be projected from a cannon by the force of gunpowder, or other explosive agent, to reach, strike, pass through, or destroy a distant object. The materials of which projectiles are usually composed are lead, wrought or cast iron, each possessing advantages according to the circumstances under which they are fired. But the material which combines in a greater degree than any other the essential qualities of hardness, strength, density, and cheapness, is cast iron, which is exclusively used in the U. S. service for large projectiles. Compound projectiles are sometimes made, so as to combine the good and correct the bad qualities of different metals. To obviate the serious results that may arise from the wedging of the flanges of a cast-iron projectile in the grooves of a rifle-cannon, it is frequently covered with a coating of lead or other soft metal. Cast and wrought iron have also been combined with success, and also cast iron and soft metal in such a manner as to attain the strength of one metal and the softness and expansibility of the other. Other metals, such as brass, are also used in projectiles of special construction. Projectiles are generally classified, according to their form, into spherical, or smooth-bore, and oblong, or rifle projectiles.

Spherical Projectiles are fired mainly from smooth-bore guns. They are solid shot, shells, spherical case or shrapnel, grape, canister, carcasses, grenades, light- and fire-balls. The advantages which they possess over the oblong are their uniformity of resistance to the air, presenting the least extent of surface for a given weight, the coincidence of their centres of form and inertia; they are less liable to wedge in the bore, as they touch the surface at only one point; and they are best adapted for rolling and ricochet fire on account of the regularity of their rebounds. Solid shot are usually made of cast iron, and are designated by the diameter of the bore of the piece in which they are to be used, or by their weight. Shells are cast with a core of sand (greater or less according to the thickness required), which is afterwards removed. The mortar-shell has the thinnest walls, and contains the greatest bursting charge for the same caliber; the gun-shell is thicker, and the battering-shell is nearly as strong as the solid shot. Shells are usually designated by the weight of the solid shot of the same diameter.

Oblong Projectiles are fired principally from rifled pieces, and have been adopted on account of the increase of range and accuracy which can be obtained with them. For this purpose it is necessary that the projectile should move through the air in the direction of its length. Though experience would seem to show that the only sure method of effecting this is to give it a rapid rotary motion round its axis by the grooves of the rifle, numerous trials have been and are now being made to produce the same effect with smooth-bored guns. One of the simplest plans for this purpose is to place the centre of gravity or inertia in advance of the centre of figure. Another is to make the projectile very long, with its rear portion of wood, and its point of lead or iron, somewhat after the manner of an arrow; but these plans do not seem to be of much practical utility. The system by which the desired result is obtained with the greatest certainty is the rifle system.

Rifle System.--Spiral grooves are cut into the bore of the piece, or it is ribbed with spiral bands, and the projectile is so formed or prepared as to follow them as it passes along the bore of the piece. The principal question which now occupies the attention of those engaged in improving this species of cannon is to obtain the safest and surest means of effecting this object. Various plans have been tried to obtain the proposed object; nearly all may be ranged under the following heads:

1. The Flanged System.--This comprises all projectiles which have certain flanges or projections to fit into the grooves of the gun in loading. These are usually deep and few in number, rounded at their bottom edges so as to cause the flanges or studs to pass up the inclined side when rotation is imparted. This is the system at present adopted in England. Though this plan affords a certain means of communicating the rifle motion, it has not always been found a safe one, probably from the wedging of the flanges in the grooves. Besides, the dirt from the burning of the powder collects in the grooves; and as it is difficult to clean them by the usual means, the projectile is liable to meet with obstruction in loading. To obviate these difficulties, the flanges are sometimes made of softer metal than the body of the projectile. Guns for flanged or studded projectiles usually have from 3 to 9 grooves, 0.15 to 0.25 inch deep.

2. The Compressive System.--By this system the projectile is forced by the action of the powder through the bore of a piece whose diameter without the grooves is less than the diameter of the projectile. Such are the projectiles for the breech-loading Krupp and Broadwell guns. These usually consist of cast iron or steel, and are covered with a coating of lead or other soft metal having horizontal ribs or corrugations, which is secured by a chemical solder, or cast into undercuts in the body of the shot. As the projectile is forced through the bore, an impression of the rifling is cut out of the ribs, the lead thus displaced finding room in the grooves between. This system has been found to work satisfactorily in breech-loading guns. The rifling should be shallow and consist of numerous grooves, slightly narrowing towards the muzzle. Large guns usually have from 20 to 76, from .05 to .08 inch deep. Experiments are now being made, with prospects of success, to substitute bands of soft copper encircling the projectile for the lead coating.

3. The Expansive System.--This system has been so exclusively used in the United States that it has frequently been called the American system. It embraces all projectiles which are loaded without regard to the rifling, but which are fitted with an expanding portion of some softer metal, as pewter, copper, wrought iron, or papier-maché, which is forced into the grooves by the discharge. This system requires for its rifling fewer grooves than the compressive, but a somewhat greater number than the flanged system. Among the projectiles of this class used during the civil war were the Blakely, Dyer, Hotchkiss, James, Parrott, Reed, Schenkle, and Stafford. The principal objections to an expanding or compound projectile are its want of strength to resist a charge of powder proportionately as large as that employed for a simple projectile, and the danger of its breaking and wedging in the bore of the piece. Of late years, however, marked improvements have been made, and projectiles of this class can now be safely fired with double their former charges. The large projectiles of this description now used in the United States consist of the usual cast-iron body having a sabot, or ring of brass or copper either cast or screwed to its base. This ring is divided into an upper and lower flange or lip by an annular groove. When the gun is fired, the gases enter this groove, forcing the lower flange down upon the projectile and the upper or outer into the rifling of the gun, where it is kept during its passage through the bore.

Armstrong Projectile.--But one kind of projectile is used in the Armstrong breech-loading guns for the field service, and this is so constructed as to act as a shot, shell, or case-shot at pleasure. It consists of a very thin cast-iron shell, inclosing 42 segment-shaped pieces of cast iron built up so as to form a cylindrical cavity in the centre, which contains the bursting charge and the concussion-fuze. The exterior of the shell is thinly coated with lead, which is applied by placing the shell in a mold and pouring it in a melted state. The lead is also allowed to percolate among the segments, so as to fill up the interstices, the central cavity being kept open by the insertion of a steel core. In this state the projectile is so compact that it may be fired without injury, while its resistance to a bursting charge is so small that less than one ounce of powder is required to burst it. When the projectile is to be tired as a shot, it requires no preparation; but the expediency of using it otherwise than as a shell is doubted. To make it available as a shell, the bursting tube, the concussion- and time-fuzes, are all to be inserted; the bursting tube entering first and the time-fuze being screwed in at the apex. If the time-fuze be correctly adjusted, the shell will burst when it reaches within a few yards of the object; or failing in this, it will burst by the concussion-fuze when it strikes the object, or grazes the ground near it. If it be required to act as a canister-shot upon an enemy close to the gun, the regulation of the time-fuze must be turned to the zero of the scale, and then the shell will burst on leaving the gun. The Armstrong projectiles for the muzzle-loading guns have rows of brass or copper studs projecting from their sides to tit into the grooves of the gun, which are constructed on the shunt principle. The projectile is made of wrought iron, or low steel, with very thick sides. There is no fuze, the explosion resulting from the heat generated by the impact, and the crushing in of the thin cap which closes the mouth of the powder-chamber. The sides and bottom of the shell being thick enough to resist crushing by the impact, and also to resist the explosive force of the bursting charge, its effect will, after penetration, be expended on the backing of the armor, or the decks which the armor is intended to screen. Such projectiles are called “blind shells.”

Blakely Projectile.--Capt. Blakely’s projectile has an expanding cap attached to its base by means of a single tap-bolt in the centre. It is prevented from turning by radial grooves cast on the surface of the bottom of the projectile, into which the cup is pressed by the charge. The angle between the curved sides of the cup and the bottom of the projectile is filled with a lubricating material. On the forward part of the body are soft metal studs, more numerous than the grooves of the bore of the piece, that some of them may always form a bearing surface for the projectile against the lands. The driving sides of the grooves are deeper than the others.

Dyer Projectile.--The Dyer projectile is composed of a cast-iron body, and a soft metal expanding cup, attached to its base. The adhesion of the cup is effected by tinning the bottom of the projectile, and then casting the cup on to it. The cup is composed of an alloy of lead, tin, and copper, in certain proportions. This projectile, as improved by Mr. Taylor at the Washington Arsenal, gives good results for even as large a caliber as 12 inches.

French Projectile.--The projectile used in the French field service is made of cast iron, and has 12 zinc studs on its sides, arranged in pairs, so as to fit the 6 grooves of the gun. For the larger cannon projectiles, but 3 studs are used, and these are cast on the projectile, nearly opposite to its centre of gravity; the bearing sides of the studs are faced with white metal to diminish friction against the grooves of the bore. The shape of the grooves is such as to centre the projectile. The latter projectile is used with increasing, the former with grooves of uniform twist. Russian, Austrian, and Spanish artillery projectiles belong to the studded, or button class, but differ from each other in the details of their construction.

Hotchkiss Projectile.--The Hotchkiss projectile is composed of three parts: the body, the expanding ring of lead, and the cast-iron cup. The action of the charge is to crowd the cup against the soft metal ring, thereby expanding it into the rifling of the gun. The time-fuze projectile has deep longitudinal grooves cut on its sides to allow the flame to pass over and ignite the fuze. The last rifle projectile submitted by Mr. Hotchkiss has an expanding cup of brass attached to its base in a peculiar manner. The cup is divided into four parts by thin projections on the base of the projectile. This arrangement is intended to facilitate the expansion of the cup and to allow the flame to pass over to ignite the fuze.

James Projectile.--The expanding part of the James projectile consists of a hollow formed in the base of the projectile, and eight radial openings, which extend from this hollow to the surface for the passage of the flame of the charge, which presses against and expands into the grooves of the bore, an envelope or patch, composed of paper, canvas, and lead. In a later pattern of this projectile, the internal cavity and radial openings are omitted, and the outside is furrowed with longitudinal grooves which increase in depth towards the base of the projectile, forming inclined planes, up which the outer covering of lead and canvas is moved by the force of the charge and expanded into the rifling of the piece.

The first projectile used in Parrott guns was invented by Dr. Reed of Alabama, in 1856 or 1857, and was made at Parrott’s foundry. It consisted of a soft wrought-iron cup, slightly swedged to fit the grooves, upon which was cast the body of the shot.

Palliser Projectile.--This is the most formidable armor-piercing projectile in use. It owes its efficiency to the material used,--chilled cast iron. In the later forms the head only is chilled, the body being cast in sand. Both shot and shell are cast with a core. The shell is “blind.” The curve of the ogival head is struck with a radius of one and one-half times the diameter of the projectile.

Parrott Projectile.--Capt. Parrott’s projectile, as now made, is composed of a cast-iron body with a brass ring cast into a rabbet formed around its base. The flame presses against the bottom of the ring and underneath it so as to expand it into the grooves of the gun. To prevent the ring from turning in the rabbet, the latter is recessed at several points of its circumference. Parrott’s incendiary shell has two compartments formed by a partition at right angles to its length. The lower and larger space is filled with a burning composition, the upper one is filled with a bursting charge of powder, which is fired by a time- or concussion-fuze. The burning composition is introduced through a hole in the bottom of the shell, which is stopped up with a screw-plug.

Sawyer Projectile.--The Sawyer projectile has upon its sides six rectangular flanges or ribs to fit into corresponding grooves of the bore. To soften the contact with the surface of the bore, the entire surface of the projectile is covered with a coating of lead and brass-foil. The soft metal at the corner of the base is made thicker than at the sides to admit of being expanded into the grooves, and thereby closing the windage. In the latest pattern of Sawyer projectiles, the flanges are omitted, and the projectiles are made to take the grooves by the expansion of the soft metal at the base, which is peculiarly shaped for this purpose.

Schenkle Projectile.--Schenkle’s projectile is composed of a cast-iron body, the posterior portion of which is a cone. The expanding portion is a papier-maché sabot or ring, which is expanded into the rifling of the bore by being forced on to the cone by the action of the charge. On issuing from the bore the wad is blown to pieces, leaving the projectile unencumbered in its flight. A great difficulty has been found in practice in always getting a proper quality of material for the sabot, and in consequence, these projectiles have not been found to be reliable.

Scott Projectile.--The shell devised by Commander Scott of the British navy, for firing molten iron, has three ribs cast upon it, which fit grooves so constructed as to centre it in the bore of the gun when fired. The interior of this shell is lined with loam to prevent the heat of the charge from penetrating through to the bursting charge. It is supposed to be broken and its contents diffused on striking the object.

Whitworth Projectile.--The cross-section of the bore of the Whitworth gun is a hexagon with the corners slightly rounded. The projectile is first formed so that its cross-section is a circle, and its sides taper towards both ends. The middle portion is then carefully planed off to fit the bore of the gun. The Whitworth blind shell for firing against armor-plates, is made of tempered steel, and each end is closed with a screw. To prevent the heat of impact from acting too soon on the bursting charge, it is surrounded by one or more thicknesses of flannel. A 7-inch shell of this kind has been found to have sufficient strength and stiffness to penetrate 5 inches of wrought iron before bursting.

Confederate Projectiles.--The rifle projectiles used by the Confederates in the late war belonged, with a few exceptions, to the expanding class. Besides the above there are three kinds of projectiles much used in the U. S. service, viz.:

Absterdam Projectile.--The best form is cast in a single piece, and has an expanding ring of brass which projects three-eighths of an inch beyond the base of the projectile.

Eureka Projectile.--Consists of a cast-iron body in one piece, with a brass sabot; the sabot is an annular disk intended to move on the frustum of a cone with an expanding cup in rear to take the grooves.

Ordnance Projectile.--Consists of a cast-iron body, with a sabot composed of an alloy of lead and tin, which is cast on the base of the projectile, and is held in position by undercuts and dovetails, the action of the charge being to force the sabot on the cast-iron body and to make it take the grooves.

Projectiles of special construction were formerly much used for particular purposes, as:

Bar-shot, which consisted of two hemispheres or spheres connected by a bar of iron either rigidly or in such a manner as to traverse its length; these were useful in cutting the masts and rigging of ships.

Chain-shot.--This differed from bar-shot only in the mode of connection, which was a chain instead of a bar.

Chain-ball.--To arrest the motion of rotation of an oblong projectile thrown under high angles, and with a moderate velocity, it has been proposed to attach a light body to its posterior portion by means of a cord, or chain, which will offer a resistance to the flight of the projectile, and cause it to move with its point foremost.

Nail-ball.--A round projectile, having a projecting pin to prevent it from turning in the bore of the piece.

Grooved Ball.--An oblong projectile, having spiral grooves cut along its base, by means of which the action of the charge produces rotation about the longer axis of the projectile. Sometimes these grooves are cut in the forward part of the projectile for the action of the air. Neither of these plans has succeeded in practice.

Bullets.--A bullet is a leaden projectile discharged from a musket, fowling-piece, pistol, or similar weapon.

Spherical Bullets.--When smooth-bore muskets alone were used the bullets were chiefly spherical in form and made by casting; at present, however, spherical bullets are manufactured by a compressing machine invented by Mr. George Napier. They are denominated by the number contained in a pound. In consequence of the great improvements that have been made of late in small-arms, the spherical bullet is now very little employed for military purposes, its use being chiefly confined to case-shot.

Oblong Bullets.--Are denominated by their diameter and weight. About 1600, when rifles began to be used as a military weapon, spherical bullets were fired; in the early part of the 18th century, however, it was found that good results could be obtained by the use of oblong projectiles of elliptical form. The great difficulty, however, of loading the rifle, which was ordinarily accomplished by the blows of a mallet on a stout iron ramrod, prevented it from being generally used in regular warfare. The foregoing plan was afterwards improved by making the projectile a little smaller than the bore, and wrapping it with a patch of cloth greased to diminish the friction in loading. The improvements which have been made in the last thirty years have entirely overcome this difficulty, and rifles are now almost universally employed, although until 1855 the mass of the American infantry was armed with smooth-bored muskets. The first person to overcome the difficulty of loading rifles was M. Delavigne, an officer of the French infantry. His plan, proposed in 1827, was to make the projectile small enough to enter the bore easily and to attach it to a sabot, which, when in position, rested upon the shoulder of a cylindrical chamber formed at the bottom of the bore to contain the powder. In this position the projectile was struck two or three times with the ramrod, which expanded the lead into the grooves of the barrel. The method of Delavigne was afterwards improved by Thouvenin and Minié, both officers of the French service. The projectiles suggested by them were elongated in form and the metal of the projectile was forced into the grooves of the rifling by means of a plug or cup driven into the base of the projectile, which was cast hollow for that purpose. The cup used in the Minié bullet wits made of sheet-iron. Mr. Greener of England appears to have been the first person to utilize this expanding or dilating action. Various other bullets have been invented, of greater or less usefulness, as the Whitworth, Pritchett or Enfield, and those used in the French, Austrian, and Swiss services. In the British service, the Enfield bullet is employed; this has a perfectly smooth exterior, and a conical boxwood plug inserted into a cavity at the base; they are made by machinery which draws in a coil of leaden rod, unwinds it, cuts it to the required length, stamps out the bullets with steel dies, drops them into boxes, and conveys them away.

United States Bullets.--The bullets used in the U. S. service are of two kinds, one for the rifle and carbine ball-cartridge weighing 405 grains, the other for the revolver cartridge weighing 230 grains. The metal used is an alloy of 16 parts of lead and 1 part of tin. The bullet in shape is a cylinder surmounted by a conical frustum terminating in a spherical segment. It has three rectangular cannelures which contain the lubricant. This latter is protected by the case which covers more than half the length of the bullet. A dished cavity is made in the base of the bullet to bring it to the proper weight.

=Projectiles, Theory of.= Is the investigation of the path, or trajectory as it is called, of a body which is projected into space. A body thus projected is acted upon by two forces, the force of projection, which, if acting alone, would carry the body onwards forever in the same direction and at the same rate; and the force of gravity, which tends to draw the body downwards towards the earth. The force of projection acts only at the commencement of the body’s motion; the force of gravity, on the contrary, continues to act effectively during the whole time of the body’s motion, drawing it farther and farther from its original direction, and causing it to describe a curved path, which, if the body moved in a vacuum, would be accurately a parabola.

Trajectory in Vacuo.--This general theory is not the object of the present discussion, but simply the theory of projectiles as far as it relates to fire-arms. The path that the centre of gravity of a projectile would describe in vacuo would be a parabola, and the greatest range given by an angle of fire of 45°. Under the same angles of fire the range would be proportional to the squares of the velocities, the velocity least at the summit of the trajectory, and the velocities at the two points in which the trajectory cuts the horizontal plane equal. The time of flight would be given for an angle of 45° by the formula:

T = ¹⁄₄√X

In which T represents the time of flight, and X the range expressed in feet. These results are found to answer in practice for projectiles which experience slight resistance from the air, or for heavy projectiles moving with low velocities, as is usually the case with those of mortars and howitzers, for which, within certain limits, the above results are sufficiently accurate in practice.

Trajectory in Air.--A body moving in air experiences a resistance which diminishes the velocity with which it is animated. Thus it has been shown that certain cannon-balls do not range one-eighth as far in the air, as they would if they did not meet with this resistance to their motion, and small-arm projectiles which have but little mass are still more affected by it. This resistance is expressed by the formula:

( v) P = A{p}R_²(1 + ---)_v_²; ( r)

in which P represents the resistance in the terms of the unit of weight, v the velocity, and _pR_² the area of a cross-section of the projectile, A the resistance in pounds on a square foot of the cross-section of a projectile moving with a velocity of one foot, r is a linear quantity depending on the velocity of the projectile. For all service spherical projectiles A is .000514, and for all service velocities r is 1.427 feet; the value of A for the rifle-musket bullet is .000358; hence, the resistance of the air is about one-third less on the ogival than on the spherical form of projectile. A being a function of the density of air, its value depends on the temperature, pressure, and hygrometric condition. It has been demonstrated that the final velocity of a projectile falling in the air is directly proportional to the product of its diameter and density, and inversely proportional to the density of the air; the retarding effect of the air is less on the larger and denser projectiles, and for the same caliber an oblong projectile will be less retarded by the air than one of spherical form and consequently with an equal, perhaps less, initial velocity, its range will be greater. It has also been shown that great advantage in point of range is obtained by using large projectiles instead of small ones, solid projectiles instead of hollow ones, leaden projectiles instead of iron ones, and oblong projectiles instead of round ones. The ogival form, or the form of the present rifle-musket bullet, experiences less resistance in passing through the air than any other known. In consequence of the variable nature of the resistance of the air, it has been found impossible to find an accurate expression for the trajectory. Capt. Didion, of Metz, has, however, found an approximate solution; he states that all cases of the movement of a projectile may be divided into three classes: 1st. When the angle of projection is slight or does not exceed 3°, as in the ordinary fire of guns, howitzers, and small-arms,--for slight variations of the angle of projection above or below the horizontal, the form of the trajectory may be considered constant, and when the object is but slightly raised above or depressed below the horizontal plane, it may be considered as in this plane. 2d. When angles of projection do not exceed 10° or 15°, as in the ricochet fire of guns, howitzers, and mortars. 3d. When the angle of projection exceeds 15°, as is the case in mortar fire. For each of these cases he has deduced formulæ, by means of which the range, time of flight, etc., can be determined. As a projectile rises in the ascending branch of its trajectory, its velocity is diminished by the retarding effect of the air, and the force of gravity, in consequence of the resistance of the air alone, the velocity continues to diminish to a point a little beyond the summit of the trajectory, where it is a minimum, and from this point it increases, as it descends, under the influence of the force of gravity, until it becomes uniform, which event depends on the diameter and weight of the projectile, and the density of the air.

The inclination of the trajectory decreases from the origin to the summit, where it is nothing, it increases in the descending branch from the summit to its termination, and if the ground did not interpose an obstacle, it would become vertical at an infinite distance. An element of the trajectory in the descending branch has a greater inclination than the corresponding element of the ascending branch. Strictly speaking, therefore, the trajectory of a projectile in air is not a parabola, but is an exponential curve with two asymptotes, the first the axis of the piece, which is tangent to the trajectory when the initial velocity is infinite, the second a vertical line toward which the trajectory approaches, as the horizontal component of the velocity diminishes and the effect of the force of gravity increases. The curvature of the trajectory increases in the ascending branch to a point a little beyond the summit. The point of greatest curvature is situated nearer the summit than the point of minimum velocity. In the fire of mortar-shells, under great angles of projection, the trajectory may be considered as an arc, in which the angle of fall is slightly greater than the angle of projection. In the formulæ deduced by Didion, in consequence of considering the inclination of the trajectory as constant, the resistance of the air is slightly underestimated in the more inclined portions of the trajectory or at the beginning and end, and slightly overestimated in the less inclined portions or about the summit. It follows that the calculated trajectory will at first rise above the true one, then pass below it and again pass above it; the calculated ranges are therefore slightly in excess of the true ones.

Trajectory of Oblong Projectiles.--From the law of inertia, a rifle projectile moves through the air with its axis of rotation parallel to the axis of the bore. Hence it follows that an oblong projectile, fired under a low angle of projection, presents a greater surface toward the earth, and less parallel to it, than a round projectile of the same weight, consequently the vertical component of the resistance of the air is greater, and the horizontal component less, in the first case than in the second. The effect of this will be to give an oblong projectile a flatter trajectory and longer range than a round one.

Deviation of Projectiles.--The path described by the centre of inertia of a projectile, moving under the influences of gravity and the tangential resistance of the air, is called the normal trajectory. In practice, various causes are constantly at work to deflect a projectile from its normal path. All deviating causes may be divided into two classes,--those which act while the projectile is in the bore of the piece, and those which act after the projectile has left it. The first class includes all the causes which affect the initial velocity, and give rotation to the projectile; the second includes the action of the air.

Causes which affect Initial Velocity.--The principal causes which affect initial velocity are variations in the weights of the powder and projectile, the manner of loading, the temperature of the piece, and the balloting of the projectile along the bore. Rotation. The principal cause of the deviation of a projectile is its rotation combined with the resistance of the air. By balloting. If the projectile be spherical and homogeneous, rotation is produced by the bounding or balloting of the ball in the bore, arising from the windage. In this case the axis of rotation is horizontal, and passes through the centre of the ball; the direction of rotation depends on the side of the projectile which strikes the surface of the bore last. The velocity of rotation from this cause depends on the windage, or depth of the indentations in the bore, the charge being the same. By eccentricity. If, from the structure of the ball, or from some defect of manufacture, the centre of gravity does not coincide with the centre of figure, rotation generally takes place around the centre of gravity. This arises from the fact that the resultant of the charge acts at the centre of figure, while inertia, or resistance to motion, acts at the centre of gravity. For the same charge the velocity of rotation passes through the centre of gravity, and is perpendicular to a plane containing the resultant of the charge and the centres of figure and gravity. For the same charge, the velocity of rotation is proportional to the lever arm, or the perpendicular, let fall from the centre of gravity to the resultant of the charge. Knowing the position of the centre of gravity of the ball in the bore, it is easy to foretell the direction and velocity of rotation. In general terms the front surface of the projectile moves toward the side of the bore on which the centre of gravity is situated, and the velocity of rotation is greatest when the line joining the centres of gravity and figure is perpendicular to the axis of the bore.

The Effect of Rotation.--The effect of rotation in producing deviation may be discussed under three heads: 1st. When the projectile is spherical and concentric; 2d. When it is spherical and eccentric; and, 3d. When it is oblong. If a projectile be spherical and concentric, rotation takes place from contact with the surface of the bore around a horizontal axis, and the effect will be to shorten or lengthen the range, as the motion of the front surface is downward or upward. If the projectile be eccentric, the motion of the front surface is generally toward the side on which the centre of gravity is situated, and the deviation takes place in this direction. The extent of the deviation for the same charge depends on the position of the centre of gravity; the horizontal deviation being the greatest when the centres of gravity and figure are in a horizontal plane, and the line which joins them is at right angles to the axis of the piece; the vertical deviation will be the greatest when these centres are in a vertical plane, and the line which joins them is at right angles to the axis of the piece. If the axis of rotation coincide with the tangent to the trajectory throughout the flight, all points of the surface have the same velocity in the direction of the motion of translation, and there will be no deviation. This explains why it is that a rifle projectile moves through the air more accurately than a projectile from a smooth-bored gun. In accurate firing, therefore, it is important to know the true position of the centre of gravity. In ricochet firing over smooth water, the number of grazes may be increased or diminished by placing, in loading, the centre of gravity above or below the centre of figure.

Deviation of Oblong Projectiles.--The cause of the deviation of an oblong rifle projectile is quite different from one of spherical form. An oblong projectile moving in the air is acted upon by two rotary forces, viz.: one which gives it its normal rotary motion around its axis of progression, and another the resistance of the air, which, in consequence of the deflection of the axis of progression from the tangent to the trajectory by the action of gravity, does not pass through the centre of inertia, but above or below it; depending on the shape of the projectile. From a law of mechanics, a body thus circumstanced will not yield fully to either of the forces that thus act upon it, but its apex will move off with a slow uniform motion to the right or left of the vertical plane, depending on the relative direction of the two rotary forces. If the action of these forces be continued sufficiently long, it will be seen that the axis of the projectile before referred to describes a cone around a line passing through the centre of inertia and parallel to the direction of the resistance of the air. Owing to the short duration of the flight of an ordinary projectile, it is only necessary to consider the first part of this conical motion. If the projectile rotates in the direction of the hands of a watch to the eye of the marksman, and the resultant of the resistance of the air pass above the centre of inertia, as it does in the service bullet with a conoidal point, then the point of the projectile will move to the right, which brings the left side of the projectile obliquely in contact with the current of the air. The effect of this position with reference to the air will be to generate a component force that will urge the projectile to the right of the plane of fire. This peculiar deviation was called by the French officers that first observed it, “derivation,” or “drift.”

Summary of Deviating Causes.--The following summary may be considered as embracing nearly all the causes of deviation of cannon and small-arm projectiles: 1st. From the construction of the piece. These causes are, wrong position of the sight; bore not of the true size; windage, etc. 2d. From the charge of powder. Improper weight; form of grain and variable quality of the powder, etc. 3d. From the projectile. Not of the exact size, shape, or weight; disfiguration in loading, or on leaving the bore; eccentricity. 4th. From the atmosphere, etc. The effect of wind; variations in the temperature, moisture, and density of the air; position of the sun as regards the effect on the aim; difference of level between the object and the piece; and rotation of the earth. It is found that a projectile will deviate to the right of the object in the northern hemisphere whatever may be the direction of the line of fire, and at a distance from it, depending on the latitude of the place, and on the time of flight and the range of the projectile.

=Projectiles, Effects of.= The effects of projectiles, and particularly that of penetration, depend on the nature of the projectile, its initial velocity, and the distance of the object. The effects of the various kinds of projectiles upon iron and steel plates are not yet thoroughly understood, and experiments are still being made, particularly in England, to determine the best combinations of wrought and cast iron, and steel, to resist the penetration of the enormous projectiles of the present day. Their effects upon wood, earth, etc., are, however, better understood.

Effect on Wood.--The effect of a projectile fired against wood varies with the nature of the wood and the direction of the penetration. If the projectile strikes perpendicular to the fibres, and the fibres be tough and elastic, as in the case of oak, a portion of them are crushed, and others are bent under the pressure of the projectile, but regain their form as soon as it has passed by them. In consequence of the softness of white pine, nearly all the fibres struck are broken, and the orifice is nearly the size of the projectile; for the same reason the effects of the projectile do not extend much beyond the orifice; pine is therefore to be preferred to oak for structures that are not intended to resist cannon projectiles, as block-houses, etc.

Effect on Earth.--Earth possesses advantages over all other materials as a covering against projectiles; it is cheap and easily obtained, it offers considerable resistance to penetration, and to a certain extent regains its position after displacement. It is found by experience that a projectile has very little effect on an earthen parapet unless it passes completely through it. Wherever masonry is liable to be breached, it should be masked by earthworks with natural slopes. Gen. Gillmore states that the powers of resistance of pure, compact, quartz sand to the penetration of projectiles very much exceed that of ordinary earth, or mixture of several earths. The size of the openings formed by the passage of a projectile into the earth is about one-third larger than the projectile, increasing, however, towards the outer orifice. Rifle projectiles especially are easily deflected from their course in earth, hence their penetration is variable. Unless a shell be very large in proportion to the mass of earth penetrated, its explosion will produce but little displacement,--generally, a small opening is formed around an exploded shell by the action of the gas in pressing back the earth. Time-fuzes, being liable to be extinguished by the pressure of the earth, are inferior to percussion-fuzes, which produce explosion when the projectile has made about three-fourths of its proper penetration. The penetration in earth of oblong, compared to round projectiles, when fired with service charges, and at a distance of about 400 yards, is at least one-fourth greater. This difference, however, is less at short and greater at long distances. The penetrations of similar projectiles into a given substance, are proportional to the squares of the velocities of impact and to the diameters and densities of the projectiles.

Penetration in Water.--The penetration of a rifle projectile in water depends much on the direction of its axis with respect to penetration; for instance, penetration rapidly diminishes at long distances, as the axis of the projectile strikes the surface of the water under a diminished angle.

Effect on Masonry.--The effect of a projectile against masonry is to form a truncated conical hole, terminated by another of a cylindrical form. The material in front of and around the projectile is broken and shattered, and the end of the cylindrical hole even reduced to powder. The exterior opening varies from four to five times the diameter of the projectile, and the depth varies with the size and density of the projectile, and its velocity. When a projectile strikes against a surface of oak, as the side of a ship, it will not stick if the angle of incidence be less than 15°, and if it do not penetrate to a depth nearly equal to its diameter. Solid cast-iron shot break against granite, but not against freestone or brick. Shells are broken into small fragments against each of these materials.

Breaching.--Formerly stone projectiles were much used for breaching, but from the want of sufficient hardness in these projectiles, the besiegers were forced to commence battering at the top of the wall where the least resistance was offered, and gradually to lower the shot until the breach reached the wrecks already formed at the base of the wall. Iron projectiles superseded stone, and then more rapid modes of effecting a practicable breach were suggested. The easiest manner of making the cut is to direct the shots upon the same line, and form a series of holes a little greater than a diameter apart, and then to fire a second series of shots, directed at the intervals between the first, and so on, until an opening is made completely through the wall. If the portion of the wall between the vertical cuts should not be overthrown by the pressure of the earth behind, it must be detached by a few volleys of solid shot, fired at its centre.

Breaching with Rifle-cannon.--The foregoing has reference particularly to breaching masonry with smooth-bored guns. The same principle is applicable to rifled guns, the only difference being that, from their superior penetration and accuracy, the latter are effective at much longer distances. The most destructive projectile against masonry is the elongated percussion shell.

Effect of Bullets.--From experiments made in Denmark, the following relations were found between the penetration of a bullet in pine and its effects on the body of a living horse, viz.: 1st. When the force of the bullet is sufficient to penetrate 0.31 inch into pine, it is only sufficient to produce a slight contusion of the skin. 2d. When the force of penetration is equal to 0.63 inch, the wound begins to be dangerous, but does not disable. 3d. When the force of penetration is equal to 1.2 inch, the wound is very dangerous. A plate of wrought iron three-sixteenths of an inch thick, is sufficient to resist a rifle-musket bullet at distances varying from 20 to 200 yards. Iron of thickness, however, will not resist bullets of the present day. That a rope mantlet may give full protection against rifle-musket bullets, it should be composed of five layers (three vertical and two horizontal) of 4¹⁄₂-inch rope.

=Projection.= In mathematics, the action of giving a projectile its motion. It is also used to signify a scheme, plan, or delineation.

=Proking-spit.= A large Spanish rapier.

=Prolongation.= An extension of leave of absence, or a continuation of service.

=Prolongation of the Line.= Is effected by parallel movements at the right or left of any given number of men on a front division.

=Prolonge.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Prolonge-hooks.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY CARRIAGE.

=Promotion.= This word signifies, in military matters, the elevation of an individual to some appointment of greater rank and trust to the one he holds.

=Promulgation.= The act of promulgating; publication; open declaration; as, the promulgation of the sentence of a court-martial.

=Proof.= A term applied to the testing of powder, and also of ordnance, which are always fired with a regulated charge of powder and shot, to test their strength and soundness.

=Proof.= Conclusive evidence.

=Proof.= Capable of withstanding; as, bomb-proof, shot-proof.

=Propel.= To drive forward; to urge or press onward by force; to move or cause to move; balls are propelled by the force of gunpowder.

=Proper.= A term which serves to mark out a thing more especially and formally. Thus, the proper form of a battalion is the usual continuity of line given to the formation of a battalion, and which remains unaltered by the wheelings of its divisions; or if altered, is restored by the same operation. Proper right, is the right of a battalion, company, or subdivision, when it is drawn up according to its natural formation. Proper pivot flank, in column, is that which, when wheeled up to, preserves the division of the line in the natural order, and to their proper front. The other may be called the reverse flank.

=Proper.= In heraldry, a charge borne of its natural color, is said to be proper. An object whose color varies at different times and in different examples, as a rose which may be white or red cannot be borne proper.

=Prosecute.= To carry on; to continue; as, to prosecute the war. Also, to accuse of some crime or breach of law, or to pursue for punishment before a legal tribunal; to proceed against judicially.

=Prosecutor.= In courts-martial the judge-advocate is usually the prosecutor; but if an officer prefers a charge, he sometimes appears to sustain the prosecution. No person can appear as prosecutor not subject to the articles of war, except the judge-advocate.--Hough.

=Proveditor.= One employed to procure supplies for an army; a purveyor.

=Proving-ground.= Ground used for testing powder or ordnance.

=Provision.= Properly to victual; to furnish with provisions.

=Provost.= The temporary prison in which the military police confine prisoners till they are disposed of.

=Provost Cells.= Also called regimental or garrison cells, in the British service are those certified cells under a provost or acting provost-sergeant, in which court-martial prisoners may be imprisoned up to forty-two days.

=Provost-Marshal.= In the army, is an officer appointed to superintend the preservation of order, and to be, as it were, the head of the police of any particular camp, town, or district. He has cognizance of all camp-followers, as well as members of the army. His power is summary, and he can punish an offender, taken flagrante delicto, on the spot, according to the articles of war.

=Provost-Sergeant.= Is a sergeant who is charged with the military police of a corps. He is generally given one or two non-commissioned officers as assistants. In the British service he also is charged with the custody of all prisoners in the cells.

=Prowess.= Valor; bravery in the field; military gallantry.

=Prowlers.= Are persons who steal within the lines of a hostile army for the purpose of robbing, killing; or destroying bridges, roads, mails, or other means of communication. Such persons are not entitled to the privileges usually accorded to prisoners of war.

=Prussia.= A kingdom of the new German empire. The people of Prussia first appear in history in the 10th century, under the name of Borussi; from these the country derives its name. Some historians, however, derive the name from Po, signifying near, and Russia. The Prussians were subjected by Boleslaus of Poland in 1018; they made a successful stand against Boleslaus IV. of Poland in 1161, and for a time maintained a rude and savage kind of independence. The Teutonic Knights were engaged in war for half a century with the people,--winning lands and souls by hard fighting,--until at length, in 1283, they found themselves undisputed masters of the country, having almost exterminated the pagan population. During this period the knights founded many cities and repeopled the country with German colonists. In 1454 the municipal and noble classes, with the co-operation of Poland, rose in open rebellion against the knights, who were forced to cede West Prussia and Ermland to Poland. Albert (or Albrecht) of Brandenburg was acknowledged duke of East Prussia in 1525; his son-in-law, John Sigismund, created elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia in 1608. The reign of John Sigismund’s successor, Georg-Wilhelm (1619-1640), was distracted by the miseries of the Thirty Years’ War, and the country was alternately the prey of Swedish and imperial armies. The electorate was raised by the genius of Frederick William, the great elector, to the rank of a great European power. His successor, Frederick III. (1688-1713), was proclaimed king of Prussia by the title of Frederick I. in 1701. During the reign of Frederick William IV., Prussia co-operated powerfully in putting down the insurrections in Poland and Baden. In the war of the Schleswig-Holstein duchies, the Prussians acted in concert with the disaffected against their sovereign, the king of Denmark, occupying the ducal provinces in the name and on behalf of the diet. A treaty of peace was concluded between Prussia and Denmark, on July 2, 1850. In 1863 the allied Prussian and Austrian armies entered the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein and defeated the Danes; the duchies were separated from Denmark. Warm disputes with Austria respecting Schleswig-Holstein arose in the beginning of 1866. The vote of the majority of the diet of the Germanic Confederation supported Austria; Prussia announced her withdrawal from the confederation, and its dissolution; the diet declared itself indissoluble, and continued its functions, June 14, 1866. War was declared by Prussia, June 18, 1866, which ended in the total defeat of Austria and her allies. A treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia was signed at Prague on August 23, 1866. By its articles Austria consented to the breaking up of the Germanic Confederation, and to Prussia’s annexing Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort-on-the-Main, and gave up Holstein and her political influence in North Germany. For further history, see FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR.

=Pruth.= A river of Europe, which rises in the Carpathian Mountains. It forms a portion of the boundary-line between Russia and Turkey, and by crossing it, in 1853, the Russians gave rise to the war with Turkey and the subsequent Crimean war.

=Psiloi.= Among the Greeks, were light-armed men who fought with arrows and darts, or stones and slings, but were unfit for close fight. They were in honor and dignity inferior to the heavy-armed soldiers.

=Publish.= To make known. In a garrison orders are published by being read at parade. Orders are also published by circulating written copies.

=Puebla=, or =La Puebla de los Angeles=. Capital of the department of Puebla, in Mexico, 80 miles southeast from the city of Mexico. It was taken by the French on May 17, 1863, after a siege of several weeks’ duration, the Mexican general Ortega, with 18,000 men, surrendering to Gen. Forey. This event threw open the road to Mexico, and was the immediate precursor of the overthrow of the government of Juarez.

=Pueblo Indians= (Sp. pueblo, “village”). An interesting class of semi-civilized Indians in New Mexico and Arizona, so called from their remarkable residences, a description of some of which may be found under MOQUIS INDIANS. They are divided into several tribes speaking different languages. Their internal administration is patriarchal, each pueblo or village being ruled by its governor and council of three elders.

=Pulk.= A tribe; a particular body of men. This word is chiefly used in Russia; as, a pulk of Cossacks.

=Pultowa.= See POLTAVA.

=Pultusk.= A town of Poland in the government of Plock, situated on the Narew, 35 miles north-northeast from Warsaw. Here on December 26, 1806, was fought one of the battles of the campaign of Eylau, between the Russians and the French. The field was most obstinately contested, but the victory, which, however, was claimed by both armies, inclined in favor of the French.

=Pummel.= The hilt of a sword, the end of a gun, etc.

=Puncto.= The point in fencing.

=Punic Wars.= The name of three celebrated contests, in which the Romans and Carthaginians were engaged from the year 264 to 146 B.C., and which finally terminated with the destruction of Carthage. It was in the second war, which began in 218, that the Carthaginian commander Hannibal rendered himself so distinguished by his victories over the Romans. The illustrious Scipio was eventually the conqueror of Hannibal and the victor of Carthage. Punic faith is a reproachful term in frequent use, derived from Punici, or Carthaginians, because they were considered by the Romans a perfidious race.

=Punishment, Military.= In a military sense, is the execution of a sentence pronounced by a court-martial upon any delinquent. The Romans punished crimes committed by the soldiery with the utmost rigor. On the occurrence of a mutiny, every tenth, twentieth, or hundredth man was sometimes chosen by lot, but generally only the ringleaders were selected for punishment. Deserters and seditious persons were frequently, after being scourged, sold for slaves; and occasionally the offender was made to lose his right hand, or was bled nearly to death. Among the nations of Western Europe, the punishments for military offenses were, till lately, no less severe than they were among the Romans. Besides the infliction of a certain number of lashes with cords, soldiers convicted of theft, marauding, or any other breach of discipline which was not punishable with death, were sentenced to run the gantlope. (See GANTLOPE.) In Russia the knout was extensively used. (See KNOUT.) It is often necessary to punish to maintain discipline, and the rules and articles of war provide ample means of punishment, but not sufficient rewards and guards against errors of judgment. In the French army degrading punishments are illegal, but soldiers may be confined to quarters or deprived of the liberty of leaving the garrison; confined in the guard-room, in prison, or in dungeon; required to walk or to perform hard labor; and officers may be subjected to simple or rigorous arrests. Every officer who inflicts a punishment, must account for it to his superior, who approves or disapproves, confirms, augments, or diminishes it. If an inferior is confined to the guard-room, he cannot be liberated except upon application to a superior. Any officer who has been subjected to punishment, must, when relieved, make a visit to him who ordered it. The French code has, in a word, been careful to provide for both the security of its citizens and the strength of authority. The punishments established by law or custom for U. S. soldiers by sentence of court-martial, are embodied in the Articles of War. (See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR.) It is regarded as inhuman to punish by solitary confinement, or confinement on bread and water exceeding fourteen days at a time, or for more than eighty-four days in a year, at intervals of fourteen days.

=Punitz.= A town of Prussia in the province of Posen. A battle was fought here in 1706, between the Saxons and the Swedes, in which the latter were victorious.

=Punjab=, or =Five Rivers=. An extensive river of Hindostan, situated chiefly in the province of Lahore, but including Moultan, and comprising the country traversed by the “five great waters,” or rivers, of which the Indus is the most westerly, and the Sutlej the most easterly. This region was traversed by Alexander the Great in 327 B.C.; and again by Tamerlane in 1398. The wars with the Sikhs began here on March 29, 1849, when the Punjab was annexed to the British possessions in India.

=Punkah.= A swinging fan used in the hot districts of India.

=Purchasing.= Any person purchasing from any soldier his arms, uniform, clothing, or any part thereof, may be punished by any civil court having cognizance of the same, by fine in any sum not exceeding $300, or by imprisonment not exceeding one year.--Act of March 16, 1802.

=Purpure.= In heraldry, the color purple, expressed in engravings by lines in bend sinister. It is of unfrequent occurrence in British heraldry.

=Pursuit.= The act of following or going after; a following with haste, either for sport or hostility; as, the pursuit of an enemy.

=Pursuivant.= The third and lowest order of heraldic officers. The office was instituted as a novitiate, or state of probation, through which the offices of herald and king-at-arms were ordinarily to be attained, though it has been held that a herald or king-at-arms may be made per saltum. For the present titles of the several British pursuivants, see HERALD. In ancient times any great nobleman might institute his own pursuivant with his own hands and by his single authority. The dukes of Norfolk had a pursuivant called Blanch-lyon, from the white lion in their arms; the pursuivant of the dukes of Northumberland was styled Espérance from the Percy motto, and Richard Nevil, earl of Salisbury, had a pursuivant called Egle vert.

=Purveyor.= A person employed to make purchases, or to provide food, medicines, and necessaries for the sick.

=Push.= To press against with force; to drive or impel by pressure; as, to push back an enemy.

=Push.= An assault or attack; a forcible onset; a vigorous effort.

=Put to the Sword, To.= To kill with the sword; to slay.

=Puteoli= (the modern Puzzuoli). A celebrated seaport town of Campania, was situated on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Baiæ. A colony from the neighboring Greek city of Cumæ founded it in 521 B.C., under the name of Dicæarchia. In the second Punic war the Romans fortified it, and changed its name into that of Puteoli. It was destroyed by Alaric in 410, by Genseric in 455, and also by Totila in 545, but was on each occasion speedily rebuilt. In the 9th century the Lombard dukes of Benevento reduced it.

=Putteeala.= A town of British India, capital of a dependent native state of the same name, in Sirhind, on the Kosilla, 1023 miles northwest of Calcutta. It was taken possession of by the British in 1809, but the rajah retains the sovereignty, on condition of furnishing a certain number of troops in case of war to the British government.

=Puzzuoli=, or =Pozzuoli=. See PUTEOLI.

=Pydna= (now Kitron). A town of Macedonia, in the district Pieria, was situated at a small distance west of the Thermaic Gulf, on which it had a harbor. It was originally a Greek colony, but was subdued by the Macedonian kings, from whom, however, it frequently revolted. Toward the end of the Peloponnesian war it was taken after a long siege by Archelaus. It again revolted from the Macedonians, and was subdued by Philip, who enlarged and fortified the place. It was here that Olympias sustained a long siege against Cassander, 317-16 B.C. It is especially memorable on account of the victory gained under its walls by Æmilius Paulus over Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, 168 B.C.

=Pylos=, or =Pilus=. In the southwest of Messenia, was situated at the foot of Mount Ægaleos on a promontory at the northern entrance of the basin, now called the Bay of Navarino, the largest and safest harbor of Greece. In the second Messenian war the inhabitants of Pylos offered a long and brave resistance to the Spartans; but after the capture of Ira, they were obliged to quit their native country with the rest of the Messenians. It again became memorable in the Peloponnesian war, when the Athenians under Demosthenes built a fort on the promontory Coryphasium, a little south of the ancient city, and just within the northern entrance of the harbor (425 B.C.). The attempts of the Spartans to dislodge the Athenians proved unavailing; and the capture by Cleon of the Spartans, who had landed in the island of Sphacteria, was one of the most important events in the whole war.

=Pyramids, Battle of the.= So called from having taken place close to the large pyramids in the plain of Mummies, at Waardam, within a few miles of Grand Cairo. A previous engagement had been fought on July 15, 1799, between the Mamelukes under Murad Bey and the French army, commanded by Bonaparte in person. On July 21, 1799, the second battle, called the “battle of the Pyramids,” was fought, when Bonaparte defeated the Mamelukes under Murad Bey and thus subdued Lower Egypt.

=Pyrenees, Battle of the.= The Pyrenees are a chain of mountains which separate Spain from France, and are nearly 75 miles broad. Towards the close of the Peninsular war, in 1813, these mountains were the scene of many severe conflicts between the British troops under the Duke of Wellington and the French forces under Marshal Soult. After the defeat of Joseph Bonaparte at Vittoria, Soult took the command of the French armies as lieutenant de l’empereur; and after addressing the beaten soldiery in language that proved fatally unprophetic, he hastened to relieve the beleaguered fortresses, and the result was “the battles of the Pyrenees.” Pampeluna, Roncesvalles, Maya, Orthez, etc., were the seats of the principal struggles. For nine days the armies had been in each other’s presence; and in severe operations and desperate fighting these days were unexampled. The allied casualties exceeded 7000 men,--and those of the French might be safely set down at 15,000.

=Pyrgi.= Movable towers, used by the Greeks in scaling the walls of besieged towns. They were driven forward upon wheels, and were divided into different stories, capable of carrying a great number of soldiers and military engines.

=Pyroboli.= Fireballs, used both by the Greeks and Romans. They seem to have been the very same as the malleoli.

=Pyrometer.= An instrument for determining the pressure of fired gunpowder by the registered compression of oil,--invented by Dr. W. E. Woodbridge, and used by him and Maj. Mordecai (U. S. Ordnance Department) in experiments at Washington Arsenal, 1854-55. It consists of a small hollow steel cylinder filled with oil and a piston which is pressed inwards upon the oil by the powder gases. The piston has a small stem projecting inwards, which is guided by a tube in the bottom of the cylinder. A steel point presses against the stem and scratches a line upon it, when the piston is moved. The pyrometer is received by a hollow screw-plug placed in the side of the gun at the point where the pressure is to be taken. This instrument is probably the most accurate and delicate one ever invented for the purpose. In the experiments it recorded certain vibrations in the column of gases, which have been generally neglected by theorists on the subject, but which are of great importance to the life of the gun. It seems unfortunate that an instrument which promised so much should have been allowed to fall into disuse, if not almost oblivion.

=Pyrotechny.= Is the art of preparing ammunition and fireworks for military and ornamental purposes. (See AMMUNITION.) Military fireworks comprise preparations for the service of cannon ammunition, and for signal, light, incendiary, and defensive and offensive purposes. The term composition is applied to all mechanical mixtures which, by combustion, produce the effects sought to be attained in pyrotechny. The preparations for the service of ammunition are slow-match, quick-match, port-fires, friction-tubes, and fuzes.

Slow-match is used to preserve fire. It may be made of hemp or cotton rope; if made of hemp, the rope is saturated with acetate of lead, or the lye of wood-ashes; if made of cotton, it is only necessary that the strands be well twisted. Slow-match burns from 4 to 5 inches in an hour.

Quick-match is made of cotton-yarn (candle-wick) saturated with a composition of mealed powder and gummed spirits; after saturation, the yarn is wound on a reel, sprinkled (dredged) with mealed powder and left to dry. It is used to communicate fire, and burns at the rate of one yard in thirteen seconds. The rate of burning may be much increased by inclosing it in a thin paper tube called a leader.

Port-fire is a paper case containing a composition, the flame of which is capable of quickly igniting primers, quick-match, etc. A port-fire is about 22 inches long, and burns with an intense flame for ten minutes.

Friction-tube is at present the principal preparation for firing cannon; it has the advantage of portability and certainty of fire. It is composed of two brass tubes soldered at right angles. The upper, or short tube contains a charge of friction-powder, and the roughed extremity of a wire loop, the long tube is filled with rifle-powder, and is inserted in the vent of the piece. When the extremity of the loop is violently pulled by means of a lanyard, through its hole in the long tube, sufficient heat is generated to ignite the friction-powder which surrounds it, and this communicates with the grained powder in the long tube. The charge of grained powder has sufficient force to pass through the longest vent, and penetrate several thicknesses of cartridge-cloth.

Fuzes.--See FUZE.

Fireworks for Signals.--The preparations for signals are rockets and blue-lights.

Signal-Rockets.--The principal parts of a signal-rocket are the case, the composition, the pot, the decorations, and the stick. The case is made by rolling stout paper around a former. The vent is formed by choking one end of the case.

Composition.--A variety of compositions are employed for signal-rockets; a mixture of nitre 12 parts, sulphur 2 parts, charcoal 2 parts, is frequently used. The pot is formed of a paper cylinder, slipped over and pasted to the top of the case; it is surmounted with a paper cone, filled with tow. The object of the pot is to contain the decorations which are scattered through the air by the explosion which takes place when the rocket reaches the summit of its trajectory; the explosion is produced by a small charge of mealed powder. The decorations of rockets are stars, serpents, marrons, gold rain, rain of fire, etc.

Stars.--The compositions for stars are, for white: nitre 7 parts, sulphur 3 parts, mealed powder 2 parts; for red: chlorate of potassa 7 parts, sulphur 4 parts, lampblack 1 part, nitrate of strontia 12 parts; blue: chlorate of potassa 3 parts, sulphur 1 part, ammoniacal sulphate of copper 1 part; yellow: chlorate of potassa 4 parts, sulphur 2 parts, sulphate of strontia 1 part, bicarbonate of soda 1 part.

Serpents.--The case of a serpent is similar to that of a rocket; the composition is driven in, and the top is closed with moist plaster of Paris. The composition is nitre 3 parts, sulphur 3 parts, mealed powder 16 parts, charcoal ¹⁄₂ part.

Marrons.--Marrons are small paper shells, or cubes, filled with grained powder, and primed with a short piece of quick-match.

Stick.--The stick is a tapering piece of pine, about nine times the length of the case.

Blue Light.--A very brilliant bluish light may be made of the following ingredients, viz.: nitre 14 parts, sulphur 3.7 parts, realgar 1 part, mealed powder 1 part; the brilliancy depends on the purity and thorough incorporation of the ingredients.

Incendiary Fireworks.--Incendiary preparations are fire-stone, carcasses, incendiary-match, and hot shot.

Fire-stone is a composition that burns slowly, but intensely; it is placed in a shell, along with the bursting charge, for the purpose of setting fire to ships, buildings, etc. It is composed of nitre 10 parts, sulphur 4 parts, antimony 1 part, rosin 3 parts.

Carcass.--A common shell may be loaded as a carcass by placing the bursting charge at the bottom of the cavity, and covering it with carcass composition, driven in until the shell is nearly full, and then inserting four or five strands of quick-match. This projectile, after burning as a carcass, explodes as a shell. See CARCASS.

Incendiary-match.--Is made by boiling slow-match in a saturated solution of nitre, drying it, cutting it into pieces, and plunging it into melted fire-stone. It is principally used in loaded shells.

Hot Shot.--See HOT SHOT.

Fireworks for Light.--The preparations for producing light are fire-balls, light-balls, tarred-links, pitched-fascines, and torches.

Fire-ball.--A fire-ball is an oval-shaped canvas sack filled with combustible composition. It is intended to be thrown from a mortar to light up the works of an enemy, and is loaded with a shell to prevent it from being approached and extinguished. The composition for a fire-ball consists of nitre 8 parts, sulphur 2 parts, antimony 1 part. The bottom of the sack is protected from the force of the charge by an iron cup called a culob, and the whole is covered and strengthened with a net-work of spun-yarn or wire, and then overlaid with a composition of pitch, rosin, etc.

Light-ball.--These are made in the same manner as fire-balls, the shell being omitted.

Tarred-links.--Tarred links are used for lighting up a rampart, defile, etc., or for incendiary purposes. They consist of coils of soft rope placed on top of each other, and loosely tied together; they are immersed in a composition of 20 parts of pitch, and one of tallow; when dry, they are plunged into a composition of equal parts of pitch and rosin, and rolled in tow or sawdust.

Pitched-fascines.--Fagots of vine twigs or other very combustible wood, about 20 inches long and 4 inches in diameter, tied in three places with iron wire. They may be treated in the same manner and used for the same purposes as tarred-links.

Torches.--A torch is a ball of rope impregnated with an inflammable composition, and is fastened to the end of a stick, which is carried in the hand.

Offensive and Defensive Fireworks.--The principal preparations of this class, employed in modern warfare, are bags of powder and light-barrels.

Bags of Powder.--Bags or cases of powder may be used to blow down gates, stockades, or form breaches in thin walls. The petard was formerly employed for these purposes, but it is now generally thrown aside. The effect of the explosion may be much increased by making three sides of the bag of leather, and the fourth of canvas, which should rest against the object.

Light-barrel.--A light barrel is a common powder barrel pierced with numerous holes, and filled with shavings that have been soaked in a composition of pitch and rosin; it serves to light up a breach, or the bottom of a ditch.

Fireworks.--Ornamental fireworks are divided into fixed pieces, movable pieces, decorative pieces, and preparations for communicating fire from one part of a piece to another. The different effects are produced by modifying the proportions of the ingredients of the burning composition, so as to quicken or retard combustion, or by introducing substances that give color and brilliancy to the flame. The fixed pieces are lances, petards, gerbes, flames, etc.

Lances.--These are small paper tubes filled with a composition which emits a brilliant light in burning. See LANCE A FEU.

Petard.--Petards are small paper cartridges filled with powder.

Gerbe.--Gerbes are strong paper tubes or cases filled with a burning composition. The ends are tamped with moist plaster of Paris or clay. The movable pieces are sky-rockets, tourbillions, Saxons, jets, Roman candles, paper shells, etc.

Sky-rocket.--Sky-rockets are the same as the signal-rockets before described, except that the composition is arranged to give out a more brilliant train of fire. Composition: 122 parts mealed powder, 80 parts nitre, 40 parts sulphur, and 40 parts cast-iron filings.

Tourbillion.--The tourbillion is a case filled with sky-rocket composition, and which moves with an upward spiral motion.

Saxon.--The Saxon is similar to the tourbillion; it has the appearance of a revolving sun.

Jets.--Jets are rocket-cases filled with a burning composition; they are attached to the circumference of a wheel, or the end of a movable arm, to set it in motion.

Roman candles.--A Roman candle is a strong paper tube containing stars, which are successively thrown out by a small charge of powder placed under each star. A slow-burning composition is placed over each star to prevent its taking fire at once.

Paper Shell.--This piece is a paper shell filled with decorative pieces, and fired from a common mortar. It contains a small bursting charge of powder, and has a fuze regulated to ignite it when the shell reaches the summit of its trajectory.

Decorative Pieces.--Decorative pieces are stars, serpents, marrons, etc., described under the head of ROCKETS.

Preparations for communicating fire from one piece to another are quick-match, leaders, ort-fires, and mortar-fuzes. The leader is a thin paper tube containing a strand of quick-match. See QUICK-MATCH, etc.

=Pyroxyline=, or =Pyroxyle=. Gun-cotton (which see).

=Pyrrhic Dance.= The most famous of all the war-dances of antiquity; is said to have received its name from Pyrrhus, or Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, and was a Doric invention. According to Plato, it aimed to represent the nimble motions of a warrior either avoiding missiles and blows, or assaulting the enemy; and in the Doric states it was as much a piece of military training as an amusement. Elsewhere in Greece, it was purely a mimetic dance, in which the parts were sometimes represented by women. It formed part of the public entertainments at the Panathenaic festivals. Julius Cæsar introduced it at Rome, where it became a great favorite.

Q.

=Quadi.= A powerful and warlike German tribe, belonging to the Suevic race, whose territories were situated between the Danube, the Bohemian mountains, and the river Marus. They make their first appearance in history in the 1st century as formidable foes of the Romans. Their bodies were covered with mail, consisting of plates of horn; their weapons were long spears; and each man had three swift horses for his use in battle. Thus equipped, they commenced the practice of making rapid and sweeping raids into Pannonia, Mœsia, and other neighboring provinces. Sometimes they routed the imperial forces which tried to check their inroads. At all times they returned home with their predatory spirit unbroken. No reverses in fact, however frequent, could daunt those wild border troopers of the Danube. The emperors Marcus Aurelius, Probus, Carus, and Valentinian I., defeated them without subduing or crushing them. The last glimpse that we get of them in history shows them in company with other barbaric hordes, in 407, overrunning Gaul, and reveling in boundless havoc and slaughter.

=Quadrant.= An instrument for measuring altitudes, variously constructed and mounted for different specific uses in astronomy, surveying, gunnery, etc., consisting commonly of a graduated arc of 90°, with an index or vernier, and either plain or telescopic sights, together with a plumb-line or spirit-level for fixing the vertical or horizontal direction.

=Quadrant, Gunner’s.= See GUNNER’S QUADRANT.

=Quadrat.= Or to quadrat a gun, is to see it duly placed on its carriage, and that the wheels be of an equal height.

=Quadriga.= In antiquity, a car or chariot, drawn by four horses harnessed abreast. This chariot was used in battle and in triumphal processions.

=Quadrilateral.= In military language, an expression designating a combination of four fortresses, not necessarily connected together, but mutually supporting each other; and from the fact that if one be attacked, the garrisons of the others, unless carefully observed, will harass the besiegers, rendering it necessary that a very large army should be employed to turn the combined position. As a remarkable instance, and a very powerful one, may be cited the celebrated quadrilateral in Venetia, comprising the four strong posts of Mantua, Verona, Peschiera, and Legnago. These form a sort of outwork to the bastion which the southern mountains of the Tyrol constitute, and divide the north plain of the Po into two sections by a most powerful barrier. Napoleon III., in 1859, even after the victories of Magenta and Solferino, hesitated to attack this quadrilateral.

=Quadrille= (Fr.). Small parties of horse richly caparisoned, etc., in tournaments and at public festivals. The quadrilles were distinguished from one another by the shape or color of the coats which the riders wore.

=Quadruple Alliance.= Between Great Britain, France, and the emperor of Germany (signed at London, July 22, 1718); it obtained its name on the accession of the states of Holland, February 8, 1719. It guaranteed the succession of the reigning families of Great Britain and France, settled the partition of the Spanish monarchy, and led to war.

=Quadruple Treaty.= Concluded in London, April 22, 1834, by the representatives of Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, which guaranteed the possession of her throne to Isabella II., the young queen of Spain.

=Quaker-guns= (Fr. passe-volans). Were wooden pieces of ordnance which were made to resemble real artillery. They subsequently were used in other countries, and placed in the embrasures of forts, in order to deceive an enemy.

=Quarrel=, or =Quarry=. An arrow with a square head, for a cross-bow, was so called.

=Quarrels.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 24.

=Quarte.= In tactics, a word of command given in the bayonet exercise; as, quarte parry, to thrust in quarte.

=Quarter.= A fourth part of anything.

=Quarter.= To furnish with shelter or entertainment; to supply with the means of living for a time; especially to furnish shelter to; as, to quarter soldiers.

=Quarter.= In heraldry, one of the divisions of a shield, when it is divided into four portions by horizontal and perpendicular lines meeting in the fesse point; especially either of the two divisions thus made. Also, to bear as an appendage to the hereditary arms. “The coat of Beauchamp ... quartered by the Earl of Hertford.”

=Quarter.= In war, signifies the sparing of the life of a vanquished enemy, which by the laws of war is forfeit to the victor. The expression seems to be derived from the use of the word “quarter” to designate the lodging of the particular warrior; to give quarter to a prisoner being to send him to his captor’s quarter for liberation, ransom, or slavery. The refusal of quarter is a terrible aggravation of the horrors of war, and is only at all justifiable towards an enemy who has been guilty of atrocious cruelty himself, or of some flagrant breach of faith.

=Quarter Arms, To.= In heraldry, to place the arms of other families in the compartments of a shield, which is divided into four quarters, the family arms being placed in the first quarter. When more than three other arms are to be quartered with the family arms, it is usual to divide the shield into a suitable number of compartments; and still the arms are said to be quartered.

=Quarter Guard.= The guard which is stationed in front of the centre of the camp of each corps, at about 80 paces from it.

=Quarter of Assembly.= The place where the troops meet to march from in a body, and is the same as the place of rendezvous.

=Quarter Upon, To.= Is to oblige persons to receive soldiers, etc., into their dwelling-houses, and to provide for them. In the United States no soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

=Quarter-block.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Quartering.= In heraldry, the division of a shield containing many coats. See QUARTER.

=Quarterly.= In heraldry, in quarters or quarterings; as, to bear arms quarterly.

=Quartermaster.= A regimental staff-officer, of the relative rank of lieutenant, whose duty is to look after the assignment of quarters, the provision of clothing, forage, fuel, and all other quartermaster’s supplies; and when on the march he sees to the marking out of the camp. He is appointed by the colonel of the regiment, subject to the approval of the Secretary of War. He vacates his staff position when promoted to the rank of captain, or at the discretion of the colonel. In the British service the regimental quartermaster rises, with scarcely any exception, from the ranks. He has no further promotion to look forward to; but after thirty years’ service in all--including ten as an officer--he may retire with the honorary rank of captain.

=Quartermaster-General.= A staff-officer in the U. S. army, who has the rank of brigadier-general, and is at the head of the quartermaster’s department.

=Quartermaster’s Department.= This department provides the quarters and transportation of the army, except that, when practicable, wagons and their equipment are provided by the ordnance department; storage and transportation for all army supplies; army clothing; camp and garrison equipage; cavalry and artillery horses; fuel, forage, straw, and stationery. The incidental expenses of the army (also paid through the quartermaster’s department) include per diem to extra-duty men; of the pursuit and apprehension of deserters; of the burials of officers and soldiers; of hired escorts; of expresses, interpreters, spies, and guides; medicines for horses; and of supplying posts with water; and, generally, the proper and authorized expenses for the movements and operations of an army not expressly assigned to any other department. The present organization of the quartermaster’s department consists of 1 quartermaster-general, with the rank of brigadier-general; 3 assistant quartermaster-generals, with the rank of colonels; 8 deputy quartermaster-generals, with the rank of lieutenant-colonels; 14 quartermasters, with the rank of majors; and 30 assistant quartermasters, with the rank of captains.

=Quartermaster-Sergeant.= A non-commissioned officer who assists the quartermaster. He ranks among the regimental non-commissioned staff, and is appointed by the colonel of a regiment upon the recommendation of the quartermaster.

=Quarters.= In military affairs, are, generally, the positions assigned to persons or bodies of men. In a more special sense, the quarters in the army are the places of lodging assigned to officers or men when not actually on duty.

=Quarters.= The encampment on one of the principal passages round a place besieged, to prevent relief and intercept convoys.

=Quarters, Choice of.= In the U. S. service, when officers arrive in a garrison they shall have choice of quarters according to rank; but the commanding officer may direct the officers to be stationed near their troops. The commanding officer of a post cannot be displaced by his senior who does not command, though assigned to the same post. An officer who has made his choice of quarters cannot again displace a junior, unless himself displaced by a senior.

=Quarters, Intrenched.= A place fortified with a ditch and parapet to secure a body of troops.

=Quarters of Refreshment.= The place where the troops that have been much harassed are put to recover themselves, during some part of the campaign.

=Quarters, Out of.= Beyond the prescribed limits. For punishment of soldiers sleeping out of quarters, see APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 31.

=Quarter-sights.= In gunnery, are divisions marked on the upper quarters of the base-ring, commencing where it would be intersected by a plane parallel to the axis of the piece, and tangent to the upper surface of the trunnions. These sights are used for giving elevations up to three degrees; but especially for pointing a piece at a less elevation than the natural angle of sight. Quarter-sights are not used in the U. S. service.

=Quarter-staff.= Formerly a favorite weapon with the English for hand-to-hand encounters; was a stout pole of heavy wood, about 6¹⁄₂ feet long, shod with iron on both ends. It was grasped in the middle by one hand, and the attack was made by giving it a rapid circular motion, which brought the loaded ends on the adversary at unexpected points.

=Quasi Officers.= See SURGEONS, ACTING-ASSISTANT.

=Quatre Bras.= See WATERLOO.

=Quatrefoil.= A heraldic bearing meant to represent a flower with four leaves. It is not represented with a stalk unless blazoned as slipped, in which case the stalk joins the lower leaf.

=Quebec.= The capital of the province of Quebec, formerly Canada East, is situated on a steep promontory at the junction of the rivers St. Lawrence and St. Charles, and its citadel is the most impregnable fortress on the continent of America. The site of Quebec, originally occupied by an Indian village named Stadacona, was discovered by Jacques Cartier in 1535; but the city was founded by Champlain in 1608. It was taken from the French by the English in 1626, restored in 1632, and fortified in 1690. It remained in the possession of the French till 1759, when in consequence of the victory of Wolfe, it was surrendered to the British, and finally confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 1763. Quebec was attacked by the American republicans in 1775, but the siege was raised in the following year. Since then its capture has not been attempted.

=Queen Anne’s Pocket-piece.= An ancient 18-pounder cannon at Dover, England. See ORDNANCE, HISTORY OF.

=Queen’s Color.= In the British service, the one which is carried on the right of the two colors of a battalion of infantry. It is, in the line, the great union or union-jack, with the imperial crown in the centre and the number of the regiment in gold Roman characters below the crown. In the Guards the queen’s color is crimson, with various devices on it.

=Queen’s County.= An inland county of the province of Leinster, Ireland. Queen’s County anciently formed part of the districts of Leix and Ossory; and after the English invasion, on the submission of the chief O’More, the territory retained a qualified independence. Under Edward II., the O’Mores became so powerful, that for a long series of years an unceasing contest was maintained by them with the English, with various alternations of success. In the reign of Edward VI., Bellingham, the lord-deputy, succeeded in re-annexing the territory of the O’Mores to the Pale; and in Mary’s reign it was reduced to a shire.

=Queenstown.= A town of Upper Canada. It was taken by the U. S. troops October 13, 1812; but was retaken by the British forces, who defeated the Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, on the same day. Queenstown suffered severely in this war.

=Quell.= To crush; to subdue; to put down; to reduce; as, the military were called out to quell the riot.

=Quentin, Saint-.= See SAINT-QUENTIN.

=Queretaro.= An important town of Mexico, capital of a state of the same name, situated on a hilly plateau, 110 miles northwest of the city of Mexico. The peace between Mexico and the United States was ratified here by the Mexican congress in 1848. The town was besieged and taken (through the treachery of Lopez) by the Liberal general Escobedo, May 15, 1867. The emperor Maximilian, and his generals Miramon and Mejia, were taken prisoners, and after trial, were shot on June 19 following.

=Quesnoy.= A fortified town of France, in the department of Nord. It was taken by the Austrians, September 11, 1793, but was recovered by the French, August 16, 1794. It surrendered to Prince Frederick of the Netherlands, June 29, 1815, after the battle of Waterloo.

=Queue.= A tail-like twist of hair formerly worn at the back of the head by soldiers.

=Queues d’Hironde= (Fr.). In fortification, lines composed of projecting tenailles, or works, which, from the facility with which an enemy can enfilade their long branches, are considered extremely defective, and consequently are seldom employed.

=Quiberon.= A town of France, in the department of Morbihan, situated on a long and narrow peninsula of the same name, which, with some islands, forms one of the largest bays in Europe, 20 miles southwest from Vannes. A body of French emigrant royalists, under D’Hervilly and Puisaye, landed here from an English fleet, on June 27, 1795, and endeavored to rouse the people of Brittany and La Vendée against the Convention, but were defeated, in July, and driven into the sea by Gen. Hoche. A large number of prisoners taken were shot, by order of the Convention. During the war of the Austrian Succession, an English force attempted a landing here (1746), but was repulsed.

=Qui Vive? Qui va La? Qui est La?= (Fr.) Literally means, Who is alive? Who goes there? and Who is there? These terms are used by the French sentinels when they challenge, and are equivalent to the English challenge, Who comes there?

=Quick Time.= In tactics, the length of the direct step in quick time is 28 inches, measured from heel to heel; the cadence is at the rate of 110 steps per minute, or 2 miles 1613 yards in an hour.

=Quick-match.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Quickstep.= A lively, spirited march generally played by military bands.

=Quiloa=, or =Keelwa=. A seaport town of Zanguebar, on the east coast of Africa, 225 miles north of Mozambique. It was taken and burned by the Portuguese, in 1505, but abandoned by them soon after.

=Quincunx.= Forming a body of men checkerwise.

=Quintain=, or =Quintin=. An instrument used in the ancient practice of tilting. It consisted of an upright post, on the top of which a cross post turned upon a pivot; at one end of the cross post was a broad board, and at the other a bag of sand. The practice was to ride against the board with a lance, at such speed as to pass by before the sand-bag could strike the tilter on the back.

=Quinte.= The fifth guard in fencing.

=Quirites.= In ancient Rome the citizens were so called as distinguished from the soldiery.

=Quischens.= The old term for cuisses, the pieces of armor which protected the thighs.

=Quit.= To leave; to abandon. To quit your post or ranks, is to retire, without having received any previous order for that purpose, from a station intrusted to your care, or a position in which you may be. For punishment inflicted upon persons quitting their posts, see APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 40.

=Quiver.= A case or sheath for arrows.

=Quoin.= In gunnery, is a wedge used to lay under the breech of a gun to elevate or depress it.

=Quota.= A proportional part or share; or the share, part, or proportion assigned to each. “Quota of troops and money.”

R.

=Raab=, or =Nagy-Gyor=. A town of Hungary, 67 miles west-northwest of Buda. A battle was fought under its walls in June, 1809, in which Napoleon totally defeated the disorderly force of the Hungarian nobles.

=Rabinet.= A small piece of ordnance formerly in use. It weighed but 300 pounds, and fired a small ball of 1³⁄₈ inch diameter; with a very limited range.

=Rachat des Cloches= (Fr.). Redemption of bells. Formerly in France when a fortified place was taken, the bells became the property of the master-general of artillery, which were usually redeemed by the inhabitants at a certain price; it was necessary that the place should be attacked by artillery in order to secure this right over the bells.

=Rack, Forage.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, BATTERY-WAGON.

=Rack-stick and Lashing.= Consist of a piece of two-inch rope, about 6 feet long, fastened to a picket about 15 inches long, having a hole in its head to receive the rope. Rack lashings are used for securing the planks of a gun or mortar platform, between the ribbons and the sleepers.

=Radius.= In fortification, a term applied to a line drawn from the centre of the polygon to the extremity of the exterior side. There are the exterior, the interior, and the right radii.

=Radstadt.= See RASTADT.

=Raft.= A species of floating bridge for the passage of rivers, on which the soldiers and light artillery may be safely conveyed.

=Raft of Casks.= This raft may be constructed by forming a frame of timber to contain the casks.

The frame consists of four longitudinal pieces halved into four transoms. The long pieces must be at least 20 feet long, and their distance apart be a little less than the head diameter of the casks. The under edges are beveled so as to give them a good bearing on the casks.

In default of square timber, poles may be used in the construction of the frame. The string-pieces and transoms may be spiked or lashed at their points of junction.

The four exterior casks in the raft should be lashed to the frame, otherwise they may be carried off by the current when the raft lurches. For other kinds of rafts, see PONTONS.

=Raft, Prairie.= See PONTONS.

=Rafts, Timber.= Employ the largest and longest timber, giving at least 35 feet length to the raft. Shorter than this it will not have sufficient stability, but will be subject to dangerous oscillations, especially in a rapid stream. Squaring the timber will be worse than useless. Any irregularities, such as branches and knots, should be trimmed off. The raft must be built in the water. Select a place where there is little current, and where the bank slopes gently to the water.

The timber is then arranged in the position it is to have in the raft,--the butts alternately up and down the stream,--the upstream ends forming a right angle, salient up-stream.

Suppose the case of a raft to be composed of 20 logs, 47 feet long, and averaging 12 inches in diameter.

The first log is brought alongside the shore, and the end of a plank or small trunk of a tree is spiked to it, about 3 feet from each end; it is pushed off a little, and a second log is brought up, under the transoms and in close contact with the first.

The second log is spiked like the first, and so on for each of the remaining logs; care being taken to alternate the butts, placing the whistle ends up-stream with the bevel underneath, and to spike the transoms perpendicular to the logs. When the current of the river in which the raft is to be used is very gentle, the up-stream ends may be on a line parallel to the transom; but if rapid, they should form a right-angle salient upstream, the vertex being in the middle log.

When the bank is too steep to admit of this construction, the trees may be floated into their proper positions, lashed together, and the transoms spiked on; if the logs are nearly of the same size, the centre of gravity will be near the centre of the raft.

Two additional transoms are spiked at equal distances from the centre of gravity of the raft, and at a distance apart equal to the width of the roadway or platform.

The transoms should be about 8 inches wide by 6 inches thick, and should have a bearing on all the logs forming the raft. When a platform is to be constructed on the raft, intermediate transoms are laid, and at a distance apart depending on the strength of the planking. The size of the platform must be regulated by the buoyant power of the raft. A single course of logs will not have sufficient power to sustain troops enough to cover its whole surface. When the raft is to be used in a bridge the two intermediate transoms are separated by a distance a little less than the length of the chess, and placed at equal distances from a point somewhat astern of the centre of gravity of the raft, in order to correct the downward action of the cable on the bow.

For use in a bridge, a raft should be able to sustain at least 15,000 pounds. The same expedients are employed for the anchorage of rafts as boats.

Rafts are sometimes constructed for flying-bridges in the form of a lozenge, the acute angles being about 55°,--so that when two of the sides are parallel to the action of the current, the up-stream side, which in this form is the only one acted on by the current, is in the most favorable position.

=Raguled=, or =Ragguld=. In heraldry, jagged or notched in an irregular manner.

=Raguled, Cross.= One made of two trunks of trees without their branches, of which only the stumps appear.

=Raguly.= In heraldry, a term applied to an ordinary whose bounding lines are furnished with serrated projections.

=Ragusa.= A town of Austria, formerly the capital of an independent republic which now forms part of the kingdom of Dalmatia, on a peninsula on the east side of the Adriatic, and built in terraces on the side of Mount Sergio, the upper streets communicating with the lower by a flight of steps. It is strongly fortified with citadels, forts, and walls. It was taken by the Venetians in 1171, but became an independent republic, 1358; was taken by the French in 1806, and given up to Austria in 1814.

=Rahmanieh.= A town of Lower Egypt, situated at the junction of the Nile with the canal of Alexandria, 25 miles southeast from Rosetta. The French, during their occupation of Egypt, made it a fortified station. It was taken from them by the British in 1801.

=Raid.= A hostile or predatory incursion, especially an inroad or incursion of mounted men; a sudden and rapid invasion by a cavalry force.

=Raillon= (Fr.). A quarrel; a short arrow.

=Rail-platform.= See PLATFORM.

=Rails.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST CARRIAGES.

=Rain=, or =Rhain=. A town of Bavaria, 22 miles north from Augsburg, where the Austrian general Tilly received his mortal wound in 1632.

=Raise.= Armies are raised in two ways: either by voluntary engagements, or by lot or conscription. The Greek and Roman levies were the result of a rigid system of conscription. The Visigoths practiced a general conscription; poverty, old age, and sickness, were the only reasons admitted for exemption. “Subsequently” (says Hallam), “the feudal military tenures had superseded that earlier system of public defense, which called upon every man, and especially upon every land-holder, to protect his country. The relations of a vassal came in place of those of a subject and a citizen. This was the revolution of the 9th century. In the 12th and 13th another innovation rather more gradually prevailed, and marks the third period in the military history of Europe. Mercenary troops were substituted for the feudal militia. These military adventurers played a more remarkable part in Italy than in France, though not a little troublesome to the latter country.” A necessary effect of the formation of mercenaries was the centralization of authority. Money became the sinews of war. The invention of fire-arms caused it to be acknowledged that skill was no less essential for warlike operations than strength and valor. Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the power of princes was calculated by the number and quality of paid troops they could support. France first set the example of keeping troops in peace. Charles VII., foreseeing the danger of invasion, authorized the assemblage of armed mercenaries called compagnies d’ordonnance. Louis XI. dismissed these troops but enrolled new ones, composed of French, Swiss, and Scotch. Under Charles VIII., Germans were admitted in the French army, and the highest and most illustrious nobles of France regarded it as an honor to serve in the gens d’armes. Moral qualifications not being exacted for admission to the ranks, the restraints of a barbarous discipline became necessary, and this discipline divided widely the soldier from the people. The French revolution overturned this system. “Now” (says Decker) “mercenary troops have completely disappeared from continental Europe. England only now raises armies by the system of recruiters. The last wars of Europe have been wars of the people, and have been fought by nationalities. After peace armies remain national, for their elements are taken from the people by legal liberations. The institution of conscription is evidently the most important of modern times. Among other advantages, it has bridged the otherwise impassable gulf between the citizen and soldier, who, children of the same family, are now united in defense of their country. Permanent armies have ceased to be the personal guard of kings, but their sympathies are always with the people, and their just title is that of skillful warriors maintained as a nucleus for the instruction of their countrymen in the highest school of art.”

=Raise a Blockade, To.= To remove or break up a blockade, either by withdrawing the ships or forces employed in enforcing it, or by driving them away or dispersing them.

=Raise a Purchase, To.= To dispose instruments or machines in such a manner as to exert any mechanical force required.

=Raise a Siege, To.= To relinquish an attempt to take a place by besieging it, or to cause the attempt to be relinquished.

=Rajah=, or =Raja=. A hereditary prince among the Hindus belonging to the warrior caste, or the Kshattriya. In later times it became a title given by the British government to Hindus of rank, and is now not uncommonly assumed by the zemindars, or land-holders; the title of Maharajah, or “great Rajah,” being in these days generally reserved to the more or less independent native princes.

=Rajpoots=, or =Rajputs=. Is the name of various tribes in India which are of Aryan origin, and either descended from the old royal races of the Hindus, or from their Kshattriya, or warrior caste. They attained a high degree of power and renown just before the Mohammedan conquests in the 12th century. In 1193 and 1194 the Rajpoot chiefs sustained more than one defeat at the hands of the Mohammedans, and were deprived of all their possessions except the regions they now occupy. They came under the protection of the English, from about the beginning of this century, when the Rajpoots proved unable to defend their country against the Mahrattas.

=Rake.= To enfilade; to fire in a direction with the length of; as, to rake the enemy’s ranks.

=Rally.= To bring back to order troops that may have been dispersed, or have retreated in a panic.

=Rally.= To come into orderly arrangement; to renew order, as troops scattered or put to flight; to assemble; to unite.

=Ram.= To push home the charge of a gun; also, the corresponding word of command.

=Ram, Battering-.= See BATTERING-RAM.

=Ram Home, To.= To drive home the ammunition in a gun.

=Ramillies.= A village of Brabant, Belgium, 28 miles southeast of Brussels, is memorable as the place near which one of the most important battles of the War of the Spanish Succession was fought, May 23, 1706. In this conflict the French forces were under the command of Marshal de Villeroy and the elector of Bavaria, while the Duke of Marlborough led the troops of the allies. Villeroy, after a battle of three hours and a half, was defeated, with the loss of all his cannon, the whole of his baggage, and 13,000 men in killed and wounded. The great result of this victory was that the French were compelled to give up the whole of the Spanish Netherlands. About 4000 of the allies were slain in the engagement.

=Rammer.= See IMPLEMENTS, and INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Rammer-head.= See IMPLEMENTS, and INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Ramnuggur.= A walled town of the Punjab, on the Chenaub, 62 miles northwest of Lahore. Here the Sikh army was defeated by the British, October, 1848.

=Ramp.= An oblique or sloping interior road to mount the terre-plein of the rampart.

=Rampant= (Fr., literally, “raging”). In heraldry, an epithet applied to a lion or other beast of prey when placed erect on the two hind-legs, with only one of the fore-legs elevated, the head being seen in profile. When the face is turned toward the spectator, the attitude is called rampant gardant, and when the head is turned backwards, rampant regardant. A lion counter-rampant is one rampant towards the sinister, instead of towards the dexter, the usual attitude. Two lions rampant contrariwise in saltire, are sometimes also said to be counter-rampant.

=Rampart.= To fortify with ramparts.

=Rampart-grenades.= Grenades used to defend a rampart. Shells of large size may be used, being rolled down the parapet. See GRENADE.

=Rampart-gun.= A large gun fitted for rampart use, and not used for field purposes.

=Ramparts.= In fortification, are broad embankments or masses of earth which surround fortified places. A rampart forms the enceinte, or body of the place, and on its exterior edge the parapet is placed, while towards the place it is terminated by the interior slope of the rampart, on which ramps are made for the easy ascent of the troops and material. See BULWARK.

=Rampier.= The same as rampart.

=Rampire.= The same as rampart,--seldom used except in poetry.

=Ramps.= Are inclined planes of earth serving as a means of communication between two levels. A ramp for a field-gun is 8 feet wide, and for short distances it has a slope of one-fourth to one-sixth. When the distance is long the slope is increased to as much as one-twelfth.

=Ramrod.= The rod of iron formerly used in loading a piece to drive home a charge; but now used to clean the rifle.

=Ram’s Horns.= In fortification, a kind of low works made in the ditch of a circular arc, which serves instead of tenailles.

=Rancheros= (from the Spanish rancho, “comradeship”). Is the name given in Mexico to a mixed breed of Spanish and Indian blood, who inhabit the country, and may almost be said to live in the saddle from their youth; are splendid riders and hunters, and form the bravest part of the Mexican army,--its irregular cavalry. The importance of their services was seen in the wars between Mexico and the United States. The rancheros are lank in frame, with brown, weather-stained faces and muscular limbs, hardy, temperate, and always ready for the boldest enterprises.

=Rancon= (Fr.). The name of an old weapon, consisting of a long stake with a sharp iron point at one end, and two blades or wings bent backwards, and extremely keen.

=Random.= Distance to which a missile is thrown or projected; range; reach; as, the farthest random of a missile weapon.

=Random Shot.= A shot not directed or aimed towards any particular object, or when the piece is elevated at an angle of 45° upon a level plane.

=Range.= In artillery, is the horizontal distance from the muzzle of the piece to the first graze of the projectile. The extreme range is the distance from the muzzle to where the projectile finally rests. The range of a projectile may be extended without increasing the charge of powder, in the modes, viz.: 1st, by raising the piece to a higher level; 2d, by giving its axis greater elevation; 3d, by eccentric projectiles. Experiments have shown that if the centre of gravity be placed directly above the centre of figure, the range is greatly increased. The range increases with the angle of fire up to a certain limit, beyond which it diminishes. The greatest range in vacuo is at an angle of 45°. A mortar is usually fired at an angle of 45°, and the charge is varied according to the range required. Mortars are sometimes fired at an angle of 60°, when the battery is situated very near the object assailed, and it is desired that the shells may fall upon the magazines of the besieged. It is evident that the higher projectiles are thrown, the greater the velocity they acquire in falling; besides, they strike the object more directly and with increased violence. Stone-mortars were sometimes fired at an angle of 75°, that, in falling from a great height, the stone might have the maximum force of percussion. Grenades should be thrown from mortars at an angle of 33°; otherwise they will be buried in the earth, and their fragments will not be sufficiently destructive. For tables of ranges, see Roberts’s “Hand-book of Artillery.”

=Range, Point-blank.= See POINT-BLANK RANGE.

=Range-finder.= An instrument for determining ranges. There are several different principles which may be used. The distance may be measured, 1st, by the visual angle subtended by objects of known height; 2d, by the velocity of sound; 3d, the instrument may furnish a base-line in itself and solve a triangle in which the base and two adjacent angles are given. The term is also applied to instruments used to solve a triangle, the base of which is obtained by outside means. Range-finders constructed on the visual angle principle have been known for many years. Boulanger’s instrument uses the 2d principle. It consists of a glass tube closed at both ends filled with a liquid in which a small umbrella-shaped piece of metal is submerged. The tube is held vertically in the hand, the metal slowly sinks to the bottom. When the flash of the enemy’s gun is seen, the tube is inverted and the metal moves towards the other end. When the sound is heard, the tube is brought to the horizontal. The distance through which the piece of metal has moved gives the range by means of a scale on the side of the tube. Berdan’s range-finder is an expensive instrument using the 3d principle. It is mounted on a wagon, and intended to accompany either foot-troops or artillery. It has found great favor in Germany. Nolan’s range-finder consists of an instrument for automatically solving triangles. A similar thing was devised about 1870 by two American officers, Maj. Morgan of the 4th Artillery, and Capt. Lorain of the 3d Artillery. The most ingenious, complete range-finder has been proposed by Lieut. Gordon of the 4th Artillery. He uses two fixed angles and a variable base-line supplied by the instrument itself. The principal parts of Nolan’s range-finder are: Two instruments for measuring angles, one tape-line, and one reckoning cylinder. Each of the two instruments consist of two telescopes, which lie crosswise one above the other under an angle of about 90°; the smaller of the two has a long arm, with a vernier at one end; to the other a sector is fastened, which is divided up into degrees. By means of a screw, an angle of about 20° can be described by the upper or smaller telescope. The reckoning cylinder consists of a solid body and two rotating rings. The lower ring and the lower edge of the body are divided into 100 equal parts. On the upper ring are the logarithms of the figures, and on the upper edge of the body are the logarithms of the signs, from 6″ up to 2° 15′.

To find the range, the instruments on their tripods are arranged at the end of the assumed base-line, which is perpendicular to the range; or the instruments may be attached to the right and left guns of a battery. The long telescopes are turned toward the object whose distance is to be found; the smaller ones upon each other, and the cross-threads of each made to cover the cross-lines on the leather disk through which each small telescope points. The coincidence obtained by directing the longer telescope on the object, the two angles at the base are determined; the base-line being measured, one side and two angles of the triangle are obtained. With this data recourse is then had to the reckoning cylinder. The arrow marked “band” is set on the figure that corresponds with the distance between the instruments or base-line,--say 34 yards; then set the arrow on the lower ring on the figure corresponding with the angle found through the instrument,--say 18°; then find the figure for the number of degrees of the other angle,--say 42° on the lower ring. Just above that is the figure 60 on the other division of the lower ring; coinciding with this on the lower edge of the upper ring is the distance, 1320 yards. The bases used are from 30 to 40 yards for a range of 2000 yards and over.

Watkins’s range-finder and Gautier’s telemeter are instruments which require a measured base-line. See TELEMETER.

=Ranger.= One of a body of mounted troops, who were formerly armed with short muskets, and who ranged over the country around, and often fought on foot.

=Ranging.= The disposal of troops in proper order for an engagement, manœuvres, or march, etc.

=Rank.= Range of subordination, degree of authority. The relative situations which officers hold with respect to each other, or to military things in general. Questions as to the positive or relative rank of officers may often be of the greatest importance at law, in consequence of the rule, that every person who justifies his own acts on the ground of obedience to superior authority must establish, by clear evidence, the sufficiency of the authority on which he so relies. There may also be many occasions on which the propriety of an officer’s assumption of command, or his exercise of particular functions, or his right to share with a particular class of officers in prize-money, bounties, grants, and other allowances, may depend on the correctness of the view taken by himself or others of his rights to a specific rank or command; and an error in this respect may expose him to personal loss and damage in suits before the civil tribunals. The regulation of military rank is vested absolutely in Congress, which confers or varies it at pleasure. The will of Congress in this respect is signified by the creation of different grades of rank; by making rules of appointment and promotion; by other rules of government and regulation; or is by fair deduction to be inferred from the nature of the functions assigned to each officer; for every man who is intrusted with an employment is presumed to be invested with all the powers necessary for the effective discharge of the duties annexed to his office. Rank and grade are synonymous, and in their military acceptation indicate rights, powers, and duties, determined by laws, creating the different degrees of rank, and specifying fixed forms for passing from grade to grade and when rank in one body shall give command in another body; and also when rank in the army at large shall not be exercised. Rank is a right of which an officer cannot be deprived, except through forms prescribed by law. When an officer is on duty, the rank itself indicates his relative position to other officers of the body in which it is created. It is not, however, a perpetual right to exercise command, because the President may, under the 62d article of war, at any time relieve an officer from duty; or an officer may be so relieved by arrest duly made according to law; or by inability to perform duty from sickness, or by being placed by competent authority on some other duty. But whenever an officer is on duty his rank indicates his command.

=Rank.= A line of soldiers; a row of troops reckoned from side to side, or in breadth;--opposed to file. The ranks, the order of common soldiers; as, to reduce a non-commissioned officer to the ranks. To fill the ranks, to supply the whole number, or a competent number. To take rank of, to enjoy precedence over, or to have the right of taking a higher place than.

=Rank and File.= The body of soldiers constituting the mass of the army, and including corporals and privates. In a more extended sense, it includes sergeants also, excepting the non-commissioned staff.

=Rank, Brevet.= See BREVET.

=Rank, Double.= A rank composed of front and rear files.

=Rank, Honorary.= That which merely gives a title and precedence, without any command being attached to that rank.

=Rank, Insignia of.= Are badges or distinguishing marks of office of honor. In the army of the United States the rank of officers is determined by the insignia on the epaulettes and shoulder-straps, and is as follows:

“For the general commanding the army, two gold-embroidered stars of five rays, one on each side equidistant between the centre and the outer edge of the strap, and a gold-embroidered shield in the centre. For the lieutenant-general, three silver-embroidered stars of five rays, one star on the centre of the strap, and one on each side equidistant between the centre and outer edge of the strap; the centre star to be the largest. For the major-generals, two silver-embroidered stars, the centre of each star to be one inch from the outer edge of the gold embroidery on the outer ends of the straps, both stars of the same size. For a brigadier-general, the same as for a major-general, except that there will be but one star instead of two. For a colonel, the same as for a major-general, omitting the stars and introducing a silver-embroidered eagle; cloth of the strap as follows: for the general staff and staff corps--dark blue; artillery--scarlet; infantry--light or sky-blue; cavalry--yellow. For a lieutenant-colonel, the same as for a colonel, according to corps, omitting the eagle, and introducing a silver-embroidered leaf at each end. For a major, the same as for a colonel, according to corps, omitting the eagle, and introducing a gold-embroidered leaf at each end. For a captain, the same as for a colonel, according to corps, omitting the eagle, and introducing at each end two gold-embroidered bars. For a first lieutenant, the same as for a colonel, according to corps, omitting the eagle, and introducing at each end one gold-embroidered bar. For a second lieutenant, the same as for a colonel, according to corps, omitting the eagle. For a brevet second lieutenant, the same as for a second lieutenant.”

=Rank, Local.= See LOCAL RANK.

=Rank, Relative.= See RELATIVE RANK.

=Rank, Single.= A rank of single files.

=Rank, Substantive.= Is genuine rank, with all the command and authority, as well as precedence, attaching to the title. For instance, a regimental major possesses the substantive rank of major, while a captain and brevet major is only a substantive captain. It may be briefly described as being the reverse of brevet rank.

=Ranker.= One who ranks, or disposes in ranks; and one who arranges.

=Ransack.= To plunder; to pillage completely; to ravage; as, to ransack a city.

=Ransom of Prisoners.= A prisoner of war, being a public enemy, is the prisoner of the government, and not of the captor. No ransom can be paid by a prisoner of war to his individual captor, or to any officer in command. The government alone releases captives, according to rules prescribed by itself.

=Rapier.= Is said to have had distinct meanings at different times, and in ancient fencing to have been a long cutting broadsword; but for the last century, at least, the rapier has been a light, highly-tempered, edgeless, thrusting weapon, finely pointed and about 3 feet in length. At present, it is worn only on occasions of court ceremonial, and answers no other purpose than to incommode the wearer. In war a rapier could never have been of any service.

=Rapine.= The act of plundering; the seizing and carrying away of things by force; spoliation; pillage; plunder. Violence; force; also, to plunder.

=Rappahannock.= A river of Virginia, formed by the union of the North Fork and the Rapidan, 40 miles above Fredericksburg. On the Rappahannock and the Rapidan occurred some of the most sanguinary battles of the war of Secession, at Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, and the Wilderness.

=Rapparee.= A wild Irish plunderer, so called from his being generally armed with a rapary, or half-pike. The term was in common use in the 17th century.

=Rappel.= The beat of the drum to call soldiers to arms.

=Rarefaction.= The extension of the parts of a gas, by which it is made to take up more room than it did before.

=Rasaldar.= In the East Indies, the name applied to the commander of rasallah, which is 10,000 armed horsemen.

=Rasante.= A French term, applied to a style of fortification in which the command of the works over each other, and over the country, is kept very low, in order that the shot may more effectually sweep or graze the ground before them.

=Ras-el-Kyma.= A fortress in the Persian Gulf, and formerly the principal stronghold of the Joasmee pirates. This fortress was destroyed and the pirates thoroughly subdued by an English force under Sir W. Kier Grant in 1817.

=Rasgrad=, or =Hesarorad=. A town of Turkey in Europe, in Bulgaria, and about 215 miles northwest from Constantinople. The Turks were defeated here by the Russians in 1810.

=Rassova.= A fortified town of Turkey in Europe, on the right bank of the Danube, 38 miles east by north of Silistria. Rassova was occupied by the Russians for a short time in 1854.

=Rastadt=, =Radstadt=, or =Rastall=. A fortified town of the grand duchy of Baden, on the Murg, not far from its confluence with the Rhine. The peace of 1714, which put an end to the War of the Spanish Succession, was signed in the palace by Prince Eugène and Marshal Villars. A congress was held here in 1797-99, to negotiate a peace between France and the empire, after which the French ambassadors, Roberjot and Bonnier, were murdered on their return, only a short distance from the town. At Rastadt the insurrection in Baden in 1849 first broke out; and the insurgents, after a three weeks’ siege, were obliged to surrender at discretion to the Prussians.

=Ratchet-post.= A cast-iron post at the head of large Rodman guns to serve as a fulcrum for the bar used in elevating the gun. See FULCRUM.

=Ratchet-wheel.= A wheel with pointed and angular teeth, against which a ratchet abuts, used either for converting a reciprocating into a rotatory motion on the shaft to which it is fixed, or for admitting of its motion in one direction only.

=Rate of March.= See HORSES, PACK AND DRAUGHT HORSES, and QUICK TIME.

=Rathenow=, or =Rathenau=. A town of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg, 45 miles west of Berlin. A victory was gained here in 1675 by the troops of Brandenburg under the elector Frederick William, over the Swedes.

=Rathlin, Island of.= An island off the north coast of Ireland, 3 miles northwest of Fairhead. It was the scene of more than one struggle in the Danish wars, and it afforded shelter, after his defeat in Scotland, to Robert Bruce. In 1558, the Scottish colony which then inhabited the island was attacked by the lord-deputy Sussex, and expelled from it with much slaughter.

=Rathmines.= A suburb of Dublin, on its south side, 1¹⁄₂ miles south of Dublin Castle. It is the site of a battle-field, where Col. Jones, governor of Dublin Castle, making a sally out, routed the Marquis of Ormond, killed 4000 men, and took 2517 prisoners, with their cannon, baggage, and ammunition, August 2, 1649.

=Ration.= A portion or fixed allowance of provisions, drink, and forage, assigned to a soldier in the army, or a sailor in the navy, for his daily subsistence, and for the subsistence of horses, etc.

The soldier’s ration in Europe is as follows:

AUSTRIA.

Peace Ration.

Bread 31. ounces. Meat without bone 6.6 „ Suet .62 ounce. Vegetables 2.48 ounces. Salt .6 ounce. 22.37 ounces anhydrous food.

War Ration.

Fresh pork 6.5 ounces. Or salt pork 6. „ Or fresh beef 6. „ Or bacon 6. „ Butter .14 ounce. Biscuit 3.5 ounces. Flour 25.2 „ Fresh vegetables 2.1 „ Beans 1.5 ounce. Beer and wine variable. 38.6 ounces anhydrous food.

ENGLAND.

In the home service the soldier receives from the government:

Bread 1 pound. Meat ³⁄₄ „

The soldier buys

Potatoes 16. ounces. Other vegetables 8. „ Milk 3.25 „ Sugar 1.33 ounce. Salt .25 „ Coffee .33 „

The whole being equivalent to 23.4 ounces of anhydrous food.

In time of war the ration is varied according to location, climate, and kind of service.

FRANCE.

During peace the soldier buys from the government his ration, paying 43 out of the 48 centimes which he receives per day, except in Paris, where he pays 51 out of 58 centimes. Meat is furnished 35 per cent. below market rates.

Munition bread 26.5 ounces. White bread 8.8 „ Meat 10.6 „ Vegetables, green 3.5 „ Beans 1.1 ounce. Salt and pepper .43 „ If meat is salt beef 8.8 ounces. If meat is salt pork 7. „ Biscuit in lieu of bread 19.4 „ Being equal to 24 ounces of anhydrous food.

War Ration.

Meat without bone 8.4 ounces. Bread 35.3 „ Or biscuit 26.5 „ Beans 2.12 „ Salt .5 ounce. Sugar .7 „ Coffee .6 „ Or in lieu of coffee, wine 9. ounces. Or brandy 2.2 „ Being 24.56 ounces of anhydrous food.

PRUSSIA.

About one-half the daily pay is retained by the government for the soldier’s food.

Peace Ration.

Garrison. Marching or Fatigue. Bread 26.5 ounces 26.5 ounces. Meat 6. „ 8.2 „ Rice 3.2 „ 4.22 „ Or groats 4.21 „ 5.28 „ Or peas or beans 8.22 „ 10.6 „ Or potatoes 53.8 „ 70.5 „ Salt .87 ounce .87 ounce. Coffee .468 „ .468 „ 26.57 oz. of anhydrous food. 28.26 oz. of anhydrous food.

War Ration.

Bread 26.5 ounces. Or biscuit 17. „ One { Fresh beef 13. „ of { Salt beef 9. „ these. { Bacon 5.75 „ Rice 4.4 „ One { Groats 4.4 „ of { Beans 8.8 „ these. { Flour 8.8 „ Potatoes 50. „ Salt 8.7 „ Coffee, pure .7 ounce. Coffee, roasted 1. „ 40.2 ounces anhydrous food.

RUSSIA.

169 Fast Days. 196 Meat Days 117 days 52 days with schtschi schtschi and peas and and gruel. gruel. gruel. Meat 7. oz. Bread 42. oz. 42. oz. 42. oz. Sour-krout 14.5 fl. oz. 14.5 fl. oz. Chervil 1.1 oz. Peas 2.33 oz. Buckwheat 1.87 fl. oz. 1.87 fl. oz. 1.87 fl. oz. Oats .5 fl. oz. .7 fl. oz. .28 fl. oz. Flour .7 fl. oz. .7 fl. oz. Onions .2 fl. oz. .3 fl. oz. .5 fl. oz. Vegetable oil .25 fl. oz. Butter .6 oz. Lard .5 oz. .5 oz. Salt 1.86 oz. 1.86 oz. 1.86 oz. Pepper .07 oz. .07 oz. .07 oz. Bay leaves .07 oz. .07 oz. .07 oz. Water 70. fl. oz. 70. fl. oz. 70. fl. oz. (Buckwheat cooked into gruel.)

Sepoy Ration.

Flour 16. ounces. Rice 16. „ Butter or vegetable oil 2. „ Peas 4.25 „ Salt 1.33 ounce. 34.9 ounces of anhydrous food.

=Ratisbon=, or =Regensburg=. A town of Bavaria, on the right bank of the Danube, 67 miles north-northeast of Munich. In 1524 the Roman Catholic powers of Germany assembled here, and formed a league against the Protestants; and near it, in 1809, Napoleon I. was wounded in a battle in which he forced the Austrians to retreat.

=Raucoux= (Belgium). Here Marshal Saxe and the French army totally defeated the allies, October 11, 1746.

=Ravage.= Desolation by violence; violent ruin or destruction; devastation; havoc; waste; ruin; as, the ravages of an army. Also, to lay waste by force; to desolate violently; to commit havoc or devastation upon; to plunder.

=Ravelin.= In fortification, is the work constructed beyond the main ditch, opposite the curtain, composed of two faces, forming a salient angle, and two demi-gorges, formed by the counterscarp. It is separated from the covered way by a ditch which runs into the main ditch. See DEMI-LUNE.

=Ravenna= (anc. Ravenna). An important city of Central Italy, 43 miles east-southeast from Bologna, 4¹⁄₂ miles from the Adriatic. Augustus made it a first-class seaport and naval station. It was taken by Odoacer, then by Theodoric, and by Totila; was subdued by the Lombards in 752, and their king, Astolphus, in 754, surrendered it to Pepin, king of France. In 1275, Guido da Polenta conquered it. Ravenna was afterwards taken by the Venetians, who kept it till 1509. Under the walls of Ravenna a battle was fought between the French under Gaston de Foix (duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.) and the Spanish and Papal armies. The confederate army was cut to pieces. De Foix perished in the moment of his victory, and his death closed the good fortune of the French in Italy. Ravenna became a part of the kingdom of Italy in 1860.

=Ravine.= In field fortification, a deep hollow, usually formed by a great flood, or long-continued running of water; frequently turned to advantage in the field.

=Raw.= Unseasoned, unripe in skill, wanting knowledge in tactics.

=Raw Troops.= Are inexperienced soldiers, or men who have been little accustomed to the use of arms.

=Razant.= See RASANTE.

=Razed.= Works or fortifications are said to be razed when they are totally demolished.

=Razzia.= A plundering and destructive incursion.

=Readiness.= A state of alertness or preparation; thus, to hold a corps in readiness, is to have it prepared in consequence of some previous order to march at a moment’s notice.

=Reading.= A town of England, in Berkshire, on the Kennet, 36 miles west by south from London. In 871 it was in possession of the Danes, who, after resisting an assault of the West Saxons, were in the following year obliged to evacuate it. In 1006 they again made their appearance, and burned the town. In the civil war of the 17th century Reading was at different times in the possession of both parties, and suffered much during the contest.

=Ready.= In tactics, a word of command in firing, being a contraction of make ready.

=Reamer.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF, BORING.

=Rear.= In general acceptation, anything situated or placed behind another.

=Rear.= The direction opposite the enemy. The opposite of front.

=Rear Assembling-bar.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.

=Rear Foot-board.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.

=Rear Open Order.= An open order taken by moving the rear rank backwards.

=Rear-chest.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.

=Rear-front.= The rear rank of a body of troops when faced about and standing in that position.

=Rear-guard.= A detachment of troops whose duty it is to protect the rear of an army.

=Rear-line.= The line in the rear of an army.

=Rearward.= The last troop; the rear-guard.

=Rebel.= One who rebels; one who revolts from the government to which he owes allegiance, either by openly renouncing the authority of that government, or by taking arms and openly opposing it; one who defies and seeks to overthrow the authority to which he is rightfully subject; a revolter; an insurgent.

=Rebel.= Acting in revolt; rebellious; as, rebel troops.

=Rebel.= To revolt; to take up arms traitorously against the state or government; to renounce the authority of the laws and government to which one owes allegiance.

=Rebellion.= The act of rebelling; open and avowed renunciation of the authority of the government to which one owes allegiance; the taking of arms traitorously to resist the authority of lawful government; revolt; insurrection.

=Rebellious.= Engaged in or marked by rebellion; traitorously renouncing the authority and dominion of the government to which allegiance is due; violently resisting government or lawful authority; as, rebellious troops.

=Rebounding-lock.= A gun-lock in which the hammer rebounds to half-cock after striking the cap; specially used in sporting arms.

=Rebuffo= (Fr.). A bastard cannon, or three-fourth carthoum (or karthaune), a 36-pounder of 15 calibers long; according to Ufano a 45-pounder.

=Recall.= A call on the trumpet, bugle, or drum, by which the soldiers are recalled from duty, labor, etc.

=Recaptor.= One who retakes; one who takes a prize which had been previously taken.

=Recapture.= The act of retaking; especially the retaking of a prize or goods from a captor. That which is captured back; a prize retaken.

=Recast.= To mold anew; to cast anew; to throw into a new form or shape; to reconstruct; as, to recast cannon.

=Receipt.= A voucher or acknowledgment, which should always be given when official papers are received. When flags of truce are the bearers of a parcel or a letter, the officer commanding an outpost should give a receipt for it, and require the party to depart forthwith.

=Receive.= In a military sense, to await the approach of a friend or foe. To receive an enemy, is to make the best disposition possible of your troops, for the purpose of meeting the attack of an advancing enemy.

=Recharge.= A renewal of the charge or attack.

=Rechaud= (Fr.). A chafing-dish, or pan used for various purposes, particularly during a siege. Rechauds are filled with burning materials and hung in different parts of the walls, so as to throw light into the ditches, and to prevent surprises.

=Rechute= (Fr.). Literally means a second fall; but in fortification it signifies a greater elevation of the rampart in those parts where it is likely to be commanded.

=Recoil.= In gunnery, is the retrograde motion impressed upon cannon by the discharge. The gas produced by the ignition of the charge in the bore, expanding with equal force in every direction, finds only two ways of escape (the muzzle and the vent); the pressure upon these points will therefore cease while it will be proportionally increased upon the parts directly opposite, that is, the bottom of the bore and that portion directly opposite the vent, producing in the first case the recoil, and in the other, indirectly, the dipping of the muzzle. The distance of the recoil depends entirely upon the nature and inclination of the ground upon which the carriage stands, the situation of the trunnions, angle of elevation, comparative weight of the gun and carriage, and upon the strength of the charge. The recoil has no appreciable effect upon the flight of a projectile, the latter being expelled from the gun before it has recoiled a fraction of an inch.

The recoil of heavy guns fired with large charges is a serious consideration in gunnery. The recoil must be checked in a comparatively short space, and yet checked too suddenly the shock destroys the carriage as well as platform. Various methods have been tried. The truck-wheels upon which the top carriage runs in and out of battery are provided with eccentrics, which are thrown out of gear to produce sliding friction,--but this alone is not sufficient in most cases. Counter-mortars are sometimes clamped on the chassis-rail against the carriage, but this is objectionable, as it tends to destroy the chassis. Friction-plates, with clamping attachments to the carriage between them, and extending full length of the chassis, have also been tried, but the buckling of the plates soon ruined them. This plan has been recently revived, and the buckling prevented by interposing india-rubber between the rear ends of the plates and the transom of the chassis. For the most approved methods, see AIR-CYLINDERS and HYDRAULIC LOADING APPARATUS.

=Recommend.= To commend to the favorable notice of another. Non-commissioned officers of companies are appointed by the colonel upon the recommendation of company commanders. Recommendation of members of a court-martial in favor of the person being tried, is introduced after the finding and sentence are closed and authenticated. The recommendation should distinctly set forth the reasons which prompt it.--Hough.

=Reconnoissance.= The reconnoitring or examination of any tract of country preparatory to the march of an army, in order either to take up quarters for the season, or commence operations against an opposing enemy.

The military reconnoissance of a country is generally performed under the protection of an armed force. It is considered as one of the most essential operations connected with the tactics of the field, and serves as the basis of every movement or combination which it may be proposed to make. Those who are charged with this duty should be habituated to the performance of topographical surveys; in the first place, by the most accurate methods, and with the best instruments; and, secondly, by such methods as admit of being practiced rapidly, on foot or on horseback. In these cases a compass held in the hand must be used for observing the angles, and the distances must be obtained by pacing, or be merely estimated by the eye. The nature of the roads should be described with indications denoting that they are passable for artillery, for cavalry, or merely for infantry; and if defective, estimates should be made of the materials and time requisite for repairing them. In contemplating rivers and marshes as means of retarding an advance of the enemy, it should be ascertained and reported whether by being dry in summer, or frozen in winter, they may not at times cease to be obstacles. It should be also stated how, on a retreat, the roads may be blocked up, the fords rendered impassable, or the bridges destroyed.

=Reconnoitre.= To make oneself acquainted by personal inspection, as far as may be practicable, with the enemy’s position and movements; also, to survey, and draw in a rapid manner, ground of importance to operations of war, not represented in existing maps, with sufficient accuracy or minuteness; and likewise to particularize the banks of rivers, canals, streams, mountains, passes, positions, villages, forts, and redoubts.

=Record.= To preserve by committing to writing; to make official note of; as, to record the proceedings of a court.

=Record.= An authentic copy; a statement of the proceedings of a court or board; a written history; an official account or register.

=Recorder.= One who keeps a record; specifically, the officer who registers the proceedings of a board or minor court.

=Recover.= In tactics, a word of command in firing whereby the piece is brought from the position of aim to that of ready.

=Recreant.= Crying for mercy, as a combatant in the trial of battle; yielding; cowardly. Also, one who yields in combat, and cries craven; one who begs for mercy; a mean-spirited, cowardly wretch.

=Recruit.= To supply with new men, as an army; to fill up or make up by enlistment. Also, a person enlisted to make up deficiency in an army; a newly-enlisted soldier.

=Recruiting.= The act of obtaining men for service. The people of the United States and Great Britain resemble each other in their jealousy of large standing armies and their abhorrence of a system of universal service, as well as in their warlike spirit and self-sacrificing patriotism. The organization of the English army, based upon voluntary enlistment, has been pronounced by foreign officers of thorough education and acute observation as unworthy of scientific study,--that is, for home application, although the United States have borrowed a great deal from it,--in the writer’s opinion, to their detriment. In Great Britain the whole recruiting has been placed under the immediate direction of the adjutant-general since 1802. For this purpose, the country has been divided into recruiting districts, at the head of which is placed an inspecting field-officer with the duty of superintending all recruiting parties in his district, and of approving the recruits brought. Staff-officers and sergeants of the Pensioner Force are also occasionally intrusted with the obtaining of recruits. The United States recruiting service is conducted by the adjutant-general, under the direction of the Secretary of War. Recruiting officers consist generally of captains and lieutenants of the line, who must not permit any man to be deceived or inveigled into the service by false representations. If the recruit is a minor, his parents or guardians must, if possible, be informed of the minor’s wish to enlist, and their written consent obtained therefor. Any male person above the age of eighteen, and under thirty-five years, being effective, able-bodied, sober, free from disease, of good character and habits, with a competent knowledge of the English language, may be enlisted. No man having a wife or child can be enlisted in time of peace without special authority from the adjutant-general’s office. The Prussian system is based upon the theory that military service is not a trade or craft, to be followed by a portion of the population, but a duty owed by every male citizen to his country. For further particulars of this system, see LANDWEHR. The Prussian system has been adopted by all other states of the German empire, and also by most of the other European nations.

=Recruiting Flag.= See FLAG, STORM.

=Recruitment.= The act or business of recruiting or raising new supplies of men for an army.

=Recursant.= In heraldry, moving or coursing backward;--said of an eagle displayed with the back towards the spectator’s face.

=Red Hand.= In heraldry, a sinister hand erect, open, and couped, or the wrist gules, being the arms of the province of Ulster, was granted to the baronets of England and of Ireland as their distinguishing badge, on the institution of that order in 1611, and is borne by the baronets of Great Britain and of the United Kingdom. It is assumed into the armorial coat, and may be borne upon a canton, or on an escutcheon, which may be placed either in the middle chief or in the fess point, so as least to interfere with the charges composing the family arms.

=Red River Settlement.= Is in British North America, between Lakes Superior and Winnepeg. While the proposed transfer to the crown (1869-70) of the rights of the Hudson’s Bay Company was pending, it was the scene of much contention and violence. The hasty action of the Canadian authorities incensed the French-speaking population, who, led by Louis Riel, organized a force, imprisoned their opponents (English and Scotch), seized on Fort Garry, established a provisional government, robbed the strong-box, and dictated terms to the governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company, who was obliged to submit to them. In July, 1870, a military force suddenly appeared in the province, and Riel fearing capture, escaped, and thus closed the insurrection.

=Red Tape.= The tape used in public offices for tying up documents, etc.; hence, official formality.

=Redan.= Is the simplest work in field fortification. It consists of two parapets whose faces join in forming a salient angle toward the enemy, like a letter V, in which the apex is to the front. Regarded by itself, the redan is a work of very little strength, since there is no flanking fire to protect its faces, and nothing to prevent an enemy from forcing an entrance at the gorge; but redans are useful in many positions, and the rapidity with which they may be constructed renders them favorites with engineers and generals. A row of redans along an exposed front of an army adds much to its strength, the troops behind protecting the gorge, and the redans flanking each other. It forms an excellent defense for a bridgehead, the gorge being covered by the river. Redans figured largely in Wellington’s works for defending Lisbon in 1810. The redan of Sebastopol in 1855 was the principal point of the English attack, and the scene of two bloody repulses by the Russians in June and September.

=Redcoat.= A soldier who wears a red coat; an English soldier.

=Red-hot Shot.= Are cannon-balls heated to redness, and fired from cannon at shipping, magazines, wooden buildings, etc., to combine destruction by fire with battering by concussion. In modern warfare, shells containing molten iron are intended to be used in lieu of red-hot shot; but they have not yet been tested in actual practice, although a similar device was attempted unsuccessfully in 1863 by the U. S. forces when besieging Charleston.

=Redinha.= A village of Portugal, province of Estremadura, the scene of an affair between the British under Lord Wellington, and the French retreating army under Marshal Masséna, in 1811.

=Redoubt.= Is a small fort of varying shape, constructed for a temporary purpose, and usually without flanking defenses. The term is vague in its acceptation, being applied equally to detached posts and to a strong position within another fortress. Redoubts are made square, pentagonal, and even circular. Each redoubt has parapet, ditch, scarps, banquette, etc., as in regular fortification; but it is commonly rather roughly constructed, haste and unprofessional labor precluding mathematical accuracy. The entrance may be by a cutting through the parapet, the cutting being covered within by a traverse, or, preferably, by an excavated gallery leading into the ditch, and thence by a ramp through the counterscarp. For the sake of flanking the ditch, and preventing an assaulting party from forming in it, caponnières of timber, loop-holed, are sometimes formed; or, if the soil be stiff or chalky, a gallery may be cut behind the counterscarp, and loop-holed towards the ditch. In some modern redoubts, the line of each side is broken to afford flanking defense. Redoubts have the weak feature of not defending their own ditches, and of being approached at their salient angles with comparative impunity. They are therefore not adapted to a protracted defense, but as temporary field-works, or in war of posts, they are often of incalculable importance. Troops whose stability in open field is doubtful are especially strengthened by redoubts in their line. Redoubts are particularly useful in fortifying the tops of hills, or commanding passes, or where the object is to occupy a hostile territory, or to feel the way gradually through a wooded country.

=Redoubtable.= Formidable; to be dreaded; terrible to foes; as, a redoubtable hero; hence, valiant; often in contempt or burlesque.

=Redout Kalé=, or =Redoot Kalé=. A flourishing, fortified seaport of Russia, in Trans-Caucasia, stands on the eastern shore of the Black Sea, about 15 miles north of Poti. During the Crimean war, the Russian garrison at Redout Kalé, finding the fort invested by Sir Edmund Lyons, with several men-of-war, set fire to the town, May 19, 1854.

=Redressing Wrongs.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 29, 30.

=Reduce a Place.= Is to oblige the commander to surrender it to the besiegers, by capitulation. To reduce the square, is to restore or bring back a battalion or battalions, which have been formed in a hollow or oblong square, to their natural situation in line or column. To reduce to the ranks, is to degrade, as to reduce a non-commissioned officer, for misconduct, to the station of a private soldier.

=Reduce, To.= To degrade to a lower rank.

=Reduced.= In a military sense, is to be taken off the establishment, and to cease to receive pay as soldiers. When a regiment is reduced, the officers are generally put upon half-pay. Sometimes the corps are reduced, and the officers remain upon full pay. This happens at the close of a war, when the standing army of the country is confined to a certain number of battalions. Hence is derived the expression, in and out of the break. In the break, is the liability of being reduced. Out of the break, is the certainty of being kept upon the establishment.

=Reduit.= In fortification, is a central or retired work within any other work, intended to afford the garrison a last retreat, whence they may capitulate. It is commonly of masonry, loop-holed, and often circular. Many engineers doubt the use of reduits altogether, as blocking up the working space, being themselves inconvenient for the men, and incapable of protracted defense, while they frequently mask the fire of other works more to the rear.

=Re-embark.= To embark or go aboard of a ship again.

=Re-embattle.= To array again for battle; to arrange again in the order of battle.

=Re-engage.= To engage again; to enlist a second time.

=Re-enlist.= To enlist again. In the U. S. army any non-commissioned officer, musician, or private soldier, who re-enlists within one month after the date of discharge from first enlistment, receives $2 per month in addition to the monthly pay he was receiving prior to discharge; and also $1 per month additional after each subsequent re-enlistment so long as he shall remain continuously in the army.

=Re-enlistment.= A renewed enlistment.

=Re-entering Angle.= See ANGLE.

=Re-entering Place of Arms.= In fortification, is an enlargement of the covered way of the fortress, between a bastion and a ravelin; its rear coinciding with the counterscarp of the ditch, and its front consisting usually of two faces of the glacis, which are disposed at angles of about 100° with the glacis before the neighboring bastion and ravelin. It serves as a place for assembling troops previously to making sorties; and the fire from its faces serves to defend the approaches to the salient parts in front of the collateral works.

=Rees.= A town of Rhenish Prussia, 12 miles southeast from Cleves. This town was taken by the Dutch in 1614, and by the French in 1678.

=Reflection, Angle of.= Whether the instance be a ray of light or a cannon-ball, the angle of reflection will always be found equal to the angle of incidence.

=Re-form, To.= In a military sense is, after some manœuvre or evolution, to bring a line to its natural order by aligning it on some given point. Also, to restore order among broken troops.

=Reformado.= An officer was formerly so called, who for some disgrace was deprived of his command, but retained his rank, and perhaps his pay.

=Reformed Officer.= In the British army, one whose troop or company being broken up, is continued on full or half-pay. He preserves the right of seniority, and continues in the way of preferment by brevet.

=Re-fortification.= A fortifying anew, or a second time.

=Re-fortify.= To fortify anew.

=Refusal to Receive Prisoners.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 67.

=Refuse, To.= In a military sense, is to refuse a wing, to throw it back, or to keep it out of that regular alignment which is formed when troops are upon the point of engaging an enemy. To refuse any part of the line in battle, as the centre or a wing, to keep that part retired, while the remainder is advanced to fight.

=Regardant.= A term used in heraldry, with reference to an animal whose head is turned backwards. See PASSANT and RAMPANT.

=Regensburg.= See RATISBON.

=Reggio= (anc. Rhegium, which see). A city in Southern Italy which was taken by Garibaldi, August, 1860.

=Regillus Lacus.= A lake in Latium, memorable for the victory gained on its banks by the Romans over the Latins, 498 B.C.

=Regiment.= In all modern armies, is a colonel’s command, and the largest permanent association of soldiers. Regiments may be combined into brigades, brigades into divisions, and divisions into corps and armies; but these combinations are but temporary, while in the regiment the same officers serve continually, and in command of the same body of men. The strength of a regiment may vary greatly even in the same army, as each may comprise any number of battalions. French and Austrian regiments have ordinarily four to six battalions. Among British infantry the smallest regiments are those numbered from the 26th upwards (except the 60th), which, unless serving in India, have 1000 men each, composing one battalion. Regiments in India have 1200 to a battalion. The largest regiment is the Royal Artillery, comprising 34,713 officers and men. The strength of a regiment, however, is changed from time to time; usually by the addition or withdrawal of private soldiers. In the U. S. service the strength of cavalry regiments is about 1200 men each, artillery about 600, and infantry about 500 each. The regimental system could only exist where standing armies were maintained. Accordingly the Macedonian syntagmata and the Roman cohorts were evidently regiments in a strict sense. During the Middle Ages, feudal organization precluded the system, and its first appearance was in France. Francis I. formed legions of 6000 men each, which were divided into independent companies, the latter being, in fact, battalions, and each legion a regiment. The word regiment began to be applied to bodies of British troops in Elizabeth’s reign; regiments are spoken of at the time of the Armada, 1588, and as composing the force in Ireland, 1598. From that time forward the army and militia of Britain have been organized in regiments.

=Regimental.= Anything belonging to a regiment.

=Regimental Colors.= See COLORS.

=Regimental Court-martial.= Is a legal tribunal convened for the punishment of offenders in the army. It is composed of three members and a judge-advocate. See COURT-MARTIAL, JUDGE-ADVOCATE, and TRIAL.

=Regimental Courts-martial.= See COURT-MARTIAL.

=Regimental Inspection.= See INSPECTION.

=Regimental Necessaries.= See NECESSARIES.

=Regimental Orders.= See ORDERS, REGIMENTAL.

=Regimental Schools.= In Great Britain, are educational establishments maintained by the state in every regiment, for the instruction of soldiers and soldiers’ children. There is a schoolmaster for the soldiers and elder boys, and a trained schoolmistress--usually the schoolmaster’s wife--to teach the girls and infants of both sexes. Attendance at the schools is compulsory for the soldiers and optional for the children. Religious instruction takes place on Monday mornings, when children can be kept from school if their parents object to the instruction imparted. The girls’ school comprises an “industrial” section for needle-work, etc.

In France, écoles primaires or regimentaires, “primary or regimental schools,” were founded in 1818, in which the soldiers were taught writing, reading, and arithmetic.

In Prussia, there are established garrison schools (Garnisons Schulen) for the instruction of soldiers’ children; and battalion schools (Bataillons Schulen), in which non-commissioned officers and privates are instructed in writing, reading, orthography, and arithmetic; also in making out reports and other official papers.

=Regimentals.= The uniform worn by the troops of a regiment.

=Register.= A list or roll; as, the army register; which is a list of the officers, with rank and date of commission, etc.

=Regulars.= Are those troops whose conditions of enrollment are not limited to time or place, in contradistinction to militia or volunteer corps; troops permanently in service.

=Regulation Sword.= A sword of the kind or quality prescribed by the official regulations. Also regulation cap, uniform, etc.

=Regulations.= Under the Constitution of the United States, rules for the government and regulation of the army must be made by Congress. Regulation implies regularity; it signifies fixed forms; a certain order; method; precise determination of functions, rights, and duties. (See MILITARY REGULATIONS.) A “regulation” of an executive department is a rule by the head of such department for its action, under a statute conferring such power, and has the force of law; a mere order of the President, or of the Secretary of the department, is not a regulation. The power of the Executive to establish rules and regulations for the government of the army is undoubted. The power to establish implies necessarily the power to modify or repeal, or to create anew. The Secretary of War is the regular constitutional organ of the President for the administration of the military establishment of the nation; and rules and orders publicly promulgated through him must be received as the act of the Executive, and as such be binding upon all within the sphere of his legal and constitutional authority. Such regulations cannot be questioned or defied, because they may be thought unwise or mistaken. But as it sometimes occurs that rights of rank, command, and pay, concerning which Congress has legislated, are subjects of dispute, and variable expositions of laws regulating those essentials of good government have been by different Executives, with an increasing tendency to invalidate rank created by Congress; there should be a law passed by Congress to enable cases to be brought before the Federal civil courts, in order that the true exposition of military statutes and authorities in dispute may be determined. With such a remedy, laws, however defective they may be, would at least be known, and rights, powers, and duties, established by law would be well determined.

=Regulators.= The popular name of a party in North Carolina, which arose in 1768, and had for its object the forcible redress of public grievances.

=Reigate.= A town of England, in the county of Surrey. Its castle was destroyed in 1648. Its church contains the tomb of Lord Howard, who commanded the English fleet against the Armada.

=Reign of Terror.= A term applied to a period of anarchy, bloodshed, and confiscation, in the history of the French revolution, during which the country was under the sway of the actual terror inspired by the ferocious measures of its governors, who had established it avowedly as the principle of their authority. It commenced after the fall of the Girondists, May 31, 1793, and extended to the overthrow of Robespierre and his accomplices, July 27, 1794. Thousands of persons were put to death during this short time.

=Reims.= See RHEIMS.

=Rein.= A crack or vein in a musket-barrel.

=Reinforce.= In gunnery, is the thickest part of the body of the gun, in front of the base-ring or base-line; if there be more than one reinforce, that which is next the base-ring or base-line is called the first reinforce; the other the second reinforce. See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF, MOLDING.

=Reinforce.= To strengthen with new force, assistance, or support; especially, to strengthen, as an army or a fort, with additional troops, or a navy with additional ships.

=Reinforce Band.= Is at the junction of the first and second reinforces.

=Reinforcement.= The act of reinforcing. That which reinforces; additional force; especially additional troops or force to augment the strength of an army, or ships to strengthen a navy.

=Reitres= (Fr.). A body of armed horsemen, who came out of Germany and entered the French service during the reign of Henry III. They were incorporated with the carabineers.

=Rejoin.= To join again; to return; as, the officer rejoined his regiment.

=Rejoinder.= In military law, the defendant’s answer to the plaintiff’s replication. The weight of authority is against permitting a rejoinder on the part of the prisoner, unless evidence has been adduced in the reply of the prosecutor. But such evidence should not be permitted in reply, and there should be no rejoinder.--Hough’s “Military Law Authorities.”

=Relais= (Fr.). A term used in fortification to signify a space, containing some feet in breadth, which is between the foot of the rampart and the scarp of the fosse. It serves as a convenient receptacle for the earth that occasionally crumbles off.

=Relative Rank.= Signifies the comparative rank, as regards precedence, etc. The following is the relative rank of officers in the army and navy of the United States:

Army. Navy. General Admiral. Lieutenant-general Vice-admiral. Major-general Rear-admiral. Brigadier-general Commodore. Colonel Captain. Lieutenant-colonel Commander. Major Lieut.-commander. Captain Lieutenant. First lieutenant Master. Second lieutenant Ensign.

The officers of the marine corps are of rank corresponding to that of those of the same titles in the army.

=Release of Prisoners.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 69.

=Relief.= A fresh detachment of troops, ordered to replace those already upon duty. Also, the body of men proceeding to take the places of, or relieve, the existing sentinels. Guards are usually divided into three reliefs. See GUARD, RUNNING.

=Relief.= In fortification, is the height to which works are raised above the bottom of the ditch. If the works are high and commanding, they are said to have a bold relief; but if the reverse, they are said to have a low relief. The relief should provide the requisite elevations for the musketry and artillery, to insure a good defense.

=Relieve, To.= Is to take a man or a body of men off any kind of duty; as, to relieve a sentinel; to relieve the guard, etc.; also to succor, to deliver; as, to relieve a besieged town.

=Reliever.= An iron ring fixed to a handle, by means of a socket, so as to be at right angles to it. It serves to disengage the searcher of a gun, when one of its points is retained in a hole, and cannot be extracted otherwise.

=Relieving the Enemy.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 45.

=Reload.= To load anew, as a gun, etc.

=Reloading Implements.= Are implements used in reloading cartridge-shells,--to perform the various operations of measuring the powder, setting home the bullet or charge, removing exploded primer, recapping, etc.

=Remaining Velocity.= In gunnery, is the velocity of the projectile at any point of the flight.

=Remand.= To send back; as when a soldier who has been discharged from prison or the guard-house, for the purpose of being examined or tried, is sent back to await the final decision of his case.

=Remarks.= Army returns, regimental returns, guard reports, etc., have a column allotted for observations relative to extraordinary occurrences, and these are headed “remarks.” The word is also applied with reference to a reviewing officer’s observations on the verdict of a court-martial.

=Remblai.= Is the quantity of earth in the mass of rampart, parapet, and banquette.

=Remedy.= The rules and articles for the government of the army are defective in not providing sufficient remedies for wrongs. The army of the United States is governed by law. The law should therefore provide a sufficient remedy for cases in which the rights of officers are wrested from them by illegal regulations, purporting to interpret the true meaning of acts of Congress. In cases arising in the land and naval forces of the United States, where the true construction of any act of Congress is in dispute, legislation is wanted to enable an officer who thinks himself wronged by an illegal executive decision, to bring the matter before the Federal civil courts to determine the true exposition of the statute or authority in dispute.

=Remi=, or =Rhemi=. One of the most powerful people in Gallia Belgica. They formed an alliance with Cæsar when the rest of the Belgæ made war against him, 57 B.C.

=Remington Rifle.= See SMALL-ARMS.

=Remit.= To lessen; as, to remit a part of a soldier’s sentence.

=Remonstrate.= To make a representation of a case or cases wherein one or more may consider themselves to be aggrieved. Military men may remonstrate through their superior officers; but where the duty of the service is concerned, that duty must be first performed with cheerfulness and fidelity.

=Remount.= A supply of good and serviceable horses for the cavalry. To remount the cavalry, is to furnish them with horses in the room of those which have been either killed, disabled, or cast.

=Renchen.= A town of Baden, on the Rench, 8 miles northeast from Offenburg. The French defeated the Austrians here in 1796, and entered Suabia.

=Rendezvous.= A place appointed for a meeting; especially, the appointed place for troops, or for the ships of a fleet, to assemble; sometimes a place for enlistment. Also, to assemble or meet at a particular place, as troops, ships, etc.

=Rendsburg.= A fortified town of Holstein, on an island in the Eyder, at the commencement of the Kiel Canal. It was taken by the Imperialists in 1627; by the Swedes in 1643; and by the Prussians and confederate troops in 1848. It was reoccupied by the Danes in 1852, and taken by the Prussians after a serious conflict, July 21, 1864.

=Renegade.= One who deserts from a military or naval post; a deserter.

=Rennes= (anc. Condate). A town of France, capital of the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 60 miles north of Nantes. After the fall of the Roman empire it fell into the hands of the Franks. In 1357, Rennes was unsuccessfully besieged by the Duke of Lancaster; and at the time of the revolution was the scene of some conflicts, being always firmly attached to the popular cause.

=Reorganize.= To organize anew; to reduce again to an organized condition; to cause to assume wonted or regular functions; as, to reorganize an army.

=Repair of Arms.= The keeping in constant good order the different fire-arms belonging to a troop or company, such as rifles, etc. In the British army, a half-yearly allowance is made to captains of troops and companies for this purpose. In the U. S. service the cost of repairs of damage done to arms, equipments, etc., through negligence of an officer or soldier, is deducted from the pay of said officer or soldier.

=Repeater.= A fire-arm that may be discharged many times in quick succession; especially, a form of fire-arm so constructed that the charges are successively introduced, by an action of the lock, from a chamber containing them, into the breech, and fired or are discharged from a revolving chamber at the breech. See REVOLVER and MAGAZINE GUN.

=Repel.= To drive back; to force to return; to check the advance of; to repulse; as, to repel an enemy or an assailant.

=Reply.= It is the duty of a court to prevent new matter from being introduced into the prosecution or defense, but a prisoner may urge in his defense mitigating circumstances, or examine witnesses as to character or services, and produce testimonials of such facts, without its being considered new matter. If any point of law be raised, or any matter requiring explanation, the judge-advocate may explain. No other reply to be admitted.--Hough.

=Report.= Sound; loud noise, as that made by the discharge of a rifle or a cannon.

=Report.= A specific statement of any particular occurrences. Officers making written reports are required to sign them, specifying the regiment to which they belong, and their rank.

=Reporting Prisoners.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 68.

=Repose, In= (Fr. en repos). This term, which is manifestly taken from the French, applies to troops that are allowed to be stationary for any given period during an active campaign, either through sickness or from some other cause. Thus, the 5th regiment being in repose, the 24th was ordered to the front.

=Repository.= A place, or repertory, in which anything is preserved. Thus, the British repository at Woolwich contains models of every sort of warlike stores, weapons, and fortifications; whether invented by officers of the army or civilians, as well of other nations as of Britain, receipts being given to preserve the title to the inventor.

=Repress.= To press back or down effectually; to crush down or out; to quell; to subdue; as, to repress rebellion.

=Reprimand.= A reproof for some error or misconduct. A reprimand is sometimes publicly conveyed to officers, either in orders or at the head of a regiment, by direction of the President or a general officer in command. Non-commissioned officers and privates are sometimes reprimanded. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 52.

=Reprisal.= Is the retaking, from an enemy, goods which he has seized, or the capture from him of other goods, as an equivalent for the damage he has wrought.

=Reproachful or Provoking Speeches.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 25.

=Repulse.= To repel; to beat or drive back. The condition of being repelled or driven back. Also, the act of repelling or driving back.

=Requisitions.= Are forms prescribed for the demand of certain allowances, as forage, rations, etc. It also signifies the act of exacting either men or things for the public service. Requisitions are, however, an uncertain and unequal means of supply and only enable an army to live from hand to mouth, and although practicable in offensive wars, are only justifiable in rapid movements, where time does not admit the employment of more certain means of supply. The system is less odious than pillage. Bonaparte skillfully adopted another method, in harmony with the spirit of wars of invasion, and also more reliable as a means of support. He substituted himself in place of the supreme authorities of the invaded country, and exacted pecuniary contributions, paying, or promising to pay, for all provisions and other supplies needed for his army. This system was well executed by Marshal Suchet in Spain, and a similar system was also matured and published in orders by Gen. Scott while in Mexico. A treaty of peace, however, soon after was made, which put an end to military operations, and the system was therefore only partially executed. But with a sufficient army in a fertile country, the experience of the world has shown that if the inhabitants are protected from injuries, they will very generally sell to the best paymasters. It is therefore the interest of an invading army not to interfere with the ordinary avocations of citizens, and such is the modern usage.

=Rereward.= The part of an army that marches in the rear, as the guard; the rear-guard.

=Resaca de la Palma.= A ravine which crosses the Matamoras road about 3 miles north of that place; the position taken by the Mexican general Arista to resist the further advance of Gen. Taylor’s army. Although the latter was outnumbered three to one, the Mexicans were routed after a short conflict (May 9, 1846) and driven across the Rio Grande.

=Rescue.= The retaking by a party captured of a prize made by the enemy.

=Reservation, Military.= Land set aside from the public domain by the President of the United States for military purposes.

=Reserve.= In army affairs, is a body of troops held somewhere in the rear, generally out of fire, and kept fresh, in order that they may interfere with decisive force at any point where yielding troops require support, or an advantage gained needs powerful following up. The reserve of ammunition is a magazine of warlike stores, situated between an army and its base of operations, sufficiently retired from the front to be safe from sudden raids of the enemy, and at the same time advanced enough to allow of the supply actually in the field being speedily replenished.

=Reserve, Army.= In Great Britain, is divided into first and second class reserves. The first class consists of men who are serving or have served in the regular army, and whose past service has not exceeded their first term of enlistment. These men are liable to be called out for training for a period not longer than twelve days in a year, and to be permanently embodied for general service in case of imminent national danger or great emergency. The second class consists of out-pensioners of Chelsea Hospital, and persons enrolled in the force under the provisions of the 6th, 7th, 9th, and 10th Victoria. The members of this force may be called out for training as if they were in the first class, but can only be permanently embodied in case of national danger or great emergency, for service in the United Kingdom. For army reserve in Prussia, see LANDWEHR.

=Reserve Equipage.= See PONTONS, BRIDGE EQUIPAGE.

=Ressaldar.= In the East Indies, is a native officer in a native cavalry regiment. He commands the right troop of a squadron, and on parade leads the squadron.

=Ressaldar Major.= In the East Indies, is the native commandant of a native cavalry regiment.

=Rest.= In tactics, a word of command whereby the men are brought to a position of rest; as, parade rest, in place rest.

=Rest on Arms.= A word of command which is used at military funerals.

=Retained Pay.= In the U. S. army, is pay that is retained from the soldier until the expiration of his term of service.

=Retainers.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 63.

=Retaliation.= This should never be resorted to as a measure of mere revenge, but only as a means of protective retribution, and, moreover, cautiously and unavoidably; that is to say, retaliation is only to be resorted to after careful inquiry into the real occurrence and the character of the misdeeds that may demand retribution.

=Retiarius.= A kind of gladiator who fought in the amphitheatre during the time of the Romans. He was dressed in a short coat, having a fuscina, or trident, in his left hand, and a net, from which he derived his name, in his right. With this he endeavored to entangle his adversary, that he might then with his trident easily dispatch him. On his head he wore only a hat tied under his chin with a broad ribbon.

=Retinue.= Applied strictly to the admiral’s suite or followers, though it means an accompanying train in general; whether military, naval, or civil.

=Retirade.= In fortification, a retrenchment, which is generally made with two faces, forming a re-entrant angle, and is thrown up in the body of a work, for the purpose of receiving troops, who may dispute the ground inch by inch.

=Retire.= Signifies to fall back a short distance. Also, a bugle-sound intimating to skirmishers that they are to fall back. This bugle-sound in the U. S. service is termed “to the rear.”

=Retired Flank.= In fortification, a flank having an arc of a circle with its convexity turned toward the place.

=Retired Full Pay.= See FULL PAY, RETIRED.

=Retired List.= Is a list of officers retired from the army or navy. In every service, to maintain a reasonably low age among the persons actively employed, it is essential that some scale should be fixed for retirement of old and worn-out officers. In the British army, medical officers are allowed to retire after twenty-five years full-pay service; other officers after thirty years on full pay, or twenty-five years on half-pay. In the navy, officers are placed on the retired list at sixty years of age, with the rank they then hold. In most cases, in both services, the retiring officer is allowed a step of honorary rank; but this higher rank carries neither present nor prospective advantage. Officers of the U. S. army may be retired on their own application after thirty years’ service. If an officer has been borne on the army register for forty-five years, or if he has attained the age of sixty-two years, he may be retired at the discretion of the President. Officers retired from active service receive 75 per cent. of the pay of the rank upon which they were retired. Retired officers of the army may be assigned to duty as professors of colleges and at the Soldier’s Home, and shall not be assignable to any other duty. Any officer may be retired on account of disability contracted in the line of duty. When an officer has served forty years as a commissioned officer he shall, if he makes application therefor, be placed on the retired list. Officers retired shall be withdrawn from command and promotion. Officers may be wholly retired for disability not incident to the service and dropped from the rolls of the army with one year’s pay. Officers of the marine corps shall be retired in the same manner and with the same relative conditions as are provided for officers of the army.

=Retreat.= The retrograde movement of any army or body of men who retire from the enemy. It signifies a more prolonged and systematic movement to the rear than retire. Full retreat is when an army retires with all expedition before a conquering enemy. The retreat is also a beat of the infantry drums, or sounding of the bugles or trumpets, which takes place every day at sunset, and at which troops fall in and the roll is called; the details for duty the following day, and orders, are published. To retreat is to make a retrograde movement. An army or body of men are said to retreat when they turn their backs upon the enemy, or are retiring from the ground they occupied; hence, every march in withdrawing from an enemy is called a retreat.

=Retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks.= The 10,000 Greeks who had joined the army of the Younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother, Artaxerxes Mnemon, were victors, but Cyrus was defeated and slain at Cunaxa, 401 B.C. Artaxerxes having enticed the Greek leaders into his power and killed them, Xenophon was called to the command of his countrymen. Under continual alarms from sudden attacks, he led them across rapid rivers, through vast deserts, over the tops of mountains, till he reached the sea. The Greeks returned home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues (3465 miles), which was performed in 215 days, after an absence of fifteen months.

=Retrench.= To furnish with a retrenchment; as, to retrench bastions.

=Retrenchment.= In fortification, is a defensive work, comprising at least ditch and parapet, within some other work of a fortress, and intended as a place of retreat for the defenders, whence they may prolong the defense, or capitulate after the faces of the work itself have fallen into the enemy’s hands. The retrenchment bears a considerable resemblance to the reduit, except that it is almost always of earth. Retrenchments are made in ravelins, and the re-entering place d’armes at the time of constructing the works. A retrenchment is thrown across the gorge of a redan or bastion, or from shoulder to shoulder, when it is apprehended that the salient angle will fall into the possession of the besiegers; these retrenchments are usually made when wanted. Such a retrenchment across the interior of the Redan at Sebastopol caused the sanguinary repulse of the British on September 8, 1855.

=Return.= An official account, report, or statement, rendered to the commander or other superior; as, the return of men fit for duty; the return of the number of the sick; the return of provisions, etc. For punishment of officers making false returns, see APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 8.

=Returns of a Mine.= Are the turnings and windings of the gallery leading to the mine.

=Returns of a Trench.= Are the various turnings and windings which form the lines of the trench, and are, as near as they can be, made parallel to the place attacked, to avoid being enfiladed.

=Reveille.= The beat of the drum about break of day, to give notice that it is time for the soldiers to rise, and for the sentinels to forbear challenging.

=Reveil-matin= (Fr.). A double cannon; an ancient 96-pounder.

=Revel=, or =Reval=. A strongly fortified seaport town of Russia, government of Esthonia, on a small bay on the south side of the Gulf of Finland, 200 miles west-southwest from St. Petersburg. It was long held by the Teutonic Knights; was made over to Sweden in 1562; bombarded by the Danish and Lübeck fleets in 1569; besieged by Peter the Great, and annexed to the Russian empire in 1710. In 1713 a naval harbor, in addition to the commercial harbor, was founded.

=Reverse.= A change for the worse, or partial defeat.

=Reverse Fire.= See FIRE, REVERSE.

=Reverse Flank.= See FLANK, OUTWARD.

=Reversed.= Upside down; as, arms reversed. Arms are said to be reversed when the butts of the pieces are slung, or held upwards.

=Reversed.= In heraldry, a term applied to a charge turned upside down.

=Revet.= In fortification, to face with masonry, wood, or material, as an embankment.

=Revetment.= In permanent fortification, is a retaining wall of masonry built for the purpose of holding back the earth of which works are composed. The most ordinary position of revetments is for the escarp and counterscarp of the ditch. The most important of these two is the escarp, which has to hold back the great mass of earth represented by the rampart, parapet, banquette, etc. It is usually of solid brick-work or stone, 5 feet thick at the top, and sloping outwards as it descends (on the ditch side only) to the extent of 1 in 6. Prior to Vauban’s time, the escarp revetment was commonly raised to the top of the parapet; but as in this case the artillery of a besieger played on the top of the wall, and ruined it soon after the siege commenced, that engineer adopted the principle--thenceforth followed--of raising it no higher than the crest of the glacis, or about 7 feet above the natural ground, leaving the parapet above of sloped earth only. When the main ditch is 24 feet deep, the scarp revetment will be about 30 feet high. Additional strength is imparted to the revetment wall by massive buttresses at every 15 feet, called counter-forts, and these again are sometimes connected and strengthened by masonry arches outside the revetment. The revetment forms a terrible barrier to an assaulting party. In field-works temporary revetments may be made of timber, turf, hurdles, or any other materials on hand.

=Review.= An examination or inspection of troops under arms, by a general or commander, for the purpose of ascertaining the state of their discipline, equipments, etc.

=Revision.= A re-examination for correction. Where an officer, who orders a court-martial, does not approve their proceedings, he may, by the custom of war, return them to the court for revision, and no additional evidence can be taken on such revision.--Hough.

=Revocable.= That may be recalled. Nominations for appointments in the army are made by the President of the United States, subject to the concurrence of the Senate, who, if they disagree, revoke the appointment.

=Revolt.= To renounce allegiance or subjection; to rise against the government in declared rebellion.

=Revolution.= In politics, any extensive change in the constitution of a country suddenly brought about. The most important events in history known under this name are: The destruction of the Assyrian empire, and the foundation of that of the Medes and Persians by Cyrus the Great, 536 B.C.; the foundation of the Macedonian empire on the destruction of the Persian, by the defeat of Darius Codomanus, by Alexander the Great, 331 B.C.; the establishment of the Roman empire on the ruins of the republic by Julius Cæsar, 47 B.C.; the establishment of the empire of the Western Franks under Charlemagne, 800; the revolution in Portugal, by which the Portuguese threw off the Spanish yoke and placed John, duke of Braganza, on the throne, 1640; the English revolution of the 17th century, which began in the early part of the reign of Charles I., with the struggle between that king and his Parliament. In 1642, the struggle became a civil war, in which the Parliament obtained the ascendency, and brought Charles to the block in 1649. A republic followed, under the protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, which was succeeded in 1660 by the restoration of monarchy in the person of Charles II.; but the arbitrary rule of James II. brought the king and people again into antagonism, and James having fled the country, William III. was called to the throne under such conditions and safeguards as secured the balance of the constitution. The revolutions in Russia, 1730 and 1762. The French revolution was a violent reaction against that absolutism which had come in the course of time to supplant the old feudal institutions of the country. It began with an outbreak of insurrectionary movements at Paris in July, 1789, including the destruction of the Bastile. On January 21, 1793, King Louis XVI. was beheaded. A disastrous reign of terror followed (see REIGN OF TERROR), which was brought to an end in 1794. The revolution in Sweden, 1772 and 1809; in Holland, 1795, and counter-revolution in 1813; in Poland, 1704, 1795, and 1830. The American Revolution of 1775, by which the United States threw off their dependence on Great Britain. The French revolution of 1830, which drove Charles X. into exile, and raised Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, to the throne by the will of the people; as also the revolution of 1848, when France rose against Louis Philippe and adopted for a time a republican form of government; which was followed by the revolution of 1851. The revolutions in the Netherlands, and in Brunswick, 1830; in Brazil, 1831; in Hungary, 1848; in Rome, 1798 and 1848; in Italy, 1859-60, when the various minor sovereigns were driven into exile, and the whole of the peninsula, with the exception of the Roman and Venetian territory, became subject to the constitutional sway of Victor Emmanuel; in the United States, 1860-65; in the Danubian principalities, 1869; and the Papal States, suppressed, October, 1867.

=Revolutionary.= Tending or pertaining to a revolution in government; as, a revolutionary war.

=Revolutionary Tribunal.= The name specially given to the infamous court of judgment--the most extreme republican will scarcely affirm that it was a court of justice--instituted by the French Convention in March, 1793, on a motion made by Danton, who considered that such a court had become necessary, inasmuch as the recent disasters that had befallen the national armies on the frontiers had led to dangerous conspiracies against the revolutionary government. Its members were chosen from the various departments, and their appointment was ratified by the Convention. Their function was to sit in judgment on all persons accused of crimes against the state, and from their sentence, delivered with appalling promptitude, there was no appeal. During the “Reign of Terror” (which see), when Fouquier-Tinville was “public accuser,” it acquired a horrible notoriety, abolishing soon almost all forms of justice, neither hearing witnesses on behalf of the accused, nor allowing him an opportunity of defense, but blindly executing the orders of the “Committee of Public Safety,” which was merely a tool in the hands of Robespierre. In the provinces, similar tribunals, under the name of “Revolutionary Committees,” were established, the commissaries-general of which, as, for instance, Carrier, shot or drowned suspects in crowds.

=Revolvers.= See SMALL-ARMS, REVOLVER.

=Revolving Light.= A light or lamp in a light-house so arranged as to appear and disappear at fixed intervals, either by being turned about an axis so as to show light only at intervals, or by having its light occasionally intercepted by a revolving screen.

=Reward.= A recompense given for the performance of a meritorious or gallant act; as, the soldiers were rewarded with medals for their gallantry. In the U. S. service a reward of $30 is paid for the apprehension of a deserter.

=Rezonville.= See GRAVELOTTE.

=Rhagæ= (ruins at Rai, southeast of Tehran). The greatest city of Media, lay in the extreme north of Great Media, at the southern foot of the mountains (Caspius Mons) which border the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. It was destroyed in the Parthian wars, but rebuilt by Arsaces; it was finally destroyed by the Tartars in the 12th century.

=Rhegium= (now Reggio). A celebrated Greek town on the coast of Bruttium, on the south of Italy, was situated on the straits which separate Italy and Sicily. Rhegium was founded about the beginning of the first Messenian war, 743 B.C., by Æolian Chalcidians from Eubœa, and by Doric Messenians, who had quitted their native country on the commencement of hostilities between Sparta and Messenia. Even before the Persian war Rhegium was sufficiently powerful to send 3000 of its citizens to the assistance of the Tarentines. Dionysius carried on war against the city for a long time, and after two or three unsuccessful attempts he at length took the place, which he treated with the greatest severity. The Rhegians having applied to Rome for assistance when Pyrrhus was in the south of Italy, the Romans placed in the town a garrison of 4000 soldiers, who had been levied among the Latin colonies in Campania. These troops seized the town in 279, killed or expelled the male inhabitants, and took possession of their wives and children. When Pyrrhus was driven out of Italy, the Romans took signal vengeance upon these Campanians, and restored the surviving Rhegians to their city.

=Rheims=, or =Reims=. A town of France, in the department of Marne, 82 miles east-northeast from Paris. The town was taken by the Russians in 1814, but before they had been in possession many hours Napoleon came down upon them, and gained here one of his last successes before victory deserted his standards. Gen. MacMahon was at Rheims with his army, including the remains of the corps of Failly and Canrobert, and marched from here in hopes of joining Bazaine; the crown-prince of Prussia started in pursuit, August 23, 1870. It was occupied by the Germans and the king, September 5, 1870.

=Rhin, Bas= and =Haut= (Lower and Upper Rhine). Recently departments of France, which formed the former French province of Alsace. See ELSASS.

=Rhine= (anc. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein). An important river in Germany, and one of the most noted in Europe, takes its rise in the Swiss canton of Grisons, and after a north-northwest course of about 800 miles, falls in the German Ocean. Cæsar was the first Roman general who crossed the Rhine; he threw a bridge of boats across it. It was fortified as the frontier of the Roman empire 298 and 369, and became the boundary of the French republic in 1776.

=Rhode Island.= One of the original thirteen United States of America, and the smallest, on the southern coast of New England, is about 47 miles from north to south, and 37 miles from east to west. It is bounded north and east by Massachusetts, south by the Atlantic, and west by Connecticut. Rhode Island is believed to have been the Vineland of the Norsemen, who are supposed by some antiquarians to have explored this coast in the 10th century. It was settled in 1636 by Roger Williams and his companions, Baptists, who were expelled for their religious opinions from the Puritan colony of Plymouth. The colony suffered from the Indian wars until the defeat and death of Philip, king of the Wampanoags. Rhode Island took a prominent part in the Revolutionary war, and in the late civil war (1861-65) she filled her quotas cheerfully for the cause of the Union, her soldiers winning distinction and honor in the field.

=Rhodes= (Lat. Rhodus, Gr. Rhodos.). An island of Asiatic Turkey, in the Mediterranean, off the southwest coast of Asia Minor, long an important, wealthy, and independent state of ancient Greece. At the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, Rhodes was one of those maritime states which were subject to Athens; but in the twentieth year of the war (412), it joined the Spartan alliance, and the oligarchal party, which had been depressed, and their leaders, the Eratidæ, expelled, recovered their former power under Dories. In 408 the capital, called Rhodus, was built. The history of the island now presents a series of conflicts between the democratical and oligarchal parties, and of subjection to Athens and Sparta in turn, till the end of the Social war, 355, when its independence was acknowledged. Then followed a conflict with the princes of Caria, during which the island was for a time subject to Artemisia. At the Macedonian conquest, they submitted to Alexander; but upon his death they expelled the Macedonian garrison. In the ensuing wars they formed an alliance with Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, and their city, Rhodus, endured a most famous siege by the forces of Demetrius Poliorcetes, who at length, in admiration of the valor of the besieged, presented them with the engines he had used against the city, from the sale of which they defrayed the cost of the celebrated Colossus. The state now for a long time flourished with great maritime power. At length they came into connection with the Romans, whose alliance they joined in the war against Philip III. of Macedon. In the ensuing war with Antiochus, the Rhodians gave the Romans great aid with their fleet. A temporary interruption of their alliance with Rome was caused by their espousing the cause of Perseus, for which they were severely punished, 168; but they recovered the favor of Rome by the important naval aid they rendered in the Mithridatic war. In the civil wars they took part with Cæsar, and suffered in consequence from Cassius, 42. They were at length deprived of their independence by Claudius. In 1309 the island came into the possession of the Knights of St. John (see SAINT JOHN OF JERUSALEM), who baffled every effort made by Mahomet II., the conqueror of Constantinople, to drive them from the island, and held it until they were compelled to evacuate it by Solyman the Great in 1522, after one of the most memorable sieges recorded in history.

=Rhoxolani=, or =Roxolani=. A warlike people in European Sarmatia, on the coast of the Palus Mæotis, and between the Borysthenes and the Tanais, usually supposed to be the ancestors of the modern Russians. They frequently attacked and plundered the Roman provinces south of the Danube; and Hadrian was even obliged to pay them tribute. They are mentioned as late as the 11th century. They fought with lances, and with long swords wielded with both hands; and their armies were composed chiefly of cavalry.

=Ribadoquin.= An ancient 1- or 1³⁄₄-pounder gun. Also, a powerful cross-bow for throwing long darts.

=Ribaud= (Fr.). A soldier of the foot-guards of Philip Augustus of France; but afterwards this term was applied only to the most infamous characters.

=Ribaudaille= (Fr.). A term of reproach formerly applied to cowardly soldiers. Philip of Valois thus called his Genoese mercenaries, who he thought had betrayed him.

=Ribaudequin= (Fr.). A warlike machine or instrument which the French formerly used. It was made in the form of a bow, containing 12 or 15 feet in its curve, and was fixed upon the wall of a fortified town, for the purpose of casting out a prodigious javelin, which sometimes killed several men at once. According to Monstrelet, a French writer, ribaudequin, or ribauderin, signified a sort of garment which was worn by the soldiers when they took the field.

=Ribbon.= In heraldry, a diminutive of the ordinary called the bend, of which it is one-eighth in width.

=Ribbon Cockades.= In the British service, the cockades which are given to recruits, and are commonly called the colors.

=Richmond.= The capital of Virginia, on the left bank of the James River, at the head of the tide-water, 150 miles from its mouth, and 100 miles south of Washington. In June, 1861, it was selected as the Confederate capital, and from that period was the objective-point of a series of formidable military expeditions for its capture, under Gens. McDowell, McClellan, Burnside, Hooker, Meade, and Grant, and defended by Gen. Lee with a large army and formidable lines of fortifications, until the seizure of the lines of supply by Gens. Grant and Sheridan compelled its evacuation after a series of sanguinary battles, April 3, 1865. A considerable portion of the city was destroyed by the retreating Confederates.

=Rickarees=, =Arickarees=, or =Rees=. A tribe of Indians of the Pawnee stock living at Fort Berthold agency, on the Upper Missouri River; they warred with the Dakota tribes for a number of years, and were hostile to the whites; but were defeated and dispersed by U. S. troops in 1823; made a treaty in 1825; were driven up the Platte Valley, 1831; returned to the Missouri some years later. They numbered in 1876 about 700 souls.

=Ricochet.= In gunnery, the repeated rebounding of round-shot. By firing at a slight elevation, with small charges, in a direction enfilading the face of a work, shot are pitched over the parapet, and bound along the rampart from end to end, with most destructive effect on the guns and gunners occupying it.

=Ricochet Battery.= See BATTERY.

=Ricochet Firing.= See FIRE, RICOCHET.

=Rideau.= Is a rising ground, or eminence, commanding a plain, sometimes almost parallel to the works of a place. It is a great disadvantage to have rideaus near a fortification, which terminate on the counterscarp, especially when the enemy fire from afar; they not only command the place, but facilitate the enemy’s approaches.

=Rider.= In artillery carriages, a piece of wood, which has more height than breadth; the length being equal to that of the body of the axle-tree, upon which the side-pieces rest in a four-wheel carriage, such as the ammunition-wagon, block-carriage, and sling-wagon.

=Ridge.= In fortification, is the highest part of the glacis proceeding from the salient angle of the covered way.

=Riding-Master.= In the British service, in cavalry, artillery, and the army service corps, is an officer whose duty it is to instruct the officers and men in the management of their horses. He is most commonly selected from the ranks. The riding-master has the relative rank of lieutenant, and, after an aggregate service of thirty years, including at least fifteen years as riding-master, he has the right to retire on 10 shillings a day, with the honorary rank of captain. He is assisted in his duties by rough riders. (See ROUGH RIDER.)

=Riff, The.= A portion of the coast of Morocco which extends from Tangier on the west, to near the western frontier of Algeria. The name in the Berber language, which is that of the inhabitants, signifies a mountainous and rugged coast. The inhabitants of the Riff were formerly engaged in piracy. On account of the injuries inflicted by them on merchant vessels, most of the maritime states of Europe agreed to pay an annual sum of quit-money. However, in 1828, Austria declined further payment of the tax. A Venetian vessel was seized by the pirates in the harbor of Rabat, but the arrival of an Austrian fleet off the port produced restitution of the ship and its cargo, as well as the formal renunciation of all further claims. France followed the same course by declaring war against the sultan of Morocco, and obtained compensation in 1844, since which period piracy has much diminished. Its example was followed by the Spaniards in 1859.

=Rifle.= A fire-arm having a number of spiral grooves cut into the surface of its bore, for the purpose of giving the projectile a motion about a line coinciding with the direction of its flight. See ORDNANCE, SMALL-ARMS, MAGAZINE GUNS, and LYMAN’S MULTI-CHARGE GUN.

=Rifle Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Rifled Cannon=, or =Rifle-cannon=. A cannon of which the bore is rifled.

=Rifled Musket.= A musket of which the bore is rifled.

=Riflemen.= A peculiar kind of light infantry, consisting of experienced marksmen, armed with the most improved rifles. In the British army there are two battalions of the rifle brigade and of the 60th Rifles, the Ceylon Rifles, and the Cape Mounted Riflemen.

=Rifle-pit.= A pit dug for the shelter of sharpshooters.

=Rifling.= The yielding nature of lead renders the application of the rifle principle of easy accomplishment in the case of rifle-muskets, but such is not the case with rifle-cannon where the projectiles are made of iron. The object of the most recent experiments is to determine the safest and surest means of causing the projectile to follow the spiral grooves as it passes along the bore of a rifled piece. For description of the manner of doing this, see PROJECTILE.

Form of Groove.--The form of a rifle groove is determined by the angle which the tangent at any point makes with the corresponding element of the bore. If the angles be equal at all points the groove is uniform. If they increase from the breech to the muzzle, the grooves are called increasing; if the reverse, decreasing. The inclination of a rifle groove at any point is measured, accurately, by the tangent of the angle which it makes with the axis of the bore, which is always equal to the circumference of the bore divided by the length of a single revolution of the spiral, measured in the direction of the axis. Grooves are of two kinds,--uniform and variable.

Uniform Groove.--The comparative advantages of uniform and variable grooves depend on the means used to connect them with the projectiles. If the bearing of the projectile in the grooves be long, and the metal of which it is made be unyielding, it will be unsafe, if not impracticable, to employ variable grooves, and if the metal be partially yielding, a portion of the force of the charge will be expended in changing the form of that part of the projectile which projects into the grooves, as it moves along the bore.

Variable Groove.--The variable groove may be used to advantage when the portion of the projectile in the grooves is so short that its form will undergo but slight alteration; the variable groove diminishes the friction of the projectile when it is first set in motion, and thereby relieves the breech of the piece of a portion of the enormous strain which is thrown upon it. If the twist be too rapid towards the muzzle there will be danger of bursting the piece in the chase.

Width of Groove.--The width of a groove depends on the diameter of the bore and the peculiar manner in which the groove receives and holds the projectile. Wide and shallow grooves are more easily filled by the expanding portion of the projectile than those which are narrow and deep; and the same holds true of circular-shaped grooves when compared to those of angular form.

Number of Grooves.--An increase in the number of grooves increases the firmness with which a projectile is held, by adding to the number of points which bear upon it. A large number of grooves, however, increase the difficulties of loading. For expanding projectiles an odd number of grooves is generally employed, for as this places a groove opposite to a land, less expansion will be required to fill them.

Inclination of Grooves.--Experience has shown that, as the velocity of rotation depends upon the form and initial velocity of the projectile, the causes which retard it, and the time of flight, there is a particular inclination of grooves which is best suited to each caliber, form of projectile, charge of powder, and angle of fire. The farther the centre of gravity of a projectile is in rear of the centre of figure, or resistance of the air, the greater must be the inclination of the grooves to resist deviation. It therefore follows that a conical projectile of the same length and diameter, requires a greater inclination of grooves than a cylindrical projectile, and the same will hold true for other forms as they approach one or the other of these extreme cases. The friction of the projectile as it passes along the grooves, increases with their inclination; its effect will be to diminish the range and increase the strain on the piece, and the inclination may be carried so far as to break the projectile, or rupture the piece.

Centring.--In consequence of the windage necessary in all muzzle-loading guns, the axis of the projectile does not always coincide with that of the bore in firing. This leads to inaccuracy of fire. A projectile is said to be centred when the grooves of the rifling are so constructed as to bring the axis of the projectile on a line with that of the bore when the piece is fired. There are several ways of accomplishing this, among them Armstrong’s method called “Shunt rifling.” See ARMSTRONG GUN under ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF, the KRUPP, and others.

=Riga.= An important seaport of Russia, capital of Livonia, on the Düna, 312 miles southwest from St. Petersburg. Riga was founded in the beginning of the 13th century. The Teutonic Knights possessed it in the 16th century. In 1621 it was taken by Gustavus Adolphus, and in 1710, after a vigorous resistance, by Peter the Great. On the latter occasion more than half of the town was destroyed. In 1812 a French force was repulsed from the town.

=Rigodon= (Fr.). Formerly a beat of drum while men who were shelled (a French punishment, the severest next to death) were paraded up and down the ranks previous to their being sent to their destination.

=Rimbases.= In gunnery, are short cylinders uniting the trunnions with the body of the gun. The ends of the rimbases, or the shoulders of the trunnions, are planes perpendicular to the axis of the trunnions. Rimbases are for the purpose of strengthening the trunnions at their junction with the piece, and by forming shoulders, to prevent the piece from moving sideways in the trunnion-beds.

=Rimer.= A palisade in fortification.

=Rimini= (anc. Ariminum). A city of Central Italy, on the Adriatic Sea, about 28 miles east-southeast from Forli. It was founded by the Umbri; was conquered by the Romans; sacked by Sulla; plundered and destroyed several times by the barbarians; then given by Charlemagne to the church.

=Rimnik.= A town of Wallachia, on the Rimnik, 66 miles northeast from Bucharest. Here the Austrians and Russians, under Prince Coburg and Gen. Suwarrow, gained a great victory over the Turks, September 22, 1789.

=Ring-armor.= Armor composed of rings of metal.

=Ringleader.= The leader of a ring; especially, the leader of an association of men engaged in violation of law or an illegal enterprise, as rioters, mutineers, and the like.

=Ring-mail.= A kind of mail composed of small rings of steel sewed edgewise upon a strong garment of leather or of quilted cloth.

=Ring-wads.= See GROMMET.

=Rio Janeiro=, or =Rio de Janeiro=, often called simply Rio. The capital of Brazil, and the largest and most important city of South America. The harbor, which is strongly fortified, is one of the best in the world, and large enough for all its navies. The city of Rio was founded by the Portuguese in 1567. In 1831, it was the theatre of a revolution, in which 6000 armed citizens were joined by the troops of the line in their opposition to the government, and in consequence of which Dom Pedro abdicated the throne in favor of his son Pedro II.

=Riot and Tumult.= Sedition, civil insurrection, disturbance, etc. A breach of the peace committed by an assembled multitude. Some degree of violence is incidental to a riot, and a degree of intimidation to the neighborhood. According to law a riot cannot take place unless three persons act in concert. When a riot becomes formidable, it is usual for the authorities to take active measures to disperse it.

=Rioters.= Disturbers of the public peace; persons acting in open violation of good order; raising or creating sedition, etc.

=Ripon.= An ancient town of England, in Yorkshire, 23 miles northwest of York. It suffered much by the ravages of the Danes and the Normans (1069), and the Scots (1319 and 1323).

=Risban= (Fr.). In fortification, a flat piece of ground upon which a fort is constructed for the defense and security of a port or harbor. It likewise means the fort itself.

=Risberme= (Fr.). A work composed of fascines, such as is sometimes constructed at the bottom of a town-wall. A sort of glacis of fascine-work used in jetties, the sides of which, towards the sea, are so formed as to withstand its violence.

=Rise.= In a military sense, is to make hostile attack; as, the soldiers rose against their officers. It also means to obtain promotion. To rise from the ranks, is to obtain a commission by degrees, after having been in the ranks as a private soldier.

=Rising.= In heraldry, a term applied to a bird when represented opening his wings as if about to take flight.

=Riveting-plates.= In gun-carriages, are small, square, thin pieces of iron, through which the ends of the bolts pass, and are riveted upon them.

=Rivoli.= A town of Italy on the right of the river Dora, and 8 miles west of Turin. It possesses a royal castle, which was sacked by the French in 1690. In 1797 a battle was fought here between the French and Austrians, in which the former were victorious.

=Rizamedar.= In the East Indies, is an officer commanding a small body of horse.

=Roanoke.= A river of Virginia and North Carolina; empties into Albemarle Sound. In 1861, Albemarle Island, at its mouth, and Plymouth were taken by the Federal gunboats.

=Robinet.= An ancient military machine for throwing darts and stones.

=Rochelle, La.= A fortified seaport of France, capital of the department of Charente-Inférieure, on an inlet of the Bay of Biscay, 300 miles southwest of Paris by railway. It was taken from the English by the troops of the French king Louis XIII. in 1224; was ceded to England at the treaty of Bretigny in 1360; in the subsequent wars it was retaken by France, under whose sway it has remained since 1372. As a stronghold of the Huguenot party, it underwent various attacks and sieges during the religious wars of the Henries, in the latter half of the 16th century; and on its final and unconditional surrender to the royal troops in the time of Louis XIII., its old fortifications were destroyed, and new lines of defenses subsequently erected by the great Vauban.

=Rock Island.= An island in the Mississippi River, the southern extremity of which is nearly opposite the town of Rock Island, Ill. This island is about 3 miles in length, and presents a perpendicular front of limestone 20 or 30 feet high. During the Blackhawk war a garrison was kept on Rock Island, and a part of it was used during the late civil war (1861-65) as a military prison. The U. S. government has a splendid arsenal and armory here.

=Rocket.= A rocket is a projectile which is set in motion by a force residing within itself; it therefore performs the twofold function of piece and projectile. See PYROTECHNY.

History.--Rockets were used in India and China for war purposes before the discovery of gunpowder; some writers fix the date of their invention about the close of the 9th century. Their inferior force and accuracy limited the sphere of their operations to incendiary purposes, until the year 1804, when Sir William Congreve turned his attention to their improvement. This officer substituted sheet-iron cases for those made of paper, which enabled him to use a more powerful composition; he made the guide-stick shorter and lighter, and removed a source of inaccuracy of flight by attaching the stick to the centre of the base instead of the side of the case. The advantages claimed for rockets over cannon are, unlimited size of projectile, portability, freedom from recoil, rapidity of discharge, and the terror which their noise and fiery trail produce on mounted troops.

Structure.--A rocket is essentially composed of a strong case of paper or wrought iron, inclosing a composition of nitre, charcoal, and sulphur,--the same as gunpowder, except that the ingredients are proportioned for a slower rate of combustion. If penetration and range be required, its head is surmounted by a solid shot; if explosion and incendiary effect, by a shell or spherical case-shot, to which is attached a fuze, which is set on fire when it is reached by the flame of the burning composition. The base is perforated by one or more vents for the escape of the gas generated within, and sometimes with a screw-hole to which a guide-stick is fastened.

Motion.--A rocket is set in motion by the reaction of a rapid stream of gas escaping through its vents. If it be surrounded by a resisting medium, the atmosphere, for instance, the particles of gas as they issue from the vent will impinge against and set in motion certain particles of air, and the force expended on the inertia of these particles will react and increase the propelling force of the rocket. It follows, therefore, that, though a rocket will move in vacuo, its propelling force will be increased by the presence of a resisting medium. Whether the effect will be to accelerate the rocket depends upon the relation between the resistance which the medium offers to the motion of the gas and that which it offers to the motion of the rocket.

Vent.--As the rate of combustion of the composition is independent of the pressure of the gas in the bore, it follows, that if the size of the vent be contracted, the flow of gas through it will be accelerated. The strength of the case, and the friction of the gas, which increases as the vent diminishes, alone limit the reduction of the size of the vent. For vents of the same size, but of different shapes, that one which allows the gas to escape most freely will be most favorable to the flight of the rocket. A conical form of vent, with the larger orifice next to the bore, will allow the gas to escape more rapidly than one of cylindrical form.

Bore.--As the composition of a rocket burns in parallel layers of uniform thickness, the amount of gas generated in a given time, or the velocity of its exit from the case, depends on the extent of the inflamed surface. Experience shows that to obtain the required surface of inflammation, it is necessary to form a long cavity in the mass of the composition. This cavity is called the bore. In all rockets the bore should be concentric with the case; its shape should be made conical to diminish the strain on the case near its head, by reducing the amount of surface where the pressure on the unit of surface is greatest.

Nature of Movement.--Suppose the rocket in a state of rest, and the composition ignited; the flame immediately spreads over the surface of the bore, forming gas which issues from the vent. The escape is slow in the first moments, as the density of the gas is slight; but as the surface of inflammation is large compared to the size of the vent, the gas accumulates rapidly, and its density is increased until the velocity of the escape is sufficient to overcome the resistance which the rocket offers to motion. These resistances are, inertia, friction, the component of weight in the direction of motion, and, after motion takes place, the resistance of the air. The constant pressure on the head of the bore accelerates the motion of the rocket until the resistance of the air equals the propelling force; after this, it will remain constant until the burning surface is sensibly diminished. When the gas ceases to flow, the rocket loses its distinctive character, and becomes, so far as its movement is concerned, an ordinary projectile. The increase in the surface of combustion whereby more gas is developed in the same time, and the diminution in the weight of the remaining composition, cause the point of maximum velocity to be reached with increased rapidity. If the weight of the rocket be increased, the instant of maximum velocity will be prolonged, but the amount will remain the same. A change in the form of the rocket which increases the resistance of the air, will have the effect to diminish the maximum velocity.

Guiding Principle.--The propelling force of a rocket changes its direction with the axis along which it acts; it follows, therefore, that without some means of giving stability to this axis, the path described will be very irregular, so much so, at times, as to fold upon itself; and instances have been known where these projectiles have returned to the point whence they started. The two means now used to give steadiness to the flight of a rocket are, rotation, as in the case of a rifle-ball, and the resistance of the air, as in an arrow.

Hale’s System.--The first is exemplified in Hale’s rocket, where rotation is produced around the long axis by the escape of the gas through five small vents situated obliquely to it. In his first arrangement, the inventor placed the small vents in the base, surrounding the central vent, so that the resultant of the tangential forces acted around the posterior extremity of the axis of rotation. In 1855, this arrangement was changed by reducing the number of the small vents to three, and placing them at the base of the head of the rocket. The rocket thus modified is the one now used by the U. S. government for war purposes. A still later improvement in Hale’s rocket consists in screwing a cast-iron piece into the bottom of the case, which is perforated with three vents. A corresponding side of each vent is surrounded with a fence, the opposite sides being open. The gas in its efforts to expand after issuing from the vents, presses against the fences and rotates the rocket around its long axis.

Congreve’s System.--A Congreve rocket is guided by a long wooden stick attached to its base. If any cause act to turn it from its proper direction, it will be opposed by resistances equal to its moment of inertia and the lateral action of the air against the stick. The effect of these resistances will be increased by placing the centre of gravity near the head of the rocket, and by increasing the surface of the stick. In signal-rockets, where the case is made of paper, the stick is attached to the side, and there is but one large vent, which is in the centre of the case. In war-rockets the stick is attached to the centre of the base, and the large central vent is replaced by several small ones near its circumference. The former arrangement is not so favorable to accuracy as the latter, inasmuch as rotation will be produced if the force of propulsion and the resistance of the air do not act in the same line.

How Fired.--Rockets are generally fired from tubes or gutters; but should occasion require it, they may be fired directly from the ground, care being taken to raise the forward end by propping it up with a stick or stone. As the motion is slow in the first moments of its flight, it is more liable to be deviated from its proper direction at this time than any other; for this reason the conducting-tube should be as long as practicable.

Form of Trajectory.--Take that portion of the trajectory where the velocity is uniform. The weight of the rocket applied at its centre of gravity, and acting in a vertical direction, and the propelling force acting in the direction of its length, are two forces the oblique resultant of which moves the rocket parallel to itself; but the resistance of the air is oblique to this direction, and acting at the centre of figure, a point situated between the centre of gravity and extremity of the guide-stick, produces a rotation which raises the stick, and thereby changes the direction in which the gas acts. As these forces are constantly acting, it follows that each element of the trajectory has less inclination to the horizon than the element of an ordinary trajectory in which the velocity is equal. When the velocity is not uniform, the position of the centre of gravity has a certain influence on the form of the trajectory. To understand this, it is necessary to consider that the component of the resistance of the air which acts on the head of the rocket is greater than that which acts on the side of the stick. It is also necessary to consider that the pressure of the inflamed gas acts in a direction opposite to the resistance of the air, that is to say, from the rear to the front, and that the centre of gravity is near the rear extremity of the case. At the beginning of the trajectory, when the motion of the rocket is accelerated, its inertia is opposed to motion, and being applied at the centre of gravity, which is in rear of the vent, the point of application of the moving force, it acts to prevent the rocket from turning over in its flight. But when the composition is consumed, the centre of gravity is thrown farther to the rear, and the velocity of the rocket is retarded, the inertia acts in the opposite direction, and the effect will be, if the centre of gravity or inertia is sufficiently far to the rear, to cause it to turn over in the direction of its length. If the rocket be directed toward the earth, this turning over will be counteracted by the acceleration of velocity due to the weight, and the form of the trajectory will be preserved.

Effect of Wind.--When the wind acts obliquely to the plane of fire, its component perpendicular to this flame acting at the centre of figure will cause the rocket to rotate around its centre of gravity. As the centre of figure is situated in rear of the centre of gravity, the point will be thrown toward the wind, and the propelling force acting always in the direction of the axis, the rocket will be urged toward the direction of the wind. To make an allowance for the wind in firing rockets, they should be pointed toward the opposite side from which the wind comes, or with the wind instead of against it. If the wind act in the plane of fire from front to rear, it will have the effect to depress the point, and with it the elements of the trajectory in the ascending branch, and elevate them in the descending branch; as the latter is shorter than the former, the effect of a front wind will be to diminish the range. The converse will be true for a rear wind.

Kind Used.--The two sizes of Hale’s rockets in use in the American service are, the 2-inch (interior diameter of case), weighing 6 pounds, and 3-inch (interior diameter of case), weighing 16 pounds. Under an angle of from 4° to 5° the range of these rockets is from 500 to 600 yards. Under an angle of 47° the range of the former is 1760 yards, and the latter 2200.

=Rocroy=, or =Rocroi=. A small town of France, in the department of Ardennes, 15 miles northwest from Mézières. It is memorable for the victory gained by the great Condé (then duke of Enghien) over the Spaniards, May 19, 1643. The Spanish army was composed of veteran bands of Walloons, Spaniards, and Italians, and their general, Don Francisco de Mellos, was a commander worthy of his army. The French (22,000) were also good troops, but their general, Condé, was a young and inexperienced officer. At first the battle was unfavorable to the French, but at last the Spaniards were thrown into irretrievable rout. The Count of Fuentes, the commander of the redoubtable infantry, and 10,000 of his men were among the slain; and 5000 men, with all the cannon, many standards, and the baton of the Count de Mellos, were captured. But, far beyond all material losses, the renown of invincibility, first acquired by the Spanish infantry on the field of Pavia (1525), and confirmed at St. Quentin, Gravelines, and Prague, was destroyed.

=Rodman Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Roermond.= An old town in the Netherlands, province of Limburg, at the junction of the Roer and Maas. It has often endured the horrors of being besieged and taken.

=Rogue River Indians.= See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES (Oregon).

=Rogue’s March.= Derisive music performed in driving away a person under popular indignation, or when a soldier is drummed out of a regiment.

=Rohilcund.= A region of Northeast India; was conquered by the Rohillas, an Afghan tribe, who settled here about 1747. After aiding the sovereign of Oude to overcome the Mahrattas, they were treated with much treachery by him, and nearly exterminated. Rohilcund was ceded to the British in 1801. After the great mutiny Rohilcund was tranquillized in July, 1858.

=Rohillas.= An East Indian tribe of Afghans inhabiting the country north of the Ganges, as far to the north as Oude.

=Roi d’Armes= (Fr.). King-at-arms, an officer formerly of great authority in armies; he directed the heralds, presided at their chapters, and had the jurisdiction of armories.

=Roleia=, or =Rolica=. A village in Portugal, where on August 17, 1808, a British force under Sir Arthur Wellesley defeated a French army under Gen. Laborde.

=Roll.= A term of varied signification in reference to military matters. Thus, to roll is to continue one uniform beat of the drum, without variations for a certain length of time.

=Roll, Long.= A prolonged roll of the drums, as a signal of an attack by the enemy, and for the troops to arrange themselves in line.

=Roll, Muster-.= See MUSTER-ROLL.

=Roll of Arms.= A heraldic record of arms, either verbally blazoned or illuminated, or both, on a long strip of vellum, rolled up, instead of being folded into leaves.

Rolls of Arms are the most important and most authentic materials for the history of early heraldry. In England they go back to the reign of Henry III., the oldest being a copy of a roll of that reign, containing a list of the arms borne by the sovereign, the princes of the blood, and the principal barons and knights between 1216 and 1272, verbally blazoned without drawings.

=Roll, Squad.= Is a list containing the names of each particular squad in a company, etc.

=Roll, Size.= In the British service, is a list containing the names of all the men belonging to a troop or company, with the height or stature of each specifically marked.

=Roll-call.= The act or time of calling over a list of names; as, tattoo roll-call. To call the roll, to call off or recite a list or roll of names of soldiers belonging to a company or troop, in order to ascertain, from the responses, who are present and who are absent.

=Rollers, Friction.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST CARRIAGES.

=Rolling Barrels.= See CAKING.

=Rolling Fire.= A discharge of musketry by soldiers in line, in quick succession, and in the order in which they stand. See FIRE.

=Rolling-hitch.= Pass the end of a rope round a piece of timber; take it round a second time, riding the standing part; then carry it across and up through the bight.

=Romagna.= A province of the Papal States, comprised in the legations of Forli and Ravenna. It was conquered by the Lombards; but taken from them by Pepin, and given to the pope, 753. Cæsar Borgia held it as a duchy in 1501, but lost it in 1503. In 1859 the Romagna threw off the temporal authority of the pope, and declared itself subject to the king of Sardinia, who accepted it in March, 1860. It now forms part of the kingdom of Italy.

=Romainville and Belleville=. Heights near Paris, where Joseph Bonaparte, Mortier, and Marmont were defeated by the allies after a vigorous resistance, March 30, 1814. The next day Paris capitulated.

=Roman Candles.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Roman Walls.= One was erected by Agricola (79 to 85) to defend Britain from the incursions of the Picts and Scots; the first wall extended from the Tyne to the Solway Frith (80 miles); the second from the Frith of Forth, near Edinburgh, to the Frith of Clyde, near Dumbarton (36 miles). The former was renewed and strengthened by the emperor Adrian (121) and by Septimus Severus (208). It commenced at Bowness, near Carlisle, and ended at Wallsend, near Newcastle. It had battlements and towers to contain soldiers. The more northern wall was renewed by Lollius Urbicus in the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 140. Many remains of these walls still exist, particularly of the southern one.

=Romans.= See ROME.

=Rome= (anc. Roma). The most celebrated city of the world, either in ancient or modern times, the capital of the Pontifical States, and the ecclesiastical metropolis of Catholic Christendom, is situated on the Tiber, 17 miles northeast of its mouth in the Mediterranean. Rome is said to have been a colony from Alba Longa and to have been founded by Romulus about 753 B.C.; it grew rapidly in size and power. Regal Rome ruled the whole Latin coast, and the treaties made with powerful Carthage, with Massilia, and with the Greeks of Southern Italy bear witness to the respect it enjoyed abroad. Royalty was abolished, and an aristocratical commonwealth established by the patricians, 509 B.C.; the Latins and the Tarquins declared war against the republic, 501; were defeated at the Lake Regillus, 496 B.C. Military tribunes were first created in 444 B.C. Rome was engaged in war with the Tuscans, 434 B.C.; the Æqui and Volsci were defeated by Tubertus, 431 B.C.; Veii was taken by Camillus after ten years’ siege, 396 B.C. In 390 B.C. Rome was captured and burned by the Gauls; the vigilance of Marcus Manlius saved the Capitol. Again and again in the course of the 4th century B.C. the Gallic hordes repeated their incursions, but never again returned victorious. In 367 B.C. Camillus defeated them at Alba; in 360 B.C. they were routed at the Colline Gate; in 358 B.C. by the dictator G. Sulpicius Peticus; and in 350 B.C. by Lucius Furius Camillus. By the middle of the 4th century B.C. the whole of Southern Etruria had submitted to the supremacy of Rome, and was kept in check by a Roman garrison; as was also the land of the Volsci. Becoming alarmed at the increasing power of Rome, the Latins and Hernicans withdrew from their league with Rome, and a severe and protracted struggle took place between them and their former ally. Nearly thirty years elapsed before the Romans succeeded in crushing the malcontents, and restoring the league of Spurius Cassius. In the course of this war the old Latin confederacy of the “Thirty Cities” was broken up, 384 B.C. Rome made a treaty with Carthage to repress Greek piracy, 348 B.C. Now commenced a tremendous struggle between the Samnites and the Romans; the former fighting heroically for the preservation of their national freedom,--the latter warring with superb valor for dominion. The Samnite wars, of which three are reckoned, extended over 53 years (343-290). The victory of the Romans at Sentinum (295 B.C.) virtually ended the struggle. At the close of the first Samnite war, an insurrection burst out among the Latins and Volscians, but the defeat inflicted on the insurgents at Trifanum (340 B.C.), by the Roman consul Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatos, almost instantly crushed it, and in two years almost the last spark of rebellion was extinguished. The famous Latin League was now dissolved. A mighty coalition was formed against Rome, consisting of Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls, in the north, and of Lucanians, Bruttians, and Samnites, in the south, with a sort of tacit understanding on the part of the Tarentines that they would render assistance by and by. In the course of a single year the whole north was in arms, and once more the power and even the existence of Rome were in deadly peril. An entire Roman army of 13,000 men was annihilated at Arretium (284 B.C.); but Publius Cornelius Dolabella marched into the country of the Senones at the head of a large force, and literally extirpated the whole nation, which henceforth disappears from history. Shortly afterwards, the bloody overthrow of the Etrusco-Boian horde at Lake Vadimo (283 B.C.) shattered to pieces the northern confederacy. The Lucanians were quickly overpowered (282 B.C.); Samnium, by its long and luckless struggle, and overawed by the proximity of a Roman army, could do nothing. The Tarentines invited Pyrrhus over from Epirus, and appointed him commander of their mercenaries; he arrived in Italy with a small army of his own, 280 B.C. The war between Pyrrhus and the Romans, which lasted only six years, ended in his being obliged to return to Epirus without accomplishing anything; this war led to the complete subjugation of Peninsular Italy by Rome. In 264 B.C. war was formally declared between Rome and Carthage, and it was incomparably the most terrible contest in which Rome was ever engaged. For details of the Punic wars, see CARTHAGE, NUMIDIA, and PUNIC WARS. The leading feature of the first was the creation of a Roman navy, which, after repeated and tremendous misfortune, finally wrested from Carthage the sovereignty of the seas. A lapse of twenty-three years occurred before the second Punic war, during which interval the Romans bullied their weak and exhausted rival into surrendering Sardinia and Corsica. In addition they had carried on a series of Gallic wars in Northern Italy (231-222 B.C.), the result of which was the extension of Italy to the Alps. The Romans vigorously suppressed Illyrian piracy, 219 B.C. The grand events of the second Punic war were the crossing of the Alps by Hannibal, the terrible disasters of the Romans at Lake Trasimene (see TRASIMENUS LACUS) and Cannæ (which see), and the final overthrow of Hannibal at Zama (which see), 202 B.C., by Scipio. The second war virtually sealed the fate of Carthage, and the third displayed only the frantic heroism of despair. The imperial supremacy of Rome was now as unconditional in the western Mediterranean as on the mainland of Italy. During 201-196 B.C. the Celts in the valley of the Po were thoroughly subjugated. The Boii were finally extirpated about 193 B.C.; the Ligurians were subdued 180-177 B.C.; and the interior of Corsica and Sardinia about the same time. The wars in Spain were troublesome and of longer duration, but they were not at all serious. The Romans suffered frequent defeats, but in the end the superior discipline of the legions always prevailed. The Romans felt it necessary to hold Spain by military occupation, and hence arose the first Roman standing armies. The most distinguished successes were those achieved by Scipio himself, by Marcus Cato, by Lucius Æmilius Paulus, by Caius Calpurnius, by Quintus Fulvius Flaccus, and by Tiberius Gracchus. The Macedonian wars were owing immediately to the alliance formed by Philip V. of Macedon with Hannibal after the battle of Cannæ. The Macedonian wars were three in number. The first (214-205 B.C.) was barren in results; but the second (200-197 B.C.) taught Philip that another, not he, must rule in Greece. The battle of Cynoscephalæ was followed by a treaty which compelled him to withdraw his garrisons from the Greek cities, to surrender his fleet, and pay 1000 talents toward the expenses of the war. A similar fate befell Antiochus of Syria. Next the Ætolians were crushed, and a little later the quarrels between the Achaians and Spartans led to a general Roman protectorate over the whole of Greece. The third and last Macedonian war began 172 B.C.; the result of which, after four years’ fighting, was the utter destruction of the Macedonian army at Pydna (168 B.C.), and the dismemberment of the Macedonian empire. The last Greek and Punic wars came to an end in the same year (146 B.C.). The former was virtually closed on the destruction of Corinth by the consul Mummius. For the results of the former, see CARTHAGE. The Celtiberian and Numantine war began 153 B.C., and ended in the final overthrow of the undisciplined and uncivilized combatants, 133 B.C. Toward the conclusion of the Numantine war occurred the first of those horrible Social outbreaks known as “servile” or “slave” wars, which marked the later ages of the republic. The first slave insurrection broke out in Sicily, 134 B.C. The slaves overran the island, like demoniacs let loose, and routed one Roman army after another. In 132 B.C., the consul Publius Rupilius restored order. After a fierce struggle, the Romans obtained the kingdom of Pergamus, and formed it into the province of Asia, 129 B.C. In Africa, the overthrow of Jugurtha by the consul Marius added further to the renown and strength of the republic. In 105 B.C. a Roman army of 80,000 was annihilated at Arausio on the Rhone, by the Cimbri (see ARAUSIO and CIMBRI). Marius nearly exterminated the Teutones at Aqua-Sextiæ (Aix, in Dauphin), 102 B.C., and in 101 B.C. the Cimbri at the Campi Raudii near Vercellæ. (See CIMBRI and TEUTONIC.) In the same year a second insurrection of the slaves in Sicily was suppressed by the consul Marius Aquillius. Now followed the Social war, 90-88 B.C. Then followed the fearful years of the “civil wars” between the two chiefs, Sulla and Marius. In 87 B.C. Rome was besieged by four armies (viz.: those of Marius, Cinna, Carbo, and Sertorius) and taken. In 88 B.C. broke out the “Mithridatic wars,” which were three in number; begun by Sulla 88 B.C., they were brought to a successful close by Pompey, 65 B.C., although the general that had really broken the power of Mithridates was Lucullus. (See MITHRIDATIC WAR.) The result was the annexation of the sultanate of Pontus, which was formed into a Roman province. Then Pompey conquered Syria; reduced to a state of dependence Phœnicia, Cæle-Syria, and Palestine, 63 B.C. In the same year the conspiracy of Catiline was crushed by the consul Cicero. Then came the campaigns of Cæsar in Gaul (58-50 B.C.), by which the whole of the country was reduced to subjection; his rupture with Pompey; his defiance of the senate; the civil wars; his victory, dictatorship, and assassination; the second triumvirate, composed of Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian; the overthrow of the oligarchy at Philippi; the struggle between Antony and Octavian; the triumph of the latter, and his investment with absolute power for life as Augustus Cæsar, which put an end at least to civil dissensions that had raged so long. To keep the now enormous territory quiet which contained so many different races, an army of forty-seven legions and as many cohorts was maintained. The most notable incident during the reign of Tiberius was probably the concentration of the Prætorian guards in the vicinity of Rome, who, until their dissolution by Diocletian, were the real sovereigns of the empire. In Nero’s time Armenia was wrested from the Parthians; the Roman authority in England was likewise extended as far north as the Trent, and a great rebellion in Gaul, against Nero, headed by Julius Vindex, was crushed by T. Virginius Rufus, the commander of the Germanic legions. The chief military events from the days of Vespasian to those of Marcus Aurelius, are final conquests of Britain by Agricola, the final conquest of the Dacian monarchy, the victorious invasion of Parthia and Northern Arabia; and the conquest of the valley of the Nile, as far south as Upper Nubia, by Trajan; the chastisement of the Marcomanni, Quadi, Chatti, etc., by Marcus Aurelius. The reign of Alexander Severus is marked by the downfall of the Parthian dynasty of Persian kings, and the rise of the native Sassanidæ (which see), which proved far more formidable enemies than the Parthian rulers. After the assassination of Severus (235 A.D.) followed a period of confusion, bloodshed, and general mismanagement. The names of Maximin, Maximus, Balbinus, Gordianus, and Philip recall nothing but wretched quarrels, often ending in assassination. Then followed the “beginning of the end.” The whole of Europe beyond the Roman frontier--the mysterious North--began to ferment. The Franks appeared on the Lower Rhine, the Suabians on the Maine; while the Goths burst through Dacia, routed the forces of Decius, slew the emperor himself at Mount Hæmus, crossed the Euxine, and ravaged the whole northern coast of Asia Minor. A little later--during the reigns of Valerian, Gallienus, and the so-called Thirty Tyrants--the empire was nothing but a wild distracted chaos; Franks, Alemanni, Goths, and Persians rushing from their respective quarters like vultures scenting prey. The Goths swept over the whole of Achaia, while the Asiatic hordes of Sapor committed even greater havoc in Syria and Asia Minor. By Claudius Gothicus (268-270), and his successors, Aurelian, Probus, and Carus, the barbarians of the north and northwest, as well as the Persians in the East, were severely chastised. The division of the empire into East and West by Diocletian led to those labyrinthine confusions and civil wars, in which figure the names of Maximian, Constantius, Galerius, Maxentius, Maximin, Licinius, and Constantine, which were only brought to a close by the surpassing genius of the last mentioned. Julian’s efforts to repel the incessant incursions of the Franks and Alemanni displayed a fine valor and generalship, and were crowned with success. But after the death of Julian the signs of the approaching dissolution of the empire became more unmistakable. Swarms of ferocious Huns drove the Goths out of Dacia, and forced them to cross the Danube into the Roman territory, where they devastated the whole East from the Adriatic to the Euxine. They were subdued and disarmed by Theodosius. Hardly was Theodosius dead when they rose again, under their chief Alaric, against Honorius, emperor of the West. Three years earlier, hordes of Suevi, Burgundians, Alemanni, Vandals, and Alans burst into Gaul, which led to the invasion of Africa by Genseric. In the East the Huns had reduced vast regions to an utter desert; for nearly fifty years, indeed, the little ferocious demons had rioted in destruction. (See HUNS.) Eudoxia, the widow of Valentinian, to be revenged on Valentinian’s murderer and successor, Petronius Maximus, invited Genseric, the “scourge of God,” over from Africa, and exposed Rome to the horrors of pillage for fourteen days. Later, Odoacer, placing himself at the head of the barbarian mercenaries of the empire, overthrew the last, and the most ridiculous, occupant of the throne of the Cæsars (476), who, by a curious coincidence, bore the same name as the founder of the city,--Romulus. Rome was recovered for Justinian by Belisarius, 536; retaken by Totila the Goth, 546; recovered by Belisarius, 547; seized by Totila, 549; recovered by Narses and annexed to the Eastern empire, 553. Rome became independent under the popes about 728; was taken by Arnulf and the Germans, 896; taken by the emperor Henry IV., March, 1084. The pope removed to Avignon (1309-1377). Rome was then virtually left without a government, the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, Neapolitan and German armies, and the noble families of the Orsini and the Colonna being alternately masters. Cola di Rienzi, a man of the people, made himself master of Rome, 1347; it was captured and pillaged by the Constable of Bourbon, 1527; it was harassed by the French, German, and Spanish factions from the 16th to the 18th centuries; the French proclaimed a Roman republic, March 20, 1798; was recovered for the pope by the Neapolitans, 1799; retaken by the French, 1800; was restored to Pope Pius VII., 1801, and annexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy, 1808. It was restored to the pope, January, 1814. In 1848 the people rose in rebellion, drove out Pius IX., and established a republic under the triumvirate of Mazzini, Armellini, and Saffi. An appeal to France brought once more a French army to the gates of the city, and the siege was begun. Rome was taken after a brave resistance in July, 1849. For twenty years French troops garrisoned the Eternal City, and when they were at last withdrawn (1870) Italy had become one great nation. After a brief resistance from the foreign papal troops, stopped by order of the pope, the Italian troops under Cadorna made a breach, and entered Rome amid enthusiastic acclamation of the people, September 20, 1870.

=Rompu.= In heraldry, a term applied to a chevron when the upper part is taken off, and remains above it in the field.

=Roncesvalles= (Fr. Roncevaux). A small Spanish village, province of Navarre, in a narrow valley inclosed by lofty mountains, through which one of the principal roads leads from France across the Pyrenees into Spain. Here Charlemagne was attacked in 778 by the Basques, and his whole rear-guard destroyed. In honor of those who had fallen he built a chapel on the spot where the battle took place, and among the names enumerated in the inscription was that of Roland. In the modern French-Spanish wars, several bloody encounters (in 1793, 1794, and 1813) occurred in the same valley, and in 1833, Don Carlos was first proclaimed king here.

=Rondache= (Fr.). In ancient armory, a circular shield carried by foot-soldiers to protect the upper part of the person, having a slit in the upper part for seeing through, and another at the side for the point of the sword to pass through.

=Rondel.= In fortification, a round tower, sometimes erected at the foot of a bastion.

=Rondelle= (Fr.). A small round shield which was formerly used by light-armed infantry.

=Rondellier= (Fr.). Archer or pikeman who carried the rondelle.

=Rondells.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY CARRIAGE.

=Ronfleurs= (Fr.). Frederick the Great applied this name to some 12-pounders of 22 calibers, weighing 3200 pounds, which, before the battle of Leuthen, he had drawn from the neighboring fortress of Glogau. The charge for this gun was 5 pounds.

=Rope.= A large, stout, twisted cord, of not less, usually, than an inch in circumference. It differs from cord, line, and string only in its size. Ropes are ranked under two descriptions, cable-laid and hawser-laid; the former composed of nine strands, or three great strands, each consisting of three small ones; the latter made with three strands, each composed of a certain number of rope-yarns.

=Rope, Drag-.= See DRAG-ROPE.

=Rope-ferries.= See PONTONS.

=Rose.= In heraldry, is drawn in a conventional form, and never with a stalk, except when expressly directed by the words of blazon. Being sometimes argent and sometimes gules, it cannot be designated proper; but when blazoned “barbed and seeded proper,” it is meant that the barbs are to be green, and the seeds gold and yellow. The rose gules was the badge of the Plantagenets of the house of Lancaster, and the rose argent of that of York. The York rose was sometimes surrounded with rays as of the sun, and termed rose en soleil. As a mark of cadency, the rose has been used as the difference of the seventh son.

=Roses, Wars of the.= A disastrous civil contest which desolated England during thirty years, from 1455 to 1485, sacrificing 80 princes of the blood, and the larger proportion of the ancient nobility of the country. It was so called because the two factions into which the country was divided upheld the two several claims to the houses of York and Lancaster, whose badges were the white and red roses, respectively. After the house of Lancaster had possessed the throne for three generations (see PLANTAGENET), Richard, duke of York, whose title was superior to that of Henry VI., began to advance, at first somewhat covertly, his claim to the throne. In 1454, he was appointed protector of the realm during Henry’s illness, and on the king’s recovery he declined to give up his power, and levied an army to maintain it. The accession of Henry VII. may be said to have terminated the “wars of the roses,” although the reign of Henry was from time to time disturbed by the pretensions of Yorkist impostors.

=Rosetta.= A seaport city of Egypt, near the mouth of a branch of the Nile. It was built by one of the Saracen caliphs in the 9th century. In 1798 this place was taken by the French, and in 1807 it was besieged by the British, who were repulsed by the Turks. The battle of the Nile was fought near Rosetta, August 1, 1798.

=Rosettes.= Two small bunches of ribbons, that were attached to the loops by which the gorget of an officer was suspended on his chest.

=Roslin.= A village of Scotland, 7 miles south of Edinburgh, on the Esk. In this neighborhood the Scots gained three victories over the English on the same day in 1302.

=Ross, New.= A town of Ireland, situated partly in the county of Wexford, and partly in the county of Kilkenny, 27 miles northwest from Wexford. New Ross was taken by Cromwell in 1649, and in 1798 a severe battle was fought here between the king’s troops and the Irish insurgents.

=Rossbach.= A village of Prussian Saxony, in the government of Merseburg, celebrated for the victory here gained by the Prussians under Frederick the Great over the allied French and Austrian armies, November 5, 1757. The Prussians lost (according to a French account) only 300 men, while the loss of the allies was more than 1200 slain, 6000 prisoners, among whom were 11 generals and 300 officers, and 72 cannon, with many other trophies.

=Roster=, or =Rollster=. List of officers for duty. The principle which governs details for duty is from the eldest down; longest off duty first on duty. If an officer’s tour of duty for armed service, court-martial, or fatigue, happen when he is upon either duty, he is credited therewith. An officer returning from duty after sickness, takes the same place he had on the post roster before reporting sick; that being sick on the day of detail he gets the credit of the tour and awaits the return of his day, when, if well, he is again detailed. An officer returning from leave of absence is at once subject for detail. Customarily, an officer who returns from detached service is placed at the foot of the roster. The same rules should apply to non-commissioned officers and privates. A regiment or detachment detailed for any duty, receives credit for the duty when it marches off parade to perform the duty, but not if it is dismissed on parade. Officers on inlying pickets are subject to all details. In the British service, regiments proceed on foreign service according to the roster.

=Rotterdam.= An important commercial city in Holland, in the province of Southern Holland. Its importance dates from the 13th century; taken by the Spaniards by stratagem in 1572, and cruelly treated. It suffered much from the French revolutionary wars.

=Rouen.= A city in the north of France, the chief town of the department of the Lower Seine, and formerly the capital of Normandy, 68 miles northwest from Paris. It was held by the English till 1204; and was retaken by Henry V., January 19, 1419. Joan of Arc was burnt here, May 30, 1431. It was taken by Charles VII. of France in 1449; and by the Duke of Guise from the Huguenots, October, 1552, and in 1591.

=Rough Rider.= A non-commissioned officer in the British cavalry regiments, whose business it is to break in refractory horses, and assist the riding-master when required.

=Rouleaux.= Are round bundles of fascines, which are tied together. They serve to cover men when the works are pushed close to a besieged town, or to mask the head of a work.

=Round.= A general discharge of fire-arms by a body of troops, in which each soldier fires once. Round of cartridges, one cartridge to each man; as, to supply a regiment with a single round, or with twelve rounds.

=Round, Gentleman of the.= A gentleman soldier, but of low rank, only above the lance-pesade, whose office it was to visit and inspect the sentinels and advanced guards; also, one of a number of disbanded soldiers who had betaken themselves to the trade of begging.

=Round Robin.= This term is a corruption of ruban rond, which signifies a round ribbon. It was usual among French officers, when they signed a remonstrance, to write their names in a circular form, so that it was impossible to ascertain who signed first. Hence to sign a round robin against any person, was for any specific number of men to sign, one and all, a remonstrance against him.

=Round Table, Knights of.= Known in early English history as knights belonging to a celebrated order instituted by King Arthur, and whose exploits and adventures form the subjects of many ballads, and much of the early romantic poetry of England. The members of the order are said to have been 40 in number, and to have derived their name from their custom of sitting about a large, round, marble table, in order to avoid all distinction of rank.

=Roundel=, or =Roundelle=. Was a shield used by the Norman soldiers. The word is also applied to the semicircular bastions in early fortification, as introduced by Albert Dürer. This bastion consisted of a semicircle of masonry about 300 feet in diameter, containing roomy casemates for the troops, and for artillery and musketry, with which the ditch and curtains were flanked.

=Roundheads, The.= In English history, a nickname given, in the reign of Charles I., to the Puritans, or Parliamentary party, who were accustomed to wear their hair cut close to the head. They were so called in opposition to the Cavaliers, or Royalists, who wore their hair in long ringlets.

=Roundle=, or =Roundlet=. In heraldry, a general name given to charges of a circular form, which in English heraldry have more special names indicative of their tinctures. A roundle or is called a Bezant; a roundle argent, a Plate; a roundle gules, a Torteaux; a roundle azure, a Hurt; a roundle sable, an Ogress, or Pellet; a roundle purpure, a Golpe; a roundle sanguine, a Guze; a roundle tenney, an Orange. In the heraldry of Scotland and of the continent, it is, on the other hand, usual to design all roundles of metal bezants, and those of color, torteaux, adding the tincture. Thus the coat blazoned in England azure three plates, would be in the Scottish mode of blazon, azure three bezants argent.

=Rounds.= An officer or non-commissioned officer who, attended by one or more men, visits the sentinels in barracks, in order to ascertain whether they are vigilant. There are two sorts of rounds, grand and visiting. Grand rounds are the rounds which are gone by general officers, commandants, or field-officers. When there are no officers of the day, the officer of the main guard may go the grand rounds. The grand rounds generally go at midnight; the visiting rounds at intermediate periods, between sunset and reveille. The grand rounds receive the parole, and all other rounds give it to the guards. In officers’ rounds the officer guarding is preceded by a drummer carrying a lantern, and followed by a sergeant and a file of men. Ordinary rounds consist of a sergeant and a file of men. Both ordinary and officers’ rounds are termed visiting rounds. The design of rounds is not only to visit the guards, and keep the sentinels alert, but likewise to discover what passes in the outworks, and beyond them.

=Rout.= The confusion created in an army or body of troops when defeated or dispersed. To put to the rout, is to defeat and throw into confusion. The term expresses more than a defeat, because it implies a dispersion of the enemy’s forces; for a defeated enemy may retreat in good order; but when routed, order and discipline are at an end.

=Route.= An open road; the course of march of troops. Instructions for the march of detachments, specifying daily marches, means of supply, etc., are given from the headquarters of an army in the field, and are called marching routes.

=Route Step.= In tactics, is a style of march whereby the men carry their arms at will, keeping the muzzles elevated; they are not required to preserve silence, or to keep the step, but each man covers the file in his front. The ranks preserve the distance of 32 inches from each other. The route step is at the rate of from 2¹⁄₂ to 3 miles per hour.

=Routine.= This word has been adopted by us in the same sense that it is familiarly used by the French. It signifies capacity, or the faculty of arranging; a certain method in business, civil or military, which is as much acquired by habit and practice as by regular study and rule. We say familiarly the routine of business.

=Rowel.= The pointed part of a riding spur, which is made in a circular form, with rays or points like a star.

=Royal.= A small mortar which carries a shell whose diameter is 5.5 inches. It is mounted on a bed the same as other mortars.

=Royal.= In England, one of the soldiers of the first regiment of foot, called the Royals, and supposed to be the oldest regular corps in Europe.

=Rubicon.= A small stream of Central Italy, falling into the Adriatic, has obtained a proverbial celebrity from the well-known story of its passage by Cæsar, who by crossing this river--which, at the outbreak of the civil war between him and Pompey, formed the southern boundary of his province--virtually declared war against the republic. Hence the phrase to “cross the Rubicon” has come to mean, to take an irrevocable step.

=Rudiments.= The first principles, the elements of any particular science; as, the rudiments of war, which are the first principles or elements of war; as, marching, facing, wheeling; the drill, manual, and platoon exercises, manœuvres, etc.

=Ruffle.= Is a low vibrating sound, less loud than a roll, produced by drummers. It is used as a compliment to general officers and at military funerals.

=Rugen.= The largest of the islands of Germany, belongs to Prussia, and lies in the Baltic, off the coast of Pomerania. In 1169 it was conquered by the Danish king Waldemar I. By the peace of Westphalia it was ceded to Sweden, but in 1815 it was transferred to Prussia.

=Rules and Articles of War.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR.

=Run.= The greatest degree of swiftness in marching. It is executed upon the same principles as the double-quick, but with greater speed.

=Run the Gantlope.= See GANTLOPE.

=Running Fight.= A battle in which one party flees and the other pursues, but the party fleeing keeps up the contest.

=Running Fire.= A constant fire of musketry or cannon.

=Rupture.= This word signifies the commencement of hostilities between any two or more powers.

=Rusellæ= (Rusellanus; ruins near Grosseto). One of the most ancient cities of Etruria. It was taken by the Romans in 294 B.C., when 2000 of its inhabitants were slain, and as many more were made prisoners.

=Rush.= To move or drive forward with impetuosity, violence, and tumultuous rapidity; as, armies rush to battle. Also, a driving forward with eagerness and haste; as, a rush of troops.

=Russia.= The largest empire of the world, occupying about one-sixth of the firm land of our globe, bounded north by the Arctic Ocean, east by the Pacific, south by China, Independent Toorkistan, Persia, Asiatic Turkey, the Black Sea, and Roumania, and west by Austria, Prussia, the Baltic, and the Scandinavian peninsula. When the Greeks founded their commercial stations along the northern coast of the Black Sea, in the Crimea, and on the shores of the Sea of Azof, they found the interior occupied by roving tribes of a fierce and savage character. They called them Scythians and Sarmatians, and for about eight centuries these two nations continued to be mentioned in the history of Greece and Rome as inhabiting the same country, pursuing the same occupations, etc. Then came, during the migration of nations beginning in the 4th century, the Goths, Avars, Huns, Alans, etc., rolling over them wave after wave. In the 6th century the name of the Slaves first appears. They founded Kiev and Novgorod. The name of Russians is first met with in the 9th century. Rurik, a Varangian chief, came to Novgorod in 862, not as a conqueror, but invited, and henceforth his family reigned in the country till it became extinct, and the people received the name of Russians. His successor, Oleg (879-912), conquered Kief, defeated the Khazars, and even attacked the emperor of Constantinople. In the beginning of the 13th century, the Mongols under Genghis Khan broke in from Asia; the Russians were unable to withstand them. Most of the princes were wholly subdued. The brilliant victories of Demetrius Donski, prince of Moscow, in 1378 and 1380, only caused the Mongols to return in larger hordes; in 1382, Moscow was burned to the ground and 24,000 of its inhabitants were slain. Ivan III. the Great (1462-1505), who united Novgorod, Perm, and Pskov to Moscow, refused to pay the tribute to the Mongols, defeated them when they attempted to enforce their claim by arms, and commenced extending the Russian power to the east, conquering Kazan in 1469, and parts of Siberia in 1499. Ivan IV., the Terrible (1533-84), conquered Astrakhan in 1554, the land of the Don Cossacks in 1570, Siberia in 1581, opened a road to Archangel in 1553, and organized in 1545 a body-guard, the famous Streltzi. With his son Feodor I. (1584-98) the house of Rurik ceased to exist, and after a protracted and severe struggle between Boris Godunoff, Basil V., and the two pseudo-Demetriuses, who were supported by the Poles, Michael Feodorovitch Romanoff, the founder of the present dynasty, ascended the throne in 1612. Some progress was made under each of his successors,--Catharine I. (1725-27), Peter II. (1727-30), Anne (1730-41), Elizabeth (1741-62). Catharine II. (1762-76) carried on successful wars with Persia, Sweden, and Turkey, conquering the Crimea; she also acquired Courland and half of Poland. (For history regarding Poland, see POLAND.) Under Alexander I. (1801-25) Russia appears not only as one of the great powers, but as the true arbiter in European politics. In the Napoleonic wars he sided first with Austria, and was beaten at Austerlitz; then with Prussia, and was beaten at Friedland. By the peace of Frederikshamn (1809) he obtained Finland from Sweden; by the peace of Bucharest (1812), Bessarabia and Moldavia from Turkey; and the war with Persia was successfully progressing when his friendship with Napoleon suddenly began to wane. A rupture took place, and now followed with fearful rapidity the invasion of Russia by Western Europe, the destruction of the grand army, and the overthrow of Napoleon. By the peace of Paris (1856) Russia lost its supremacy in the Black Sea. (See CRIMEA.) It only bided its time, however, and October 31, 1870, when neither England, France, nor Turkey was able to resist, Prince Gortschakoff informed the various cabinets that Russia felt compelled to deviate from the stipulations of the treaty of Paris, and keep a fleet of sufficient capacity in the Black Sea.

=Russo-German War.= The name given by German historians to the last stage of the great European war against Napoleon, beginning with the Russian campaign of 1812, and terminating on the field of Waterloo. For important battles, etc., see appropriate headings.

=Russo-Turkish War.= The name applied to the war which took place between Russia on one side, and Turkey, France, and Great Britain on the other; it commenced in 1853 and terminated in 1856. For important events of this war, see appropriate headings.

=Rustre.= In heraldry, one of the subordinaries, consisting of a lozenge with a circular opening pierced in its centre. Ancient armor was sometimes composed of rustres sewed on cloth.

=Rustschuk.= A fortified town of Turkey in Europe, in Bulgaria, situated at the influx of the Kara Lom into the Danube, 67 miles southwest from Silitria. Giurgevo (which see) is almost immediately opposite. The Russians took these towns in 1711 and 1810, but were defeated by the Turks, before Giurgevo, in 1854.

=Rutuli.= An ancient people in Italy, inhabiting a narrow slip of country on the east coast of Latium, a little to the south of the Tiber. They were subdued at an early period by the Romans, and disappeared from history.

=Ryswick.= A village in the province of South Holland, where the celebrated treaty of peace was concluded between England, France, Spain, and Holland, and was signed by their representatives, September 20, and by the emperor of Germany, October 30, 1697.

S.

=Saalfeld.= A town of Germany, in the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, on the Saale, 23 miles south from Weimar. Here the Prussians under Prince Louis Frederick of Prussia were defeated and their leader slain by the French under Lannes, October 10, 1806.

=Saarbrück= (anc. Augusti Mari, or Saræpons). An open town on the left bank of the Saar, in Rhenish Prussia. It was founded in the 10th century, and was long subject to the bishops of Metz; it was afterwards ruled by counts (about 1237), and by the house of Nassau about 1380. It was captured by the French and retaken by the Germans, 1676; reunited to France, 1794-1814, and ceded to Prussia, 1815. On August 2, 1870, it was bombarded by the French under Frossard, and the Prussians in small force were dislodged, and the town occupied by the French general Bataille. The emperor Napoleon and his son were present during this bombardment. On August 6, the Prussian generals Goeben and Von Steinmetz, with the first army, recaptured Saarbrück, after a sanguinary conflict at the village of Spicheren. The heights taken by the French on the 2d are in Germany, those taken by the Germans on the 6th are in France, and both battles were fought between Saarbrück and the town of Forbach, which was captured and has given a name to the second conflict. The loss was great on both sides. The French general François was killed, and the 2d Corps under Frossard nearly destroyed. The French retreated to Metz. They were greatly superior in numbers at the beginning of the fight, but were badly commanded.

=Sabander.= The familiar of shah-bander, an Eastern title for captain or governor of a post.

=Sabantines.= Steel coverings for the feet; sometimes slippers or clogs.

=Sabbatons.= A round-toed armed covering for the feet, worn during a part of the 16th century.

=Sabini.= An ancient people of Central Italy, were generally supposed to have derived their name from Sabus, their chief tutelary deity. Their antiquity was very great. They were the parent-stock of many of the neighboring tribes, such as the Samnites, the Peligni, and the Picentes. The Sabini inhabited the mountain region lying to the northeast of Rome. They were a valiant warlike race, and at an early age of authentic history they issued from their mountain fastness and began a system of warlike aggression upon their neighbors. Gradually and by repeated attacks, their invading hordes subdued the aborigines, and advanced southward, occupying the land. At length, pushing their outposts to the very gates of Rome, they commenced to interfere with the affairs of that rising city. By victory or by compromise they gained admittance into the state upon very advantageous terms. They were not satisfied, but persisted in their encroachments upon the Roman territory, until defeated by Tullus Hostilius and by Tarquinius Priscus; however, they continued their raids until 449 B.C., when M. Horatius gave them a defeat which kept them quiet for more than a century and a half. They recovered in 290 B.C., only to be overthrown by Manlius Curius Dentatus with greater completeness than ever. They finally became a part of the Roman empire.

=Sable.= One of the tinctures in heraldry, implying black. In heraldic engravings, it is represented by perpendicular and horizontal lines crossing each other.

=Sabot.= Is a thick, circular disk of wood, to which, in fixed ammunition, the cartridge-bag and projectile are attached. For a spherical projectile, the sabot has a spherical cavity, and circular groove to which the cartridge-bag is tied; in the canister-sabot, the spherical cavity is omitted, and a circular offset is added. The effects of a sabot are: (1) To prevent the formation of a lodgment in the bore. (2) To moderate the action of the powder on the projectile; and, (3) To prevent the projectile from moving from its place. In consequence of the scattering of the fragments, it is dangerous to use the sabot in firing over the heads of one’s own men. The term is also applied to the soft metal device attached to the base of rifled projectiles to take the grooves of the bore.

=Sabre.= A long curved or straight cavalry sword, with a broad and heavy blade, used for cutting and thrusting.

=Sabre.= To strike, cut, or kill with a sabre.

=Sabretache= (Ger. Sabeltasche, “sword-pocket”). A square pocket or pouch suspended from the sword-belt on the left side, by three slings to correspond with the belt. It is usually scolloped at the bottom, has a device in the centre, and a broad lace round the edge. The color of it always corresponds with that of the uniform. The sabretache is an appointment or part of accoutrement of hussars in European armies.

=Sabreur= (Fr.). A blood-thirsty soldier; brave soldier.

=Sabugal.= A town of Portugal, on the Spanish frontier, where an affair took place between an English light division and the French, April 3, 1811, in which the latter were defeated.

=Sac and Fox Indians.= Two Algonkin tribes, who have always associated. They formerly dwelt in Canada, but afterward occupied a large tract of land on both sides of the Mississippi. The Sacs and Foxes often engaged in wars with the English, French, and Indians. They were gradually removed southwestward prior to 1849. There are now in the Indian Territory about 400 Sacs and Foxes. There are also about 200 Sacs and Foxes in Kansas, about 100 in Nebraska, and about 300 Sacs and Foxes in Iowa. See FOX INDIANS.

=Sacæ.= One of the most numerous and powerful of the Scythian nomad tribes, had their abodes in the steppes of Central Asia, which are now peopled by the Kirghiz Khasaks. They were very warlike, and excelled especially as cavalry, and as archers, both on horse and foot. Their women shared in their military spirit; and according to Ælian, they had the custom of settling before marriage whether the man or woman should rule the house, by the result of a combat between them. In early times they extended their predatory incursions as far west as Armenia and Cappadocia. They were made tributary to the Persian empire, to the army of which they furnished a large force of cavalry and archers, who were among the best troops that the kings of Persia had.

=Saccatoo=, or =Socoto=. A kingdom of Soodan, in Central Africa. Its inhabitants, the Fellatas, first made their appearance as conquerors, coming from the west, apparently from the Senegal; they profess the Mohammedan religion. Othman, or Danfodio, one of the Fellata chieftains, marshaled his countrymen under his colors for a crusade against the unbelievers. Though at first defeated in almost every encounter, yet the warlike spirit of fanaticism grew so high that Othman obtained for himself an extensive empire. Under Alin, who ascended the throne in 1837, great internal disturbance took place, which brought the country into a wretched condition.

=Sachem.= A chief of a tribe of the American Indians; a sagamore. See SAGAMORE.

=Sack.= The pillage or plunder, as of a town or city; the storm and plunder of a town; devastation; ravage. Also, to plunder or pillage, as a town or city; to devastate; to ravage.

=Sackage.= The act of taking by storm and pillage; sack.

=Sacker.= One who sacks; one who captures and plunders a town.

=Sackett’s Harbor.= A town in Jefferson Co., N. Y., on the south shore of Black River Bay, 8 miles east of Lake Ontario and 170 miles west-northwest of Albany, having a navy-yard, barracks, etc. In the war of 1812-15 it was an important port, where the frigate “Superior,” of 66 guns, was built in eighty days, and the “Madison” in forty-five days, from timber standing in the forest. It is a military post of the United States named Madison Barracks, which is generally garrisoned by artillery.

=Sacramento, St.= A Portuguese settlement in South America, claimed by Spain in 1680; but relinquished in 1713; was several times seized; ceded in 1777; acquired by Brazil in 1825.

=Sacramentum Militare= (Lat.). The oath formerly taken by the Roman soldiers when they were enrolled. This oath was pronounced at the head of the legion, in an audible voice, by a soldier who was chosen by the tribune for that purpose. He thereby pledged himself before the gods to expose his life for the good and safety of the republic, to obey his superior officers, and never to absent himself without leave. The aggregate of the legion assented to the oath without going through the formal declaration of it.

=Sacred Battalion.= A band of infantry composed of 300 young Thebans, united in strict friendship and affection, who were engaged, under a particular oath, never to fly, but to defend each other to the last drop of their blood. At the famous battle of Leuctra, in which the Spartans were signally defeated by Epaminondas, the Sacred Battalion was commanded by Pelopidas, and mainly contributed to the success of the day.

=Sacred Wars.= (1) Declared by the Amphictyons against Cirrha, near Delphi, for robbery and outrage to the visitors to the oracle, 595 B.C. Cirrha was razed to the ground, 586 B.C. (2) Between the Phocians and Delphians for the possession of the temple at Delphi, 448, 447 B.C. (3) The Phocians, on being fined for cultivating the sacred lands, seized the temple, 357. They were conquered by Philip of Macedon, and their cities depopulated, 346 B.C.

=Sacriportus.= A small place in Latium, of uncertain site, memorable for the victory of Sulla over the younger Marius, 82 B.C.

=Sacs and Foxes.= See SAC AND FOX INDIANS.

=Saddle.= The seat which is put upon a horse for the accommodation of the rider. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups. Saddles were in use in the 3d century, and are mentioned as made of leather in 304; they were known in England about 600. Boots and saddles, is a sound on the trumpet which is the first signal for mounted drill, and for all other formations mounted; it is also the signal for the trumpeters to assemble.

=Saddle-bags.= Bags, usually of leather, united by straps, for transportation on horseback, one bag being placed on each side. In the U. S. service saddle-bags are issued to the cavalry as a part of the horse equipments.

=Saddle-cloth.= In the military service is a cloth under a saddle, and extending out behind; the housing.

=Saddler.= One whose occupation is to make and repair saddles. Each company of cavalry in the U. S. service is allowed one saddler. Saddlers are also employed in the cavalry service of European countries.

=Saddler Corporal.= In the British service, is a non-commissioned officer who has charge of the saddlers in the Household Cavalry.

=Saddler Sergeant.= Is a sergeant in the cavalry who has charge of the saddlers. In the U. S. service, saddler sergeants are non-commissioned staff-officers, and one is allowed to each cavalry regiment.

=Saddle-Tree Maker.= An artificer in the cavalry who makes and repairs saddle-trees.

=Sadowa.= A village of Bohemia, about 8 miles from Königgratz. Here, on the morning of July 3, 1866, the Prussians attacked the Austrians, and after a desperate struggle of seven hours, the latter were defeated and driven from the village by the 7th division of the Prussian infantry. This engagement formed the prelude to the decisive battle of Königgratz.

=Safe-conduct.= A passport granted, on honor, to a foe, enabling him to pass where it would otherwise be impossible for him to go with impunity. Safe-conducts are granted in war for the purposes of conference, etc.; and to violate the provisions of such a pass has always been esteemed a disgraceful breach of the laws of honor.

=Safeguard.= A protection granted by the general of an army for the safety of an enemy’s lands or persons, to preserve them from being insulted or plundered. For punishment of persons forcing a safeguard, see APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 57.

=Sagaie=, or =Zagie=. A dart or javelin used by the inhabitants of Madagascar.

=Sagamore.= The head of a tribe among the American Indians,--generally used as synonymous with sachem, but some writers distinguished between them, making the sachem a chief of the first rank, and a sagamore one of the second rank.

=Sagette= (Fr.). An arrow; a bolt used in ancient times.

=Sagittarii.= In the Roman army, under the emperors, were young men armed with bows and arrows, who, together with the funditores, were generally sent out to skirmish before the main body. They constituted no part of the velites, but seem to have succeeded them at the time when the Socii were admitted into the Roman legions; for at that period the velites were discontinued.

=Sagra.= A small river in Magna Græcia, on the southeast coast of Bruttium, on the banks of which a memorable victory was gained by 10,000 Locrians over 120,000 Crotoniats. This victory appeared so extraordinary that it gave rise to the proverbial expression, “It is truer than what happened on the Sagra,” when a person wished to make any strong asseveration.

=Sagum.= An ancient military garment or cloak, made of wool, without sleeves, fastened by a girdle around the waist, and a buckle. It was worn by the Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. The generals alone wore the paludamentum, and all the Roman soldiers, even the centurions and tribunes, used the sagum.

=Saguntum= (now Murviedro). A wealthy and warlike town of ancient Spain, in Hispania Tarraconensis. It was besieged and destroyed by the Carthaginians under Hannibal in 218 B.C. Having withstood the siege for the greater part of a year, against an army of about 150,000 men, the Saguntines, now most severely pressed by famine, concluded, with an act of heroic defiance and self-sacrifice, a resistance that had been characterized by the most brilliant valor. Heaping their valuable effects into one vast pile, and placing their women and children around it, the men issued forth for the last time against the enemy; and the women, setting fire to the pile they had prepared, cast themselves upon it with their children, and found in flames the fate their husbands met in battle. The destruction of Saguntum directly led to the second Punic war.

=Saikyr.= In the Middle Ages, was a species of cannon smaller than a demiculverin, much employed in sieges. Like the falcon, it derived its name from a species of hawk.

=Saint Augustine.= A city, port of entry, and capital of St. John’s Co., Fla., 160 miles south of Savannah. It has the distinction of being the oldest town in the United States. The Spanish abandoned it in 1763, upon its cession to the English. Sir Francis Drake destroyed it in 1586; and it was besieged and burned by the governor of the Carolinas in 1702. Saint Augustine was a British depot during the Revolutionary war. It was of some importance as a military station during the Florida war, 1835-42.

=Saint Bartholomew, Massacre of.= See BARTHOLOMEW, ST.

=St. Bernard, Mount.= See BERNARD, ST., THE GREAT.

=Saint-Cloud.= A town of France, department of Seine-et-Oise, 5¹⁄₂ miles west from Paris. Henry IV. was assassinated at Saint-Cloud by Jacques Clément in 1589. Bonaparte here broke up the assembly of 500, and caused himself to be proclaimed first consul on November 9, 1799; and here, in July, 1830, Charles X. signed the ordonnances which cost him his throne.

=Saint-Dizier.= See DIZIER, ST.-.

=Saint Domingo.= See DOMINGO, SAN, and HAYTI.

=St. George, Grand Cross of.= A Russian military honor, conferred on officers in the army and navy for distinguished bravery. It was conferred on the officer who sunk the Turkish monitor in May, 1877.

=Saint-Germain-en-Laye.= A town of France, in the department of the Seine-et-Oise, 14 miles west-northwest from Paris. The town, as well as the royal chateau, was sacked by the English in 1346, in 1419, and in 1438.

=Saint Helena.= See HELENA, SAINT.

=Saint John of Jerusalem, The Order of the Knights Hospitallers of.= Also called the Knights of Rhodes, and afterwards of Malta, the most celebrated of all the military and religious orders of the Middle Ages. It originated in 1048 in a hospital dedicated to St. John the Baptist, which was built for the reception of the pilgrims from Europe who visited the Holy Sepulchre. The nurses were at first known as the Hospitaller Brothers of St. John the Baptist of Jerusalem. The Seljuk (Seljook) Turks, who succeeded the Egyptian and Arabian Saracens in Palestine, plundered the hospice, and on the conquest of Jerusalem by the Crusaders under Geoffroy de Bouillon in 1099, the first superior, Gérard, was found in prison. Released from durance, he resumed his duties in the hospice, and was joined by several of the Crusaders, who devoted themselves to the service of the poor pilgrims. By advice of Gérard, the brethren took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience before the Patriarch of Jerusalem. Pope Pascal II. gave his sanction to the institution in 1113. After Gérard’s death in 1118, Raymond du Pay succeeded as superior of the order, and to the former obligations of the order he added those of fighting against the infidels and defending the Holy Sepulchre. Various Hospices, called commanderies, were established in different maritime towns of Europe. The order having become military as well as religious, was recruited by persons of high rank and influence, and wealth flowed in on it from all quarters. On the conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1187, the Hospitallers retired to Margate, Phœnicia, whence the progress of infidel arms drove them first, in 1285, to Acre, and afterwards, in 1291, to Limisso, where Henry II., king of Cyprus, assigned them a residence. By the statutes of Raymond, the brethren consisted of three classes,--knights, chaplains, and serving brothers; these last being fighting squires, who followed the knights in their expeditions. The order was subsequently divided into eight languages,--Provence, Auvergne, France, Italy, Aragon, England, Germany, and Castile. Each nation possessed several Grand Priories, under which were a number of commanderies. The chief establishment in England was the Priory of Clerkenwell, whose head had a seat in the upper house of Parliament, and was styled first baron of England. In 1310, the knights, under their grand master, Foulkes de Villaret, in conjunction with a party of Crusaders from Italy, captured Rhodes and seven adjacent islands from the Greek and Saracen pirates, by whom they were then occupied, and carried on from thence a successful war against the Saracens. In 1523, they were compelled to surrender Rhodes to the sultan Solyman, and retired first to Candia, and afterward to Viterbo. In 1530, Charles V. assigned them the island of Malta, with Tripolis and Gozo. The knights continued for some time to be a powerful bulwark against the Turks; but after the Reformation a moral degeneracy overspread the order, and it rapidly declined in political importance; and in 1798, through the treachery of some French knights and the cowardice of the grand master, D’Hompesch, Malta was surrendered to the French. The lands still belonging to the order were also about this time confiscated in almost all the European states; but though extinct as a sovereign body, the order has continued during the present century to drag on a lingering existence in some parts of Italy, as well as in Russia and Spain. Since 1801, the office of grand master has not been filled up; a deputy grand master has instead been appointed, who has his residence in Spain. The order at first wore a long black habit, with a pointed hood adorned with a cross of white silk, of the form called Maltese, on the left breast, as also a golden cross in the middle of the breast. In their military capacity, they wore red surcoats with a silver cross before and behind. The badge worn by all the knights is a Maltese cross, enameled white, and edged with gold; it is suspended by a black ribbon, and the embellishments attached to it differ in the different countries where the order still exists.

=Saint Louis.= A city of St. Louis Co., Mo., which stands on the right bank of the Mississippi, 18 miles below its confluence with the Missouri, and 174 miles above the mouth of the Ohio. In 1764, Saint Louis was the depot of the Louisiana Indian trading company; in 1768 it was captured by a detachment of Spanish troops; and in 1804 was ceded with the whole country west of the Mississippi to the United States. During the civil war a hostile camp of State militia was captured near the city, which enabled the Federals to secure the arsenal and a great store of arms, and eventual possession of the State of Missouri.

=St. Lucia.= An island in the West Indies, taken from the French in June, 1803, by the English troops under Gen. Greenfield.

=Saint-Malo.= See MALO, ST.

=Saint Petersburg.= See PETERSBURG, ST.

=Saint-Quentin.= A thriving town in the north of France, department of Aisne, is situated on the Somme, about 80 miles northeast of Paris. A battle was fought here August 10, 1557, between the Spaniards assisted by a body of English troops, and the French, in which the latter were severely defeated. A battle took place here between the French under Faidherbe and the Germans under Von Goeben on January 19, 1871, in which the former were defeated, and the latter occupied Saint-Quentin.

=Saint Regis.= Situated partly in Bombay township, Franklin Co., N. Y., and partly in St. Regis township, Huntingdon Co., Quebec, Canada, on the St. Lawrence River, opposite Cornwall, with which it is connected by ferry. It is inhabited by the St. Regis Indians, an Iroquois tribe speaking the Mohawk dialect. They are divided into two parties, the British and the American, and owe their allegiance not according to residence, but according to descent in the female line. Their reservation in the United States is 14,000 acres, and that in Canada rather larger. Their ancestors settled here in 1760. The American party number about 700 souls, and the British about 800.

=Saint Vincent, Cape.= See CAPE ST. VINCENT.

=Saintes.= A town of France, in the department of the Lower Charente, situated on the left bank of the Charente. The English were defeated here in 1242, by the French king Louis IX., afterwards Saint Louis.

=Saker= (Fr. sacre, sacret). An ancient 4- or 5-pounder of 13 feet, weighing from 2500 to 2800 pounds. According to Tartaglia, the sacre, in 1546, was a 12-pounder of 9 feet, and weighing 2150 pounds; it was similar to the aspic, but longer.

=Salade= (Fr.). Helmet or kind of iron hat with a grated, movable visor, which was worn during the 15th century by foot-soldiers.

=Saladin.= At first the coat of arms was so called, because the Christians who conquered Palestine assumed it in imitation of the Turks, whose chief was at that time Saladin.

=Salahieh= (written also Selahieh). A town of Lower Egypt, 37 miles northeast of Belbeys. It was taken by the French in 1798, and again in 1800.

=Salamanca= (anc. Salmantica). A famous town of Spain, capital of the modern province of the same name, on the right bank of the Tormes, 50 miles east-northeast from Ciudad Rodrigo. It was taken by Hannibal. It was almost totally destroyed by the French in 1812. In its vicinity was won one of the most famous victories of the Peninsular war, by the British under Wellington against the French under Marmont, July 22, 1812.

=Salapia= (Salapinus; now Salpi). An ancient town of Apulia, was situated south of Sipontum. During the second Punic war it revolted to Hannibal after the battle of Cannæ, but it subsequently surrendered to the Romans and delivered to the latter the Carthaginian garrison.

=Salassi.= A brave and warlike people in Gallia Transpadana, in the valley of the Duria, at the foot of the Graian and Pennine Alps. They defended the passes of the Alps in their territory with such obstinacy and courage that it was long before the Romans were able to subdue them. At length in the reign of Augustus, the country was permanently occupied by Terrentius Varro with a powerful Roman force; most of the Salassi were destroyed in battle and the rest, amounting to 36,000, were sold as slaves.

=Salenckemen.= On the Danube; here a victory was gained by the Imperialists, under Prince Louis of Baden, over the Turks, commanded by the grand vizier Mustapha Kiuprigli, August 19, 1691.

=Salentini=, or =Sallentini=. A people in the southern part of Calabria, who dwelt around the promontory of Iapygium. They were subdued by the Romans at the conclusion of their war with Pyrrhus, and having revolted in the second Punic war, were again easily reduced to subjection.

=Salerno= (anc. Salernum). A town of Naples, capital of the province of Principato Citra, 30 miles southeast from Naples. It was captured during the Social war by the Samnite general Papius. After the fall of the Western empire Salerno rose to its height. It passed first into the hands of the Goths, then into those of the Lombards, from whom it was taken by the Saracens in 905; but fifteen years after, it was recovered by the Greek emperor, and subsequently reverted to the Lombards. In 1076 Salerno was taken, after a siege of eight months, by Robert Guiscard; and thenceforward became the capital of the Norman possessions south of the Apennines. In 1193 the town was destroyed by the emperor Henry VI.

=Salient.= In heraldry, an attitude of a lion or other beast, differing but slightly from rampant. He is supposed to be in the act of springing on his prey, and both paws are elevated. Two animals counter-salient are represented as leaping in opposite directions.

=Salient Places of Arms.= In fortification, that part of the covered way which is opposite a salient of a bastion or demi-lune.

=Sallet.= The same as salade (which see).

=Sally.= A sudden offensive movement by the garrison of a fortified place, directed against the troops or works of the besiegers.

=Sally-port.= A gate or passage, by which the garrison of a fortress may make a sally or sudden attack on the besiegers. The name is applied to the postern leading from under the rampart into the ditch; but its more modern application is to a cutting through the glacis, by which a sally may be made from the covert way. When not in use, sally-ports are closed by massive gates of timber and iron.

=Salsette.= An island on the west coast of Hindustan, formerly separated from Bombay by a narrow channel 200 yards wide, across which a causeway was carried in 1805. Salsette formed part of the province of Aurungabad under the Mogul emperors; but fell into the hands of the Portuguese soon after their settlement in India. In 1739 it was conquered by the Mahrattas, and in 1774 it was taken by the British.

=Saltant.= In heraldry, in a leaping position, springing forward;--applied especially to the squirrel, weasel, rat, and also to the cat, greyhound, monkey, etc.

=Saltillo.= A city of Mexico, capital of the state of Coahuila, 250 miles west-southwest of Matamoras. Seven miles south is Buena Vista, famous for the battle fought there, February, 1847, when the Mexican forces were repulsed by an inferior U. S. army.

=Salting-boxes.= Were boxes of about 4 inches high, and 2¹⁄₂ inches in diameter, for holding mealed powder, to sprinkle the fuzes of shells, that they might take fire from the blast of the powder in the chamber.

=Saltire.= One of the ordinaries in heraldry. Its name is of uncertain etymology, representing a bend sinister conjoined with a bend dexter, or a cross placed transversely like the letter X. Like the other ordinaries, it probably originated, as Planché suggests, in the clamps and braces of the shield. The form of the saltire has been assigned to the cross on which St. Andrew is said to have been crucified; hence the frequency of this ordinary in Scotch heraldry. A saltire is subject to the variations of being engrailed, invented, etc., and may be couped. When two or more saltires are borne in a shield, they are couped, not at right angles, but horizontally; and as they are always so treated, it is considered superfluous to blazon them as couped. Charges disposed in the form of a saltire are described as placed saltireways, or in saltire. The former term is more properly applied to two long charges, as swords or keys, placed across one another (in which case the rule is, that the sword in bend sinister should be uppermost, unless otherwise blazoned); and the latter to five charges placed two, one, and two.

=Saltpetre.= Nitre, or nitrate of potassa, is composed of 54 parts nitric acid and 48 parts of potassa. It is spontaneously generated in the soil, and is a necessary ingredient of powder. It has occasionally been produced artificially in nitre-beds, formed of a mixture of calcareous soil with animal matter; in these, nitrate of lime is slowly formed, which is extracted by lixiviation and carbonate of potash added to the solution, which gives rise to the formation of nitrate of potassa and carbonate of lime; the latter is precipitated; the former remains in solution and is obtained in crystals by evaporation. Its great use is in the manufacture of gunpowder, and in the production of nitric acid. See GUNPOWDER.

=Salute.= A discharge of artillery in compliment to some individual; beating of drums and dropping of colors for the same purpose; or by earning or presenting arms according to the rank and position of an officer. A salute with cannon is a certain number of arms fired in succession with blank cartridges, in honor of a person, to celebrate an event, or to show respect to the flag of a country. The rapidity with which the pieces are discharged depends upon their caliber. Field-guns should have intervals of five seconds between discharges; siege-guns, eight; and guns of heavier caliber, ten. The minimum number of pieces with which salutes can be fired is 2 for field, 4 for siege, and 6 for sea coast guns.

Personages entitled to salutes, if passing a military post, as also foreign ships of war, are saluted with guns of heavy caliber, the most suitable being the 10-inch smooth-bore. The United States national salute is one for each State composing the Union; and the international salute, or salute to the national flag, is 21 guns. The President of the United States and the sovereign or chief magistrate of a foreign state receive a salute of 21 guns, both upon arrival and final departure from a military post. Members of the royal family,--i.e., the heir-apparent and consort of the reigning sovereign of a foreign state,--21 guns. The Vice-President of the United States receives a salute of 19 guns. The following civil and diplomatic authorities receive salutes as follows: members of the Cabinet, the chief justice, the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the governors within their respective States or Territories, a committee of Congress officially visiting a military post or station, the viceroy, governor-general, or governors of provinces belonging to foreign states, ambassadors extraordinary and plenipotentiary, 17 guns; envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary, 15 guns; ministers resident accredited to the United States, 13 guns; chargés d’affaires, or subordinate diplomatic agents left in charge of missions in the United States, 11 guns. A general-in-chief, field-marshal, or admiral receives a salute of 17 guns; a lieutenant-general, or vice-admiral, 15 guns; a major-general, or rear-admiral, 13 guns; a brigadier-general, or commodore, 11 guns. The officers of volunteers and militia, when in the service of the United States, receive the salute specified for their rank. Officers of foreign services visiting any military post, are saluted in accordance with their rank. Salutes are fired only between sunrise and sunset, and, as a rule, never on Sunday. A national salute is to be fired at noon on the anniversary of the independence of the United States at each military post and camp provided with artillery and ammunition. The international salute is the only salute that is returned, and this should be done as soon as possible; foreign ships of war, in return for a similar compliment, gun for gun on notice being officially received of such intention. If there be several forts in sight of or within 6 miles of each other, the principal only shall reciprocate compliments with ships in passing. The President of the United States, the sovereign or chief magistrate of a foreign country traveling in a public capacity, is saluted when passing in the vicinity of a military post. Personal salutes at the same place and in compliment to the same person, whether civil, diplomatic, military, or naval, are never to be fired oftener than once in twelve months, unless such person has, in the mean time, been advanced in rank.

=Salvo.= Is a concentrated fire from a greater or less number of pieces of artillery. Against a body of men, a salvo is generally useless, as the moral effect is greater in proportion to the area over which devastation is spread; but with fortifications the case is otherwise. For the purpose of breaching, the simultaneous concussion of a number of cannon-balls on masonry, or even earthwork, produces a very destructive result. The effect of a salvo of modern artillery, with its enormous steel shot, against iron-plated ramparts, has never yet been tried in actual war. The concentrated fire of a ship’s broadside forms a powerful salvo.

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