A Military Dictionary and Gazetteer Comprising ancient and modern military technical terms, historical accounts of all North American Indians, as well as ancient warlike tribes; also notices of battles from the earliest period to the present time, with a concise explanation of terms used in heraldry and the offices thereof. The work also gives valuable geographical information. Compiled from the best authorities of all nations. With an appendix containing the Articles of war, etc. (part 4 of 8)

A Military Dictionary and Gazetteer Comprising ancient and modern military technical terms, historical accounts of all North American Indians, as well as ancient warlike tribes; also notices of battles from the earliest period to the present time, with a concise explanation of terms used in heraldry and the offices thereof. The work also gives valuable geographical information. Compiled from the best authorities of all nations. With an appendix containing the Articles of war, etc. (part 4 of 8)

=Marks, Inspection.= Are certain marks cut on cannon to show the number of the gun, the name of the founder, name of inspector, weight of the piece, etc. Condemned shot are also marked. See INSPECTION OF PROJECTILES.

=Marksman.= One who is skillful to hit a mark; one who shoots well.

=Marksmanship.= The skill of a marksman.

=Marlins.= Are tarred white skeins or long wreaths or lines of untwisted hemp, dipped in pitch or tar, with which cables and other ropes are wrapped round, to prevent their fretting and rubbing in the blocks or pulleys through which they pass. The same serves in artillery upon ropes used for rigging gins, usually put up in small parcels called skeins.

=Maron= (Fr.). A piece of brass or copper, about the size of a crown, on which the hours for going the rounds were marked in the old French service. Several of these were put into a small bag, and deposited in the hands of the major of the regiment, out of which they were regularly drawn by the sergeants of companies, for the officers belonging to them. The hours and half hours were engraved on each maron. These pieces were numbered one, two, etc., to correspond with the several periods of the night; so that the officer, for instance, who was to go to the 10 o’clock rounds, had as many marons marked ten as there were posts or guard-houses which he was directed to visit. Thus on reaching the first, after having given the mot, or watch-word, to the corporal, he delivers into his hands the maron marked one. These marons being pierced in the middle are successively strung by the different corporals upon a piece of wire, from which they slide into a box called boite aux rondes, or box belonging to the rounds. This box is carried next morning to the major, who keeps the key; and who on opening it can easily ascertain whether the rounds have been regularly gone by counting the different marons, and seeing them successively strung.

=Maroons.= A name given to runaway negroes in Jamaica. When the island was conquered from the Spaniards a number of their negroes fled to the hills and became very troublesome to the colonists. A war of eight years’ duration ensued, when the Maroons capitulated on being permitted to retain their free settlements, about 1730. In 1795 they again took arms, but they were speedily suppressed.

=Marquee=, or =Markee=. An outer fly, or roof-cloth of a tent; also, a large field-tent.

=Marquis=, or =Marquess=. The degree of nobility which in the peerage of England ranks next to a duke. Marquises were originally commanders on the borders or frontiers of countries, or on the sea-coast, which they were bound to protect. In England, the title of marquis was used in this sense as early as the reign of Henry III., when there were marquises or lords-marchers of the borders of Scotland and Wales; and the foreign equivalent of markgraf was common on the continent.

=Marrons.= In pyrotechny, are small paper shells filled with grained powder and primed with short pieces of quick-match. They form part of the decorations of signal-rockets.

=Marrucini.= A brave and warlike people in Italy of the Sabellian race, occupying a narrow slip of country along the right bank of the river Atermus. Along with the Marsi, Peligni, and other Sabellian tribes, they fought against Rome; and, together with them, they submitted to the Romans, 304 B.C., and concluded a peace with the republic.

=Marsacii.= A people in Gallia Belgica, on one of the islands formed by the Rhine, which first became known to the Romans through the war with Civilis.

=Marsaglia.= Near Turin, in Italy. A battle took place here on September 24, 1693, in which Catinat defeated Prince Eugène and the Duke of Savoy. This battle and place are memorable for being the first at which bayonets were used at the ends of muskets, and to this the French owed the victory.

=Marsala= (Arab. Marsa Alla, “the port of God”). A maritime town of Sicily, in the province of Trapani, about 19 miles south-southwest of the port of Trapani. Marsala has recently acquired historic interest as the point where Garibaldi, eluding the vigilance of the Neapolitan fleet, landed with his heroic thousand, and began the romantic campaign which terminated the kingdom of the two Sicilies so ignominiously.

=Marseillaise.= The name by which the grand song of the first French revolution is known. The circumstances which led to its composition are as follows. In the beginning of 1792, when a column of volunteers was about to leave Strasburg, the mayor of the city, who gave a banquet on the occasion, asked an officer of artillery, named Rouget de Lisle, to compose a song in their honor. His request was complied with, and the result was the Marseillaise,--both verse and music being the work of one night. De Lisle entitled the piece “Chant de Guerre de l’Armée du Rhin.” Next day it was sung with that rapturous enthusiasm that only Frenchmen can exhibit, and instead of 600 volunteers, 1000 marched out of Strasburg. Soon from the whole army of the North resounded the thrilling and fiery words, Aux armes! Aux armes! Nevertheless, the song was still unknown in Paris, and was first introduced there by Barbaroux, when he summoned the youth of Marseilles to the capital in July, 1792. It was received with transports by the Parisians, who--ignorant of its real authorship--named it “Hymne des Marseillais,” which name it has borne ever since.

=Marseilles= (anc. Massilia). A city in the south of France, the capital of the department of the Mouths-of-the-Rhone, situated on the Mediterranean Sea. It was founded by the Phocæans about 600 B.C.; was an ally of Rome, 218 B.C.; taken by Julius Cæsar after a long siege, 49 B.C.; by Euric the Visigoth, 470; sacked by the Saracens, 839; united to the crown of France, 1482. Marseilles opposed the revolutionary government, and was reduced August 23, 1793.

=Marshal= (Fr. maréchal). A term which originally meant a groom or manager of the horse, though eventually the king’s marshal became one of the principal officers of state in England. The royal farrier rose in dignity with the increasing importance of the chevalerie, till he became conjointly with the constable the judge in the Curiæ Martiales, or courts of chivalry. When the king headed his army in feudal times, the assembled troops were inspected by the constable and marshal, who fixed the spot for the encampment of each noble, and examined the number, arms, and condition of his retainers. With these duties was naturally combined the regulation of all matters connected with armorial bearing standards, and ensigns. The constable’s functions were virtually abolished in the time of Henry VIII., and the marshal became thenceforth the sole judge in questions of honor and arms. (See EARL MARSHAL.) In France, the highest military officer is called a marshal, a dignity which originated early in the 13th century. There was at first only one maréchal de France, and there were but two till the time of James I. Their number afterwards became unlimited. Originally, the marshal was the esquire of the king, and commanded the vanguard in war; in later times, the command became supreme, and the rank of the highest military importance. See FIELD-MARSHAL.

=Marshal.= To dispose in order; to arrange in a suitable manner; as, to marshal troops or an army.

=Marshal of Scotland, Earl.= An officer who had command of the cavalry under the constable. This office was held by the family of Keith, but forfeited by rebellion in 1715.

=Marshal, Provost-.= See PROVOST-MARSHAL.

=Marshaler= (written also marshaller). One who marshals.

=Marshaling of Arms.= In heraldry, is the combining of different coats of arms in one escutcheon, for the purpose of indicating family alliance or office.

=Marsi.= A brave people of Southern Italy, who, after several contests, yielded to the Romans about 301 B.C. During the civil wars they and their allies rebelled, having demanded and been refused the rights of Roman citizenship, 91 B.C. After many successes and reverses, they sued for and obtained peace and the rights they required, 87 B.C. The Marsi being Socii of the Romans, this was called the Social war.

=Marsilly Carriage.= A naval gun-carriage having but one set of trucks, one of the transoms resting directly on the deck. It is used in the U. S. navy for mounting the 9-inch Dahlgren in broadside.

=Marston Moor.= Near the city of York, England. The Scots and Parliamentary army were besieging York, when Prince Rupert, joined by the Marquis of Newcastle, determined to raise the siege. Both sides drew up on Marston Moor, July 2, 1644, and the contest was long undecided. Rupert, commanding the right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver Cromwell, at the head of troops disciplined by himself. Cromwell was victorious; he drove his opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second engagement and a second victory. The prince’s artillery was taken and the royalists never recovered the blow.

=Marta=, or =Martha Santa=. A town of New Granada, South America, capital of a province of the same name in the department of Magdalena. It was repeatedly sacked by pirates during the 16th and 17th centuries; and in 1672 was completely pillaged by a French and an English vessel. It suffered much from the attacks of the Indians during the revolutionary war, and does not appear to have regained its former importance.

=Marteau d’Armes= (Fr.). An offensive weapon, so called from its resemblance to a hammer.

=Martel-de-fer.= A hammer and pick conjoined, used by horse-soldiers in the Middle Ages to break and destroy armor.

=Martello Towers.= Are round towers for coast defense, about 40 feet high, built most solidly, and situated on the beach. They occur in several places round the coast of Great Britain; but principally opposite to the French coast, along the southern shore of Kent and Sussex, where, for many miles, they are within easy range of each other. They were mostly erected during the French war, as a defense against invasion. Each had walls of 5¹⁄₂ feet thickness and was supposed to be bomb-proof. The base formed the magazine; above were two rooms for the garrison, and over the upper of these the flat roof, with a 4¹⁄₂ feet brick parapet all round. On this roof a heavy swivel-gun was to be placed to command shipping, while howitzers on each side were to form a flanking defense in connection with the neighboring towers. Although the cost of these little forts was very great, they are generally considered to have been a failure. The name is said to be taken from Italian towers built near the sea, during the period when piracy was common in the Mediterranean, for the purpose of keeping watch and giving warning if a pirate-ship was seen approaching. This warning was given by striking on a bell with a hammer (Ital. martello), and hence these towers were called tarri da martello.

=Martial.= Pertaining to war; suited to war; military, as, martial music; a martial appearance; given to war; warlike; brave, as, a martial nation or people; belonging to war, or to an army and navy; opposed to civil; as, martial law; a court-martial.

=Martial Law.= An arbitrary law, proceeding directly from the military power, and having no immediate constitutional or legislative sanction. When it is imposed upon any specified district, all the inhabitants, and all their actions, are brought within its dominion. It is founded on paramount necessity, extends to matters of civil as well as of criminal jurisdiction, and is proclaimed only in times of war, insurrection, rebellion, or other great emergency. It is so far distinct from military law, which affects only the troops and forces. Martial law may, in fact, be termed a subjection to the Articles of War. In a hostile country it consists in the suspension, by the occupying military authority, of the civil and criminal law, and of the domestic administration and government in the occupied place or territory, and in the substitution of military rule and force for the same, as well as in the dictation of general laws, as far as military necessity requires this suspension, substitution, or dictation, and is simply military authority exercised in accordance with the laws and usages of war. Military oppression is not martial law, it is the abuse of the power which that law confers. As martial law is executed by military force, it is incumbent upon those who administer it to be strictly guided by the principles of justice, honor, and humanity,--virtues adorning a soldier even more than other men, for the very reason that he possesses the power or his arms against the unarmed. Martial law affects chiefly the police and collection of public revenue and taxes, whether imposed by the expelled government or by the invader, and refers mainly to the support and efficiency of the army, its safety, and the safety of its operations.

=Martialize.= To render warlike; as, to martialize a people.

=Martinet= (so called from an officer of that name in the French army under Louis XIV.). A strict disciplinarian; one who lays stress on the rigid adherence to the details of discipline, or to forms and fixed methods.

=Martinetism.= Rigid adherence to discipline.

=Martini-Henry Rifle.= See SMALL-ARMS.

=Martinique.= An island in the West Indies, the most northern and one of the largest of the Windward group. It was taken from the French by the British in February, 1762; restored to France at the peace of the following year; again taken March 16, 1794; restored at the peace of Amiens in 1802; and was again captured February 23, 1809. It reverted to its French masters in 1815.

=Martin’s Shell.= A hollow spherical projectile lined with loam and filled with molten iron,--used for incendiary purposes.

=Martlet.= In heraldry, a bird resembling a swallow, with long wings, very short beak and thighs, and no visible legs, borne on the shield as a mark of cadency by the fourth son.

=Maryland.= One of the thirteen original States of the United States, and one of the Central Atlantic States. Maryland was first settled in 1631, by a party from Virginia, and in 1632 by a colony of Roman Catholic gentry from England, under a grant to the second Lord Baltimore, when it received its present name in honor of the English queen, Henrietta Maria. From 1642 to 1645 the Virginian and English colonies were at perpetual warfare, and the governor of the English colony, Philip Calvert, was obliged to leave, but in 1646 he returned, the rebellion having ended. Maryland took a prominent part in the two French wars, the Revolution, and the war of 1812-14, when it was twice invaded by the British, who were gallantly repulsed from North Point, near Baltimore, September 13, 1814, although they had gained a temporary triumph a few weeks before at Bladensburg. In the war of 1861-66, its sympathies were with the South, and the first blood of the war was shed in Baltimore, several Massachusetts volunteers having been killed on their way to Washington. The State was the scene of several battles during the civil war, and suffered greatly from the contending armies. Maryland was organized as a State in 1776.

=Masada.= A fortress on the shore of the Dead Sea, built by Jonathan Maccabæus, and afterwards greatly strengthened by Herod, as a place of refuge for himself. It fell into the hands of the Romans after the capture of Jerusalem, the garrison having devoted themselves to self-destruction.

=Mascara.= A town of Algeria, 48 miles southeast from Oran. The town was taken and nearly destroyed by the French in 1835, and occupied a second time by Gen. Bugeaud in 1841, since which time a garrison of French troops has been constantly maintained there.

=Mascat=, or =Muscat=. A large seaport of Arabia, standing on a peninsula on the northeast coast of the province of Oman. In 1507 it was taken by Albuquerque. For nearly 150 years after, it continued in the possession of the Portuguese. About the year 1648, however, it was retaken by the natives, who have ever since retained it.

=Mascled Armor.= A kind of armor sometimes worn by the Norman soldiers, composed of small lozenge-shaped plates of metal fastened on a leathern or quilted under-coat.

=Mascoutins.= A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, who formerly inhabited the region of the Upper Lakes. They afterwards moved to the Wisconsin River, and subsequently settled on the Ohio. In 1765 they fought against Col. Croghan on the Wabash River, and attacked Col. Clarke in 1777. Their name is now lost among the numerous petty tribes that reside in Kansas.

=Mask.= A military expression used in several senses. A masked battery is one so constructed with grassy glacis, etc., as to be hidden from the view of the enemy, until, to his surprise, it suddenly opens fire upon him,--on his flank, perhaps. The fire of a battery is masked when some other work, or body of friendly troops, intervenes in the line of fire, and precludes the use of the guns. A fortress or an army is masked when a superior force of the enemy holds it in check, while some hostile evolution is being carried out.

=Mask.= A wire cage to protect the face in fencing.

=Mask Wall.= In permanent fortification, is the scarp wall of casemates.

=Mason and Dixon’s Line.= The line which divides Pennsylvania from Maryland, running on the parallel of 39° 43′ 26″. The boundary between the colonial possessions of the lords Baltimore and of the Penn family had been a subject of almost continual dispute from the first settlement of the country. At length, in 1760, the contending parties having agreed upon a compromise, appointed commissioners to settle definitively the limits between the two territories. Surveyors were employed by both sides, but their progress appeared rather slow; the proprietors who resided in England decided to send Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two distinguished mathematicians and astronomers, to complete the work. They arrived in Philadelphia in November, 1763, and by the autumn of 1767 had carefully surveyed and marked a line of nearly 250 miles, extending for the most part through a dense forest and passing over a number of mountain ridges. This line, dividing as it does the free State of Pennsylvania from Maryland, which was formerly a slave State, has been often referred to, in popular language, as the boundary between freedom and slavery in the United States.

=Mass.= In statics, is the amount of matter contained in a body. In dynamics, is that measure of the matter in a body which determines its relation to force. The accepted measure is the weight divided by the force of gravity. See FORCE OF GRAVITY.

=Mass.= A word signifying the concentration of troops; the formation of troops in column at less than half distance. To mass troops, is to concentrate them by this arrangement on a certain point. A column is closed in mass when the sub-divisions have less than half distance.

=Massachusetts.= One of the thirteen original States of the American Union, and oldest of the New England States. It was discovered by the Cabots in 1497. In 1614 it was visited by Capt. John Smith. In 1620 the “Mayflower” sailed from Southampton with 102 Puritan settlers, and landed at Plymouth December 22. One half of them died from cold and hardship the first year. In 1637, the colony suffered from Indian massacres; and in King Philip’s war (1675) 12 towns and 600 houses were burned. The war of the Revolution of 1776 began in Massachusetts with the battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill. It adopted the Constitution of the United States, 1788.

=Massachusetts Indians.= A general name given to all the tribes of aborigines inhabiting the country in which the colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay were founded. The five principal tribes were the Nausets, Pokanokets, or Wampanoags, Massachusetts, Pennacooks, and Nipmucks. They were nearly all exterminated in King Philip’s war (1675). At present about 1500 Indians reside in Massachusetts.

=Massacre.= The killing of human beings by indiscriminate slaughter, murder of numbers with cruelty or atrocity, or contrary to the usages of civilized people; cold-blooded destruction of life; butchery; carnage. The following are among the most remarkable:

Before Christ.--Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, 397; 2000 Tyrians crucified and 8000 put to the sword for not surrendering Tyre to Alexander, 331; 2000 Capuans, friends of Hannibal, by Gracchus, 211; dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and Ambrones near Aix, by Marius, the Roman general, 200,000 being left dead on the spot, 102; the Romans throughout Asia, women and children not excepted, massacred in one day, by order of Mithridates, king of Pontus, 88; great number of Roman senators massacred by Cinna, Marius, and Sertorius, 87; again, under Sylla and Catiline, his minister of vengeance, 82; at Perusia, Octavianus Cæsar ordered 300 Roman senators and other persons of distinction to be sacrificed to the manes of Julius Cæsar, 40.

After Christ.--At the destruction of Jerusalem 1,100,000 Jews are said to have been put to the sword, 70; the Jews, headed by one Andræ, put to death many Greeks and Romans in and near Cyrene, 115; Cassius, a Roman general under the emperor M. Aurelius, put to death 300,000 of the inhabitants of Seleucia, 165; at Alexandria, many thousands of citizens were massacred by order of Antoninus, 215; the emperor Probus is said to have put to death 400,000 of the barbarian invaders of Gaul, 277; massacre of the Gothic hostages by Valens, 378; of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons invited into the circus were put to the sword by order of Theodosius, 390; of the circus factions at Constantinople, 532; massacre of the Latins at Constantinople by order of Andronicus, 1184; of the Albigenses and Waldenses, commenced at Toulouse, 1208; thousands perished by the sword and gibbet of the French in Sicily, 1282 (see SICILIAN VESPERS); at Paris, of the Armagnacs, at the instance of John, duke of Burgundy, 1418; of the Swedish nobility at a feast, by order of Christian II., 1520; of Protestants at Vassy, March 1, 1562; of 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants, in France, August 24, 1572 (see BARTHOLOMEW, ST.); of the Christians in Croatia by the Turks, when 65,000 were slain, 1592; of the pretender Demetrius and his Polish adherents, May 27, 1606; of the Protestants in the Valteline, Northern Italy, July 19, 1620; of the Protestants at Thorn, put to death under a pretended legal sentence of the chancellor of Poland for being concerned in a tumult occasioned by a Roman Catholic procession, 1724; all the Protestant powers in Europe interceded to have this unjust sentence revoked, but unavailingly; at Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred by the natives, October, 1740, under the pretext of an intended insurrection; at the taking of Ismail by the Russians, 30,000 old and young were slain, December, 1790; of French royalists (see SEPTEMBRIZERS), September 2, 1792; of Poles at Praga, 1794; in St. Domingo, where Dessalines made proclamation for the massacre of all the whites, March 29, 1804, and many thousands perished; insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the French, May 2, 1808; massacre of the Mamelukes in the citadel of Cairo, March 1, 1811; massacre of Protestants at Nismes, perpetrated by the Catholics, May, 1815; massacre at Scio, April 22, 1822; destruction of the Janissaries at Constantinople, June 14, 1826; above 500 Kabyles suffocated in a cave in Algeria, June 18, 1845 (see DAHRA); massacre of Christians at Aleppo, October 16, 1850; of Maronites by Druses in Lebanon, June, 1860; and of Christians at Damascus, July 9-11, 1860. See DRUSES and DAMASCUS.

In British History.--Of 300 English nobles on Salisbury Plain by Hengist, about 450; of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 1200, by Ethelfrid, king of Bernicia, 607 or 612; of the Danes in the southern counties of England in the night of November 13, 1002, and the 23d, by Ethelred II. At London it was most bloody, the churches being no sanctuary. Among the rest was Gunilda, sister of Swein, king of Denmark, left in hostage for the performance of a treaty but newly concluded. Of the Jews in England; some few pressing into Westminster Hall at Richard I.’s coronation, were put to death by the people, and a false alarm being given that the king had ordered a general massacre of them, the people in many parts of England slew all they met. In York, 500 who had taken shelter in the castle killed themselves rather than fall into the hands of the multitude, 1189. Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen’s Wood, Ireland (see CULLEN’S WOOD), 1209; of the English factory at Amboyna, in order to dispossess its members of the Spice Islands, February, 1624; massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in O’Neill’s rebellion, October 23, 1641. Upwards of 30,000 British were killed in the commencement of this rebellion. In the first three or four days of it, 40,000 or 50,000 of the Protestants were destroyed. Before the rebellion was entirely suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were massacred; of the Macdonalds of Glencoe (see GLENCOE), February 13, 1692; of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly Protestants, burnt, shot, or pierced to death by pikes, perpetrated by the insurgent Irish, at the barn of Scullabogue, Ireland, in 1798; of Europeans at Meerut, Delhi, etc., by mutineers of the native Indian army, May and June, 1857; of Europeans at Kalangan, on the south coast of Borneo, May 1, 1859; of the Europeans at Morant Bay, Jamaica, by the infuriated negroes, October 11-12, 1865. See JAMAICA.

In American History.--Massacre of about 900 French Protestants (soldiers, women, children, the aged and sick) in Florida, by the Spaniards under Melendez de Aviles, on September 21, 1565; of about 347 English on March 22, 1622, and of 300 English on April 18, 1644, by Indians in Virginia; of about 100 Algonkin Indians, in the neighborhood of Manhattan, by the Dutch, on February 25-26, 1643; of 200 people at La Chine, Isle of Montreal, by Iroquois, August 25, 1689; of a large number of the inhabitants at Haverhill, Mass., by the French under Des Chaillons and Hertel de Rouville, assisted by 100 picked Canadians and a number of Algonkin Indians, August 29, 1708; of the English at Pocotaligo, Carolina, by the Yamassees and their confederates, on April 15, 1715; of a colony of French, in the southwest, near the banks of the Mississippi, by the Natchez Indians, November 28, 1729; of about 30 English soldiers, by Indians, allies of the French, after the capitulation of Fort William Henry, August 19, 1757; of some 300 settlers, chiefly boys and old men, by British soldiers, Seneca Indians, and Tories, in Wyoming Valley, Pa., on June 30, 1778 (see WYOMING VALLEY); of a party of emigrants, by Indians in Mountain Meadows, Utah, 1857; of about 1000 settlers in Western Minnesota, by Sioux Indians in 1862; of the garrison of Fort Pillow, Tenn., by the Confederates, April 13, 1864; of part of the garrison of Fort Phil Kearney (near the fort), by Indians, December, 1866; of five companies of the 7th U. S. Cavalry under Gen. Custer, by Sioux Indians, June 25, 1876.

=Massacrer.= One who massacres.

=Massagetæ.= An ancient Scythian people (probably the ancestors of the Goths), who invaded Asia about 635. In a conflict with them Cyrus the Great was killed, 529 B.C.

=Massa-Lubrenze=, or =Massa-de-Sorrento=. A town of Naples, on the gulf of the same name, 19 miles south of the city of Naples. It was sacked by the Turks in 1558.

=Masse= (Fr.). A species of stock-purse, which, during the French monarchy, was lodged in the hands of the regimental treasurer or paymaster, for every sergeant, corporal, drummer, and soldier. The amount retained for each sergeant was vingt deniers per day, and dix deniers for each of the other ranks, according to the establishment, not the effective number of each battalion. Out of these stoppages a settled and regular masse, or stock-purse, was made up, and at the end of every month it was paid into the hands of the major or officer intrusted with the interior management of the corps, and was then appropriated to defray the expense of clothing the different regiments, and lodged in the hands of the directors or inspector-general of clothing.

=Masse d’Armes= (Fr.). A warlike weapon, which was formerly used. It consisted of a long pole with a large iron head.

=Masselotte= (Fr.). A French term which is used in foundery, signifying that superfluous metal which remains after a cannon or mortar has been cast, and which is saved or filed off, to give the piece its proper form.

=Massie= (Fr.). A short stick or rod, used by artificers in making cartridges.

=Master, Baggage-.= An inspector of roads, formerly an appointment in the British service.

=Master, Barrack-.= See BARRACK-MASTER.

=Master-General.= See ORDNANCE BOARD.

=Master-General, Barrack-.= Formerly an officer with the rank of major-general, in the British service, who was vested with considerable powers. His duties consisted in keeping all barracks in repair, and all supplies of barrack furniture, utensils, and other stores for the troops, were furnished by him, as also a proper quantity of good and sufficient firing, candles, and other stores. He also supplied forage to the cavalry.

=Master-General, Scout-.= See SCOUT-MASTER-GENERAL.

=Master-Gunners.= In the British service are pensioned sergeants of artillery, who are placed in charge of the stores in small towers or forts; they are divided into three classes, of which those in the first class receive 5 shillings, in the second, 3 shillings and 6 pence, and in the third, 3 shillings per day. They are now borne in the Coast Brigade of Royal Artillery, but the office has much degenerated in importance since it was first created, at least as early as the time of Henry VIII.

=Mastery.= Victory in war.

=Matafunda.= An ancient machine of war, which was used for throwing stones, probably by means of a sling.

=Matagorda.= A small fort and military post in the south of Spain, contiguous to Cadiz. On February 22, 1810, Capt. (afterwards Lieut.-Gen. Sir Archibald) Maclaine was posted here with a force of about 140 men. The French cannonaded the work with field artillery all the next day; but the garrison were immovable. On March 21, the fire of 48 guns and mortars was directed on the little fort for thirty hours; when 64 men out of the 140 having fallen, Gen. Graham sent boats to carry off the survivors, and the fort was surrendered.

=Matan.= One of the Philippine Islands, lying to the east of Zebu, where Magellan was killed in a skirmish with the natives in 1520.

=Matarieh.= A village of Lower Egypt, in the province of Ghizeh, which stands on the site of the ancient Heliopolis, 5 miles northeast from Cairo. The Turks were defeated here by the French in 1800.

=Match.= A preparation invented to retain fire for the service of artillery, mines, fireworks, etc. For different kinds in use and their composition, see LABORATORY STORES.

=Match.= A bringing together of two parties suited to one another, as for a trial of skill or force, a contest, or the like; as, specifically, a contest to try strength or skill; an emulous struggle.

=Matchlock.= The lock of a musket containing a match for firing it; hence, a musket fired by means of a match.

=Mate-griffon.= An ancient machine, the destroyer and terror of the Greeks, which projected both stones and darts.

=Matériel.= All cannon, small-arms, carriages, implements, ammunition, etc., necessary for war purposes, used in contradistinction to personnel. See PERSONNEL.

=Mathematics.= That science, or class of sciences, which treats of the exact relations existing between the quantities or magnitudes, and of the methods by which, in accordance with these relations, quantities sought are deducible from other quantities known or supposed. It is usually divided into pure, which considers magnitude or quantity abstractly, without relation to matter; and mixed, which treats of magnitude as subsisting in material bodies, and is consequently interwoven with physical considerations; and to this branch may be referred astronomy, geography, hydrography, hydrostatics, mechanics, fortification, gunnery, mining, and engineering. The knowledge of military mathematics is applicable to all the operations of war, where everything consists in proportion, measure, and motion, bringing into play the several important sciences already enumerated, a certain proficiency in most of which is absolutely requisite to the formation of a good and skillful officer.

=Matras= (Fr.). A sort of dart which was anciently used, and which was not sufficiently pointed to occasion anything more than a bruise.

=Matron.= A woman, generally the wife of some well-behaved and good soldier, who is employed to assist in the hospital, do the washing, etc., and is under the direction of the surgeon, by whom she is originally appointed to the situation.

=Matrosses.= Were soldiers in the royal regiment of artillery in the British service, who assisted the gunners in loading, firing, and sponging the great guns. The term is now obsolete in the service, and the duty is done by the gunners.

=Matter.= That with regard to which anything takes place,--the subject of action, complaint, discussion, legal action, or the like. A word used in reference to courts-martial. The specific charges which are brought against a prisoner, and to which the court must strictly confine itself. Also applied to the evidence before a legal tribunal. New matter is new evidence not before considered.

=Mattiaci.= A people in Germany, who dwelt on the eastern bank of the Rhine, between the Main and the Lahn, and were a branch of the Chatti. They were subdued by the Romans, who, in the reign of Claudius, had fortresses and silver mines in their country. After the death of Nero they revolted against the Romans, and took part with the Chatti and other German tribes in the siege of Moguntiacum. From this time they disappear from history; and their country was subsequently inhabited by the Alemanni.

=Mattock.= A pioneer tool, resembling a pickaxe, but having two broad sharp edges instead of points.

=Mattress.= A quilted bed; a bed stuffed with hair, moss, or other soft material, and quilted. Mattresses are much used by officers on campaigns.

=Mattucashlash.= An ancient Scotch weapon sometimes called armpit dagger, which was worn under the armpit, ready to be used on coming to close quarters. This, with a broad sword and shield, completely armed the Highlanders.

=Maubenge.= A town of France, in the department of Nord, situated on the Sambre, not far from the frontiers of Belgium. The town is well fortified, the defenses being by the famous Vauban. The town traces its origin back to the 7th century, and being situated near the frontier, has been an object of great contention. It has been taken no less than ten times since the 15th century, and finally by the allies in 1815.

=Maul.= A heavy beater, or hammer, usually shod with iron, used in driving piles, etc.

=Mauritania=, or =Mauretania=. The ancient name of the northwestern part of Africa, corresponding in its limits to the present sultanate of Morocco and the western portion of Algeria. It derived its name from its inhabitants, the Mauri (Moors). The country was conquered by the Romans, who founded many colonies in it, and in 49 B.C. Julius Cæsar appointed Bogudes and Bocchoris joint kings of Mauritania. In 429 the Vandal king Genseric, at the invitation of Count Boniface, crossed the Straits of Gades, and Mauritania, with other African provinces, fell into the hands of the barbarian conquerors. Belisarius destroyed the kingdom of the Vandals, and Mauritania again became a Roman province under an Eastern exarch. In 698, when the Arabs made the final conquest of Africa, the Moors adopted the religion, name, and origin of their conquerors, and sunk back into their more congenial state of Mohammedan savages.

=Mauritius=, or =The Isle of France=. An island in the Indian Ocean, lying about 500 miles east from Madagascar, and forming a colony of Great Britain. This island was discovered by the Portuguese in 1505, and in 1598 it was taken by the Dutch. In 1810 it came into the possession of the English.

=Mauser Gun.= Is the army service breech-loading rifle used since 1874 by the German infantry. It was invented in 1871, and derives its name from Mauser, a gunsmith of Würtemberg, who modified and greatly improved it. Its advantages over the needle-gun, the weapon used in the Franco-German war, are numerous. It is lighter, weighing about two pounds less, and carrying a heavier charge of powder and a lighter ball, is of longer range, being effective at 1300 yards; the manner of loading it is simpler, and it can be fired with greater rapidity.

=Maximum Charge.= See CHARGE.

=Maya.= A gorge in the Pyrenees, between Bidassoa and Nivelle, the scene of an action in July, 1813, in which the French were worsted by the English, under Gen. Stewart.

=Mayaguez.= A town and port of the island of Porto Rico. An adventurer named Ducondray took this town in 1822, and made an attempt to establish an independent republic.

=Maynard’s Primer.= Consisted of a coil of paper tape containing small charges of percussion-powder placed at certain intervals. The coil was placed in a circular cavity on the outside of the lock-plate. The cocking of the piece, by unwinding the coil, brought successive charges over the nipple, when they were exploded by the fall of the hammer.

=Maynard’s Rifle.= One of the first, if not the first rifle in which a metallic cartridge was used. It was described in an official report to the U. S. Chief of Ordnance in 1856. This, as well as the primer mentioned above, was the invention of Dr. E. Maynard. This rifle in improved form is still in the market.

=Meal Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Measure.= To compute or ascertain the extent, quantity, dimensions, or capacity of, by a certain rule or standard.

=Measure of Velocity.= In projectiles and mechanics, is the space passed over by a moving body in any given time. The space therefore must be divided into as many equal parts as the time is conceived to be divided into: the quantity of space answering to such portion of time is the measure of the velocity.

=Measures.= For powder are cylindrical copper vessels of various sizes for determining the charges of shells, cannon, etc.

=Meaux.= A town of France, in the department of the Seine-et-Marne, 23 miles northeast from Paris. After a siege of several months, this place was taken by the English in 1520.

=Mecca.= A city of Arabia, capital of the province of Hejaz, and of the district Belud-el-Haram. This was the birthplace of Mohammed, and the cradle of the Mussulman creed. In 1804 and 1807, it was taken by the Wahabees, and in 1818, by Ibrahim Pasha.

=Mechanical Manœuvres.= The application of the mechanical powers in mounting, dismounting, shifting, and transporting artillery.

=Mechanical Powers.= Certain simple machines, such us the lever and its modifications, the wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane with its modifications, the screw, and the wedge, which convert a small force acting through a great space into a great force acting through a small space, or vice versa, and are used separately or in combination.

=Mechanics.= That science, or branch of applied mathematics, which treats of motion, and develops the effects of powers or moving forces, so far as they are applied to machines.

=Mechanicsville.= In Henrico Co., Va. Near here, on the left bank of the Chickahominy, on the east side of Beaver Dam Creek, a battle was fought on June 26, 1862, between the Confederate forces, under Gen. Lee, and the Federal troops, under Gen. McClellan, in which the former were compelled to retreat with great loss. The fight was mainly sustained on the Federal side by the brigades of Gens. Reynolds and Seymour, and lasted about seven hours, during the greater part of which time the Federal artillery kept up a destructive fire on the enemy as they essayed to charge the lines, each successive attempt only ending in renewed disaster. Their loss was said to be about 3000, while that of the Federals did not exceed 300.

=Mechlin=, or =Malines=. A town of Belgium, in the province of Antwerp, situated on the Dyle. It was founded in the 6th century; destroyed by the Normans in 884; sacked by the Spaniards, 1572; taken by the Prince of Orange, 1578, and by the English, 1580; frequently captured in the 17th and 18th centuries, partaking in the evil fortunes of the country.

=Mecklenburg.= Formerly a principality in Lower Saxony, now independent as the two grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The house of Mecklenburg claims to be descended from Genseric the Vandal, who ravaged the Western empire in the 5th century, and died, 477. During the Thirty Years’ War, Mecklenburg was conquered by Wallenstein, who became its duke, 1628; it was restored to its own duke, 1630. After several changes, the government was settled in 1701 as it now exists in the two branches of Schwerin and Strelitz. In 1815 the dukes were made grand dukes, and they joined the new North German Confederation by treaty, August 21, 1866.

=Medal.= Is a piece of metal in the form of a coin, struck to commemorate some remarkable event, or in honor of some distinguished person, but having no place in the currency. Medals belong to two periods, ancient and modern, separated by a wide interval. To the former belong those pieces issued in ancient Rome, known as medallions, and made of gold, silver, or copper. They are generally supposed to have been struck on occasions similar to those on which medals are coined in modern times, on the accession of an emperor, on the achievement of an important victory, or as specimens of workmanship. Modern medals date from the 14th century, but few were struck prior to the 15th. In more recent times, it has become customary to confer medals as marks of distinction for eminent worth or noble conduct, but more particularly for naval or military services. Such medals of honor are seldom of great intrinsic value, their worth depending on the associations connected with them. During the Revolutionary war Congress conferred these marks of honor on several military and naval heroes, who distinguished themselves by their valor or achievements during that eventful period. In the U. S. service, at present, bronze medals of honor are conferred on enlisted men in the army, navy, and marine corps for gallantry in action, or extraordinary heroism in the line of their duties. In the English military service, similar medals are granted. They are generally of silver, and have ribbons attached, with clasps or small bars, each of which bears the name of a particular engagement. Good-service medals of silver are also distributed among meritorious soldiers, sailors, and marines.

=Medals of Honor.= See MEDALS.

=Medeah=, or =Medeyah=. A fortified town of Algeria, 40 miles southwest from Algiers. This town was taken by the French in 1820.

=Media.= In ancient times, the name of the northwestern part of Iran, which was bounded by the Caspian Sea on the north, Persia on the south, Parthia on the east, and Assyria on the west. The Medians were in language, religion, and manners very nearly allied to the Persians. After they had shaken off the yoke of the Assyrians, their tribes united about 708 B.C., chose Dejoces for their chief, and made Ecbatana their capital. His son Phraortes, or Arphaxad, subdued the Persians. Cyaxares, the son of Phraortes, in alliance with Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, overthrew the Assyrian empire about 604 B.C., spread the terror of his arms as far as Egypt and the farthest bounds of Asia Minor, and vanquished the brigand hordes of Scythia, who had carried their ravages as far as Syria. He was succeeded by his son Astyage, who was deposed (560 B.C.) by his own grandson Cyrus, king of Persia; and from this time the two nations are spoken of as one people. After the death of Alexander the Great (324 B.C.), the northwest portion of Media became a separate kingdom, and existed till the time of Augustus; the other portion, under the name of Great Media, forming a part of the Syrian monarchy. Media was on several occasions separated from Persia. In 152 B.C., Mithridates I. took Great Media from the Syrians, and annexed it to the Parthian empire, and about 36 B.C., it had a king of its own, named Artavasdes, against whom Mark Antony made war. Under the Sassanian dynasty, the whole of Media was united to Persia. It became, during the 14th and 15th centuries, the stronghold of the Turkoman tribes. In early times the Medes were a warlike race, and were distinguished for their skill with the bow. They were also celebrated for their horsemanship, and it was from them that the Persians adopted this and other favorite exercises and acquirements. In subsequent times, they appear to have become effeminated by luxury.

=Mediator.= Any state or power which interferes to adjust a quarrel between any two or more powers, is called a mediator.

=Medical Department.= This department of an army, next to the commissariat, is the most important of all the non-combatant sections. The surgical treatment of the wounded in actual fighting, and still more the combat with disease engendered by crowding, unhealthy stations, and the reckless habits of the soldiery, necessitate a large medical staff; for, on an average of the whole army, it is found that the rate of sickness is at least quadruple that for the civil population. In the British army every battalion, when at home or in the temperate zone, has a surgeon and an assistant-surgeon; when in India or the tropics, another assistant-surgeon is added. The medical department is governed by a director-general, who is a member of the War Office, and has charge of the surgical, medical, and sanitary arrangements of the army. In the United States every military post has at least one medical officer and sometimes two, as the nature of the climate or the strength of the command demands, all of whom are under the command of a surgeon-general, who ranks as brigadier-general, and is permanently established at Washington, D. C. He has full control over everything that pertains to the medical department of the army. Officers of the medical department are assistant-surgeons, with the rank of first lieutenants of cavalry the first five years of their service thereafter, till promoted to the grade of surgeon, when they receive the rank, pay, and emoluments of captain.

=Medical Director.= In the U. S. service, an officer who is placed on duty at the headquarters of a military geographical division or department, and who, under the supervision of the surgeon-general, has control of the medical department within the limits of the command in which he is serving.

=Medical School.= At Netley, England, an institution is established for the technical education of medical officers for the British and Indian military service. Candidates are examined competitively in the ordinary subjects of professional knowledge; and, passing satisfactorily through that ordeal, are then required to attend for six months at the Military Medical School. As the school is attached to the Royal Victoria Hospital, which is the great invalid depot for the whole army, the students have ample opportunity of seeing theory exemplified in practice.

=Medical Staff.= This branch of the British army is under the control of an experienced officer, stationed at headquarters, under the denomination of “director-general.” Immediately under his command are a number of inspectors-general, deputy inspectors-general, and a corps of staff-surgeons. The locality of all the officers subordinate to the director-general is determined by the force to which they may be attached. All the regimental surgeons and assistant-surgeons make their reports to and consult the staff-officer who is placed in their district. The director-general is paid from the civil department of the government. A deputy inspector-general of hospitals must have served five years at home, or three years abroad in this rank, before he shall be eligible to the highest rank of inspector-general.

The medical board consists of three or four medical officers, who may be convened by an order through the Secretary of War, for the inspection of wounded officers, in order to secure them a provision for life, according to the regulations regarding pensions, etc.

=Medicine-chest.= Is composed of all sorts of medicines necessary for a campaign, together with such chirurgical instruments as are useful, fitted up in chests and portable. The army is supplied with these at the expense of the government.

=Medina.= Or more fully, Medinat Al Nabi (City of the Prophet), the holiest city throughout Mohammedanism next to Mecca, and second capital and stronghold of Hedjaz in Western Arabia. In this city Mohammed was protected when he fled from Mecca, September 13, 622, others say July 15, 622. (See HEGIRA.) Medina was taken by the Wahabees in 1804; retaken by the pasha of Egypt in 1818.

=Medina de Rio Seco.= A town of Spain, 25 miles northwest of Valladolid, on the Seguillo, an affluent of the Douro. Here Bessières defeated the Spaniards, July 15, 1808.

=Medjidie.= A Turkish order, instituted in 1852, and conferred after the Crimean campaign, to a considerable extent, on British officers. It has five classes; and the decoration, which differs in size for the different classes, is a silver sun of seven triple rays, with the device of the crescent and star alternating with the rays. On a circle of red enamel, in the centre of the decoration, is the legend in Turkish, whose signification is “zeal, honor, and loyalty,” and the date 1268, the Mohammedan year corresponding to 1852; the sultan’s name is inscribed on a gold field within this circle. The first three classes suspend the badge round the neck from a red ribbon having green borders, and the fourth and fifth classes wear it attached to a similar ribbon on the left breast. A star, in design closely resembling the badge, is worn on the left breast by the first class, and on the right breast by the second class.

=Meeanee=, or =Miyani=. A village in Sinde, Hindostan, on the Indus, 6 miles north of Hyderabad, is celebrated as the scene of a great battle between Sir Charles Napier and the ameers of Sinde, February 17, 1843. Sir Charles’s force, composed partly of Europeans, and partly of natives, amounted to only 2800 men; that of his foes to 22,000, yet the latter were totally routed, losing in killed and wounded 5000, while Sir Charles’s loss was only 256. The result of this victory was the conquest and annexation of Sinde.

=Meer Bukshy.= In the East Indies, a chief paymaster.

=Meer Tozuk.= In the East Indies, a marshal whose business is to preserve order in a procession or line of march, and to report absentees.

=Meerut=, =Merut=, or =Mirut=. The chief town of a district of the same name in British India, on the Kali Nuddi, about 42 miles northeast from Delhi. Here on May 10, 1857, the native troops revolted, shooting their own European officers, and massacring the European inmates without respect to age or sex.

=Megalopolis= (now Sinano, or Sinanu). The most recent, but the most important of the cities of Arcadia, was founded on the advice of Epaminondas, after the battle of Leuctra, 371 B.C., and was formed out of the inhabitants of 38 villages. It was situated near the frontiers of Messenia, on the river Helisson. It was for a time subject to the Macedonians, but soon after the death of Alexander the Great, it was governed by a series of native tyrants, the last of whom united the city to the Achæan League, 234 B.C. It became, in consequence, opposed to Sparta, and was taken by Cleomenes, who destroyed a great part of the city, 222. After the battle of Sellasia in the following year it was restored by Philopœmen.

=Megara.= An ancient city of Greece, capital of the territory Megaris, was situated 8 stadia (1 mile) from the sea, opposite the island of Salamis, about 26 miles from Athens and 31 miles from Corinth. In 461-445 B.C. the Athenians had possession of the country, but it subsequently became annexed to Attica, and Megaris formed one of the four ancient divisions of Attica. It was next conquered by the Dorians, and was for a time subject to Corinth; but it finally asserted its independence, and rapidly became a wealthy and powerful city. The government was originally an aristocracy, as in most of the Doric cities; but Theagenes, one of the common people, put himself at the head of the popular party, and obtained the supreme power about 620 B.C. Theagenes was afterward expelled, and a democratical form of government established. After the Persian wars, Megara was for some time at war with Corinth, and was thus led to form an alliance with Athens, and to receive an Athenian garrison in the city, 461; but they were expelled in 441. The city was taken and its walls destroyed by Demetrius Poliorcetes; it was again taken by the Romans under Q. Metellus; and in the time of Augustus it had ceased to be a place of importance.

=Meggheteriarque= (Fr.). The commanding officer of a body of men; who formerly did duty at Constantinople, and were called Heteriennes, being composed of soldiers who were enlisted in the allied nations.

=Mehadpore=, =Mehidpoor=, =Mahedpore=, or =Maheidpoor=. A town of Hindostan, Gwalior dominions, 22 miles north of Odjein. Here Sir Thomas Hislop and Sir John Malcolm defeated the Mahrattas under Holkar, December 21, 1817.

=Meigs Gun.= See MAGAZINE GUNS.

=Melanippus.= The name of four Trojan warriors, who fought valiantly in the wars of their native country.

=Melazzo= (West Sicily). Here Garibaldi, on July 20-21, 1860, defeated the Neapolitans under Gen. Bosco, who lost about 600 men; Garibaldi’s loss being 167. The latter entered Messina; and on July 30 a convention was signed by which it was settled that the Neapolitan troops were to quit Sicily. They held the citadel of Messina till March 13, 1861.

=Mêlée= (Fr.). A military term, which is used among the French to express the hurry and confusion of a battle. Mêlée corresponds with the English expression “thick of the fight.”

=Melegnano.= See MARIGNANO.

=Melfi.= A town of Naples, province of Basilicata (Potenza), 75 miles east-northeast of Naples, and 34 south of Foggia. It was formerly the capital of the Norman possessions in Southern Italy, and was defended by walls, now in a ruinous condition, and by an ancient Norman castle. The town was taken, and 18,000 of its inhabitants massacred by the French, under Lautrec de Foix, in 1528.

=Meloria=, or =Melora=. A small island in the Mediterranean, off the coast of Tuscany, 4 miles west of Leghorn. Near Meloria the Pisan fleet defeated the Genoese in 1241, capturing many bishops going with much treasure to a council. The total destruction of the Pisan fleet on August 6, 1284, by the Genoese near the same place, after a most sanguinary conflict, was considered to be the just punishment of impiety.

=Melos= (now Milo). One of the Cyclades in the Ægean Sea, colonized by the Spartans about 1116 B.C.; it was captured during the Peloponnesian war, after a seven months’ siege, by the Athenians, who massacred all the men and sold the women and children as slaves, 416 B.C.

=Melrose.= A village at the foot of the Eildon Hills, on the south bank of the Tweed. It is famous for the ruins of its noble abbey founded by King David I. in 1136, its original pile having been destroyed during the Wars of the Succession. Melrose was burned by Kenneth, king of Scots, in 839.

=Melton-Mowbray.= A town of England, in Leicestershire, situated at the confluence of the Wreak and Eye. It is remarkable as the scene of a defeat of the Parliamentary troops by the royalists in 1644.

=Melun.= An ancient town of France, capital of the department of Seine-et-Marne, 28 miles southeast from Paris. It was the Melodunum of the Romans; was taken by Clovis in 494; was stormed five times during the 9th century by the Northmen, and fell into the hands of the English after a siege of six months in 1419, and was held by them for ten years.

=Members.= Officers are so called who are detailed by orders to sit on general or garrison courts-martial.

=Members, Supernumerary.= In case supernumerary members are detailed for a court-martial, they are sworn, and it is right that they should sit and be present at all deliberations even when the court is cleared, in order to be prepared to take the place of any absent member. Until then they have no voice.

=Memel.= A town and seaport of East Prussia, on the small river Dange, adjacent to the Cürische Haff, 74 miles northeast from Königsberg. It is strongly fortified. It was taken by Teutonic knights about 1328.

=Memmingen.= A town of Bavaria, circle of Swabia, situated on a tributary of the Iller. It is noted as the scene of a victory gained by the French under Moreau over the Austrians, May 10, 1800.

=Memoir.= Is the title given by military officers to those plans which they offer to their government or commanders on subjects relating to war or military economy.

=Memoirs.= In military literature, a species of history, written by persons who had some share in the transactions they relate, answering in some measure to what the Romans call commentarii, “commentaries.” Hence Cæsar’s Commentaries, or the memoirs of his campaigns.

=Memorial.= An address to the government on any matter of public service.

=Memphis.= A celebrated Egyptian city, situated in the Delta, or Lower Egypt. During the attempts of the native rulers to throw off the Persian rule, Memphis was an important strategic point. Ochus inflicted severe injury on this town, having plundered the temples and thrown down the walls after he had driven out Nectanebus. Ptolemy VIII. destroyed the city. It fell with the rest of Egypt under the Roman rule, and afterwards was conquered by Amru Ben Abas (639-40).

=Memphis.= A flourishing city and port of entry of Shelby Co., Tenn. During the civil war, it fell into the hands of the Union forces, after a short naval fight, June 6, 1862, and in 1864, Gen. Forrest made a raid upon it, capturing a great number of prisoners.

=Men, Battalion.= All the soldiers belonging to the different companies of an infantry regiment were so called, except those of the two flank companies.

=Men, Camp-color.= Soldiers under the immediate command and direction of the quartermaster of a regiment. Their business is to assist in marking out the lines of an encampment, etc.; to carry the camp colors to the field on days of exercise, and fix them occasionally for the purpose of enabling the troops to take up correct points in marching, etc. So that in this respect they frequently, indeed almost always, act as guides, or what the French call jalonneurs. They are likewise employed in the trenches, and in all fatigue duties.

=Menace.= A hostile threat. Menacing words used in the presence of a court-martial are punishable in accordance with Article of War 86. See APPENDIX.

=Menai Strait= (between the Welsh coast and the isle of Anglesey). Suetonius Paulinus, when he invaded Anglesey, transported his troops across this strait in flat-bottomed boats, while the cavalry swam over on horseback, and attacked the Druids in their last retreat. Their horrid practice of sacrificing their captives, and the opposition he met with so incensed the Roman general, that he gave the Britons no quarter, throwing all that escaped from that battle into fires which they had prepared for the destruction of himself and his army in 61.

=Menapii.= A powerful people in the north of Gallia Belgica, who originally dwelt on both banks of the Rhine, but were afterwards driven out of their possessions on the right bank by the Usipetes and Tenchteri, and inhabited only the left bank near its mouth, and west of the Mosa.

=Mendavia.= A town of Spain, province of Navarre, 37 miles southwest from Pamplona. Cæsar Borgia, the infamous son of Pope Alexander VI., was killed here in a skirmish in 1507.

=Mende.= A town of France, capital of an arrondissement of the same name, on the left bank of the Lot. This town was fortified in 1151; it suffered much in the civil wars of the Reformation, and was taken no less than seven times.

=Menehould, St.= A town of France, in the department of the Marne, situated on the Aisne, 26 miles northeast of Chalons; it was taken by Louis XIV. in 1653.

=Menin.= A fortified town of Belgium, province of West Flanders, on the Lys, 31 miles southwest of Ghent. It has undergone a great number of sieges, and in the 17th and 18th centuries was frequently taken by the French.

=Menomonees.= A tribe of Indians, of Algonkin stock. They number about 1500, are partially civilized, and reside on a reservation near Green Bay, Wis.

=Men’s-harness.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Mensuration.= That branch of applied geometry which gives rules for finding the length of lines, the areas of surfaces, or the volumes of solids, from certain simple data of lines and angles. Every military officer should be acquainted with mensuration.

=Mentana.= A small village, 13 miles from Rome. Here Garibaldi and his volunteers, numbering between 3000 and 4000, after having intrenched his positions at Monterotondo and Mentana on their march towards Tivoli, on November 3, 1867, were totally defeated by the papal and French troops, under Gens. Kanzler and Polhès, after a severe conflict, in which Gen. Failly said “the Chassepot rifles did wonders.” There were about 5000 men on each side, but the Garibaldians were very badly armed. The loss of the papal and French troops was about 200 killed and wounded; that of Garibaldi about 800. Garibaldi crossed the Italian frontier, and was arrested at Correse, and eventually sent to Caprera.

=Mentonniere= (Fr.). Chin-piece; chin-strap; chin-piece of a helmet is so called.

=Mentz= (Ger. Mainz, Fr. Mayence, anc. Moguntiacum). A city of Germany, in the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the left bank of the Rhine. Mentz was founded by the Romans in the 2d century, and in 406 was destroyed by the Vandals; but after lying in ruins for some centuries it was restored by Charlemagne, and attained great prosperity after the time of Bonifacius. In the Thirty Years’ War, it was taken by the Swedes, and in 1688 by the French, but was restored at the subsequent peace. At the end of 1792, it surrendered to the French. Next year it was taken by the Austrians. By the peace of Lunéville, concluded in 1801, it was formally ceded to France, and in 1815 it was assigned to Hesse-Darmstadt. The town is strongly fortified, and is one of the strongest places in Europe, serving as a defense for Germany on the side of France. On the other side of the Rhine stands the suburb of Castel, which is also fortified.

=Mequinenza.= A town and port of Spain, on the Ebro, in the province of Huesca, Aragon, 64 miles southeast from Huesca. It is defended by a fortress, which was taken by the French in 1810.

=Mercara.= A town and fortress in the south of India. It was built by Hyder Ali in 1773, after he had conquered the country. Tippoo Sahib gave it up to the rajah of Coorg in 1792. It was taken possession of by the British in 1834.

=Mercenaries.= Soldiers serving for pay in a foreign service.

=Mercia.= One of the largest of the seven kingdoms of the Heptarchy (which see). It comprised the counties from the Thames to Yorkshire, and is said to have been founded by Crida in 585. Three-quarters of a century later, Mercia was conquered for a time by Northumbria; but it recovered its independence, which it retained until Egbert subdued it, when it was included in the kingdom of Wessex.

=Merida.= A town of Spain, province of Estremadura, on the Guadiana, 35 miles east from Badajos. It was built by the Romans; taken by the Moors in 713; taken from them in 1229; taken by the French, January, 1811. Near this town, at Arroyas Molinos, the British army under Gen. (afterwards Lord) Hill defeated the French under Gen. Girard, after a severe engagement, October 28, 1811. The British took Merida from the French in 1812, Gen. Hill leading the combined forces of English and Spanish troops.

=Merionethshire.= The most southern county of North Wales, situated at the middle of the Welsh coast. Here Owen Gwynedd defeated Henry II., and brave Glyndwr rose in arms at the call of friendship and patriotism to resist the usurper of the throne of gentle Henry, and the enslaver of his loved Wales. Tradition and records tell of bloody deeds done here in those and later days by freebooters, daring and cruel.

=Merit.= To earn by active service, or by any valuable performance; to have a right to claim as reward; to deserve. Also, the quality or relation of deserving well or ill.

=Merit, Certificate of.= In the U. S. army a certificate which is given by the President, upon the recommendation of commanding officers, to enlisted men who have distinguished themselves in the service. The holder of each certificate is entitled to $2 per month.

=Merit, Order of.= A military distinction given to officers or soldiers for some signal service, the badge of which is generally expressive of the service. Such was the medal, or order of merit, presented by the Austrian emperor to the officers of the 15th British Light Dragoons for their bravery in the affair of Villers en Couché in 1794.

=Meritorious.= Possessing merit or desert; deserving of reward or honor.

=Merkin.= A mop to clean a cannon. See MALKIN.

=Merlin.= A handspike.

=Merlon.= The mass of earth of the parapet between two embrasures, generally from 15 to 18 feet in length. Also, the projection on the top of a crenellated wall.

=Merovingians.= The first Frankish dynasty in Gaul. The name is derived from Merwig, or Merovæus, who ruled about the middle of the 5th century, having united a few tribes under his sway. His grandson, Clovis, or Clodwig, greatly extended his dominions, and on his death divided his kingdom among his four sons, one of whom, Chlotar, or Chlotaire I., reunited them under his own sway in 558. On his death, in 561, the kingdom was again divided into four parts,--Aquitaine, Burgundy, Neustria, and Austrasia. His grandson, Clotaire II., again united them in 613; but after his death, in 628, two kingdoms, Neustria and Austrasia, were formed, in both of which the Merovingian kings retained a merely nominal power, the real power having passed into the hands of the mayors of the palace. The dynasty of the Merovingians terminated with the deposition of Childeric IV., in 752, and gave place to that of the Carlovingians.

=Merseburg.= A town of Prussian Saxony, capital of a circle of the same name, on the Saale. It was near this town that the emperor Henry the Fowler gained his famous victory over the Hungarians in 934. Rudolf of Swabia was here defeated and slain by Henry IV. in 1080.

=Mesolonghi.= See MISSOLONGHI.

=Mess.= The law is silent with regard to messes in the army. Executive regulations have been made on the subject, but without law it is impossible to put messes on a proper footing. In England, an allowance is granted by the sovereign in aid of the expense of officers’ messes; and every officer on appointment to a corps subscribes one month’s pay to the mess-fund. All the officers of the corps mess together. (See GUARD MESS.) In France, the several grades mess separately; lieutenants and sub-lieutenants forming two tables, captains another, and field-officers of different grades generally eating separately also. Generals and colonels of the French service receive an allowance for table expenses, not sufficient to keep open house, but enough to enable them to entertain guests. In the British navy there are generally three messes, namely, the ward-room mess, the gun-room mess, and the engineers’ mess; in the U. S. navy there are two: the ward-room and steerage messes. Enlisted soldiers and seamen, in the army and navy respectively, mess together in tables comprising a certain number, according to squads or rating; but this has no reference to the technical meaning of messing as applied to officers, and is merely for the purpose of economy of fuel and labor in the cooking of their rations.

=Message.= Word sent; more especially a dispatch signaled or telegraphed.

=Messenia.= A district in the southwest of the Peloponnesus. At an early period after the Doric conquest, it rose to power and opulence. It is chiefly noted for its two wars with Sparta, known as the Messenian Wars, the first of which lasted from 743 to 724 B.C., and the second from 685 to 668 B.C. In both instances the Athenians were defeated, and in consequence, a great part of them emigrated to Sicily, where they took possession of Zancle, which then received the name of Messana, the present Messina (which see).

=Messina.= A city in the northeast of the island of Sicily, situated on a strait called the Faro di Messina, which separates Italy from Calabria. It is 9 miles northwest from Reggio, in Calabria. The town is entirely surrounded with walls and protected by detached forts and a citadel, which stands on the neck of the curved promontory that forms the harbor. It was seized by the Mamertini about 281 B.C. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire; was taken by the Saracens about 829. Roger the Norman took it from them by surprise about 1072. It revolted against Charles of Anjou, and was succored by Peter of Aragon, 1282; revolted in favor of Louis XIV of France, 1676; the Spaniards punished it severely, 1678; headquarters of British forces in Sicily prior to 1814; an insurrection took place here which was subdued September 7, 1848. Garibaldi entered Messina after his victory at Malazzo, July 20-21, 1860; the citadel surrendered to Cialdini, March 13, 1861.

=Mestre de Camp Général= (Fr.). The next officer in rank, in the old French cavalry service, to the colonel-general. This appointment was created under Henry II. in 1552. Mestre de camp général des dragoons, an appointment which first took place under Louis XIV. in 1684.

=Metal.= Broken stone, etc., used as a road cover.

=Metal.= In heraldry, the metals in use are gold and silver, known as or and argent. The field of the escutcheon and the charges which it bears may be of metal as well as of color. It is a rule of blazon that metal should not be placed on metal, or color on color.

=Metals for Cannon.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR.

=Metapontum=, or =Metapontium=. A city of Magna Græcia; was situated on the Tarentine Gulf, 14 miles from Heraclea, and 24 from Tarentum. The Metapontines assisted the Athenians in their Sicilian expedition (415 B.C.); they embraced the side of Pyrrhus in his war with the Romans, and after its conclusion fell under the Roman yoke. When Hannibal invaded Italy, the Metapontines after the battle of Cannæ were well disposed to him; but, on account of a garrison of Romans, were unable openly to desert to him till 212 B.C., when the city was occupied by a Carthaginian garrison. When Hannibal was compelled to leave Italy he removed, along with his own troops, the inhabitants of Metapontum; and from that time the city disappears from history.

=Metaurus= (now Metauro). A river in Central Italy, where Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, was defeated and slain, 207 B.C., when marching with abundant reinforcements for the latter. The Romans were led by Livius and Claudius Nero, the consuls. The latter commanded the head of Hasdrubal to be thrown into his brother’s camp. This victory saved Rome.

=Meter=, or =Metre=. The French standard of linear measure, intended to be the ten-millionth part of the earth’s quadrant, from the equator to the pole. It is equal to 39.370 British, or 39.369 American inches.

=Methone= (Modon). An ancient city of Messenia; was situated on the southwest coast. At the close of the second Messenian war it was given by the victorious Lacedæmonians to the exiled Nauplians, but was restored to its rightful owners by Epaminondas. An unsuccessful attack was made upon Methone by the Athenians in 413 B.C. It was made a free city by the emperor Trajan.

=Métier= (Fr.). Literally means any calling or business. In a military sense, it is peculiarly applicable to those nations which keep up large standing armies, and make war their principal object and pursuit. Chevalier Folard gives the following definition relative to the question which is often discussed on the subject of war, namely, whether war be a trade or a science. The English call it a profession. Folard, however, distinguishes it in this manner: La guerre est une métier pour les ignorons, et une science pour les habiles gens, “war in the apprehension, and under the management of ignorant persons is certainly a mere trade or business, but among able men it becomes an important branch of science.”

=Metric System.= The French system of measures, founded upon the metre. The system is decimal, and includes measures of length, area, volume, and weight.

=Metulum.= The chief town of the Iapydes in Illyricum; was near the frontier of Liburnia, and was situated on two peaks of a steep mountain. Augustus nearly lost his life in reducing this place, the inhabitants of which fought against him with desperate courage.

=Metz= (anc. Divodurum). A city and fortress of Alsace-Lorraine, situated on the Moselle. It was the Roman Divodurum, or Meti, capital of the Mediomatrici, a powerful Gaulish tribe (whose name it took at a later date), and of the kingdom of Austrasia, or Metz, in the 6th century; but in 985, Otho II. made it a free imperial city, and thereafter it was used by the German emperors as a barrier against France. It was besieged by Charles VII. in 1444, and could only preserve its freedom by the payment of 100,000 crowns. At length Henry II. obtained possession of it in 1552; and although it was besieged by Charles V. with an army of 100,000 men, his efforts were completely baffled by the skill and energy of the Duke of Guise, and by the courage and constancy of the townsmen; so that the French continued in possession of the town till it, along with Toul and Verdun, was formally secured to them by the peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Franco-German war (1870-71) the emperor Napoleon III. arrived at Metz, and assumed the chief command, July 28, 1870. After the disastrous defeats at Wörth and Forbach, August 6, the whole French army, except the corps of MacMahon, De Failly, and Douay, was concentrated here, August 10, 11, and by delay was hemmed in by the Germans. Marshal Bazaine assumed the chief command on August 8, and on August 14 he was attacked at Courcelles, a little east of Metz. On August 16, Bazaine advanced from the fortress, but was attacked by the second army, under command of Prince Frederick Charles, at Vionville, and was compelled to retreat to Metz. But on August 17, Bazaine massed his troops for a decisive conflict, and on August 18 he gave battle at Gravelotte (which see), but was compelled to retreat again, and was shut up in the city. Prince Frederick Charles now surrounded the city, and then began one of the greatest sieges of history. After many brilliant sallies Bazaine was compelled to surrender, October 27, on account of starvation and sickness, with an army including 3 marshals, 66 generals, 173,000 men, including the imperial guard, 400 pieces of artillery, 100 mitrailleuses, and 53 eagles and standards; and on October 29 the Germans entered Metz. All the army that surrendered was compelled to go to Germany as prisoners of war. In May, 1871, Metz was ceded to the German empire by the peace of Frankfort, and its fortifications greatly strengthened.

=Meurtrières= (Fr.), Small loop-holes, sufficiently large to admit the barrel of a rifle or musket, through which soldiers may fire, under cover, against an enemy. They likewise mean the cavities that are made in the walls of a fortified town or place.

=Mexico.= A federal republic of North America, next to the United States. It was conquered by the Spaniards under Cortez in 1521, and remained as a Spanish dependency for 300 years; and after a long struggle with the mother-country, which commenced in 1810, it shook off the Spanish yoke in 1821, and declared its independence. In 1824 the country was declared a federal republic, with a constitution similar to that of the United States, and its independence was acknowledged by Spain in 1836. About this time Texas, which was then the most northeastern of the Mexican states, withdrew from the federal league and became an independent republic. The Mexican general, Santa Anna, was sent to reduce them to subjection, but he was defeated and taken prisoner by the Texans. In 1845, Texas was annexed to the United States and admitted into the Union as a State. This led to a war between Mexico and the United States, by which the former lost all her northern provinces, consisting of Utah, California, and New Mexico, which were ceded to the United States in 1848. From this time the history of Mexico consists, for the most part, of a long series of insurrections, revolutions, and political changes, which followed each other in rapid succession. Santa Anna, who had been driven into exile shortly after his disgrace in Texas, was recalled and made dictator in 1853. He was succeeded in power by Gens. Carera, Alveraz, Comonfort, and Zulagoa. When the last named was made dictator in 1858, Benito Juarez, the Indian statesman, was declared constitutional president by the liberal party; a civil war ensued, anarchy and confusion reigned supreme in the country; but Juarez, taking advantage of the dissensions between Zulagoa and Miramon, the leaders of two opposite sections of the party that was hostile to his government, at last gained the ascendency, and entered the capital as president of the Mexican republic in January, 1861. In the same year, in consequence of the enormities practiced by Juarez and his partisans, and the outrages committed on European merchants resident in the country, the governments of England, France, and Spain formed a triple alliance, and sent an expedition to Mexico to demand satisfaction for the injuries inflicted on the subjects of their respective countries, and to endeavor to bring about a more settled state of affairs. Vera Cruz was occupied by the allied forces, and this event was followed soon after by the convention of Soledad, signed in February, 1862, in which the government of Juarez engaged to comply with the requisitions of the allies. But the French government disapproved of the convention, and although the forces of England and Spain were withdrawn in compliance with its terms, Napoleon III. determined to advance on the capital, with the view of effecting the overthrow of Juarez and placing the government of the country on a settled basis. The French troops were, however, delayed for some months before Puebla, which capitulated on May 18, 1863, and entered Mexico on the 8th of the following month, amid the acclamations of the people, who had become weary of the intestine strife that had so long convulsed the land, and which had been produced by the jealousy and rivalry of the party leaders who had aspired to the direction of the government. This event was followed by the proclamation of the empire and the nomination of Maximilian, the brother of the present emperor of Austria, as the first emperor of Mexico under the new régime. The republican leaders were violently opposed to this measure, and Maximilian by his severity towards them alienated the affections of many of his original supporters. At length, on the withdrawal of the French troops at the demand of the United States, the republicans advanced into Central Mexico. Maximilian with a Mexican force vainly attempted to oppose them, and was captured and shot at Queretaro, June 19, 1867.

=Mézières.= An ancient and well-built town of France, the capital of the department of Ardennes, situated on a peninsula formed by the Meuse. In 1520, the Chevalier Bayard successfully defended this place against 40,000 Spaniards under the Count of Nassau, and in 1815 it held out for two months against the Prussians, but was at length obliged to capitulate.

=Miami Indians.= A tribe of aborigines, of Algonkin stock, who formerly resided in Ohio and Indiana. In the war of 1812, they fought against the United States as allies of the British. In 1846 the majority of the tribe removed to Kansas, on a reservation in which State a remnant still resides.

=Michigan.= One of the Northern Central States of the United States. It was colonized by the French, near Detroit, in the latter half of the 17th century, but, like other French colonies in America, did not progress rapidly. At the peace of 1763, it came, with the other French possessions in North America, under the dominion of Great Britain, and so remained till the breaking out of the American Revolution, when it passed to the United States. On the expulsion of the French, the celebrated Indian chief Pontiac seized the occasion to rid the country of the hated whites by a general uprising, and simultaneous attacks on all the forts of the English on the lakes. Mackinaw was taken by stratagem, and the garrison mercilessly butchered. Detroit was besieged for some months by Pontiac, with 600 Indians; but it held out till the Indian allies, becoming weary of the siege, retired and left Pontiac no choice but to make peace. The British surrendered Detroit to the United States in 1796. In 1805, Michigan, which up to that period had been a part of the Northwest Territory, was formed into a separate government. In 1812, it became the scene of some stirring events in the war with Great Britain. Lying contiguous to Canada, it was invaded in the very commencement of that struggle, and its capital (Detroit) surrendered August 15, 1812, by Gen. Hull, under circumstances which led to his displacement from his command. Previous to this Fort Mackinaw had been taken by the enemy. In January, 1813, a cruel massacre by the savages of a party of American prisoners took place at Frenchtown, but soon after, Gen. Harrison drove the enemy out of the Territory of Michigan, and removed the seat of war into Canada. Michigan became an independent member of the American Confederacy in 1837. During the civil war, she contributed greatly to the cause of the Union, and sent over 90,000 men to the field.

=Micmacs.= A tribe of Indians numbering about 4000, who reside principally in New Foundland, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. They were formerly faithful allies of the French in their wars with the New England colonies, and with the English, against whom they maintained a hostile attitude until about 1760.

=Middle Ages.= The ages or period of time about equally distant from the decline of the Roman empire and the revival of letters in Europe, or from the 8th to the 15th century of the Christian era.

=Middle Assembling-bar.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.

=Middle-chest.= The front ammunition-chest on the body of the caisson,--so called because it is between the hind chest and the limber-chest when the caisson is limbered.

=Middle-man.= The man who occupies a central position in a file of soldiers.

=Midea.= A town in Argolis, of uncertain site; is said to have been originally called Persepolis, because it had been fortified by Perseus. It was destroyed by the Argives.

=Midianites.= An Arab race, descended, according to Scripture, from Midian, the son of Abraham by Keturah. They occupied the greater part of the country between the north side of the Arabian Gulf and Arabia Felix as far as the Plains of Moab. The Midianites were very troublesome neighbors to the Israelites till Gideon’s victory over them (about 1249 B.C.), after which they gradually disappeared.

=Mignon= (Fr.). Picked soldier, now called élite.

=Milan= (Mediolanum, capital of the ancient Liguria). A city of Italy, the capital of the province of Lombardy, 78 miles northeast from Turin; is reputed to have been built by the Gauls about 408 B.C. It was conquered by the Roman consul Marcellus, 222 B.C. It was the seat of government of the Western empire in 286; plundered by Attila in 452; taken by the emperor Frederick I., 1158; it rebelled and was taken by Frederick and its fortifications destroyed in 1162; but was rebuilt and fortified in 1169. The Milanese were defeated by the emperor Frederick II. in 1237; and the city was conquered by Louis XII. of France in 1499. The French were expelled by the Spaniards in 1525, and the city annexed to the crown of Spain in 1540; ceded to Austria, 1714. It was conquered by the French and Spaniards in 1743; reverted to Austria upon Sicily and Naples being ceded to Spain in 1748; seized by the French, June 30, 1796, retaken by the Austrians, 1799; regained by the French, May 31, 1800. The Milanese revolted against the Austrians, March 18, 1848, but submitted August 5, 1848. Another insurrection was attempted in 1853, but with disastrous results. On June 8, 1859, by the peace of Villa Franca, Lombardy was annexed to Piedmont, and Victor Emmanuel became sovereign of Milan.

=Milazzo= (anc. Mylæ). A fortified seaport on the north coast of Sicily, 18 miles west of Messina. It was founded about 700 B.C., and has been the scene of many battles. It was taken by Laches in 427 B.C. It was off Mylæ that the Romans, under their consul Duilius, gained their first naval victory over the Carthaginians, and took 50 of their ships, 260 B.C. Here also Agrippa defeated the fleet of Sextus Pompeius, 36 B.C. On July 20, 1860, Garibaldi with 2500 men defeated 7000 Neapolitans, at Milazzo, and compelled the garrison to evacuate the fortress.

=Mileage.= An allowance for traveling, as so much by the mile; especially in the United States, an allowance made to military officers to defray the expenses of their journeys on duty when not traveling with troops.

=Milesian.= A native or inhabitant of Ireland, descended according to the legendary history of the country from King Milesius of Spain, whose two sons conquered the island 1300 B.C., and established a new order of nobility.

=Milesian.= Pertaining to Ireland, from the tradition that King Milesius of Spain once conquered the country.

=Miletus.= A flourishing Greek city of Ionia, in Asia Minor, was situated on the north side of the peninsula of Mt. Grion, at the entrance of the Gulf of Latmus, nearly opposite the mouth of the Meander. At the time of the Ionian emigration to Asia Minor it existed as a town, but when the Ionians arrived in Asia, Neleus and a company of his followers seized Miletus, put to death all the male inhabitants, who were Carians or Leleges, and took the women for their wives. Miletus became for a time a prosperous city under the rule of Lydia and Persia, but in 500 B.C. it revolted against Persia, and after repeated defeats in the field, the city was besieged by land and by sea, and finally taken by storm in 494 B.C. The city was plundered and its inhabitants massacred, and the survivors were transplanted to a place called Ampe, near the mouth of the Tigris. The town itself was given up to the Carians. Towards the end of the Peloponnesian war, Miletus threw off the yoke imposed upon her by Athens, and in a battle fought under the very walls of the city, the Milesians defeated their opponents; the Athenian admiral, Phrynichus, abandoned the enterprise. In 334 B.C., Alexander the Great took the city by assault, and destroyed a part of it, but it continued to flourish, until it was destroyed by the Turks and other barbarians.

=Milford Haven.= A town of Wales, in Pembrokeshire, 6 miles northwest from Pembroke. Here the Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., landed on his way to encounter Richard III., whom he defeated at Bosworth, 1485.

=Milice.= An old term for militia.

=Militancy.= Warfare. This term is obsolete.

=Militant.= Engaged in warfare; fighting; combating; serving as a soldier.

=Militantly.= In a militant manner. This term is rarely used.

=Militar.= Military. This term is obsolete.

=Militarily.= In a military or soldierly manner.

=Militarist.= One devoted to military pursuits.

=Military.= Pertaining to soldiers, to arms, or to war; having to do with the affairs of war; as, a military parade or appearance; military discipline. Engaged in the service of soldiers or arms; as, a military man. Warlike; becoming a soldier; as, military bravery, military virtue. Derived from the service or exploits of a soldier; as, military renown. Conformable to the customs or rules of armies or militia; as, the conduct of the officer was not military. Performed or made by soldiers; as, a military election.

=Military.= The whole body of soldiers; soldiery; militia; the army.

=Military Academies.= The great improvements made in the art of war in modern times, in weapons, drill, discipline, etc., has made warfare more of a science and less of a trial of brute force than formerly, and hence the necessity for a body of trained officers capable of moving, directing, and bringing into effective operation all the appliances of war with which modern armies are furnished. As this special training cannot be obtained at ordinary educational establishments, special schools for the purpose have been established in all civilized countries. A few of them are here noted.

GREAT BRITAIN.--The Royal Military Academy, an establishment at Woolwich, through which must pass all candidates for the artillery and engineers. It was instituted in 1741, but the present structure was not erected until 1805. It usually contains about 200 cadets. The age of admission is sixteen, and the vacancies are open to public competition. The parents or guardians have to make annual payments for the support of the cadets as long as they remain at the academy, the amount being greater for the son of a civilian than of a military or naval officer. When the term of instruction--which comprises the subjects of a thorough general education, the higher mathematics, fortification, gunnery, and military duty--is completed, the cadets compete for vacancies in the engineers and artillery, those who pass the best examination being allowed a choice of either branch of the service. All who obtain commissions in the engineers proceed to Chatham for further instruction in their professional duties; the artillery cadets at once join the artillery as lieutenants.

Royal Military College, Sandhurst, is an institution for the training of candidates for commissions in the cavalry and infantry. The course is limited to one year immediately before entering the army, and the subjects of instruction confined to the higher mathematics, modern languages, and military science. Entrance is on the nomination of the commander-in-chief; and the payment by the cadets’ parents or guardians varies according to their circumstances and rank. No payment is made for what are called “Queen’s Cadets,” who must be orphans. Commissions in the cavalry and infantry are given to the cadets in the order of merit at the end of the year.

The Staff College was founded in 1858, about 2 miles from Sandhurst, for the purpose of giving higher instruction to 30 officers aspiring to appointments on the staff. To be entitled to compete for entrance, an officer must have been three years in active service, must have passed the qualifying examination for a captaincy, and must have the recommendation of his commanding officer. A very strict examination decides which among the competitors shall be admitted to the college, one only being eligible from any battalion. The course lasts two years. At the end of each year there is an examination; that of the second fixing the order of the candidates’ choice for staff employment. After passing the Staff College the officer is attached for duty, for a short period, to each of the arms with which he may not have already served. He then becomes eligible for appointment to the staff, as opportunity may occur. There are also the Royal School of Military Engineers at Chatham, for the instruction of engineer officers, the Royal Military School at Dublin, and professional schools for officers and enlisted men, as the School of Musketry at Hythe, and the School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness.

FRANCE.--The celebrated Polytechnic School at Paris was established by the National Convention, September 28, 1794. By a decree of July 16, 1804, Napoleon placed it under a military régime. No attempt being made to impart a general education, candidates are required to have a thorough general knowledge before they are admitted. The preliminary examination of candidates for admission comprises mathematics, physics, chemistry, history, German, etc.; in fact, the candidate to be successful should have the degree of Bachelor of Science. Admission is open to competition; a board of examiners passes through the country once every year, and examines all who present themselves, possessing the requisite qualifications of age, etc. A list is made out from the proceedings of the board, and the number of candidates highest in order of merit for whom there are vacancies admitted. The age of admission is from sixteen to twenty years, or if the candidate is in the army, to twenty-five. This school prepares students for various branches of the public service, for the staff, engineers, artillery, for the corps of hydrographical engineers, engineers of roads and bridges and of mines, the department of powder and saltpetre, etc. The number of cadets is usually about 350, and the course of instruction two years. After the final examination the first 30 or 40 candidates usually select civil employment under the government, those next in merit choose the artillery and engineers, and are sent to the School of Application, to pass through a technical course. The remaining students either fail to qualify, and leave the school, or receive commissions in the line, subordinate situations in the government service, civil or colonial, or they retire into civil life altogether.

The Special Military School at St. Cyr, near Versailles, was established for the instruction of candidates for commissions in cavalry and infantry. The age of admission is the same as for the Polytechnic School, and pupils are entitled to partial or entire state aid if they need it, as are also those of the Polytechnic. The course of instruction is two years, at the end of which time the more promising students pass to the Staff School, and thence, after a thorough course, to the état-major of the army; the remaining students pass as subalterns into the cavalry and infantry, selecting the arm of the service in which they desire to serve according to the order of merit in which they graduate. There are also the School of Application for Engineers and Artillery, the School of Application for the Staff, the Cavalry School at Saumur, for one year’s instruction to officers of that arm, and the School of Musketry at Vincennes.

PRUSSIA.--The Prussian system of military education differs from that of France, in that competition is but sparingly resorted to, the object being to give a good general and professional education to all the officers, rather than a specially excellent training to a select few. For this purpose there are established seven cadet schools, one senior, at Berlin, and six junior, situated at Bensburg, Culm, Oranienstein, Ploen, Potsdam, and Wahlstatt. The age of admission to the junior schools is from ten to eleven years, and the usual course of instruction is for four years, and two or three at the senior school, followed by the finishing term of nine months at a division school, when graduates are eligible to commissions. Some, however, are sent to the army to earn their commissions as other candidates. Others pass an additional year at the senior cadet school, in which case the term at the division school is dispensed with. After completing their course at the junior schools, students pass to the senior school without examination. They may also be admitted to the senior school without passing through the junior grade, provided they come up to the required standard of qualification. Aspirants for commissions must enter the ranks, and within six months pass a good examination in general and liberal knowledge if they are not graduates of a cadet school. Those who are graduates are not examined. After some further service the candidate goes for nine months to one of the division schools, which are eight in number, situated at Anclam, Cassel, Engers, Erfurt, Hanover, Metz, Neisse, and Potsdam. Here he completes his professional education, and if he passes the final examination, is eligible for the next vacancy in the line, but cannot be commissioned unless the officers of the corps are willing to accept him as a comrade. Candidates for commissions in the artillery and engineer corps, after graduating from the cadet school or passing an examination from the army, must pass nine months at the Artillery and Engineer School, after which they receive a provisional appointment as sub-lieutenants. Upon graduating, after two more terms of nine months each, they are commissioned as lieutenants. But the culmination of Prussian military education is the Staff School, or War Academy, which presents the highest prizes in the profession, and competition for which is open to all officers of the army who have had three years’ service, and can produce testimonials of good conduct, ability, etc., from their superiors. Admission is by competitive examination, usually about 40 of the applicants being selected. The course of study lasts three years. During three months of each year the officers are sent to do military duty with arms of service or corps not their own. Of the 40 who pass through the Staff School each year, 8 or 10 only are sent to the topographical department of the staff. There they serve two or three years, at the expiration of which time two are selected from the number, and appointed captains on the staff. The remainder return to their regiments or corps, sometimes receiving appointments in the division schools.

AUSTRIA.--The Austrian military system of training is very elaborate, and commences at an early age,--boys intended for military service beginning their professional almost contemporaneously with their general education. There are schools of various orders for training non-commissioned officers and for officers, and senior departments for imparting more extended instruction to both classes. Candidates for appointment as non-commissioned officers pass by competition through the lower houses, where they remain till eleven years old, the upper houses, which detain them till fifteen, and the school companies, whence, after actual apprenticeship to service, a few pupils pass to the academies as aspirants for commissions, and the others are drafted into the service as non-commissioned officers. For the education of officers there are four cadet houses, each containing 200 pupils. The boys are pledged to the service by their parents at the age of eleven, after which the state takes charge of them. At fifteen they pass according to qualification to the academy for the line, the engineer or artillery academy, and four years later receive their commissions in the arms of the service for which they have graduated. The young officer’s chance of entering the Staff School--and therefore the staff--depends upon his place at the final academic examination.

The Staff School consists of 30 pupils selected by competitive examination from all arms of the service, 15 entering each year. The course of instruction is two years. To be qualified for admission a candidate must have served two years with his regiment, and be over twenty-one and under twenty-six years of age. The students receive appointments in the staff corps according to the order of merit, immediately after the final examination, if there are vacancies; if there are none, they return to their regiments until vacancies occur. If the successful candidate is a second lieutenant, he is promoted to the rank of first lieutenant; if a first lieutenant, he is promoted captain after three years’ service.

RUSSIA.--Has 22 military colleges for the guards and line, containing over 7000 cadets, a school of ensigns for the guards, an artillery and an engineer school, averaging over 8000 military students. There is also an imperial staff school, into which 20 or 25 officers enter each year after examination. The term of instruction is for two years. Upon graduation, the most distinguished scholar is at once promoted to the rank of captain on the staff, and all the graduates are, from time to time, as vacancies occur, attached to the staff, but not immediately promoted in it.

Italy, Spain, and other powers have also their military academies, but those already given may be considered a fair type of all. It need only be stated that the educational status of the Italian officers is considered very high.

THE UNITED STATES.--The Military Academy at West Point is the only government institution in the United States for the military training of cadets and their preparation for the duties of officers. The necessity for such an institution was recognized at an early date in the history of the country. A committee of Congress which had visited the Continental army at New York recommended the establishment of a military academy in their report, October 3, 1776. The subject was subsequently brought to the notice of Congress on several occasions, but without result until 1794, when provision was made for the establishment of 4 battalions of engineers and artillerists, 8 cadets to be attached to each battalion. The number was increased to 56 in 1798, and provision made for procuring books and apparatus for their instruction. By the act of March 16, 1802, determining the military peace establishment, the artillerists and engineers were made two distinct corps; 40 cadets were attached to one regiment of artillery, and 10 to the corps of engineers, said corps to be stationed at West Point, and to constitute a military academy. The act also provided that the senior engineer officer present should be superintendent of the academy, and authorized the Secretary of War to procure the necessary books, apparatus, etc., for the institution. Another act, dated February 28, 1803, authorized the President to appoint teachers of French and drawing. At the expiration of five years, however, further legislation was deemed necessary, and on April 12, 1808, a bill was passed which added 156 members to the corps of cadets. By the act of April 19, 1812, it was declared that the Military Academy should consist of the corps of engineers, the teachers of French and drawing already provided for, a professor of natural philosophy, a professor of mathematics, and a professor of engineering, with an assistant for each professor. Provision was also made for a chaplain, who was to officiate as professor of geography, physics, and history. The number of cadets was limited to 260; the requirements for admission, terms of study and service, and rate of pay and emoluments were also prescribed. But the commencement of its great success as an educational institution, and the reputation which the academy possesses for its elevating and disciplinary government, dates from July, 1817, when Brevet Maj. Sylvanus Thayer, of the engineer corps, assumed command as superintendent. He was an early graduate of the academy, had served with distinction in the war of 1812, and having studied in the military schools of France, had acquired matured views for the government of such an institution. He organized and perfected a system of management, which he carried into successful operation for sixteen years, and which, with but little modification, is followed to-day. In 1818 the department of geography, history, and ethics was organized, and the chaplain appointed professor; the clerical and secular duties thus combined have ever since remained inseparable. A professorship of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology was created by act of July 5, 1838, and an assistant authorized, “to be taken from the officers of the line, or cadets.” In May, 1846, the teachers of French and drawing were styled professors, and the appointment of assistants was authorized. In 1857 a professorship of the Spanish language was established. By act of Congress approved June 23, 1879, whenever a vacancy occurs in the office of professor of the French or Spanish language, both these offices shall cease, and the remaining one of the two professors shall be professor of modern languages. A professorship of law has also been established, which is held by an officer of the bureau of military justice. The academic staff consist of the superintendent; the commandant of cadets, who is instructor of artillery, cavalry, and infantry tactics, and is charged with the discipline of the cadets, having usually 8 officers detailed from the line of the army as assistants; and of the professors of civil and military engineering and science of war, of natural and experimental philosophy, of mathematics, of history, geography, and ethics (chaplain), of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology, of drawing, of French, of Spanish, and of law, all of whom have one or more commissioned officers as assistants. There are also detailed on duty several officers of the engineer and ordnance corps as instructors in practical military engineering, military signals and telegraphing, and in ordnance and gunnery. A sword-master is also employed. The military staff consists of an adjutant; a treasurer, quartermaster and commissary, of the battalion of cadets; a quartermaster, surgeon, and assistant surgeon. In 1843 the custom which had prevailed of appointing one cadet from each Congressional district received the sanction of law, and thus the number was limited to the number of Representatives. But as the District of Columbia and the army and navy were not represented, the President was empowered to appoint 1 cadet from the former and 10 cadets “at large,” the latter to be selected annually from the army or navy, or any other quarter at his option, without regard to Congressional districts. The age for admission is from seventeen to twenty-two years, except when the candidate has served one year in the war of the Rebellion, in which case he may be admitted up to twenty-four, and the course of instruction is fixed at four years. Candidates must be able to read and write well, have a good knowledge of grammar, of geography, and history, particularly of the United States, and of arithmetic, including vulgar and decimal fractions. Examinations are held annually on January 1 and June 1. All newly-appointed cadets must report for examination by June 25, and none are examined after September 1, unless detained by sickness or other unavoidable cause, when they may be examined with the fourth class on January 1, and if found competent may proceed with that class. Each cadet on admission takes the oath of allegiance and binds himself to serve the United States for eight years, unless sooner discharged. For purposes of instruction, the cadets are divided into four classes, the fourth being the junior class, and for matters of discipline the permanent organization is that of a battalion of infantry composed of four companies. During their academic course cadets receive $500 a year and one ration a day. Upon graduating, the cadets highest in merit are usually commissioned as second lieutenants and appointed to the engineer corps, those next in order of merit to the artillery, and the remainder to the cavalry and infantry. Those for whom no vacancies exist at graduation are attached to regiments or corps as additional second lieutenants, and promoted second lieutenants as soon as a vacancy occurs in the arm to which they are attached. By act of Congress approved June 23, 1879, each member of the graduating classes of 1879-80 may elect, with the assent of the Secretary of War, to receive the sum of $750 and mileage to the place of his residence in lieu of an appointment in the army, except in the event of war, until two years after his graduation. There is also an artillery school at Fort Monroe, Va., for the training of officers and enlisted men. The school is entirely conducted by commissioned officers, and the course of instruction is one year.

=Military Asylum.= See SOLDIER’S HOME.

=Military Asylum, Royal.= See ASYLUM, ROYAL MILITARY.

=Military College.= See MILITARY ACADEMIES (SANDHURST).

=Military Column.= See COLUMN, MILITARY.

=Military Discipline.= Next to the forming of troops, military discipline is the first object that presents itself to our notice: it is the soul of all armies; and unless it be established among them with great prudence, and supported with unshaken resolution, soldiers become a contemptible rabble, and are more dangerous to the very state that maintains them than even its declared enemies. See DISCIPLINE.

=Military Execution.= The ravaging or destroying of a country or town that refuses to pay the contribution inflicted upon them. Also, the punishment inflicted by the sentence of a court-martial.

=Military First Principles.= Is the bodily training for a soldier, to make him hardy, robust, and capable of preserving health amidst fatigue, bad weather, and change of climate; to march at such possible pace, for such length of time, and with such burden, as without training he would not be able to do.

=Military Frontier, The.= A crown-land of the Austrian empire, bounded on the north by Croatia, Slavonia, and the Wojwodschaft, on the east by Transylvania and Wallachia, on the south by Turkey and Dalmatia, and on the west by the Adriatic, comprising an area of 12,800 square miles. The military frontier owes its origin as a crown-land to the necessity of having a permanent body of defenders on the borders during former wars, and especially during wars with the Turks. In the 15th century the Austrians had gained from the Turks certain tracts of territory on the banks of the Save and Danube. These tracts they colonized, making it, however, a condition that the colonists must render military service against the Turks. The Warasdin frontier originated in the same manner under Ferdinand I. In the 17th century the Petrinier frontier, which at a later period received the name of the Banat frontier, was erected. The military stations along the frontier serve a threefold purpose,--the defense of the country, the prevention of smuggling, and the prevention of the spread of contagious disease into the territories of the Austrian empire. The inhabitants of this crown-land enjoy peculiar privileges. Their immigrant ancestors received only the temporary use of lands consigned to them; but in 1850 a law was passed making over the land to the occupiers as their own property. This right of property does not belong, however, to individuals, but to the family in a united sense. The oldest member of a family is intrusted with the management of the land; his partner ranks equal with him, and they each receive a double share of the profits. All who are able to bear arms are sworn to the service from their twentieth year. The soldier of the frontier, who is clothed as well as armed and supplied with ammunition by government, finds it his duty not only to watch and protect the frontier, but to preserve peace and order in the interior, and to go on foreign service when required. Only the smaller portion of the forces of the military frontier is retained in readiness for active service, while the remainder pursue their ordinary employments. To facilitate the accomplishment of the purposes aimed at by the military frontier, the cordon, a series of guard-houses along the whole frontier, affording accommodation to from 4 to 8 men, as well as larger ones, accommodating 12 men and a junior officer, has been instituted. Within this line are the officers’ posts. Without announcing himself at the posts, no one is allowed to pass the boundary; and after permission is given the passenger must remain a longer or shorter time at the quarantine establishment, in order that all introduction of disease may be prevented.

=Military Indications.= Officers should study attentively the customs of their enemy, their hours for dining, commencing their marches, etc., and the many indications of intended movements which an enemy may unwittingly afford. The collection of boats, heavy guns, scaling-ladders, gabions, etc., at particular places, are indications that must always precede the passage of rivers, sieges, etc. If large magazines of stores or provisions are collected anywhere, it is clear that no retreat is contemplated; if, on the other hand, the parks of heavy, or spare guns, ammunition, engineer stores, etc., are being sent to the rear, a retreat is imminent, or being prepared for. The dust raised by columns is a fair guide in some countries as to the numbers and composition of the force marching. That raised by cavalry forms a high, light cloud, by infantry, a lower and dense one, by parks and baggage, one more dense still. With a good glass you can sometimes learn from the manner in which troops move, and from their dress, whether they are regulars or militia, or if they belong to any special corps. The manner and bearing of people in a hostile country is usually a fair indication of the public spirit and feeling; if they are gloomy and anxious, it is an indication of want of confidence in their cause, and that their troops are distant; whilst if they are excited and insolent, it shows that they rely upon assistance near at hand, and anticipate success from the number and efficiency of their army. In following a retreating army much can be learned from its trail; if the débris of arms, accoutrements, etc., lie about, there is a want of transport, and it is a sign of demoralization, according to the extent to which it is the case; a large number of graves indicates the existence of disease in the enemy’s army. The places where they halted for the night should be carefully examined; and all indications carefully noted. Did they bivouac or pitch tents; was their camp laid out with regularity; were their cooking-places neatly made. Is their track strewn with dead or dying transport animals; have they plundered the inhabitants or burnt their crops or houses; have they effectually or only partially destroyed the bridges, etc. The most insignificant circumstance affords sometimes whole pages of information to officers who, having studied the manners and customs of an enemy, know how to interpret them aright. Officers commanding small detached parties sent out on reconnoitring duties may many times avoid falling into the hands of strong patrols or detachments by learning their proximity from their track if crossed anywhere; the number and composition of such detachments may easily be estimated from it.

=Military Knights.= See KNIGHTS, MILITARY.

=Military Law.= See LAW, MILITARY.

=Military Mines.= See MINES, MILITARY.

=Military Necessity.= As understood by modern civilized nations, consists in the necessity of those measures which are indispensable for securing the ends of war, and which are lawful according to the modern law and usages of war. Military necessity admits of all direct destruction of life or limb of armed enemies, and of other persons whose destruction is incidentally unavoidable in the armed contests of war; it allows of the capturing of every armed enemy, and every enemy of importance to the hostile government, or of peculiar danger to the captor; it allows of all destruction of property, and obstruction of the ways and channels of traffic, travel, or communication, and of all withholding of sustenance or means of life from the enemy; of the appropriation of whatever an enemy’s country affords necessary for the subsistence and safety of the army, and of such deception as does not involve the breaking of good faith, either positively pledged, regarding agreements entered into during the war, or supposed by the modern law of war to exist. Men who take up arms against one another in public war do not cease on this account to be moral beings, responsible to one another, and to God. Military necessity does not admit of cruelty, that is, the infliction of suffering for the sake of suffering, or for revenge, or of maiming or wounding, except in fight, or of torture to extort confessions. It does not admit of the use of poison in any way, or of the wanton devastation of a district. It admits of deception, but disclaims acts of perfidy; and in general, military necessity does not include any act of hostility which makes the return to peace unnecessarily difficult.

=Military Orders.= Religious associations which arose from the mixture of the religious enthusiasm and the chivalrous love of arms which almost equally formed the characteristic of mediæval society. The first origin of such associations may be traced to the necessities of the Christian residents of the Holy Land, in which the monks, whose first duty had been to serve the pilgrims in the hospital at Jerusalem, were compelled by the necessity of self-defense to assume the character of soldiers as well as of monks. (See SAINT JOHN OF JERUSALEM.) The order of the Templars (see TEMPLAR, KNIGHTS) was of singular origin. Those of Alcantara and Calatrava (which see), in Spain, had for their immediate object the defense of their country against the Moors. These orders as well as that of Avis in Portugal, which was instituted with a similar view, followed the Cistercian rule, and all three differed from the Templars and the Knights of St. John in being permitted by their institute to marry once. The same privilege was enjoyed in the Savoyard order of Knights of St. Maurice, and the Flemish order of St. Hubert. On the contrary, the Teutonic Knights, who had their origin in the Crusades (see GRAND MASTER), were bound by an absolute vow of chastity. With the varying conditions of society, these religious associations have at various times been abolished or fallen into disuse; but most of them still subsist in the form of orders of knighthood, and in some of them, attempts have recently been made to revive, with certain modifications, the monastic character which they originally possessed.

=Military Positions.= See POSITIONS, MILITARY.

=Military Punishment.= See PUNISHMENT, MILITARY.

=Military Regulations.= The rules and regulations by which the discipline, formations, field-exercise, and movements of the whole army are directed, to be observed in one uniform system. See ARMY REGULATIONS.

=Military Science.= See LOGISTICS, STRATAGEM, STRATEGY, TACTICS, and WAR.

=Military Secretary.= An officer on the personal staff of generals in high command. His duties are to conduct the correspondence of his chief, and to transact a great amount of confidential business, which would dangerously occupy the time of the general himself. In the British service the military secretary to the commander-in-chief is usually a general officer. To a commander-in-chief in the field, he is for most part below that rank, while to a general commanding a division only, an assistant military secretary is allowed. His staff pay is of course additional to the officer’s regimental or unattached pay.

=Military Service.= In the feudal ages, a tenure of lands by knight’s service, according to which the tenant was bound to perform service in war unto the king, or the mesne lord, of whom he held by that tenure. As the king gave to the great nobles, his immediate tenants, large possessions forever, to hold of him for this or that service or rent, so they in time parceled out to such others as they liked, the same lands for rents and services as they thought good. And these services were divided into two sorts, chivalry and socage; the first whereof was martial and military, whereby the tenant was obliged to perform some noble or military office unto his lord. This was of two kinds: either regal, that is, held only by the king, or common, when held of a common person. That which was held only of the king was called servitium, or serjeantia, and was again divided into grand and petit serjeantry. The grand serjeantry was where one held lands of the king by service, which he ought to do in his own person; as, to bear the king’s banner or spear, to lead his horse, or to find a man-at-arms to fight, etc. Petit serjeantry was when a man held lands of the king, to yield him annually some small thing towards his wars, as a sword, dagger, bow, etc. Chivalry that might be holden of a common person was termed scutagium, or escuage; that is, service of the shield, which was either uncertain or certain. Escuage uncertain was likewise twofold: first, where the tenant was bound to follow his lord, by going in person to the king’s wars, or sending a sufficient man in his place, there to be maintained at his cost so long as was agreed upon between the lord and his first tenant at the granting of the fee. The days of such service seem to have been rated by the quantity of land so holden; as, if it extended to a whole knight’s fee, then the knight was to follow his lord forty days; if but a half a knight’s fee, then twenty days; and if a fourth part, then ten days, etc. The other kind of this escuage was called castle-ward, where the tenant was obliged by himself or some other, to defend a castle as often as it should come to his turn.

=Military Stores.= See STORES, MILITARY.

=Military Tenure.= Tenure of land, on condition of performing military service.

=Military Train.= A highly important corps of the army of Great Britain, of which the function is to transport the provisions, ammunition, and all other material, together with the wounded in time of battle. It was formed after the Crimean war, on the dissolution of the Land-Transport Corps. In the year 1863 it comprised 6 battalions, in all 1840 officers and men. The corps ranks after the Royal Engineers, and is classed as Mounted Infantry, the officers receiving infantry rates, and the men cavalry rates of pay. The men are armed with carbine and sword, but rather for defensive than aggressive purposes. Attached to each battalion are 166 horses, with proportionate wagons and ambulances. It is proper to observe that the Military Train constitutes the nucleus of a transport service for a large army, and that in time of war it would be expanded by the addition of thousands of horses or mules, and the incorporation of many hundred drivers, etc. The advantage of possessing even a few men ready trained and capable of directing the movements of others was amply demonstrated by the failures of the Crimea in 1854-56; so that Parliament votes ungrudgingly the expense of this corps, although in time of peace it is comparatively without employment. It is now termed the Army Service Corps.

=Military Ways.= The large Roman roads which Agrippa caused to be made through the empire in the reign of Augustus for the marching of troops and conveying of carriages. They were paved from the gates of Rome to the utmost limits of the empire. The British have constructed a military road throughout India, with wells and other accommodations at certain distances.

=Militia.= From the Latin miles, a “soldier,” a term which was formerly synonymous with “military,” or the whole fighting force of a country, but in modern times has come to signify the domestic force for the defense of a nation, as distinguished from the regular army, which can be employed at home or abroad in either aggressive or defensive operations. Every nation has a reserve, under its law military, upon which its defense would fall on the discomfiture of the regular army; but the system differs in each country. France has her Gardes Nationaux, Prussia the Landwehr and Landsturm, and similar organizations exist in other European states. It also comprehends the volunteer organizations of Great Britain and the United States. The laws of the United States require the enrollment into the militia of all able-bodied males between the ages of eighteen and forty-five years, with certain exceptions specified in general and State laws. The militia of each State is required to be arranged into companies, battalions, regiments, brigades, and divisions, as the Legislature of the State may direct, and it shall be subject to military duty and shall serve a definite time. These organizations are to be officered by the respective States, the grades and number of officers being named in the laws requiring enrollment. The Constitution of the United States has given the power to Congress to provide for “calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions.” Congress by legislation has given the President the authority to call forth the militia under certain exigencies, as has been frequently done. When called into actual service of the United States, the militia receive pay from the government, and are subject to the Rules and Articles of War. The militia is therefore a part and parcel of the army of the United States, although in common use the term is limited to mean the regular army alone. The organized militia of the United States numbers 125,906 men, the number of men available for military duty unorganized, is 6,598,105.

=Militia-man.= One who belongs to the militia.

=Mill, Gunpowder-.= Is a machine used for mixing or incorporating the ingredients of which gunpowder is composed. The operation was formerly effected as follows: The ingredients being duly proportioned and put into the mortars of the mills, which are hollow pieces of wood, each capable of holding 20 pounds of paste, are incorporated by means of the pestle and spindle. There are 24 mortars in each mill, where are made each day 480 pounds of gunpowder, care being taken to sprinkle the ingredients in the mortars with water from time to time, lest they should take fire. The pestle is a piece of wood 10 feet high, and 4¹⁄₂ inches broad, armed at the bottom with a round piece of metal. It weighs about 60 pounds. For more modern methods of incorporation, see GUNPOWDER.

=Mill Springs.= A village of Wayne Co., Ky., about 100 miles south of Frankfort. Near here a Federal force under Gen. Geo. H. Thomas defeated a Confederate army under Gen. G. B. Crittenden, January 19, 1862. In this engagement the Confederate general F. K. Zollicoffer was killed.

=Mill-cake.= The incorporated materials for gunpowder, in the form of a dense mass or cake, ready to be subjected to the process of granulation.

=Milliken’s Bend.= A village of Madison Parish, La., on the right bank of the Mississippi River, about 25 miles above Vicksburg. On June 6, 1863, the Confederates under Gen. McCullough made an attack on this place, which was defended by a body of colored troops and part of an Iowa regiment, and were repulsed after a severe engagement.

=Mim Bashy.= In the East Indies, a commander of 1000 horse.

=Minas, Sabbatha.= A fort in Babylonia, built in the time of the later Roman empire on the site of Seleucia, which the Romans had destroyed.

=Mincio.= A river of Lombardy, Italy. Here the Austrians were repulsed by the French under Brune, December 25-27, 1800, and by Eugene Beauharnais, February 8, 1814, near Valeggio.

=Minden.= A strongly fortified town of Prussia, in Westphalia, situated on the Weser, 35 miles southwest from Hanover. In its neighborhood the battle of Minden was fought, on August 1, 1759, between the English, Hessians, and Hanoverians (under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick), and the French were beaten and driven to the ramparts of Minden. Lord George Sackville (afterwards Lord Germaine), who commanded the British and Hanoverian horse, for some disobedience of orders was tried by a court-martial on his return to England, found guilty, and dismissed April 22, 1760. He was afterwards restored to favor, and became secretary of state, 1776.

=Mines, Military.= Constitute one of the most important departments in military engineering, and a very formidable accessory both in the attack and defense of fortresses. A military mine consists of a gallery of greater or less length, run from some point of safety under an opposing work, or under an area over which an attacking force must pass, and terminating in a chamber, which, being stored with gunpowder, can be exploded at the critical moment. Mines are of use to the besiegers in the overthrow of ramparts and formation of a breach; the countermines of the besieged in undermining the glacis over which the assaulting column must charge, and blowing them into the air, or in destroying batteries erected for breaching, are equally serviceable. But far above the actual mischief wrought by the mine--often very great--is its moral influence on the troops, and especially on the assailants. Mines are either vertical,--when they are called shafts,--horizontal, or inclined, in either of which cases they are “galleries,” the word “ascending” or “descending” being added, if there be inclination. The dimensions range from the “great gallery,” 6 feet 6 inches by 7 feet, to the “small branch,”--the last diminutive of the gallery,--which has but 2 feet 6 inches height, with a breadth of 2 feet. The most frequent work is the “common gallery,” 4 feet 6 inches by 3 feet, which is considered the easiest for the miner.

=Minié Ball.= A ball or bullet of peculiar construction. It is cast hollow for nearly two-thirds of its length, and into the opening of the internal cylinder there is introduced a small concave piece of iron, which the powder at the moment of firing forces into the slug, spreading it open, and causing it to fit perfectly to the barrel. Hence a great increase in the precision of aim and the extent of range.

=Minié Rifle.= A species of fire-arm, invented by Capt. Minié, from whom it receives its name. It is certain in aim, and fatal in its results at 800 yards.

=Mining.= In military affairs, is the art of blowing up any part of a fortification, building, etc., by gunpowder. The art of mining requires a perfect knowledge both of fortifications and geometry; and by these previous helps, the engineer may be qualified to ascertain correctly the nature of all manner of heights, depths, breadths, and thicknesses; to judge perfectly of slopes and perpendiculars, whether they be such as are parallel to the horizon, or such as are visual; together with the true levels of all kinds of earth. To which must be added, a consummate skill in the quality of rocks, earths, masonry, and sands; the whole accompanied with a thorough knowledge of the strength of all sorts of gunpowder.

=Minion.= An ancient form of ordnance of small size, the caliber of which was about 3 inches.

=Minister.= Is one who acts not by any inherent authority of his own, but under another. Thus, in England all ministers act under a supreme authority, which is vested in the sovereign, lords, and commons, to whom they are responsible. In military matters, there is not only a war minister, but a secretary at war, who likewise acts conjointly with the secretary of state. All dispatches and papers of consequence relating to the army must first pass through the secretary of state, and the war minister, before they are laid before Parliament, or otherwise acted upon by the secretary at war. The common arrangements of corps, directions with respect to marching, are transmitted to the secretary at war, and to the quartermaster-general’s office, without previously passing through the secretary of state, or war minister. See SECRETARY OF WAR.

=Minnesota.= One of the Northwestern States of the American Union. The country was visited by white traders as early as 1654, but very few settlements were made in it until about 1845. The eastern part of the State formed a portion of the French possessions which were ceded to the British in 1763, and by them to the United States in 1783. The remaining part belonged to the Louisiana Territory, which was purchased from the French in 1803. The country was traversed by an exploring expedition under Gen. Pike in 1805. A territorial government was organized in 1849, and in 1853 Minnesota was admitted into the Union as a State. The State suffered severely in 1862 from an inroad of the Sioux, who destroyed whole settlements. They were soon afterwards, however, summarily punished, and removed from the State altogether.

=Minnetarees.= A tribe of Indians, formerly a branch of the Crows, but now affiliated to the Mandans, who reside on the Upper Missouri. They have always been friendly to the whites, and hostile to the Sioux, at whose hands they have suffered severely. They number about 400.

=Minor.= Under age. Minors will not be enlisted in the army of the United States without the consent of their parents or guardians. If any have enlisted and it becomes known, the Secretary of War, on demand, is required to grant the discharges from the army of minors who have enlisted without the consent of their parents or guardians.

=Minorca.= One of the Balearic Islands (which see) in the Mediterranean. It was captured by Lieut.-Gen. Stanhope and Sir John Leake in 1708, and was ceded to the British by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713; taken by the Spanish and French in July, 1756, and Admiral Byng fell a victim to public indignation for not relieving it. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1793; besieged by the Spaniards, and taken February 5, 1782; captured by the British under Gen. Stuart, without the loss of a man, November 15, 1798; but was given up at the peace of Amiens in 1802.

=Minturnæ= (Minturnensis; now Trajetto). An important town in Latium, on the frontiers of Campania; was situated on the Appia Via, and on both banks of the Liris, and near the mouth of this river. It was an ancient town of the Ausones, or Aurunci, but surrendered to the Romans of its own accord, 296 B.C. In its neighborhood Marius was taken prisoner.

=Minute.= A hasty sketch taken of anything in writing. Hence minutes of a general or regimental court-martial.

=Minute-gun.= A gun discharged every minute, as a signal of distress or mourning.

=Minute-man.= A man enlisted for service wherever required, and ready to march at a moment’s notice;--a term used in the American Revolution.

=Minutes of Councils in the Military Department.= The notification of orders and regulations, which are directed to be observed by the British army in India, are so called. These minutes receive the sanction of the governor-general in council, and are the result of previous communications from the court of directors in Europe. The answer to the French word, resultat, which was prefixed to all orders and regulations that were occasionally issued by the military boards, or conseils de guerre, for the government of the army. The term, jugement d’un conseil de guerre, corresponded with our minutes of a general or garrison court-martial, and expressed not only the minutes, but the sentence of the court.

=Miquelets= (Fr.). Bandits, who have infested the Pyrenean Mountains; armed mountaineers of the Pyrenees; the name is now borne by the captain-general’s guard; in 1808, Napoleon organized a corps of miquelets Français, who rendered good services.

=Miqueletti.= A small body of mountain fusiliers, who formerly belonged to the Neapolitan army.

=Mire= (Fr.). In the French artillery, a piece of wood about 4 inches thick, 1 foot high, and 2¹⁄₂ feet long, which is used in pointing cannon.

=Mireur= (Fr.). An instrument employed in coast batteries for ascertaining whether the enemy’s ships are within the range of the guns, and thus to prevent the gunners from expending their shot unnecessarily.

=Mirmillones.= A class of Roman gladiators; said to have been so called from their having the image of a fish on their helmets. Their arms were like those of the Gauls; hence we find that they were also called Galli. They were usually matched with the retiarii or Thracians.

=Mirror.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON; also LOOKING-GLASS SIGNALING.

=Misbehavior before the Enemy.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 42.

=Miscellaneous.= An item or charge in the estimates of the British army, so distinguished as miscellaneous services; the same as our contingent expenditures.

=Misconduct at Divine Service.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 52.

=Misconduct in Time of War.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 55, 56, 57, and 58.

=Misericorde= (Fr.). A short dagger, which the cavalry formerly used, for the purpose of dispatching an enemy who would not ask quarter or mercy.

=Misnomer.= The mistaking of the true name of a person; the using of one name for another. If a prisoner plead a misnomer before a court-martial, the court may ask the prisoner what is his real name, and call upon him to plead to the amended charge.--Hough.

=Miss.= To fail to hit; to fly wide; as, the bullet missed its mark.

=Missile.= Capable of being thrown; adapted for hurling, or to be projected from the hand, or from any instrument or engine; as, to wing the missile dart.

=Missile.= A weapon thrown or intended to be thrown, for doing execution; as, a lance, an arrow, or a bullet.

=Missing.= Wanting; not present when called or looked for; lost; as, 100 soldiers are wounded and missing.

=Mississagas.= A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, who formerly resided on the north shore of Lake Huron, but are now found to the number of 700 in Ontario. They were one of the Confederate tribes of the “Seven Nations,” fought as allies of the French against the English (1743-48), sided with the English in the seven years’ war against the French and in the war against Pontiac, and aided the Canadian forces against the United States in the war of 1812.

=Mississippi.= One of the Southwestern States of the American Confederacy. It was first visited by Europeans about the year 1540, when De Soto, with 1000 followers, crossed the State on an exploring expedition from Florida, and remained in it for nearly a year. This party having suffered severely by attacks from the aborigines, no other attempt was made to establish a permanent colony till 1682, when La Salle descended the Mississippi and visited this region. He returned in two years with a party which he intended to settle in Mississippi, but meeting with misfortunes, the colony never reached its destination. The next attempt at settlement was made by Iberville, but with no successful result. The settlement at Fort Rosalie (now Natchez) in 1716, by some Frenchmen under Bienville, was generally considered the first permanent colony. A general massacre of the white inhabitants by the savages took place in 1728, but, as in every other contest between the Indians and the whites, victory ultimately rested with the latter. Other conflicts in 1736, 1739, and 1752, though carried on for a time with varying success, had the same result. At the peace of Paris, in 1763, Mississippi became a part of the English territory. Soon after a portion of the French, so inhumanly driven by the English from Nova Scotia, settled in Mississippi; and in 1768 commenced an emigration from the Eastern colonies by way of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. In 1798 the United States having attained the rights of the British government in this region, erected it into a Territory, and in 1817 it was admitted into the Union as an independent State. Mississippi was one of the first of the Southern States to secede from the Union, and it suffered severely during the civil war. It was the scene of several engagements, raids, etc., the most important being the battles of Iuka, Corinth, siege and capture of Vicksburg, and raids to Meridian.

=Missive.= Intended to be thrown, hurled, or ejected; missile. “The missive weapons fly.”

=Missolonghi=, or =Mesolonghi=. A town of Greece, in the government of Ætolia, is separated from the sea by a large lake. It is noted for the memorable siege it sustained in 1825-26. In the beginning of 1825 it was garrisoned by 5000 Greeks, who were commanded by Nóthi Bozzaris; and on April 25 of the same year a Turkish force of 20,000 under Reshid Pasha appeared before Missolonghi, which was poorly fortified. On May 11, the first bombardment began, and for the space of two months afterwards the town was exposed to numerous bombardments and assaults; but the defenders were not less active in answering the enemy’s fire, and making sallies from their defenses, by which means they succeeded in repelling their assailants, and inflicting on them considerable loss. During this time they were supplied with ammunition and provisions by the fleet which was stationed at the entrance of the lake; but on July 10, a superior Turkish fleet, after compelling the ships of Greece to retire, succeeded in landing a strong reinforcement to the besiegers. The assaults on the town were then renewed with increased fury, and the cannonade of the Turks carried destruction to its frail ramparts and death among the ranks of its brave defenders. Yet the garrison, though reduced to the number of 4000, continued to maintain their ground until, in the month of August, the Greek fleet appeared in the offing, and by defeating the Turkish squadron relieved Missolonghi for a time from the blockade. But the sultan was resolved at all hazards to reduce this stronghold of liberty; and in the end of November the Greek ships were again driven off, and the blockade renewed by the combined Turkish, Egyptian, and Barbary fleets. In the beginning of 1826 the besieging army was reinforced by the arrival of 14,000 troops under Ibrahim Pasha, who took command of all the besieging forces. On January 25, a bombardment was commenced, which lasted for three days, and reduced the town to ruins, but could not shake the resolute courage of the Greeks. The repeated assaults of the enemy were still repulsed with great loss. At last, reduced to the utmost extremities by famine, and seeing on all sides nothing but the ships and tents of the enemy, yet never entertaining any thought of surrender, the Greeks determined to force their way through the opposing ranks. Although by treachery the enemy was made aware of their design, and thus prepared to meet them, they were not able to prevent nearly 2000 of the besieged from making their way to the mountains. Many prisoners fell into the hands of the Turks, and the remainder, who were unable from their wounds or weariness to accompany their fellows, continued to defend themselves among the ruins until the explosion of a powder-magazine, destroying alike friends and foes, put an end to the bloody conflict. Such was the siege of Missolonghi, which attracted, during its continuance, the eyes of all Europe, and in which the Greeks showed themselves the worthy sons of the heroes of Marathon and Thermopylæ.

=Missouri.= One of the Central States of the Mississippi Valley, and the first organized wholly west of the Mississippi River. The French were the earliest settlers in the country, having built a fort there in 1719. By the treaty of 1763 it was ceded to Spain, with all the territory west of the Mississippi. Spain being at war with England during the American Revolution, her colonies were harassed by the English and their Indians allies. In 1780, a body of British and Indians attacked and besieged St. Louis, killing 60 of its defenders. The siege was raised by Col. Clark, an American, who came to the relief of the place with 500 men. In 1800 Spain restored the territory to France, and it passed to the United States by purchase in 1803. After the admission of Louisiana as a State in 1812, the remaining portion of the territory received the name of Missouri, from which was separated the State of that name in 1821. Though the State officially declared itself in favor of the Union in 1861, many of its prominent citizens sided with the Confederates. It was the scene of several engagements during the civil war.

=Missouria Indians.= A tribe of Dakota stock, who reside at the Otoe agency, Nebraska. They number about 200, and are progressing favorably in the arts of civilization.

=Mithridatic War.= The name of the celebrated contest carried on for a long series of years by the Romans against Mithridates VI., king of Pontus. It was caused by the massacre of about 100,000 Romans by Mithridates, 88 B.C., and remarkable for its duration, its many sanguinary battles, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having taken the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of Asia, crying out as he rode, “I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans.” He is said to have killed him by causing melted gold to be poured down his throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 B.C.

=Mitigate.= To diminish the severity of; as, to mitigate punishment; to reduce in amount of severity, as a penalty. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 112.

=Mitraille= (Fr.). Small pieces of old iron, such as heads of nails, etc., with which pieces of ordnance are sometimes loaded.

=Mitrailleur.= A gun in which several barrels are combined in order to produce a greater effect by the rapid succession of a number of shots. Mitrailleures existed as early as the 14th century. They were called killing-organs at that time. The Scaligers at the end of the 14th century, the Protestant princes of Germany in the Smalkaldian war, and Austria in the war against Turkey, used this kind of gun. But the ancient mitrailleur differs from the modern both in dimensions and in the positions of the barrels. A peculiar kind of mitrailleur was the espingol, each barrel being loaded with several shots, which, by a slowly-burning charge, were discharged one after the other. The espingol was used not only in the Middle Ages, but also recently,--by the Danes in 1848-50, and 1863-64. At the storming of Düppel the Prussians took about thirty such guns. In modern times the term has been specifically applied to certain battery guns employed by the French in the Franco-Prussian war. (See BATTERY GUN.) In the U. S. Light Artillery Tactics the term mitrailleur is applied to the Gatling gun.

=Mitylene=, or =Midulu= (anc. Lesbos). An island of the Grecian Archipelago, belonging to Turkey, and lying off the west coast of Asia Minor. Mitylene suffered much in the Greek war of independence, in the course of which it lost nearly the half of its inhabitants. (See MYTILENE.)

=Moabites.= A tribe descended from Moab, the son of Lot, and consequently related to the Hebrews; they inhabited the mountainous country east of the lower part of the Jordan and of the Dead Sea. In the time of the Judges, the Jews were for eighteen years under the yoke of the Moabites, who were afterwards made tributary by David, but about 900 B.C. shook off their allegiance to the Jewish kings, and after the Assyrians invaded the land of Judah, took part with the Chaldeans against the Jews.

=Moat.= The ditch round the ramparts of a fortress may be either wet--i.e., full of water--or dry. In the latter, which is the commoner case, the depth should not be less than 12 feet, nor the width under 24. The more perpendicular the walls, so much the greater will be the obstruction to the enemy. In regular works the walls are usually reveted with masonry, that at the foot of the rampart being the scarp or escarp, and that below the covered way the counterscarp. See DITCH.

=Mobile.= A city and capital of Mobile Co., Ala., situated on the west bank of the Mobile River, immediately above its entrance into the bay of the same name. It was founded by Bienville in 1711, passed into the hands of the English in 1763, was taken by the Spanish general Galvez in 1780, and was confirmed to Spain by the treaty of 1783. Mobile was blockaded by the Federal fleet in May, 1861. In 1864 the Confederates constructed several ironclads and gunboats, and threatened to raise the blockade. On August 5, Admiral Farragut with his fleet passed Forts Morgan and Gaines, the Confederate fortifications guarding the entrance to Mobile Bay, captured the ram “Tennessee” and the gunboat “Selma,” and effectually crippled the “Gaines.” With the co-operation of the land forces, the forts were soon captured, and the city was effectually cut off from external commerce. Mobile was evacuated by the Confederates, and surrendered to Gen. Canby and Rear-Admiral Thatcher, April 12, 1865, about 1000 prisoners, 150 guns, and a large quantity of ammunition and supplies falling into the hands of the Federals.

=Mobilization.= The calling into active service troops not previously on the war establishment.

=Mobilize.= To call into active service;--applied to troops which, though enrolled, were not previously on the war establishment.

=Moccasin= (Algonkin, makisin). A shoe or cover for the foot, made of deer-skin or soft leather, without a sole, and ornamented on the upper side; the customary shoe worn by the American Indians.

=Möckern.= A town of Prussian Saxony, 13 miles east of Madgeburg, on the Ehle. Here the French army under Eugène Beauharnais was defeated by the Prussians under York, April, 1813, and here Blücher defeated the French, October 16, 1813.

=Modena= (anc. Mutina). A fortified city of Northern Italy, 24 miles west-northwest of Bologna, capital of the former duchy of the same name. In ancient times Mutina was an important town of Gallia Cispadana, situated on the Via Æmilia; it fell into the hands of the Romans in 218 B.C., who established a colony here thirty-five years later; in 117 B.C. the settlers were disturbed by an incursion of the Ligurians, who for a short time held possession of the town, but were ultimately expelled by Consul Claudius; it was held by M. Brutus against the victorious Pompey; sustained a siege of about four months against the troops of Mark Antony; besieged and taken by Constantine in 312; was laid waste by Attila in 452. The modern town is surrounded with walls, and defended by bastions and a citadel; was governed by the house of Este from 1288 till 1796, when the last male of that house, the reigning duke, Hercules III., was expelled by the French. By the treaty of Campo Formio the Modenese possessions were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797, and with the kingdom of Italy, 1805. The Archduke Francis of Este, son of the Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, and of Mary, the heiress of the last duke, was restored in 1814. Modena was annexed to Sardinia March 18, 1860.

=Modocs.= A treacherous tribe of Indians of the Klamath nation. In 1872 they left the Klamath reservation under the leadership of their chief, Captain Jack, and refused to return. Military aid was invoked to compel them, and the troops were fired upon by the Indians, who retreated to the almost inaccessible fastnesses of the lava-beds. Here they held out until June 5, 1873, by which time nearly all were killed or captured. Captain Jack and some of the principal men of his tribe were tried by military commission for the murder of Gen. Canby and Mr. Thomas, Indian peace commissioner, who were treacherously slain in April while attending a conference with the Indians outside the camp. Captain Jack and three others were hanged October 3, 1873, and the remainder of the tribe deported to Indian Territory.

=Mœsia.= A Roman province in Europe. It was invaded by the Romans, when C. Scribonius Curio gained a victory over the Mœsians (75 B.C.), but not until the reign of Augustus was it finally subdued, 29 B.C. A line of fortresses was then planted for its defense along the southern bank of the Danube. The principal of these were afterwards known as Singidunum (Belgrade), Viminacium, and Axiopolis. It was successfully invaded by the Goths, numbers of whom eventually settled here. In the 7th century invading hordes of Bulgarians and Sclavonians founded the kingdoms of Bulgaria and Servia, which now comprise the territory of ancient Mœsia.

=Mogador=, =Mogodor=, or =Suerrah=. A seaport town of Morocco, on the Atlantic, 132 miles southwest from Morocco. Mogador is walled and fortified; but its defenses, which are the work of Genoese engineers, are of no great strength; its harbor, although much exposed, is considered the best on the coast. Mogador was bombarded in 1844 by a French fleet under the Prince de Joinville, on which occasion it suffered severely.

=Mognions= (Fr.). A sort of armor for the shoulders.

=Mograbian.= A soldier of a branch of the Turkish infantry composed of the peasants of the northern part of Africa, who sought to better their condition by entering foreign service.

=Mogul Empire, The.= An empire which at one time extended over the greater part of Northern India. It was founded by Sultan Baber, a descendant of Timur (or Tamerlane), in 1526, and lasted until 1749, when the Mogul army was totally defeated by the Rohillas, and the empire was broken up into a number of petty sovereignties. In 1857, Mohammed Bahadur, the last king of Delhi and head of the Mogul empire, joined in the Indian mutiny, and was transported to Rangoon (1858), where he soon after died.

=Mohacs.= A town of Southern Hungary, on the western arm of the Danube. It owes its historical importance to the great battle fought here, August 29, 1526, between Louis II. of Hungary, with 25,000 Hungarians, and the sultan Solyman, at the head of about 200,000 Turks. The battle resulted in the disastrous defeat of the Hungarians, who lost their king, seven bishops, many nobles and dignitaries, and upwards of 22,000 men. A second battle was fought here on August 12, 1687, when the Turks in their turn were defeated by an Austro-Hungarian army under Charles of Lorraine.

=Mohammerah.= A Persian town near the Euphrates; captured, after two hours’ cannonading, by Sir James Outram, during the Persian war, March 26, 1857.

=Mohawks=, or =Maquas=. A warlike tribe of Indians who formerly inhabited the valley in the State of New York which bears their name. They were allied with the Onondagas, Oneidas, Senecas, Cayugas, and Tuscaroras, the confederation constituting what was known as the “Five Nations.” They were allies of the English in their wars with the French, and in the Revolutionary war. After the peace of 1783 they removed to Upper Canada, and settled on Grand River upon lands procured for them by their chief, Brant.

=Mohegans=, or =Mohicans=. A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, who formerly inhabited a considerable part of New England, and a part of New York. The town of Norwich, Conn., called Mohegan by the Indians, is situated about the centre of their ancient country. When the English first settled at Hartford, Uncas, the chief of the tribe, formed a treaty of amity with them, which appears to have been generally observed. The Mohegans were long the sworn foes of the Narragansetts. The latter, under their chief, Miantonomoh, invaded the Mohegan country in 1643, but were defeated by Uncas, who captured Miantonomoh and put him to death in September of that year. In 1645, the Narragansetts, under Passacus, the brother of Miantonomoh, burning to avenge the death of that chief, again invaded the Mohegan territory. On this occasion they were more successful. They laid waste the country in all directions, and compelled Uncas and his warriors to take refuge in his strong fortress at Shantock, which they would probably have become masters of but for the timely assistance of the English, who furnished a supply of provisions to the besieged. The invasion was again repeated, and with almost fatal effect to Uncas. The English again saved him, however, and after nearly twenty years of strife the hatchet was at length buried between these tribes.

=Mohilow.= A town in Russia, where the Russian army under Prince Bagration was signally defeated by the French under Marshal Davoust, prince of Eckmühl, July 23, 1812.

=Mohrungen.= A town of East Prussia, 62 miles south-southwest of Königsberg. The French defeated the Russians here in 1807.

=Moienne= (Fr.). A piece of ordnance, which is now called a 4-pounder, and which is 10 feet long, was formerly so called.

=Moineau.= A small, flat bastion, raised in front of an intended fortification, to defend it against attacks from small-arms.

=Mojave Indians.= A tribe of aborigines, of Apache stock, residing in Arizona. They number about 2100, of whom about one-third are located on a reservation on the Colorado River, and about an equal number (known as Mojave Apaches) at the San Carlos agency, Arizona.

=Moldavia.= A province in the northeastern part of Turkey in Europe. The princes of Moldavia were formerly called voyvodes, or military leaders, a name which was afterwards changed by the Turks to that of hospodars, which is still retained. In the 13th century Moldavia was frequently disturbed by civil war, occasioned by rival claimants for the crown, and these dissensions rose to such a height that the country was divided into two parts, one of which acknowledged the sovereignty of Poland, and the other that of Hungary. A union was, however, soon after effected, and Moldavia became subject to Hungary, paying at the same time a tribute to the Poles. In 1536 Moldavia came under the protection of the sultan; for a considerable time after this period, it was the scene of constant wars between the Poles and Turks, until the claims of the former to the sovereignty of the state were finally abandoned in 1621, and peace concluded between Turkey and Poland; in 1738, during the war of Austria and Russia against Turkey, Moldavia was invaded by a Russian force, and occupied for two years, but was evacuated after the peace of Belgrade; in 1769 it was again occupied by the Russians, and became for a short time subject to the czar, but was restored to Turkey in 1774; in 1789 this unfortunate principality was again the scene of contest between Russia and Turkey, until the peace of Jassy in 1792, when the Russian frontier was fixed by the Dneister; in the war of 1807-12, Moldavia again fell into the hands of the Russians, who, by the treaty of Bucharest, acquired possession of Bessarabia, and thus extended their frontier to the Pruth. At the commencement of the Greek war in 1820 an insurrection broke out in the Danubian principalities, but it was suppressed by the Turks; in 1828 another war between Turkey and Russia broke out, and Moldavia was occupied by the Russians without opposition until peace was established by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. A conspiracy was formed in 1840, to unite the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia into one state, but without success. In 1848 the influence of revolutionary sentiments was felt in Moldavia; the people of Jassy demanded a new constitution, and, although the hospodar successfully resisted this movement, he laid down his authority in the same year. In 1853 a Russian army took possession of Moldavia and Wallachia; after attempting in vain to cross the Danube in Wallachia, the Russians, in the spring of 1854, crossed that river at Galatz, and seized the fortresses in the Dobrudscha; they then proceeded to lay siege to Silistria, but this town was so vigorously defended that they were obliged to raise the siege, and the British and French troops having arrived at Varna, the Russian army evacuated the principalities in the autumn of 1854; the hospodars then returned to their respective governments, and the principalities were occupied by an Austrian army. At a conference at Paris, August 19, 1858, it was decided that the principalities should thenceforth be called the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, and should have in common a central commission and court of appeal, but be governed by different hospodars, to be elected by the people, and confirmed by the Porte.

=Molded Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Mole.= A mound or massive work formed of large stones laid in the sea, extended either in a right line or an arc of a circle before a port, which it serves to defend from the violence of the waves, thus protecting ships in harbor; also, sometimes the harbor itself.

=Molino del Rey.= A range of massive stone buildings, about 500 yards long, forming the western side of an inclosure which surrounds the rock and castle, groves and fields of Chapultepec, 2 miles southwest of the city of Mexico. These buildings were occupied by the troops of Santa Anna in September, 1847, to intercept the march of the American army under command of Gen. Scott upon the city of Mexico. They were attacked on the morning of the 8th by Gen. Worth’s division, and, after a severe contest, the buildings were captured, with a loss to the Americans of 787 killed and wounded (including 59 officers), out of 3447, the whole number engaged. The Mexican forces numbered about 10,000 men.

=Mollwitz.= A village of Prussian Silesia; to the east of it lies the celebrated battle-field where Frederick II. of Prussia gained his first victory over the Austrians, April 10, 1741.

=Moluccas=, or =Spice Islands=. A numerous group of islands in the Asiatic Archipelago, situated between Celebes on the west, and New Guinea on the east, and stretching from lat. 2° N. to lat. 9° S. They were discovered by the Portuguese about 1510; became dependencies of Holland, 1795; during the French war of 1796, however, they were taken by the British, who held possession of them till 1800, when they were returned to Holland. The islands were again occupied by the British in 1810, but were finally restored to the Dutch in 1814, by the treaty of Paris.

=Molycrium.= A town in the most southerly part of Ætolia; it was founded by the Corinthians, but was afterwards taken possession of by the Ætolians.

=Mombas.= A seaport town of Africa, on a small island, in a bay on the coast of Zanzibar. It was first visited by the Portuguese under Vasco de Gama in 1498. In 1505, Francisco de Almeida, the Portuguese viceroy of India, took and burnt the town; in 1529 the Portuguese returned and repeated their work of destruction, and retained the city from that date to 1720, when Mombas fell into the hands of the imam of Muscat, but he was soon dispossessed by a rebellion of the inhabitants. It was under British protection from 1824 to 1826, and is now governed by an Arab sheikh.

=Momentum.= Is that force possessed by a body in motion; and is measured by the product of the mass of the body into its velocity.

=Mona= (now Anglesey). An island off the coast of the Ordovices, in Britain; it was invaded by Suetonius Paulinus, 61, and was conquered by Agricola, 78.

=Moncontour.= A town near Poitiers, in France. Here Admiral Coligny and the French Protestants were defeated by the Duke of Anjou, October 3, 1569.

=Mondovi.= A town of Northern Italy, near the river Ellero, about 47 miles south from Turin. The town is defended by walls and a small citadel, and contains a great number of religious houses. The French, under Napoleon I., defeated the Sardinian troops, under Colli, near this town in 1796, and in 1799 the town was sacked by the French under Soult.

=Monghir.= A town of Hindostan, East Indies, situated on the southern bank of the Ganges. It was an object of contention between the kings of Behar and Bengal in the early part of the 16th century; taken by the British in 1763.

=Mongolia.= A vast district in Asia. Its present boundaries east and north are Manchuria and Siberia, respectively, and on the south and west Thibet and Turkestan; but these boundaries have varied greatly at different periods of history. The whole of what is now usually recognized as Mongolia is considered to belong to the Chinese empire. See TARTARY.

=Mongols.= See TARTARY.

=Monmouth, Battle of.= Was fought June 28, 1778, between the Revolutionary forces under Gen. Washington and the British under Sir Henry Clinton. Gen. Washington, whose army of about 12,000 men was encamped at Valley Forge, being informed of the intention of the enemy to evacuate Philadelphia and proceed to New York, placed his forces in a condition to march immediately in pursuit. Accordingly, when intelligence of the evacuation reached him, he broke up his encampment, and detaching a small force under Gen. Arnold to take possession of Philadelphia, marched rapidly with his whole army toward the Delaware. On the morning of June 28 the advance of the Colonial army, under Gen. Lee, became engaged with the enemy’s rear on the plain near Monmouth Court-house, in New Jersey; but the English line being soon reinforced, the Americans were compelled to give way, upon which Lee ordered a retreat. Gen. Washington, who was riding ahead of the main body of his army, met the retreating force, and peremptorily ordered Lee to reform his troops and hold his position. This he for a time partially effected, but was being again driven back, when the main body of the army arrived to his assistance. The battle now became general, and under the inspiring influence of their commander-in-chief the Americans fought with such desperate resolution that the British were at length obliged to give way. Washington made preparations to follow up his advantage, but owing to the broken character of the ground, and twilight coming on before a proper disposition of his troops could be made, the attack was postponed until next morning. When morning dawned, however, it was found that Sir Henry Clinton with his whole force had retreated during the darkness of the night toward Sandy Hook, and Washington, on account of the heat of the weather and the fatigue of his men, did not pursue them. This was one of the most severely contested battles of the war. The American loss was 227 killed and wounded, the English was a little greater.

=Monomachy= (Fr. monomachie). A single combat, or the fighting of two, hand to hand. It is derived from the Greek. A duel may properly be called a monomachy.

=Mons= (Flemish, Berghen). A strongly-fortified town of Belgium, in the province of Hainault, on the Trouille, 33 miles southwest from Brussels. It has been frequently besieged and taken; in 1709 it was taken by the allies under Marlborough and Eugène; in 1746 by Marshal Saxe; and in the wars of the French revolution in 1792-94 it was taken alternately by the French and the allies, the former of whom held the town from 1784 to 1814.

=Monsoon.= A wind blowing half the year in one direction, and the other half in the opposite;--a term applied particularly to certain winds of the Indian Ocean, which blow from the southwest from April to October, and from the northeast the rest of the year. The term is sometimes used to designate similar winds in other parts of the globe.

=Mont St. Jean.= A village of Belgium; it is near the scene of the battle of Waterloo, called by the French the battle of Mont St. Jean.

=Montana Territory.= A Territory of the United States, which is bounded on the north by the British possessions, east by Dakota, south by Wyoming and Idaho, and west by Idaho. This Territory has been overrun by hostile Indians, who, under the management of the military, are being rapidly subjugated. It was formed into a separate Territory in May, 1864, before which time it formed part of Idaho.

=Montauban.= A town of France, capital of the department of Tarn-et-Garonne, 342 miles south by west from Paris. At the Reformation the people embraced the Protestant cause; and the town was ineffectually besieged by the adverse party in 1580. It afterwards, in 1621, resisted for three months the assaults of Louis XIII., and did not yield till after the fall of Rochelle in 1629. The fortifications were soon after destroyed.

=Montbéliard=, or =Montbélliard=. A town of France, in the department of Doubs, 48 miles northeast from Besançon. It was in former times a place of some strength, and the capital of a county that originally formed part of the kingdom of Burgundy, but was transferred to the Würtemberg family in 1395. Although twice taken by the French in the 17th century, it was not finally ceded to them till 1796.

=Monte Aperto, Battle of.= See SIENA.

=Monte-Baldo.= A mountain of Lombardy; the Austrians were defeated in its vicinity by the French in 1797.

=Montebello Casteggio.= A village of Northern Italy, in the province of Voghera; here the Austrians were defeated by a French army under Gen. Lannes, after a desperate conflict, June 9, 1800; in the last Italian war the Austrians were again defeated here by the united armies of the French and Piedmontese in May, 1859.

=Montemaggiore Belsito.= A town of the island of Sicily, 31 miles southeast of Palermo. It was occupied by the Saracens when they first took possession of the country.

=Montenegro.= A principality of Europe, situated between the Turkish eyalets of Bosnia and Albania, and separated from the Adriatic by the narrow strip of land known as the circle of Cattaro, in Austrian Dalmatia. The Montenegrins are Slavs of the Servian race, knit together in clans and families, and have many fights among themselves, which are perpetuated by the hereditary obligation of avenging blood. Montenegro belonged in the Middle Ages to the great Servian kingdom, but after the dismemberment of the latter, and its conquest by the Turks at the battle of Kossovo (1389), the Montenegrins, under their prince, who was of the royal blood of Servia, maintained their independence, though compelled to relinquish the level tracts of land, and confine themselves to the mountains, in 1485. The Turks continued to assert their claims to Montenegro, but they were only defeated in their plans, and in 1710 the Montenegrins sought and obtained the protection of Russia, the czar agreeing to grant an annual subsidy on condition of their harassing the Turks by inroads. In 1860 the Montenegrins excited an insurrection against the Turkish rule in Herzegovina, which was soon suppressed, and in return they themselves were so hard pressed by the Turks that they were glad to agree to a treaty (September 8, 1862) by which the sovereignty of the Porte over Montenegro was recognized.

=Montenotte.= A small village of Northern Italy; here the Austrians were defeated by the French under Bonaparte, April 12, 1796.

=Monter= (Fr.). This word means to rise from one rank to another in the way of promotion, as from lieutenant to captain, etc., or from having the command of the youngest company to be promoted to that of the oldest.

=Montereau.= A town of France, in the department of Seine-et-Marne. In its immediate vicinity Napoleon, on February 18, 1814, gained his last victory over the allies.

=Monterey.= A city of Mexico, capital of the state of Nuevo Leon, about 85 miles east by north of Saltillo. Gen. Taylor with an army of about 6000 men, the first division under Gen. Worth, appeared before this place, September 21, 1846. It was defended by a force of about 10,000 Mexicans under Gen. Ampudia. In approaching the city the first obstacles to be overcome were two batteries, which were in a commanding position. These were soon taken and their guns turned on a third battery erected in a large stone building, called the Bishop’s Palace. This was stormed on the morning of the 22d, and a vigorous sortie of the garrison having been repulsed, the Americans entered the city with the flying Mexicans. During the day a feigned attack on the defenses in front was soon converted into a real one, and after a severe contest the Americans entered the city, though with great sacrifice of life; for every street was barricaded, and guns were pointed from almost every wall. On the morning of the 23d, the defenses on the opposite side were assaulted and carried by the division of Gen. Worth, and the garrison soon after surrendered.

=Monterey.= A port of entry and capital of the county of the same name in California, about 95 miles south-southeast of San Francisco. It was once a populous and thriving city, but has greatly declined since the rise of San Francisco. Being led to suppose that war existed between the United States and Mexico, Commodore Sloat took this place July 7, 1846, and raised the American flag without opposition.

=Montero.= A military cap and hood formerly worn in camp.

=Monterotondo.= A town of Central Italy, situated about 26 miles south-southwest of Rieti. An engagement took place here October 25, 1867, between the French and pontifical troops and the volunteers of Garibaldi, in which the latter were victorious.

=Montevideo.= The capital of the republic of Uruguay, in South America. It was taken by the British forces under Sir Samuel Auchmuty, February 3, 1807, but was evacuated by them July 7 of the same year, in consequence of the severe repulse the British met with at Buenos Ayres (which see). Montevideo was given up to Uruguay in 1828.

=Montgomery.= The capital of the State of Alabama. A convention of delegates from the Southern States met here February 4, 1861, to organize a provisional government for the seceded States, which were thereafter to be known as the Confederate States of America, and Montgomery was chosen as the seat of government. Richmond being afterwards made the capital of the Confederacy, the seat of government was transferred thither on May 20 in the same year.

=Montiel= (Spain), =Battle of=. Took place on March 14, 1369, between Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, and his brother, Henry of Transtamare, aided by the French warrior, Bertrand du Guesclin. Peter was totally defeated, and afterwards treacherously slain.

=Montilla.= A town of Spain, in Andalusia; in 1508 the fortifications of this place were destroyed by Ferdinand the Catholic.

=Montlhery= (Seine-et-Oise, France). The site of an indecisive battle between Louis XI. and a party of his nobles, termed “The League of the Public Good,” July 16, 1465.

=Montmartre.= A village of France immediately to the north of Paris, and standing within the new line of fortifications; it was the scene of some sharp fighting in March, 1814.

=Montmirail.= A town of France, in the department of the Marne; Bonaparte defeated the Russians near this place in 1814.

=Montmorency=, or =Montmorenci=. The name of a noble French family, whose celebrity dates as far back as the 11th century, and which has produced many famous princes, peers, and generals. Among them were 6 constables and 11 marshals of France.

=Mont-Pagnote= (Fr.). In fortification, an eminence where persons post themselves out of the reach of cannon, to see a camp, siege, battle, etc., without being exposed to danger. It is also called the post of the invulnerables.

=Montreal.= The largest city of the Dominion of Canada and of British America; it was surrendered to the English by the French, September 8, 1760; taken by the Americans, November 12, 1775, and retaken by the English, June 15, 1776.

=Montserrat.= A West India island, discovered by Columbus in 1493; it has several times been taken by the French, but was secured to the British in 1783.

=Moodkee.= A small town of Hindostan; it is only remarkable for a victory gained by the British over a greatly more numerous force of the Sikhs on December 18, 1845.

=Mook.= A village of Holland, in the province of Limburg; Louis of Nassau was defeated by the Spaniards near this place in 1574, and was slain in the action.

=Mooltan=, or =Moultan=. A city of India, in the Punjab; this place was stormed by Runjeet Sing, 1818; it was taken by the British after a protracted siege, in January, 1849.

=Moon.= A crescent-formed outwork. See HALF-MOON.

=Moors.= Formerly the natives of Mauritania (which see), but afterwards the name given to the Numidians and others, and now applied to the natives of Morocco and the neighborhood. They assisted Genseric and the Vandals in the invasion of Africa, 429, and frequently rebelled against the Roman emperors. They resisted for a time the progress of the Arab Mohammedans, but were overcome in 707, and in 1019 by them introduced into Spain, where their arms were long victorious. In 1063 they were defeated in Sicily by Robert Guiscard. The Moorish kingdom of Granada was set up in 1237, and lasted till 1492, when it fell before Ferdinand V. of Castile. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain was decreed by Charles V., but not fully carried into effect till 1609, when the bigotry of Philip III. inflicted this great injury on his country. About 1518 the Moors established the piratical states of Algiers and Tunis. In the history of Spain the Arabs and Moors must not be confounded.

=Mootiana.= In the East Indies, the soldiers are so called, who are employed to collect the revenue.

=Moppat.= An early name for a sponge of a cannon.

=Moquis.= A body of Pueblo Indians, in Arizona, numbering about 1700, inhabiting seven villages in the region southwest of the Navajoes. Their towns would be almost impregnable to an Indian assault. Each pueblo is built around a rectangular court, and is surrounded by a wall 15 feet high, the top of which forms a landing, upon which the doors of the houses open. The exterior walls, which are of stone, have no openings, and would have to be scaled or battered down before access could be gained to the interior. The successive stories are set back, one behind the other. The lower rooms are reached through trap-doors from the first landing; the latter is reached by means of detached ladders. The houses are three rooms deep, and open from the interior court; the arrangement is as strong and compact as could be well devised; but as the court is common, and the landings are separated by no partitions, it involves a certain community of residence.

=Morat.= An old town of Switzerland, situated on a lake of the same name, in the canton of Friburg. Charles the Bold of Burgundy was defeated before Morat by the Swiss in 1476.

=Moravia.= An Austrian province, occupied by the Slavonians about 458, and conquered by the Avars and Bohemians who submitted to Charlemagne. About 1000 it was subdued by Boleslas, king of Poland, but recovered by Ulric of Bohemia in 1030. After various changes, Moravia and Bohemia were amalgamated into the Austrian dominions in 1526. Moravia was invaded by the Prussians in 1866.

=Morea.= The name borne by the ancient Peloponnesus since the Middle Ages, if not from as early a period as the 4th century; it forms the most southern part of Greece. Morea was overrun by the Goths and Vandals, and became a prey in the second half of the 8th century to bands of Slavic invaders, who found it wasted by war and pestilence. Gradually, however, these barbarians were subdued and Grecianized by the Byzantine emperors. In 1207 Morea was conquered by French knights; part of the country was reconquered in 1261 by the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII. Palæologus; but in 1460 the greater part of the Morea fell into the hands of the Turks, who retained possession of it down to the period of the Greek revolution, except from 1687 to 1715, when it was held by the Venetians.

=Morella.= A strongly-fortified town of Spain, province of Castellon-de-la-Plana. It was taken by Philip V. in 1707, surprised in 1838 by Cabrera, and retaken, after a brave defense, by Espartero in 1840. During the last civil war, the walls and magazines of the citadel were destroyed.

=Morgarten.= A mountain of Switzerland, 5 miles north from Schwyz, where, in November, 1315, the first battle was fought for Swiss independence. On this occasion 20,000 of the Austrian forces were defeated by 1300 Swiss. In 1798 the French were also defeated here by the Swiss.

=Morglay.= A deadly weapon; a great sword.

=Morion.= An iron or steel head-piece worn by a man-at-arms in the days when armor was used. It was distinguished from the helmets of the knights and esquires in having neither visor nor beaver. Under the Norman laws, every yeoman between certain ages was bound to keep his morion ready for service.

=Mormons.= A modern sect who profess the religious doctrines of one Joseph Smith. Polygamy is one of the prominent features of their religion. The sect has its headquarters at Salt Lake City, Utah.

=Morne.= The head of the lance used in tilting or other peaceful encounters. It was curved so that an adversary might be unhorsed, but not wounded, by a stroke.

=Morning Gun.= The gun fired at the first note of reveille in military barracks, forts, etc.

=Morning Star.= A weapon consisting of a ball with projecting spikes attached by a chain to a short staff. Used as late as the time of Henry VIII. by the train-bands of London.

=Morocco.= An empire in Northern Africa, formerly Mauritania. In 1051 it was subdued for the Fatimite caliphs, by the Almaravides, who eventually extended their dominion into Spain. They were succeeded by the Almohades (1121), the Merinites (1270), and in 1516 by the Scherifs, pretended descendants of Mohammed, the now reigning dynasty. The Moors have had frequent wars with the French, Spaniards, and Portuguese, due to piracy.

=Moron=, or =Moron-de-la-Frontera=. A town of Andalusia, Spain, about 32 miles northeast of Seville. On a hill east of the town are the ruins of an ancient castle erected by the Moors, which was one of the most important strongholds in Spain for several centuries. It was blown up by the French in 1812.

=Morris Island.= A low sand island, about 5 miles long, on the south side of Charleston harbor, S. C. A Confederate battery erected on its northern extremity aided in the capture of Fort Sumter, April 12-13, 1861, after which Fort Wagner and other batteries were erected for the defense of Charleston. An expedition against the city having been contemplated, the military occupation of the island by the Federals, and the erection of land-batteries for the reduction of Fort Sumter were deemed necessary. As the latter was a task requiring engineering skill, the duty was assigned to Gen. Q. A. Gillmore, who took command of the department. He took possession of the south end of the island on July 10, 1863, and on the 11th and 18th made two attempts to capture Fort Wagner near the north end by assault, his object being to get within more effective breaching distance of Fort Sumter. His efforts, however, were unsuccessful, and it was accordingly determined to reduce Fort Wagner by a regular siege. Gen. Gillmore commenced by the erection of parallels, which he pushed forward with such diligence in spite of all difficulties, that by August 13 his works were within about 400 yards of Wagner. On the morning of the 17th, having completed his batteries, which numbered about 60 pieces, and obtained the range, his guns opened fire on Sumter. The fleet, consisting of the frigate “Ironsides” and the monitors, aided by some wooden gunboats, made an attack at the same time upon Fort Wagner and Fort Gregg, another Confederate work, both of which were nearly silenced. On August 26, having completed a parallel and sap which extended very close to Fort Wagner, Gen. Gillmore determined to possess a ridge of sand which interposed, and was necessary to the success of his operations. It was constantly occupied by a strong body of the enemy’s pickets and at night by a force protected by rifle-pits. A bombardment of the position was made just before dark, after which it was carried by the 24th Massachusetts, and one company of North Carolina troops captured. After a terrific bombardment of forty-two hours, September 5-6, it was determined to carry the place by storm on the next day, but during the night the enemy evacuated the fort, and Gen. Gillmore became master of the whole island.

=Morris-pike.= An ancient Moorish pike.

=Mortar.= Short cannon for throwing shells, usually fired at angles from 45° to 60° elevation, called “vertical fire,” in contradistinction to the fire of long cannon, usually made at low angles. Mortars--so called from their similarity of form to the mortar for pulverizing, which has retained its familiar shape from the earliest ages--are believed to have been the first guns used, and, though changed from age to age frequently in form of chamber, size, and projectile, all ages have found them too useful in their special way to suppress or essentially alter them. The “Coehorn” mortar--so called from the famous Dutch engineer, Gen. Coehorn, who first proposed them in 1674--is to-day in use, of the same pattern and for the like service then suggested. Monster mortars have been constructed from time to time, in the hope of producing immense destruction in bombardments with single shells containing a large quantity of powder. The most recent of these, the monster mortar made by Mallet for the British government, weighing 114,000 pounds, with a bore of 36 inches and a shell of 2912 pounds, failed to be of any service. Perhaps the most unique mortars ever made were to be found in the island of Malta in the last century. The solid rock had been hollowed out into immense mortars, some of them 6 feet wide at the mouth. These tremendous fougasses (the proper term for them) were to be filled with stones, shells, and missiles of various kinds, to descend in a crushing shower upon an enemy attempting a landing. For different kinds of mortars now in use, see ORDNANCE.

=Mortara.= A walled town of Italy, situated on the right bank of the Arbogna, 14 miles south-southeast of Novara. In 774, the Lombards were here defeated by Charlemagne with great slaughter.

=Mortar-bed.= See BEDS, and ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Mortar-fuze.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Mortar-piece.= An old term for a mortar.

=Mortar-scraper.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Mortar-wagon.= A wagon used to transport mortars, mortar-beds, spare guns, and projectiles. See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Mortfontaine.= A village of France, in the department of the Oise, in the castle of which peace between France and the United States was signed in 1800.

=Mortimer’s Cross.= Four cross-roads about 6 miles northwest from Leominster, in Herefordshire, England, where the Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians in 1461.

=Mortlach.= A parish of Scotland, in Banffshire. In this parish the Danes were defeated by Malcolm II. in the 11th century.

=Mortne.= See MORNE.

=Moscow.= A city of Russia in Europe, situated on the river Moskwa, 375 miles southeast from St. Petersburg. It was the ancient capital of Russia, and was founded about 1147. It was plundered by Timur, 1382; by the Tartars, 1451 and 1477; ravaged by Ladislas of Poland in 1611. It was entered by Napoleon I. and the French, September 14, 1812; the governor, Rostopchin, ordered it to be set on fire (11,840 houses burnt, besides palaces and churches), September 15, 1812. It was evacuated by the French in October, 1812.

=Moskirch= (Baden). Here the Austrians were defeated by Moreau and the French, May 5, 1800.

=Moskwa, Battle of.= See BORODINO.

=Moslem.= Pertaining to the Mohammedans.

=Moss-troopers.= A name formerly applied to the raiders and cattle-thieves who infested the borders of England and Scotland.

=Mothir al Moolk.= In the East Indies, fortifications, barricades, intrenchments, or breastworks, are so called.

=Motion.= Each movement in the manual of arms is divided into motions to facilitate instruction of recruits.

=Motion of Projectiles.= See PROJECTILES.

=Moton.= In ancient armor, a small plate covering the armpits of a knight, used when plate-armor was worn.

=Motto.= In heraldry, is a word or short sentence which forms an accompaniment to a coat of arms, crest, or household badge. In modern heraldry it is customary to place the motto in an escrol either above the crest or below the shield.

=Motya.= An ancient town in the northwest of Sicily, situated on a small island (now Isola di Mezzo), only 6 stadia from the coast. It passed from Sicily into the hands of the Carthaginians; was taken from them by Dionysius of Syracuse about 397 B.C., and was finally captured by the Carthaginian general Himilco, who transplanted all its inhabitants to the town of Lilybæum. From this time it disappears from history.

=Moulinet.= A circular swing of the weapon in sword exercise.

=Moultrie, Fort.= See FORT MOULTRIE.

=Mound.= A bulwark for offense or defense.

=Mound.= In heraldry, a representation of a globe, surmounted with a cross (generally) pattée. As a device, it is said to have been used by the emperor Justinian, and to have been intended to represent the ascendency of Christianity over the world. The royal crown of England is surmounted by a mound, which first appeared on the seal of William the Conqueror, though the globe without the cross was used earlier.

=Mount.= The means or opportunity for mounting, especially a horse; and the equipments necessary for a mounted horseman.

=Mount.= To place one’s self on, as a horse or other animal, or anything that one bestrides or sits upon; to bestride. Hence, to put on horseback; to furnish with animals for riding; to furnish with horses. “To mount the Trojan troop.” See DISMOUNT.

=Mount.= To put anything that sustains and fits, for use; as, to mount a gun on a carriage. To prepare for being worn or otherwise used, as a sword-blade by adding the hilt and scabbard. A ship or a fort is said to mount cannon when they are arranged for use in and about it.

=Mount.= A word of command in the cavalry exercise for the men to mount their horses.

=Mount a Breach, To.= To run up in a quick and determined manner to any breach made in a wall, etc. To mount guard, to do guard duty in a town, garrison, camp, etc.

=Mount Desert Island.= A mountainous island in the Atlantic, and in Hancock Co., Me.; is 14 miles long and 7 wide. The French settled it in 1608; they were driven out by the English in 1616. The English settled it in 1761.

=Mountain Artillery.= A species of light artillery which is used in the United States and other countries in mountain warfare. See MOUNTAIN BATTERY.

=Mountain Battery.= A battery of mountain pieces. The pieces and carriages are carried separately upon the backs of animals, by means of pack-saddles of special construction. These have, however, of late been almost entirely superseded for this purpose by the aparejo. A portable forge also accompanies each battery, and is carried with a bag of coal upon a pack-saddle.

=Mountain-carriage.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Mountain-gun.= See MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY.

=Mountain-howitzer.= The howitzer used in the U. S. service is a 12-pounder brass gun of old pattern with cylindrical chamber. The gun weighs 220 pounds and has an extreme length of 37.21 inches. This gun is ignored in the Light Artillery Tactics.

=Mounted Troops.= Cavalry.

=Mounting Guard.= See GUARD MOUNTING.

=Mourne.= That part of a lance or halbert to which the steel or blade is fixed.

=Mouser.= In the British army, a sobriquet which was sometimes used in sport to distinguish the battalion men from the flank companies. It was indeed generally applied to them by the grenadiers and light bobs, meaning that while the latter are detached, the former remain in quarters, like cats to watch the mice, etc.

=Mousquetaires=, or =Musketeers=. A body of horse-soldiers under the old French régime, raised by Louis XIII. in 1622. This corps was considered a military school for the French nobility. It was disbanded in 1646, but was restored in 1657. A second company was created in 1660, and formed Cardinal Mazarin’s guard.

=Mouth.= See MUZZLE.

=Mouth.= The outer opening of an embrasure.

=Movement.= A term used to express the changes of position which troops undergo in performing their evolutions.

=Mow.= To cut down with speed; to cut down indiscriminately, or in great numbers or quantity; to sweep away; as, a discharge of grape-shot mows down whole ranks of men.

=Moyan.= A species of early artillery.

=Moyen= (Fr.). The bastions which are constructed on the angles are called royal bastions. Some engineers have distinguished those bastions by the name of moyens royaux, or medium royals, whose flanks contain from 90 to 100 toises.

=Moyenne= (Fr.). An ancient 4-pounder, 10 feet long, weighing 1300 pounds. In the time of Charles IX. (1572) it was a 2³⁄₄-pounder.

=Moyenne Ville= (Fr.). A term formerly given by the French to any town in which the garrison was equal to a third of the inhabitants, and which was not deemed sufficiently important to bear the expense of a citadel; more especially so because it was not in the power of the inhabitants to form seditious meetings without the knowledge of the soldiers who were quartered on them.

=Moyens Côtés= (Fr.). In fortification, are those sides which contain from 80 to 120 toises in extent. They are always fortified with bastions on their angles. The moyens côtés are generally found along the extent of irregular places, and each one of these is individually subdivided into small, mean, and great sides.

=Mozyr.= A town in the southeast of the government of Minsk, in European Russia, situated on the Pripet, a tributary of the Dnieper. It is a town of considerable antiquity, and played a rather important part in the wars between the various Russian princes previous to the Tartar invasion. It was unsuccessfully besieged by the Tartars in 1240.

=Muff and Collar.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, LIMBER.

=Muffle.= To wrap with something that dulls or renders sound inaudible; to deaden the sound of; as, to muffle a drum.

=Mufti.= The civilian dress of a military officer when off duty; hence, a citizen’s dress, as distinguished from military uniform.

=Muhlagis.= Turkish cavalry composed of expert horsemen, who generally attend the beglierbeys. They are not very numerous.

=Muhlberg.= A town of Prussian Saxony, situated on the Elbe. Here, on April 24, 1547, a battle was fought between Johann-Friedrich, elector of Saxony, and the emperor Charles V., a battle fraught with the most important results to the cause of Protestantism in Germany. The battle was soon decided in favor of the emperor; the elector was taken prisoner, and stripped of his territories. From this time till 1552, the Catholics were triumphant in Germany.

=Muhldorf.= In Bavaria, near which place Frederick, duke of Austria, was defeated and taken prisoner by Louis of Bavaria, September 28, 1322.

=Mulct.= A soldier is said to be mulcted of his pay when put under fine or stoppages for necessaries, or to make good some dilapidations committed by him on the property of the people or the government.

=Mule.= See PACK AND DRAUGHT ANIMALS.

=Mullet.= In heraldry, is a charge in the form of a star, generally with five points, intended to represent a spur-rowel. It is a mark of cadency assigned to the third son.

=Multan=, or =Mooltan=. An ancient and important city of India, in the Punjab, 200 miles southwest from Lahore. Multan is a military station, with a small redoubt in the rear of the cantonment. In 1849 it was taken by the British troops under Gen. Whish, and annexed with its territory to the British possessions.

=Multi-charge Gun.= Many attempts have been made by inventors to utilize the accelerating effect on the projectile of several charges successively fired in a gun. Lyman’s multi-charge gun has a series of pockets along the bore, the charges in which are successively fired as the projectile passes them. Bessemer proposed plan is to use a gun of great length. The charges are placed separately in holes at the breech, to be fired in succession by electricity.

=Multiple Lines.= In fortification, several lines of detached walls for the defense of a position.

=Munchengratz.= A town of Bohemia, on the Iser, 8 miles northeast from Jungbunzlau; it was taken by the Prussians under Prince Frederick Charles, after a severe action, June 28, 1866. The Austrians lost about 300 killed and 1000 prisoners, and the prince gained about 12 miles of country. There is a palace here, in which the emperors of Austria and Russia and the king of Prussia met in 1833.

=Munda.= A Roman colony and an important town in Hispania Bætica, situated on a small river, and celebrated on account of two battles fought in its neighborhood, the victory of Cn. Scipio over the Carthaginians in 216 B.C., and the important victory of Julius Cæsar over the sons of Pompey in 45.

=Munich= (Ger. München). The capital of the kingdom of Bavaria, situated on the Iser, 117 miles southeast from Stuttgart. It was taken by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1632; by the Austrians in 1704, 1741, and 1743; and by the French under Moreau, July 2, 1800.

=Munifice= (Lat. munifex), Fr. A Roman soldier who was subjected to every kind of drudgery-work in camp.

=Munimell.= A stronghold, fortification, etc.

=Munition.= Whatever materials are used in war for defense, or for annoying an enemy; ammunition; also, stores and provisions; military stores of all kinds.

=Munkacs.= A market-town of East Hungary, 80 miles northeast from Debreczin. It was taken by the Imperialists in 1687, after a siege of three years.

=Munsees=, or =Minsees=. A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, who were closely allied to the Delawares. Many of them became converts to Christianity. A few of them now reside on the reservation of the Stockbridge Indians in Wisconsin, and about 60 are settled in Kansas.

=Münster.= A city of Germany, on the small river Aa, 77 miles northeast from Cologne. It is the capital of a government of the same name in Prussian Westphalia. It was seized by the French in 1806; part of the duchy of Berg, 1809; annexed to France, 1810; ceded to Prussia, 1815. It was the headquarters of the Anabaptists under John Leyden, who defended it against the bishop of Münster, 1534-35. Here was signed the treaty of Westphalia or Münster, October 24, 1648.

=Münsterthal.= Two valleys of Switzerland, one in the canton Grisons, the other in Berne, where, in 1444, the battle of St. Jacob was fought between the French and Swiss, when the latter were nearly annihilated.

=Muotta Valley.= A secluded valley of Switzerland, canton of Schwytz, traversed by the river Muotta, an affluent of Lake Lucerne. Here a sanguinary struggle took place in 1799, between the French under Lecourbe, Mortier, and Masséna, and the Russians under Suwarrow. The latter was hemmed in on all sides, but by a desperate onslaught he cut his way through the French lines, and made a masterly retreat.

=Muradal, Battle of.= See TOLOSA.

=Murage.= Money appropriated to the repair of military works; anciently so called.

=Mural Crown.= In Roman antiquity, a golden crown, or circlet of gold, indented so as to resemble a battlement; bestowed on him who first mounted the wall of a besieged place, and there lodged a standard.

=Murcia.= An old kingdom in the southeast of Spain, now divided into the modern provinces of Murcia and Albacete. It was conquered by the Arabs in 711 (712, 713); after the fall of the caliphate of Cordova, it became an independent Arab kingdom, but six years afterward was subjugated by King Ferdinand II. of Castile.

=Murcia.= A city of Spain, capital of the ancient kingdom and modern province of its own name, 30 miles north-northwest of Carthagena. It was taken by the Moors in 713; wrested from them by Ferdinand of Castile. In 1810 it was taken and sacked by the French.

=Murderer.= A great piece of artillery. Among the ordnance given up to Monk with Edinburgh Castle in 1650 is mentioned “The great iron murderer, Muckle Meg.”

=Murdresses.= In ancient fortification, a sort of battlement with interstices, raised on the tops of towers in order to fire through.

=Muret= (Southern France). Here the Albigenses under the Count of Toulouse were defeated by Simon de Montfort, and their ally, Peter of Aragon, killed, September 12, 1213.

=Murfreesboro’.= A town and capital of Rutherford Co., Tenn., about 30 miles southeast of Nashville. A Federal force which occupied this place in 1862 was surprised and captured by a body of Confederates under Gen. Forrest. Near here, on December 31, 1862, the Army of the Ohio under Gen. Rosecrans encountered the Confederates under Gen. Bragg, and a desperate battle ensued, continuing at intervals and with varying success until January 3, 1863, when the Confederate army retreated, and Gen. Rosecrans occupied Murfreesboro’. The Federal loss was about 8500 killed and wounded, and 3600 missing; the Confederates represented their loss at 10,000, of which 9000 were killed and wounded. This battle is known as the battle of Murfreesboro’, or of Stone River.

=Murviedro.= A fortified town of Spain in the province of Valencia, 17 miles north from Valencia. It was taken by Hannibal 219 B.C.

=Muscule=, or =Testude=. In ancient times, a machine of war; a mantelet; shed; low, long, and sharp-roofed shed, which enabled the besiegers to advance to and sap the wall of the besieged.

=Music.= A general term for the musicians of a regimental band.

=Music, Phrygian.= A martial sort of ancient music, which excited men to rage and battle; by this mode Timotheus stirred up Alexander to arms.

=Musicians.= See BAND, DRUMMER, FIFER, and TRUMPETER.

=Musket=, or =Musquet= (Fr. mousquet). The fire-arm for infantry soldiers, which succeeded the clumsy arquebuse, and has itself given way before the rifle (which see). The first muskets were matchlocks; after which came wheel-locks, asnaphans or snaphance muskets, and lastly percussion muskets, which were a vast improvement both for accuracy and lightness on all which had gone before. Compared, however, to the present rifle, the musket was a heavy, ugly, and ineffective weapon.

=Musket Baskets.= These are about a foot or a foot and a half high, 8 or 10 inches diameter at bottom, and a foot at the top, so that being filled with earth there is room to lay a musket between them at the bottom, being set on low breastworks, or parapets, or upon such as are beaten down.

=Musketeer.= A soldier armed with a musket.

=Musketoon.= An obsolete weapon; was a short musket of very wide bore, carrying a ball of 5 ounces, and sometimes bell-mouthed like a blunderbuss. Also one who was armed with such a weapon.

=Musket-proof.= Capable of resisting the effects of musket-balls.

=Musketry.= Muskets in general or collectively. “The rattle of musketry.”

=Musselburgh.= A royal burgh of Scotland, county of Mid-Lothian, at the mouth of the Esk, 6 miles east of Edinburgh. The town is historically important on account of the battle of Pinkie, which was fought in the neighborhood in 1547, when the Scottish army was defeated by the English under the Earl of Somerset.

=Mustang.= The wild horse of the prairies in Mexico, California, etc. It is small, hardy, and easily sustained.

=Muster.= A review of troops under arms, fully equipped, in order to take an account of their numbers, inspect their arms and accoutrements, and examine their condition. In the U. S. service troops are mustered bi-monthly. During the civil war, the mustering in and mustering out of troops (into or out of the U. S. service) were performed by staff-officers, called commissaries of musters.

=Muster-book.= A book in which military forces are registered.

=Muster-file.= A muster-roll.

=Muster-master.= One who takes an account of troops, and of their arms and other military apparatus. This title is not known in the U. S. army. The person who performs these duties is called a mustering officer, or an inspecting officer.

=Muster-roll.= A roll or register of the men in each company, troop, or regiment.

=Muta= (Syria). Here Mohammed and his followers defeated the Christians in his first conflict with them, 629.

=Mutilated.= In a military sense, signifies wounded in such a manner as to lose the use of a limb. A battalion is said to be mutilated when its divisions, etc., stand unequal.

=Mutina.= See MODENA.

=Mutine.= To mutiny; a mutineer. This term is obsolete.

=Mutineer.= One guilty of mutiny; a person in military or naval service, who rises in opposition to the authority of the officers, who openly resists the government of the army or navy, or attempts to destroy due subordination.

=Mutinous.= Disposed to mutiny or resist the authority of laws and regulations, especially in an army, or openly resisting such authority; turbulent; seditious.

=Mutinously.= In a mutinous manner.

=Mutinousness.= The quality or state of being mutinous; seditiousness.

=Mutiny.= Insurrection against constituted authority, particularly military authority; open and violent resistance to the authority of officers; concerted revolt against the rules of discipline; hence, generally, forcible resistance to rightful authority on the part of subordinates. Violent commotion; tumult; uproar; strife.

=Mutiny.= To rise against lawful authority in the military service; to excite, or to be guilty of mutiny, or mutinous conduct; to revolt against one’s superior officer or rightful authority.

=Mutiny Act.= In Great Britain, an annual act of Parliament fixing the strength of the army for the military year, which commences April 1, and ends March 31, and imposing certain penalties for offenses connected with the army. It also authorizes the sovereign to issue Articles of War.

=Muzzle.= See ORDNANCE, NOMENCLATURE.

=Muzzle Velocity.= Velocity at the muzzle. See INITIAL VELOCITY.

=Muzzle-ring.= The metallic ring or circle that surrounds the mouth of a cannon or other piece.

=Muzzle-sight.= A front sight placed on or near the muzzle.

=Mycale= (now Samsum). A mountain in the south of Ionia, in Asia Minor, north of the mouth of the Meander. It forms the western extremity of Mount Messogis, and runs far out into the sea, opposite to Samos, forming a sharp promontory, which was called Mycale, or Trogilium (now Cape St. Maria). This cape and the southeast promontory of Samos (Posidonium) overlap one another, and the two tongues of land are separated by a strait only about three-fourths of a mile in width, which is renowned in Greek history as the scene of the victory gained over the Persian fleet by Leotychides and Xanthippus, 479 B.C.

=Mycalessus.= An ancient and important city in Bœotia, mentioned by Homer, situated on the road from Aulis to Thebes. In 413 B.C., some Thracian mercenaries in the pay of Athens surprised and sacked the town and butchered the inhabitants. From this blow it never recovered, and was in ruins in the time of Pausanias.

=Mycenæ=, sometimes =Mycene= (now Karvata). An ancient town in Argolis, about 6 miles northeast of Argos; it is said to have been founded by Perseus in 2 B.C. After the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, it ceased to be a place of importance. It still, however, continued an independent town till 468 B.C., when it was attacked by the Argives, whose hatred the Mycenæans are said to have incurred by the part they took in the Persian war in favor of the Greek cause. The massive walls of Mycenæ resisted all the attacks of the Argives; but the inhabitants were at length compelled by famine to abandon their town. They effected their escape and took refuge, some at Cleonæ, some in Achaia, and others in Macedonia.

=Mylæ.= See MILAZZO.

=Myonnesus= (now Cape Hypsili). A promontory of Ionia, with a town and a little island of the same name, forming the northern headland of the Gulf of Ephesus. Here the Romans, under the prætor L. Æmilius, gained a great naval victory over Antiochus the Great, 190 B.C.

=Myriarch.= A captain or commander of 10,000 men.

=Myrmidons.= The soldiers who accompanied Achilles in the expedition against Troy. Rough, desperate characters banded under a leader.

=Mysore=, =Maheshasoora=, or =Maisur=. A raj or native principality of Southern India. It was ruled by Hyder Ali, who acquired the sovereignty in 1761, and afterwards by his son Tippoo Sahib, who was slain when Seringapatam (May 4, 1799) was stormed and taken, and the country occupied by the British, who set up, in the same year, an heir of the ancient Hindoo royal family of Mysore to rule in his stead. The state is now subsidiary to the British.

=Mytilene=, =Mitylene=, or =Metelin=. The city of Lesbos. At the beginning of the 7th century B.C., the possession of its colony, Sigeum, at the mouth of the Hellespont, was disputed in war between the Mytileneans and Athenians, and assigned to the latter by the award of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Mytilene submitted to the Persians after the conquest of Ionia and Æolis, and furnished contingents to the expeditions of Cambyses against Egypt and of Darius against Scythia; it was active in the Ionian revolt; became again subject to Persia, and took part in the expedition of Xerxes against Greece. After the Persian war it formed an alliance with Athens, and remained one of the most important members of the Athenian confederacy. In 428 B.C. it headed a revolt of the greater part of Lesbos, the progress and suppression of which forms one of the most interesting episodes in the history of the Peloponnesian war. Mytilene fell under the power of the Romans after the Mithridatic war.

N.

=Naas.= A town of Ireland, in the county of Kildare, 18 miles southwest from Dublin. Here the insurgent Irish were defeated by a body of the king’s forces, May 24, 1798; the insurgents lost about 300 killed and many wounded.

=Nabatæi=, or =Nabathæ= (in the Old Testament Nebaioth). An Arabian people, descended from the eldest son of Ishmaël, had their original abodes in the northwestern part of the Arabian peninsula, east and southeast of the Moabites and Edomites. After the Babylonian conquest of Judæa, the Nabathæans extended west into the Sinaitic peninsula and the territory of the Edomites. They resisted all the attacks of the Greek kings of Syria. Under Augustus the Nabathæans are found, as nominal subjects of the Roman empire, assisting Ælius Gallius in his expedition into Arabia Felix; under Trajan they were conquered by A. Cornelius Palma, and Arabia Petræa became a Roman province, 105-107. The Mohammedan conquest finally overthrew the power of the Nabathæans.

=Nachod.= A town of Bohemia, near where the Prussians, under their crown prince, defeated the Austrians after a severe conflict, June 27, 1866. In this battle, the superiority of the Prussian Uhlans over the Austrian cavalry was demonstrated.

=Nafels.= A small town of Switzerland, in the canton of Glarus, 4 miles north from Glarus. Here in 1388, 1500 men of Glarus, under Matthias am Buhl, overthrew an Austrian force of from 6000 to 8000 men The event is still celebrated yearly.

=Nagarkana.= In the East Indies, the place where all the drums and war-music are kept, is so called.

=Naggur= (Ind.). The principal drum in Asiatic armies, commonly allowed only to persons of high dignity; the bass drum.

=Nagpore=, =Nagpur=, or =Nagpoor=. A city of British India, capital of the province of the same name, 430 miles in a direct line east-northeast from Bombay. The rajahs of Nagpore, now an extinct dynasty, were the rulers of a state which was a branch of the great Mahratta confederacy. Its founder was Parsojee, originally a private soldier. Ragojee, one of the successors of Parsojee, united his forces in 1803 with those of Scindia in the war against the British consequent on the treaty of Bassein. The victories of Assaye and Argaum compelled him to sue for peace, and by a treaty concluded in 1804, he surrendered the province of Cuttack. Appa Sahib, his successor, concluded a treaty with the British government, but on November 26, 1817, he made an attack on the British troops at Seetabuldee, an eminence on the outskirts of the town of Nagpore. The British force, only 1400 strong, under Col. Scott, was opposed to a body of 20,000 native troops; but the best dispositions which the suddenness of the attack allowed were promptly made. A noble charge, headed by Capt. Fitzgerald with a small party of cavalry, upon a large body of the enemy’s horse, decided the fortune of the day, which ended in the defeat of the natives.

=Naigue=, =Naick=, or =Naik=. A native non-commissioned officer among Indian and Anglo-Asiatic troops, whose functions are somewhat analogous to those performed among European troops by the drill-sergeant.

=Nail Cannon, To.= See SPIKE CANNON, TO.

=Nail-ball.= A round projectile with an iron pin protruding from it, to prevent its turning in the bore of the piece.

=Nairs.= A native military tribe of the Malabar coast. They affirm that they are the oldest nobility in the world. Their pride on this supposition is greater than that of the Rajpoots. In 1755, the king of Travancore, with the assistance of a French officer called Launoy, disciplined 10,000 Nairs in the method of European infantry.

=Najera.= A town of Spain in the province of Logrono. Near this place Edward the Black Prince defeated Henry de Trastamere, and re-established Peter the Cruel on the throne of Castile, April 3, 1367.

=Naked Bullet.= Grooved or cannelured bullet as distinguished from the patched bullet.

=Namur.= A city of Belgium, capital of the province of the same name, 33 miles southwest from Liège. It has been fortified from the earliest period of its history; in 1692 its defensive works were repaired and strengthened by Coehorn; was taken in the following year by Louis XIV. and Vauban, the latter of whom added considerable to its original strength; in 1695 it sustained a long siege against William III. of England, and was taken; seized by the French in the beginning of the 18th century, but ceded to Austria in 1713. In 1781 the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792 it was occupied by the French, but retaken by the Austrians in 1793. In 1794 it was again occupied by the French, who kept it till the Netherlands were given up by the French government in 1814; and after having been gallantly defended by its French conquerors in 1815, against the Prussians under Pirch, it was finally restored to the Netherlands after the battle of Waterloo, and at once put into thorough repair. The works were demolished again in 1866 with the exception of the citadel.

=Nana.= In the East Indies, the title which is given to a chief of the Mahrattas. It more properly signifies the acting head of the government, and general of the forces.

=Nancy.= A city of France, the capital of the department of the Meurthe, situated on the Meurthe, 30 miles south from Metz; it was the capital of Lorraine and the residence of the dukes of that country in the 13th century. After taking Nancy, November 29, 1475, and losing it, October 5, 1476, Charles the Bold of Burgundy was defeated and slain beneath its walls by René II., duke of Lorraine, and the Swiss, January 5, 1477. Nancy on the retreat of MacMahon’s army, and expecting the German army, surrendered to four Uhlans, August 12, 1870.

=Nankin=, =Nanking=, =Kianning-Foo=, or =Kiangning-Fu=. The ancient capital of China, now the chief town of the province of Kiangsu, is situated about 3 miles from the south bank of the river Yang-tse-Kiang, about 100 miles from its mouth. On August 4, 1842, the British ships arrived at Nankin, and were kept before this place till the final treaty of August 29, between China and Great Britain, was signed and ratified. The rebel Tae-pings (Taipings) took it on March 19-20, 1853. It was recaptured by the imperialists, July 19, 1864.

=Nantes= (anc. Condivicnum, afterwards Namnetes, or Nannetes). An important commercial town of France, capital of the department of Loire-Inférieure, on the right bank of the Loire, about 30 miles from its mouth, 208 miles southwest of Paris. The history of Nantes reaches back to the time of the Romans, in whose hands it seems to have remained until the beginning of the 5th century, when they were driven from the town. In 445 it valiantly withstood a siege of sixty days by the Huns. It was captured by the Normans in 853 and 859, and held in possession by them for nearly a century, after which the town suffered many sieges,--in 1343 by the English; in 1380 by the Earl of Buckingham, when it was relieved by Oliver of Clisson; and again in 1491 by Charles VIII. It suffered much from the Vendéan civil war of 1793. In June of that year the Vendéan army, 50,000 strong, under Cathelineau, laid siege to the city, then defended by Gens. Beysser and Canclaux, but were repulsed with great loss,--their general being among the slain. Here took place the wholesale drowning (termed Noyades) of the royalists in the Loire, by command of the brutal Carrier, one of the leaders of the republicans, November, 1793. It was from Nantes that Prince Charles Edward embarked for Scotland in 1745.

=Nantes, Edict of.= The name given to the famous decree published in that city by Henry IV. of France, April 13, 1598, which secured to the Protestant portion of his subjects freedom of religion.

=Naples.= A province of Italy, occupying the southern part of the Italian peninsula, formerly the continental division of the old kingdom of the Two Sicilies. It began with a Greek colony named Parthenope (about 1000 B.C.), which was afterwards divided into Palæpolis (the old) and Neapolis (the new city), from which latter the present name is derived. The colony was conquered by the Romans in the Samnite war, 326 B.C. Naples, after resisting the power of the Lombards, Franks, and Germans, was subjugated by the Normans, under Roger Guiscard, king of Sicily, in 1131. Naples was conquered by Theodoric the Goth in 493; retaken by Belisarius in 536; taken again by Totila in 543; retaken by Narses in 542; conquered, and the kingdom of the Two Sicilies founded by Roger Guiscard II. in 1131. Here occurred the massacre called the Sicilian Vespers (which see), March 30, 1282. The territory was invaded by Louis, king of Hungary, in 1349; seized by Alphonso V. of Aragon in 1435; conquered by Charles VIII. of France in 1494; and by Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of Spain, who divided it in 1501. The French were expelled from Naples in 1504; insurrection of Masaniello, occasioned by the extortions of the Spanish viceroys, July, 1647; Masaniello slain by his own followers a few days later; another insurrection suppressed by Don John of Austria, October, 1647. Naples was conquered by Prince Eugène of Savoy for the emperor in 1706; the king flies on the approach of the French republicans, who establish the Parthenopean republic, January 14, 1799; Nelson appears; Naples retaken June, 1799; the Neapolitans occupy Rome, September 30, 1799. Ferdinand is compelled to fly to Sicily, January 23, 1806; the French enter Naples, and Joseph Bonaparte made king, February, 1806; Joachim Murat made king, July 15, 1808; Joachim declares war against Austria, March 15, 1815; defeated at Tolentino, May 3, 1815; successful insurrection of the Carbonari under Gen. Pépé, July 13, 1820; the Austrians invade the kingdom; Gen. Pépé defeated, March 7, 1821; insurrection of the Carbonari suppressed, August, 1828; great fighting in Naples; the liberals and the national guard almost annihilated by the royal troops, aided by the lazzaroni, May 15, 1848; a martial anarchy prevails, 1849; Italian refugees, under Count Pisacane, land in Calabria, are defeated, and their leader killed, June 27-July 2, 1857; insubordination among the Swiss troops at Naples, many shot, July 7, 1859; Garibaldi lands in Sicily, May 11, 1860, and defeats the Neapolitan army at Calatafimi, May 15, 1860; state of siege proclaimed at Naples, June 28, 1860; Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans at Melazzo, July 20; enters Messina, July 21, and the Neapolitans agree to evacuate Sicily, July 30, 1860; the army proclaim Count de Trani king, July 10, 1860; Garibaldi lands at Melito, August 18, 1860; takes Reggio, August 21, 1860; he enters Naples without troops, September 7, 1860; Garibaldi gives up the Neapolitan fleet to the Sardinian admiral Persano, September 11, 1860; repulses the Neapolitans at Cajazzo, September 19, 1860, and defeats them at the Volturno, October 1, 1860; the king of Sardinia enters the kingdom of Naples, and takes command of his army, which combines with Garibaldi’s, October 11, 1860; Cialdini defeats the Neapolitans at Isernia, October 17, and at Venafro, October 18, 1860; Garibaldi meets Victor Emmanuel, and salutes him as king of Italy, October 26, 1860.

=Naples= (Lat. Neapolis, It. Napoli). A city of Italy, the capital of the province of Naples, situated on the Bay of Naples, near the foot of Mount Vesuvius. In 1799 it was taken by the French, who evacuated it shortly after, but again occupied it in 1806. In 1848 it was plundered by the lazzaroni, of whom 1500 lost their lives. The history of this city is nearly identical with that of the province of the same name (which see).

=Napoleon Gun.= In 1856 it was proposed to increase the power of the light, and diminish the weight of the heavy field artillery, by the introduction of a single piece of medium weight and caliber; such is the new field or Napoleon gun. It has no chamber, and should therefore be classed as a gun. Its exterior is characterized by the entire absence of molding and ornament, and in this respect may be at once distinguished from the old field-cannon. The first reinforce is cylindrical, and it has no second reinforce, as the exterior tapers uniformly with the chase from the extremity of the first reinforce. The size of the trunnions and the distance between the rimbases are the same as in the 24-pounder howitzer, in order that pieces may be transported on the same kind of carriage. The diameter of the bore is that of a 12-pounder, the length of bore is 16 calibers. The weight is 100 times the projectile, or 1200 pounds. The charge of powder is the same as for the heavy 12-pounders (pattern of 1840), or 2¹⁄₂ pounds for solid and case-shot, and 2 pounds for canister-shot. It has, therefore, nearly as great range and accuracy as the heaviest gun of the old system, and, at the same time, the recoil and strain on the carriage are not too severe. The new gun and carriage weigh about 500 pounds more than the 6-pounder and carriage, still it has been found to possess sufficient mobility for the general purposes of light artillery. It is proposed to retain the 12-pounder howitzer in service, to be employed in cases where great celerity of movement is indispensable. The effect of this change is to simplify the matériel of field artillery, and to increase its ability to cope with the rifle-musket, principally by the use of larger and more powerful spherical case-shot. The principal objection to an increased caliber for light field-guns is the increased weight of the ammunition, and consequent reduction of the number of rounds that can be carried in the ammunition-chests.

=Narbonne.= A city of France, in the department of the Aude, 32 miles east of Carcassonne. The modern town of Narbonne occupies the site of the ancient Narbo Martius, a Roman colony founded in 118 B.C. After the first colonization of Narbo, many of the soldiers of Cæsar’s Tenth Legion were settled here, from whom the town derived the name of Decumanorum Colonia. It was taken by the Visigoths in 462, by the Burgundians in 508, by the Franks in 531, by the Saracens in 719, and by the Moors in 779. Charles Martel defeated the Moors under its walls, but the town held out until it was taken by Pepin in 759. In 859 it fell to the arms of the Northmen.

=Narisci.= A small but brave people in the south of Germany, of the Suevic race, dwelt west of the Marcomanni and east of the Hermunduri. Their country extended from the Sudeti Montes on the north to the Danube on the south.

=Narni= (anc. Narnia). A town of Central Italy, on the Nera, or Nar, about 45 miles northeast of Rome. During the second Punic war an army was posted here to oppose the threatened advance of Hasdrubal upon Rome. The town bore an important part in the civil war between Vitellius and Vespasian. It was occupied by the generals of the former to check the advance of Vespasian’s army, but the increasing disaffection towards Vitellius caused the troops at Narnia to lay down their arms without resistance. Its natural strength and commanding position rendered it also of great importance during the Gothic wars of Belisarius and Narses. The town was sacked by the Venetians and its garrison put to the sword in the 16th century, since which time it has been a place of little importance.

=Narragansetts.= A tribe of Algonkin Indians who formerly inhabited a tract of country nearly corresponding to the present State of Rhode Island. They were generally friendly to the early white settlers, and were sworn enemies of the Mohegans (which see). In 1637, when the Pequots were attempting to induce them to join in a general war upon the whites, they were dissuaded from doing so by Roger Williams, who had great influence with their chief, Canonicus. In King Philip’s war (1675) they were suspected of playing false to the settlers, and of sheltering the enemy that wasted their settlements. It was accordingly resolved to treat them as enemies, and 1000 colonists marched against their chief fort, which was situated on a swamp island near what is now the village of Kingston, R. I. The fort was taken by storm and burned, all the winter supplies of the Indians and many of the aged and helpless, it is said, perishing in the flames. Hunger and distress followed; but the Narragansetts still maintained the contest under their chief, Canonchet, until he was taken prisoner and put to death. They subsequently merged into the dominant race, and only a few of the tribe now exist.

=Narva.= A town of Russia in Europe, in the government of St. Petersburg, on the Narova, 8 miles from its mouth, and 90 miles southwest from St. Petersburg. Near this town on November 30, 1700, Charles XII. at the head of 8000 Swedes, defeated Peter the Great with about 80,000 Russians. It was taken by Peter in 1804.

=Nasamones.= A powerful but savage Libyan people, who dwelt originally on the shores of the Great Syrtis, but were driven inland by the Greek settlers of Cyrenaica, and afterward by the Romans.

=Naseby.= A parish and village of England, in the county of Northampton, 12 miles north of the town of that name. The battle of Naseby, between Charles I. and the Parliamentary army under Fairfax and Cromwell, took place here, June 14, 1645. It resulted in the total defeat of the royalists, the king being compelled to flee, after losing his cannon and baggage, and nearly 5000 of his army as prisoners.

=Nashville.= A city and capital of the State of Tennessee, situated on the left bank of the Cumberland River, about 200 miles from its mouth. During the civil war, after the fall of Fort Donelson, it was occupied by the Union forces, February 24, 1862. Within a few miles of the city was fought the memorable battle which bears its name, between the Confederate forces under Gen. Hood and the Union troops under Gen. George H. Thomas, December 15-16, 1864. The battle commenced by a feint on Hood’s right and a real attack on his left, which resulted in driving it a distance of 8 miles, and the capture of over 1000 prisoners, 20 wagons, and 16 pieces of artillery. During the ensuing night, Gen. Hood contracted his lines, and next day the battle was renewed with vigor, towards the afternoon becoming close and obstinate. Near dusk the Confederates gave way, and a total rout soon followed. Some 4000 prisoners were captured, over 50 pieces of artillery, and an immense number of small-arms. On the 17th the pursuit of the enemy was continued and many more prisoners captured. Hood escaped with a mere wreck of his army, and was soon after relieved of command.

=Nasir-Jung= (Ind.). Victorious, or triumphant in war.

=Nassau, House of.= A noble family of German origin, which produced many great men, and derived its title from Nassau, on the Rhine. In the 16th century the family acquired the principality of Orange, in the southeast of France; after which the counts of Nassau took the title of Prince of Orange.

=Natchez=, or =Natches=. A tribe of Indians who formerly occupied four or five villages situated east of the Mississippi in a tract of country which embraced the site of the city of that name. They were generally friendly to the early French settlers; but in 1729, being enraged by the brutal avarice of Chopart, the commander of the garrison, who demanded as a plantation the very site of their principal village, they concerted a general massacre of the French, which they effected November 28, killing about 200 and holding the women and children captives. The French took a bloody and terrible revenge. Under the leadership of Le Sueur, a Frenchman, 700 Choctaws broke upon the slumbers of the Natchez on the night of January 28, 1730, liberated the captives, and with a loss of but two of their number, brought off 60 scalps and 18 prisoners. On February 8 following the French under Loubois completed the ruin of the tribe. Some fled to the neighboring tribes and some crossed the Mississippi to the vicinity of the Natchitoches. They were pursued and their places of refuge taken. Of the scattered remnants some remained with the Chickasaws, others settled with the Muskogees, and about 400 were shipped to San Domingo and sold as slaves. Thus perished the Natchez as an independent tribe.

=Natchitoches.= A tribe of Indians allied to the Caddos, who formerly lived on Red River, La. They were dispossessed of their territory by the fugitive Natchez in 1731, and settled permanently with the Caddos, with which tribe a few still exist.

=National Armory.= See ARMORY, NATIONAL.

=National Cemeteries.= In the United States, are the burial-places for soldiers. They are called national because they belong to and are cared for by the general government.

=National Flag.= See FLAG.

=National Guards.= The militia organizations of several States of the United States and of some foreign countries are so called. In the United States they are authorized by State laws, and may be called into the service of the general government. After the destruction of the Bastile, a similar organization, called the garde nationale, was formed in Paris from the bourgeois class in 1789, under Lafayette as colonel-general. Napoleon subsequently defeated and dispersed it, but it was again organized by him in 1814. The national guard was adopted as an institution under the Restoration, and the Comte d’Artois appointed colonel-general. By decree of 1852 the government reserved the right of organizing or suppressing the national guard in communes, and also of nominating all the officers, who up to this time had been elected. The French national guard fought in the war of 1870-71, and also participated in the Communist struggles.

=National Military Homes.= See SOLDIERS’ HOMES.

=National Salute.= In the United States, a salute of one gun for each State in the Union.

=National Troops.= Are those raised under the authority of Congress, in contradistinction to the militia, which may be called State troops, being organized by the several States.

=Native Cavalry.= A body of natives in the East Indian army, formed into light dragoons.

=Native Infantry.= A body of native troops in the East Indian army.

=Natural Angle of Sight.= The angle which the natural line of sight makes with the axis of the piece.

=Natural Fortification.= See FORTIFICATION.

=Natural Line of Sight.= See LINE OF METAL.

=Natural Steel.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR, STEEL.

=Naumburg.= A town of Prussia, province of Saxony, 18 miles south-southwest from Merseburg. It was besieged in 1482 by the Hussites under Procopius; but they were induced to raise the siege by the entreaties of the children of the town. Naumburg was a place of importance in the Thirty Years’ War, as well as in the campaigns of 1806 and 1813.

=Nauplia.= A small fortified town and seaport in the Morea, Greece. At an early period it was the port and arsenal of Argos; occupied by the Venetians in the 13th century; taken by the Turks in 1540, and again in 1715. The Turks lost it on the outbreak of the Greek insurrection.

=Navajo Indians.= A numerous and warlike tribe of the Shoshone family, who are located to the number of about 12,000 on a large reservation in New Mexico. They were for a long time at war with the whites, but have at length been thoroughly subdued, and are gradually adopting semi-civilized habits. They are famous for the manufacture of a peculiar blanket of excellent quality which bears their name.

=Naval Camp.= In military antiquities, a fortification, consisting of a ditch and parapet on the land side, or a wall built in the form of a semicircle, and extended from one point of the sea to the other. This was beautified with gates, and sometimes defended with towers, through which they issued forth to attack their enemies. Towards the sea, or within it, they fixed great piles of wood, like those in their artificial harbors; before these the vessels of burden were placed in such order, that they might serve instead of a wall, and give protection to those without; in this manner Nicias is reported by Thucydides to have encamped himself. When their fortifications were thought strong enough to defend them from the assaults of enemies, the ancients frequently dragged their ships on shore. Around these ships the soldiers disposed their tents, as appears everywhere in Homer. But this seems only to have been practiced in winter, when their enemy’s fleet was laid up, and could not assault them; or in long sieges, and when they lay in no danger from their enemies by sea, as in the Trojan war, where the defenders of Troy never once attempted to encounter the Grecians in a sea-fight.

=Naval Crown.= In heraldry, a rim of gold, round which are placed alternately prows of galleys and square-sails. A naval crown supporting the crest in place of the wreath, occurs in various grants of arms in the early part of the present century to naval heroes. The crest of the Earl of St. Vincent, bestowed on him after his victory over the Spanish fleet in 1797, is issuing out of a naval crown or, enwrapped by a wreath of laurel vert, a demi-pegasus argent maned and hoofed of the first, and winged azure, charged in the wing with a fleur-de-lis or.

=Navarre.= A province, and formerly a kingdom, of Spain, is bounded on the north by France, on the south and east by Aragon, and on the west by the Biscays. It was occupied in ancient times by the Vascones, who were subdued by the Goths in the 5th century: After having become gradually amalgamated with their conquerors, the people continued to enjoy a species of turbulent independence under military leaders until the 8th century, when they were almost annihilated by the hordes of Arabs who were rapidly spreading their dominion to all parts of the peninsula. Navarre was conquered from the Saracens by Charlemagne, 778. In 1076, Sancho Ramorez of Aragon seized Navarre. During the war of independence and the civil war, the province produced bands of formidable guerrilleros.

=Nave.= In gun-carriages, that part of a wheel in which the arms of the axle-tree move, and in which the spokes are driven and supported.

=Nave-boxes.= Are boxes which are placed in the naves; they were formerly made of brass, but experience has shown that those of cast iron cause less friction, and are much cheaper. There are two, one at each end, to diminish the friction of the axle-tree against the nave.

=Nave-hoops.= Are flat iron rings to bind the nave; there are generally three on each nave.

=Navel.= A lug with a hole through it on the under side of a carronade, used to connect it with its carriage.

=Naxos=, or =Naxia=. An island in the Ægean Sea, and the largest of the Cyclades; is situated nearly half-way between the coasts of Greece and Asia Minor. It was conquered by Pisistratus, who established Lydamis as tyrant of the island about 540 B.C. The Persians in 501 attempted, at the suggestion of Aristagoras, to subdue Naxos, but failed; Aristagoras, fearing punishment, induced the Ionian cities to revolt from Persia. In 490 the Persians, under Datis and Artaphernes, conquered Naxos, and reduced the inhabitants to slavery. The Naxians recovered their independence after the battle of Salamis (480). They were the first of the allied states whom the Athenians reduced to subjection, 471. After the capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, the Ægean Sea fell to the lot of the Venetians; and Marco Sanudo in 1207 took possession of Nuxos, and founded there a powerful state under the title of duchy of the Ægean Sea. His dynasty ruled over the greater part of the Cyclades for 360 years, and was at length overthrown by the Turks in 1566. Naxos now belongs to the kingdom of Greece.

=Naxos.= A Greek city on the eastern coast of Sicily, south of Mount Taurus; was founded 735 B.C. by the Chalcidians of Eubœa, and was the first Greek colony established in the island. It carried on a successful war against Messina, and was subsequently an ally of the Athenians against Syracuse. In 403 the town was taken by Dionysius of Syracuse, and destroyed.

=Nebraska.= One of the Central States of the United States, lying west of the Missouri River. Nebraska formed a part of the great grant of the Mississippi Valley to Crozart in 1712, and was part of the territory included in Law’s celebrated Mississippi scheme. It came into possession of the United States in 1803, as a portion of the Louisiana purchase. In 1804, Lewis and Clarke explored the interior and western parts of the State. In 1854 it was erected into a Territory, and in 1867 admitted as a State.

=Necessaries.= The articles issued to the British soldier, such as boots, shirts, stockings, razor, etc., which are requisite for his comfort and cleanliness, are technically termed regimental necessaries. Non-commissioned officers are not allowed to sell regimental necessaries to the soldiers. Every article is directed by the regulations to be marked with the owner’s name, the letter of his company, and the number of his regiment; and the sale or injury of them renders him liable to be tried by court-martial and punished.

=Neck.= The elbow or part connecting the blade and socket of a bayonet.

=Neck Line.= An old term in fortification signifying the gorge.

=Neck of a Cascabel.= The part joining the knob to the base of the breech.

=Neck of a Gun.= The small part of the piece in front of the chase.

=Needle.= A slender bar of steel, usually pointed, and resting on a vertical pivot, in a mariner’s, or other compass, so as to turn freely towards the magnetic poles of the earth by virtue of the magnetic polarity with which it has been artificially endued; called also the magnetic needle.

=Needle-Gun= (Ger. Zundnadelgewehr). Is a breech-loading gun, so constructed that by pulling the trigger a stout needle or wire is thrust through the base of the cartridge, parallel with its axis, into the detonating charge behind the ball, causing explosion and the ignition of the cartridge. This gun was the regulation arm of the German infantry until it was replaced by the Mauser, a gun somewhat similar. The gun was invented by Nicolaus Dreyse, of Sömmerda, Prussia, where it is manufactured. It was first used by the Prussians in 1848, and again in the Italian war of 1866, when it proved a fearful instrument of destruction, and to it may be ascribed in a great measure the success of its employers.

=Neemuch.= In Hindostan, a town with a British cantonment, in the territory of Gwalior, or possessions of Scindia. The native troops stationed at this place participated in the general mutiny of the Bengal army. The rising took place on the night of June 3, 1857, when a general massacre of the Europeans took place. The work of slaughter was commenced by the artillery, and all the native troops joined heartily in it. A native officer opened the gate of the fort and gave entrance to the rebels. Having committed the most frightful enormities, and outraged every law of humanity, a large body of the miscreants marched in the direction of Agra.

=Neerwinden.= A village of Belgium, in the province of Liège. William III. of England was defeated by the Duke of Luxemburg between this place and Landen in 1693; the French were also defeated here in 1793 by the Austrians.

=Neeshungpat= (Ind.). A violent assault without bloodshed.

=Negapatam.= A considerable seaport in the south of India, and province of Tanjore. In 1660 it was taken from the Portuguese by the Dutch. It was a very flourishing city in 1781, when it was besieged and taken by the British with about 4000 troops, and finally ceded to them at the peace of 1783.

=Negative.= This term is sometimes used to express the result of measures or enterprises which, though not entirely successful, are not productive of serious or mischievous consequences. Hence the British expeditions to Spain and Walcheren may be considered as having had negative success.

=Negative Penalty.= Deprived of command; a bar to indulgence; a reprimand; etc.

=Neglect of Duty.= Is total omission or disregard of any prescribed service, or unsoldier-like execution, which is punishable at the discretion of a court-martial. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 62.

=Negrais.= An island, harbor, and cape of the Eastern Peninsula, situated on the southwest extremity of the kingdom of Pegu. In 1687 a settlement was founded here by the British; it was soon after abandoned; again occupied by the British in 1751; it was attacked by the Burmese in 1759, and nearly all the inhabitants were put to death.

=Negropont.= See CHALCIS.

=Nelli-Cotah.= A fort situated about 40 miles to the south of Tinnevelly, East Indies. This fort has been rendered memorable by the manner in which it was carried by the English in 1755, and the barbarity with which the garrison was treated which had not killed a man and had called for quarter, and yet men, women, and children, to the number of about 400, were massacred.

=Nepaul=, or =Nipal=. An extensive country of Hindostan. It is said to have been completely subdued in 1323 by Hurr Singh, one of the princes of Oude, who was driven out of his own possessions by the Patans. Runjeet Mull was the last of the Surya Bansi race that reigned in Nepaul. He formed an alliance with Purthi Nirain, which ended in the loss of his dominions, of which he was stripped by his ally in 1768. It was in his reign that Capt. Kinloch with a British force endeavored to penetrate into Nepaul, but from the sickness of the troops, and the difficulty of the country, the enterprise was abandoned. In 1790 the Nepaul government became involved in a war with the emperor of China, who sent against them an army of 70,000 men, and defeated the Nepaulese in repeated battles. A peace was at last concluded, though on terms ignominious to the Nepaulese, who were compelled to become tributaries to the Chinese. In the year 1814 the British commenced a war against the Nepaulese, and, after a long and arduous struggle, during which the British suffered a number of reverses, the Nepaulese were compelled to sue for peace.

=Nervii.= A nation of Gallia Belgica, whose territory was situated north of the Ambiani. On receiving intelligence that Cæsar was advancing into their country, the inhabitants sent away their old men, women, and children to a place of refuge among the marshes by the sea-shore, and posted themselves in ambush on the banks of the Sabis (Sambre). The invaders had approached to the place of concealment, and, unsuspicious of any danger, were engaged in forming a camp, when they suddenly found themselves attacked by 60,000 fierce barbarians. The Romans would have been immediately routed, had not the invincible genius of Cæsar been there to sway and turn the tide of battle. After a hard-fought contest, the Nervian forces were almost annihilated; but the Nervii were not yet subdued. In 54 B.C. they assisted the Eburones in the unsuccessful attack upon the camp of Quintus Cicero; and it was not until the following year that they finally submitted to the Romans.

=Neshaumburdar= (Ind.). An ensign.

=Netherlands, Kingdom of the.= A country in the northwest of Europe. The name of the Netherlands was, for several centuries, applied to the countries which now form the kingdoms of Belgium and the Netherlands and part of the north of France. The greater portion of this territory was held by the Spaniards until Marlborough, the general in command of the allied forces, gained the memorable victory of Ramilies in 1706. After this, Brussels, the capital, and great part of these provinces acknowledged Charles VI., afterwards emperor of Germany, for their sovereign. They were held by the German house until the war of 1741, when the French made an entire conquest of them, except part of the province of Luxemburg. They were restored, however, by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in the year 1748. In 1794 Holland was overrun by the troops of the French republic, and annexed to the French empire in 1810, after having been formed into the Batavian republic, and subsequently into a kingdom under Louis Bonaparte. In 1814 the royal family of Holland was restored, and two years after Holland and Belgium were once more reunited under the common title of the Netherlands; but in 1830 Belgium became a distinct kingdom. See BELGIUM, HOLLAND, and FLANDERS.

=Netley, Royal Victoria Hospital at.= Is a superb building on the shore of Southampton Water, Hants, England, for the reception of invalids from the army on foreign service, and from among the troops serving in the adjoining military districts. In times of peace, it is only necessary to use a portion of the vast structure; but in the event of a European war, in which the British army should take part, the exigencies of the service would probably tax its accommodation to the utmost. There is provision for 1000 patients, with power to increase the number. The establishment has a complete medical staff. Netley is also the headquarters of the female nurses of the army, who are under the control of a lady stationed here as superintendent-general. Complete arrangements have been made for the landing of wounded men in front of the hospital, and for conveying them thither with the least disturbance. See MEDICAL SCHOOL.

=Nettoyer les Magazins= (Fr.). In artillery, signifies to remove the different pieces of ordnance, for the purpose of having them carefully examined, etc., and to have the stores and ammunition so arranged as not to receive damage.

=Nettoyer les Tranchées= (Fr.). To scour or clear the trenches. This is effected by means of a vigorous sally which the garrison of a besieged place make upon the besiegers; when they beat in the guard, drive off the workmen, level the parapet, break up and choke the line of circumvallation, and spike or nail the cannon.

=Neusatz.= A town of Hungary, on the Danube, opposite Peterwardein. On June 11, 1849, it was taken from the Hungarian insurgents by the imperial troops, and was almost wholly destroyed.

=Neutral.= Not engaged on either side; not taking part with either of contending parties; neuter.

=Neutral.= A person or nation that takes no part in a contest between others.

=Neutral Powers.= By the treaty of Paris, signed by the representatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Turkey, and Sardinia, on April 16, 1856, it was determined that privateering should be abolished; that neutrals might carry an enemy’s goods not contraband of war; that neutral goods not contraband were free even under an enemy’s flag; and that blockades to be binding must be effective. The President of the United States acceded to these provisions in 1861.

=Neutrality.= In international law, the state of a nation which takes no part between two or more other nations at war with each other. Neutrality consists in the observance of a strict and honest impartiality, so as not to afford advantage in the war to either party; and particularly in so far restraining its trade to the accustomed course, which is held in time of peace, as not to render assistance to one of the belligerents in escaping the effects of the other’s hostilities. Even a loan of money to one of the belligerent parties is considered a violation of neutrality. A fraudulent neutrality is considered as no neutrality.

=Neutrality, Armed.= See ARMED.

=Nevada.= One of the Pacific States of the United States. Nevada is a part of the territory ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848. It was at first a part of California Territory; it was subsequently attached to Utah; in March, 1861, was organized as a Territory; and on October 31, 1864, was admitted as a State.

=Nevers.= A town of France, the capital of the department of Nièvre, situated on the right bank of the Loire, 153 miles south-southeast from Paris. The town is ancient, and is mentioned by Cæsar under the name of Noviodunum. Here that general, in 52 B.C., fixed his headquarters, and here he left his hostages, supplies, baggage, and military-chest. After his defeat at Gergovia, the people of Noviodunum rose against the Romans, massacred all of them who were in the town, and plundered the stores.

=Neville’s Cross= (or Durham), =Battle of=. Fought between the Scots under King David Bruce, and the English under Philippa, consort of Edward III., and Lord Percy, October 12 or 17, 1346. More than 15,000 of the Scots were slain, and their king taken prisoner.

=Nevis=, or =Nievis=. One of the West India Islands, belonging to Great Britain, and separated from the south extremity of St. Christopher by a channel about 2 miles in width. It was taken by the French February 14, 1782; restored to the English in 1783.

=Newark.= A town of England, in Nottinghamshire, on the Newark River, 16 miles northeast from Nottingham. Here, in the midst of troubles, died King John, October 9, 1216; here the royal army under Prince Rupert repulsed the army of the Parliament, besieging the town, March 21, 1644; and here, May 5, 1646, Charles I., after his defeat at Naseby, put himself into the hands of the Scotch army, who afterwards gave him up to his enemies.

=Newbury.= A town of England, in Berkshire, on the Kennet, 15 miles southwest from Reading. Near here were fought two desperate battles: (1) On September 20, 1643, between the army of Charles I. and that of the Parliament under Essex; it terminated somewhat favorably for the king. (2) A second battle of dubious result was fought between the royalists and the Parliamentarians, October 27, 1644.

=New Caledonia.= An island of the South Pacific Ocean, discovered by Cook on September 4, 1774; seized by the French September 20, 1853. The French government in December, 1864, redressed the outrages committed on British missionaries at a station established here in 1854.

=Newcastle-upon-Tyne.= A river-port and the chief town of the county of Northumberland, England, 14 miles north from Durham. The Romans had a stationary camp here, called Pons Ælii, one of the chain of forts by which the Wall of Hadrian was fortified. Newcastle surrendered to the Scotch in 1646, who here gave up Charles I. to the Parliament in 1646. The town occupied by Gen. Wade in 1745.

=New England.= The name given by Capt. John Smith, in 1614, to the territory granted by James I. to the Plymouth Company for colonization, which now comprises the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. For history of New England, see these States under appropriate headings.

=Newfoundland.= A large island of British North America, at the mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Newfoundland is supposed to have been discovered by the Norwegians, or Northmen, about the year 1000; it was rediscovered by John Cabot on June 24, 1497; a settlement was subsequently formed here by some Portuguese adventurers, who were in their turn expelled by Sir Francis Drake in the reign of Elizabeth. After this period numerous English colonies were established from time to time along the east coast, and several French along the south coast, in the Bay of Placentia. The French often tried to conquer the island, and during the French and English wars it was the scene of many bloody events. In 1713, Newfoundland and its dependencies were declared, by the treaty of Utrecht, to belong wholly to Great Britain; the French reserving a right to fish on certain parts of the coast. In 1728 the island was made a province of Great Britain.

=New Grenada= (now United States of Colombia). A republic in the northwest of South America, discovered by Ojeda in 1499, and settled by the Spaniards in 1536. It formed a part of the new republic of Bogota, established in 1811, and combined with Caracas, formed the republic of Colombia, December 17, 1819. (See COLOMBIA, UNITED STATES OF.) A struggle took place between the conservative partisans of the old government and the liberals, January, 1861, and Gen. Mosquera (liberal) deposed Ospina and seized the government, July 18, 1861. Mosquera invited Venezuela and Ecuador to join the confederation, August, 1863; Ecuador declined, which resulted in a war, which commenced November 20, 1863. The troops of Ecuador were defeated, December 6; peace ensued, and Ecuador remained independent, December 30, 1863; Mosquera declared himself dictator, by a coup d’état, March 11, 1866; he was deposed by Santos Acosta, May 23, 1867; Gen. Ponce was made provisional president, July, 1868, and was succeeded by Correoso, August 29, who defeated his opponents, November 12, 1868.

=New Hampshire.= One of the Eastern States, and one of the original thirteen of the American Confederacy. New Hampshire was first visited in 1614, and was settled near Portsmouth in 1623. It was several times connected with Massachusetts up to 1679, when it became a royal province, but renewed its connections with Massachusetts in 1689, and was for a short time attached to New York; finally, in 1741, it became an entirely separate province, and so remained till the Revolution. New Hampshire was much harassed by the Indians, and in 1689 a party of them sacked Dover, killed many of the whites, and burnt the town. No important action took place on the soil of this State, either in the war of the Revolution or that of 1812. The State contributed greatly to the cause of the Union in the late civil war.

=New Jersey.= One of the Middle Atlantic States, and one of the original thirteen of the American Confederacy. Settlements were made at Bergen, in New Jersey, soon after their arrival in New York, by the Dutch, between the years 1614 and 1624. The whole of the region lying between the Delaware and the Hudson was claimed by them, although the Swedes had made some settlements in the western part of the same country. These claims, however, were disregarded by the British; and in 1664, Charles II. granted to the Duke of York the whole of this country, and in the same year the duke sold it to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, in honor of the latter of whom, a native of Jersey, it received the name which it still bears. The Dutch again got possession of it in 1673, but resigned it on the conclusion of peace in the following year. New Jersey escaped the inroads of the savage tribes which desolated and afflicted most of the older colonies; but in the war of the Revolution it suffered greatly, and was the scene of many important battles, such as Trenton, Princeton, Millstone, Red Bank, and Monmouth. In the late civil war, New Jersey contributed greatly to the cause of the Union, and her regiments were distinguished on many important battle-fields.

=New Matter= (in military courts). Should either party, in the course of their examination of witnesses, or by bringing forward new ones for that purpose, introduce new matter, the opposite one has the right of calling other witnesses to rebut such new matter. A prosecutor, however, cannot be allowed to bring forward evidence to rebut what has been elicited by his own cross-examination, but must be confined to new matter introduced by the accused, and supported by the examination-in-chief of the accused. The court should be very circumspect to see and prevent new matter from being introduced, either in the prosecution or defense. But the accused may urge in his defense mitigating circumstances, or examine witnesses as to character or service, and produce testimonials of such facts, without its being considered new matter; and if any point of law be raised, or any matter requiring explanation, the judge-advocate may explain; no other reply is admitted.

=New Mexico.= A Territory of the United States, bounded on the north by Colorado, east by Texas, south by Texas and Mexico, and west by Arizona. The country was explored by the Spaniards in 1537, and was taken possession of by the viceroy of Mexico in the name of the king of Spain towards the latter part of that century. About 1680, the natives, who were an industrious people of Aztec race, provoked by the oppression of their rulers, rose against them and succeeded in driving them from the country. The Spaniards, however, soon regained their foothold, which they succeeded in maintaining until 1822, when Mexico and its dependencies threw off the yoke of Spain. In 1846, Gen. Kearney captured Santa Fé, the capital of New Mexico, and soon after became master of the whole Territory, which was ceded to the United States in 1848, and in 1850 organized as a Territory. In 1854 another portion of Mexican territory gained by purchase was added to it, and subsequently the Territory of Arizona was set off from it, and another portion added to Colorado. During the civil war New Mexico was the theatre of some desperate and hard-fought battles. On February 21, 1862, a Confederate force of Texans about 2500 strong, under Gen. Sibley, defeated the Union forces under Col. Canby at Valverde, about 10 miles from Fort Craig, and captured their guns. The loss of his battery compelled Col. Canby to fall back to Fort Craig, but the enemy was so crippled that he did not attempt to follow, but proceeded to Albuquerque and Santa Fé, both of which towns were evacuated by the Union troops. Soon afterwards a force of 400 Texans going north to reinforce Gen. Sibley were captured by Col. Canby. On March 26, 1862, an engagement took place at Apache Pass, in which 100 Texans were captured, between 300 and 400 killed, and 50 wagons burned. Another engagement took place on the 28th, at Pigeon’s Ranche, 25 miles north of Santa Fé, in which the Confederates lost more prisoners. About the middle of April, Col. Canby concentrating his forces attacked the Texans at Parillo, on the Rio Grande, and after a short action defeated them with great slaughter, and compelled them to fly to the mountains. From this point until they reached Fort Bliss, Texas, their retreat was a succession of disasters. They left in New Mexico more than one-half of their original number as killed, wounded, or prisoners, and every place which they abandoned in their retreat was immediately occupied by Union troops.

=New Model.= In the United States, all cannon made since 1861 are on the new model. This is characterized by the absence of all ornament on the exterior,--the outline is made up of gentle curves as far us possible,--on the inside the bottom of the bore is a semi-ellipsoid.

=New Orleans.= Capital of the State of Louisiana, and commercial metropolis of the Gulf States. It was founded in 1718 by Bienville, the governor of the province of Louisiana under the French, who caused it to be laid out, and levees built, under the direction of the engineer De la Tour. On January 8, 1815, was fought the battle of New Orleans, a few miles below the city, between Gen. Andrew Jackson at the head of the American forces, and the British under Gen. Pakenham, ending in the defeat of the latter with a loss in killed and wounded of nearly 3000 men. The American loss was but 13. In the late civil war, New Orleans held out until 1862, when it surrendered to the Union forces. Gen. Butler was placed in command, but on December 16, 1862, was relieved by Gen. Banks.

=New Ross.= A town in Wexford Co., Southeast Ireland, where Gen. Johnston totally defeated the insurgent Irish under Beauchamp D. Bagenal Harvey, June 4, 1798.

=Newry.= A town in Down Co., Ireland, which was reduced to a ruinous condition in the rebellion of 1641; it was surprised by Sir Con. Magenis, but was retaken by Lord Conway. After the restoration the town was rebuilt. It was burnt by the Duke of Berwick when flying from Schomberg and the English army, and only the castle and a few houses escaped, 1689.

=Newtown-Butler.= A town in Fermanagh Co., Ireland, where, on July 30, 1689, the Enniskilleners under Gustavus Hamilton thoroughly defeated the adherents of James II. commanded by Gen. Maccarty, whom they captured with his artillery, arms, and baggage.

=New Trial.= The privilege of a new trial does not seem to be denied. The provisions therefore are borrowed from common law, and are not held, in either civil or military tribunals, to preclude the accused from having a second trial on his own motion. Officers who sat on the first trial should not be detailed for the new trial; they have formed and expressed opinions. New, or second trial, can only be authorized where the sentence adjudged upon the first trial has been disapproved. After a sentence has been duly approved and has taken effect, the granting of a new trial is beyond the power of a military commander, or the President.

=New York.= One of the Middle States of the United States, and one of the thirteen of the original confederation. The earliest explorations of New York by Europeans were in 1609, by Hendrik Hudson, who took possession of the country on the river which bears his name for the Dutch, and by Champlain, a Frenchman, who explored Lake Champlain from Canada. The English, however, claimed the right of prior discovery, which led to frequent conflicts. The first white settlements were made in the State in 1713, and the early settlers suffered greatly from Indian depredations. In 1690, Schenectady was taken and burned by the savages, and many of the inhabitants massacred. The massacre of the garrison at Fort William Henry by the Indians in 1757 will long be remembered in the annals of New York. The State took an active part in the war of independence, and was the theatre of many important military events. The defeat of Washington at Long Island and at White Plains in the autumn of 1776, the surrender of Burgoyne in October, 1777, and the taking of Stony Point by Wayne in July, 1779, are the most important actions that took place here during the Revolutionary contest. The sanguinary naval battle of Lake Champlain in the war of 1812, in which McDonough defeated the British after a hard-fought action, and several other minor engagements, took place within the limits of New York in the last struggle with Great Britain. During the civil war New York took an active and prominent part in aiding the government in the suppression of the rebellion; her quotas of troops were promptly filled, $40,000,000 being paid in bounties to her volunteers.

=New York.= The chief commercial city of the United States, and the most populous, is situated at the southern extremity of Manhattan Island, at the junction of the Hudson River and the extension of Long Island Sound, known as the East River, about 18 miles from the Atlantic. It was founded in 1613 by Dutch traders, who built two trading forts and four houses on Manhattan Island, and called the settlement New Amsterdam. It was taken by the English in 1664, and its name changed to New York in honor of the Duke of York, brother of Charles II. Nine years later it was recaptured by the Dutch, and its name changed to New Orange in honor of the prince of that title; but in February, 1674, the English obtained possession of it by treaty, and restored the name which they had formerly given it. During the Revolutionary war New York was occupied by the English troops after the battle of Long Island, and was evacuated by them November 25, 1783. In the civil war the city was among the first in manifesting its loyal disposition, and furnished over 116,000 men in support of the Union cause.

=New Zealand.= A group of islands lying in the South Pacific Ocean, discovered by Tasman in 1642. The right of Great Britain to New Zealand was recognized in 1814. An insurrection of the natives (Maoris) took place in March, 1860; several indecisive actions took place between the natives and the militia, March 14-28, 1860; war broke out at Taranaki, and the British were repulsed with loss on June 30; Gen. Pratt defeated the Maoris at Mahoetahi, and destroyed their fortified places November 6. The Maoris were defeated December 29, 1860, January 23, February 24, March 16-18, 1861; the natives surrendered March 19, 1861. The Maoris again resorted to war in May, 1863; Gen. Cameron defeated them at Rangariri November 20; and forced the Maori king to capitulate December 9, 1863. The British were repulsed at Galepa (the gate pah) with loss of officers and men, April 29, 1864. The Maoris were again severely defeated January 25 and February 25, 1864. The Maoris continued in a state of insurrection, but were finally overcome in 1865.

=Nez Percés Indians= (“pierced noses”). A tribe of aborigines of the Sahaptin family, who were located on a reservation in Northern Idaho. In 1877 they broke into open hostilities against the whites, and after a sanguinary struggle under their chief Joseph they were at length captured by Gen. Miles and transported to Indian Territory. Some few escaped to the British possessions, where they still remain.

=Niagara.= Chief town of Lincoln County, in the Canadian province of Ontario, on Lake Ontario. It was burnt down in December, 1813, by the American general McClure on his retreat; it was afterwards rebuilt.

=Niagara, Battle of.= See LUNDY’S LANE.

=Nicæa= (anc. Nicæensis, Nicensis). Formerly one of the most celebrated cities of Asia, stood on the eastern side of Lake Ascania (now Iznik), in Bithynia. At the battle of Nice, 194, the emperor Severus defeated his rival, Niger, who was again defeated at Issus, and soon after taken prisoner and put to death. Under the later emperors of the East, Nicæa long served as a bulwark of Constantinople against the Arabs and Turks; it was taken by the Seljuks in 1078, and became the capital of the sultan Soliman; it was retaken by the first Crusaders in 1097. After the taking of Constantinople by the Venetians and the Franks, and the foundation of the Latin empire there in 1204, the Greek emperor, Theodorus Lascaris, made Nicæa the capital of a separate kingdom, in which his followers maintained themselves with various success against the Latins of Constantinople on the one side, and the Seljuks of Iconium on the other, and in 1261 regained Constantinople. At length, in 1330, Nicæa was finally taken by Orchan, the son of the founder of the Ottoman empire, Othman.

=Nicæa.= A fortress of the Epicnemidian Locrians on the sea, near the pass of Thermopylæ, which it commanded. From its important position it is often mentioned in the wars of Greece with Macedonia and with the Romans. In the former its betrayal to Philip by the Thracian dynast Phalæcus led to the termination of the Sacred war, 346 B.C.; and after various changes it is found at the time of the wars with Rome in the hands of the Ætolians.

=Nicaragua, Republic of.= Formerly a State in the Central American Confederation, from which it withdrew in 1852. The inhabitants of the country are Indians and mestizoes, with a scattering of a few whites and negroes. It has been the scene of many revolutions for the last thirty-five years.

=Nice= (It. Nizza, anc. Nicæa). Chief town since 1860 of the department of the Maritime Alps, France, on both sides of the river Paglione, 100 miles south-southwest from Turin. It was the seat of a colony from Massilia, now Marseilles, and formed part of the Roman empire. It first became important as a stronghold of the Christian religion, which was preached there by Nazarius at an early period. In the Middle Ages it was subject to Genoa, and suffered from the frequent wars, being taken and retaken by the Imperialists and French. It was taken by the Austrians under Melas, 1800; seized and annexed to France, 1792; restored to Sardinia in 1814; again annexed to France in virtue of the treaty of March 24, 1860. The French troops entered April 1, and definite possession was taken June 14 following. Garibaldi protested vehemently against this annexation. The town of Nice is remarkable as the birthplace of Masséna, one of the most famous of Napoleon’s generals.

=Nicomedia= (now ruins at Izmid, or Iznikmid). A celebrated city in Asia Minor, capital of Bithynia, built by King Nicomedes I., 264 B.C., at the northeast corner of the Sinus Astacenus (now Gulf of Izmid). Like its neighbor and rival Nicæa, it occupied an important place in the wars against the Turks; it is memorable in history as the scene of Hannibal’s death. It surrendered to the Seljukian Turks, 1078, and to Orchan and the Ottoman Turks in 1338.

=Nicopolis=, or =Nikopoli=. A town of Turkey in Europe, in Bulgaria, situated on the Danube. The Hungarians under Sigismund were defeated here in 1396 by the Turks.

=Nicosia=, or =Lefkosia=. The capital of Cyprus, stands near the centre of the island, on the right bank of the Pedia. In 1570 it was stormed by the Turks, who on that occasion put to the sword about 20,000 of the inhabitants.

=Niemen=, or =Memel=. A large river of Lithuania, which rises a few miles south of Minsk. Napoleon I. and Alexander of Russia held an interview on the waters of this river in 1807.

=Nieuport.= A fortified town of Belgium, in the province of West Flanders, 11 miles southwest from Ostend. This place has often been besieged and taken and retaken by the French and English.

=Nigher= (Ind.). Any fortified city measuring at least 8 coss, or 8 English miles, in length and breadth.

=Night-firing.= When a fixed object is to be fired at by night, the piece should be directed during the day, and two narrow and well-dressed strips of wood (to prevent injury to the strips from the recoil, they should be nailed at such a distance from the carriage that the space can be filled up with a strip that can be removed before firing) laid on the inside of the wheels, and two others outside of the trail of a siege carriage, and nailed or screwed to the platform. In case of a barbette carriage, the traverse wheels should be chocked in the proper position. To preserve the elevation, measure the height of the elevating-screw above its box, or take the measure between a point on the gun and another on the stock; cut a stick to this length and adjust the gun on it at each fire. Direction of fire may be secured at night with mortars by nailing or screwing two boards to the platform outside of the cheeks, and the elevation by drawing a line across one of the trunnions, or by inserting a wedge-shaped block of the proper inclination below the mortar and the front transom or step. Night-firing with guns should be limited to a small number of rounds, as it consumes ammunition to little advantage.

=Night-signaling.= An important branch of signaling. It may be effected in various ways. In ordinary service two torches are used,--one on the ground and the other attached to a staff, which is used precisely as the flag for day signals. Lanterns held in the hands can also be used. For long distances and when stations cannot be seen on account of intervening obstacles, such as woods, signal-rockets, candle-bombs, and other pyrotechnic devices are used.

=Nihilists.= The name given to a political party in Russia. Beyond the extinction of imperialism it is difficult to give their creed.

=Nijni-Novgorod=, or =Nijnei-Novgorod= (Lower Novgorod). A fortified town and the capital of the government of the same name in Russia. It is an ancient town, and was founded in 1221 by Prince Yury Vsevolodovitch as a stronghold against the invasions of the Bulgarians and the Mordva. It was devastated on several occasions by the Tartars; and in 1612, during the civil dissensions in Russia, when it was on the point of falling a prey to Poland, Minin, the famous butcher of Nijni-Novgorod, collected an armed force here, which, under Prince Pojarsky, drove the invaders from the capital.

=Nikolsburg=, or =Mikulov=. A town of Austria, in the south of Moravia, 27 miles south of Brunn. Here were signed, July 26, 1866, the preliminaries of a peace between Austria and Prussia.

=Nile, The.= A river of Northeastern Africa, and one of the most powerful, most interesting, and most celebrated rivers on our globe. Near Rosetta, at the mouth of the Nile, a naval battle took place, August 1, 1798, between the Toulon and British fleets, the latter commanded by Lord (then Sir Horatio) Nelson. Nine of the French line-of-battle ships were taken, two were burnt, and two escaped. The French ship L’Orient with Admiral Brueys and 1000 men on board, blew up, and only 70 or 80 escaped. This engagement is also called the battle of Aboukir.

=Nimeguen=, or =Nymwegen=. The Noviomagum of the Romans, called by Tacitus Batavorum oppidum, and in the Middle Ages Numaga, is the principal city of the district of the same name, or the Betuwe, in Holland, province of Guelderland. Nimeguen is celebrated for the great peace congress of the European powers which was held here, and, August 10, 1678, concluded a treaty between Spain and France on September 17, between France and the United Netherlands, and between the German empire and France, and the same empire and Sweden, February 5, 1679. The French were successful against the British under the Duke of York before Nimeguen, October 28, 1794; but were defeated by them November 8.

=Nimes=, or =Nismes= (anc. Nemausus). A city of France, and the chief town of the department of the Gard, 30 miles northeast from Montpellier. Previously to the Roman invasion, it (supposed to have been founded by a colony from Massilia) was the chief city of the Volcæ Arecomici. It surrendered to the rule of the Visigoths between 465 and 535, and afterwards to that of the Franks; subsequently, it became a possession of Aragon; but was finally restored to France in 1259 by the treaty of Corbeil. In 1791 and 1815, bloody religious and political reactions took place here. The treaty termed the Pacification of Nimes (July 14, 1629) gave religious toleration for a time to the Huguenots.

=Nimrûd=, or =Nimroud=. The Arab name of the great mound on the east bank of the Tigris, near Mosul, supposed to represent the Assyrian city of Calah, which was destroyed at the final conquest of Assyria by the Medes and Babylonians.

=Nineveh.= The greatest city in Assyria and for some time the capital of the country, was situated on the eastern bank of the Tigris at its junction with the stream of the Khosr. The walls of Nineveh are described as about 55 miles in circumference, 100 feet high, and thick enough to allow three chariots to pass each other on them; with 1500 towers, 200 feet in height. The city is said to have been entirely destroyed by fire, when it was taken by the Medes and Babylonians, about 606 B.C.

=Ninians, St.= A town and parish of Scotland, in Stirlingshire, about a mile south from Stirling. Several battles have been fought in this parish. The first was between the Scottish followers of Wallace and the English, who were defeated, the second was the famous battle of Bannockburn, and the third was that in which James III. of Scotland was defeated and slain by his rebellious nobles.

=Nipple.= Any small projection in which there is an orifice for discharging a fluid, or for other purposes, as the nipple of a percussion-lock, or that part on which the cap is put to be fired.

=Niquibs= (Ind.). Men whose military functions among the Sepoys correspond with those of corporals in other services.

=Nisbet=, or =Nesbit= (Northumberland, Eng.). Here a battle was fought between the English and Scotch armies, the latter greatly disproportioned in strength to the former. Several thousands of the Scots were slain upon the field and in the pursuit, May 7, 1402.

=Nishapoor=, or =Nishapur=. A town of Persia, province of Khorassan. The town is said to be very ancient, and to have existed in the time of Alexander the Great, by whom it was destroyed. In 1269 it was sacked by the Tartars, again by Ihengiz-khan, and in 1749 by Nadir Shah, from which last calamity it has never recovered.

=Nisibis.= The capital of ancient Mygdonia, the northeastern part of Mesopotamia. It was a place of great importance as a military post, was twice taken by the Romans (under Lucullus and Trajan), and again given up by them to the Armenians; but being a third time taken by Lucius Verus in 165, it remained the chief bulwark of the Roman empire against the Persians, till it was surrendered to them by Jovian after the death of Julian in 363.

=Nissa=, or =Nish=. A well-fortified town of Turkey in Europe, in the province of Servia, about 120 miles southeast from Belgrade. It commands the communication between the provinces of Servia, Bulgaria, and Roumelia. It was taken by Amurath II. in 1389, and again by the Austrians in 1737.

=Nithing.= A coward or poltroon.

=Nitre.= Potassium nitrate or saltpetre, the most important ingredient of gunpowder. It is obtained principally from the East Indies. It has been the policy of the American government to keep large quantities in store. See SALTPETRE.

=Nitro-cellulose.= See GUN-COTTON.

=Nitro-glycerine.= Is a light, yellow, oily liquid, inodorous, with a sweet, pungent, aromatic taste. It received its name from Sobrero, a chemist, who in 1847 discovered that glycerine when treated with nitric acid was converted into a highly-explosive substance. This liquid appears to have been almost forgotten by chemists until in 1864 Nobel, a Swedish engineer, succeeded in applying it to a very important branch of his art, namely, blasting. It is now prepared by introducing glycerine into a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, the whole being kept at a temperature below freezing-point. When uncongealed this preparation explodes by concussion, and is therefore unfit for transportation, and very dangerous to handle while in that state. The chief advantage for mining purposes which nitro-glycerine possesses is, that it requires a much smaller hole or chamber than gunpowder does, the strength of the latter being scarcely one-tenth of the former. Hence the miner’s work, which, according to the hardness of the rock, represents from five to twenty times the price of the gunpowder used, is so short that the cost of blasting is often reduced 50 per cent. The process is very easy: if the chamber of a mine presents fissures it must first be lined with clay, to make it water-tight; this done, the nitro-glycerine is poured in, and water after it, which, being the lighter liquid, remains at the top. A slow-match, with a well-charged percussion-cap at one end, is then introduced into the nitro-glycerine. The mine may then be sprung by lighting the match, there being no need of tamping. Submarine mines may be sprung by electricity. In this manner the obstructions of Hell Gate, N. Y., were removed by Gen. Newton, one of the greatest engineering feats of the time. On account of its liability to spontaneous explosion, the great danger in handling it, and its liability to decomposition, nitro-glycerine is now almost entirely superseded for ordinary mining purposes by dynamite.

=Nitroleum.= Nitro-glycerine; a name given it by Shaffner, an American patentee of high explosives.

=Nitro-mannite.= See MANNITE, NITRO-.

=Nive.= A river in the southwest of France, the scene of an important battle, December, 1813. After Wellington had forced Marshal Sault to fall back on Bayonne from the Pyrenees, the former determined to cross the Nive in order to place the right of his own army upon the Adour, with the double purpose of establishing a communication with the interior of France, and cutting off the enemy’s means of obtaining supplies. The brunt of this enterprise fell upon the right division of Wellington’s army under Lord Hill, a good deal of work, however, being done by the left division under Sir John Hope. Hill’s success was complete, and after five days’ fighting (December 9-13), the passage of the Nive had been effected, with the loss on the part of the British of 650 killed and 3459 wounded.

=Nivelle.= A small river which rises in Spain, and, after a short course, falls into the Bay of Biscay at St. Jean-de-Luz, in the French department of the Lower Pyrenees, near which the Duke of Wellington crossed the river in 1812, after carrying the French posts.

=Nizam’s Dominions=, or =Hyderabad=. An extensive territory in the interior of Southern India, lying to the northwest of the Presidency of Madras. In 1687 the territory now known as the Nizam’s Dominions, became a province of the Mogul empire; but in 1719 the governor or viceroy of the Deccan, Azoph Jah, made himself independent, and took the title of Nizam-ool-Moolk (Regulator of the State). After his death, in 1748, two claimants appeared for the throne,--his son Nazir Jung, and his grandson Mirzapha Jung. The cause of the former was espoused by the East India Company, and that of the latter by a party of French adventurers under Gen. Dupleix. Then followed a period of strife and anarchy. In 1761, Nizam Ali obtained the supreme power, and after some vacillation signed a treaty of alliance with the English in 1768. He aided them in the war with Tippoo Sahib, sultan of Mysore, and at the termination of that war, in 1799, a new treaty was formed, by which, in return for certain territorial concessions, the East India company bound itself to maintain a subsidiary force of 8000 men for the defense of the Nizam’s dominions. The Nizam or ruler, Afzul-ul-Dowlah, remained faithful to the British during the mutiny of 1857-58.

=Nizza-Montferrato.= A town of northern Italy, province of Alessandria, on the Belbo. It was a strongly-fortified place during the Middle Ages, was besieged unsuccessfully for forty days by Charles of Anjou, and afterwards suffered severely from the Spanish and French armies.

=Noblesse Militaire= (Fr.). Military nobility. Although most of the orders may be considered as appendages which confer a species of military nobility, especially that of the British “Garter,” which was instituted by King Edward III. on January 19, 1344, yet the British cannot be strictly said to have among them that species of military nobility or distinction that was peculiarly known in France under the immediate title of noblesse militaire. In order to reward military merit, an edict was issued by the French court at Fontainebleau, in November, 1750, and enregistered on the 25th of the same month by the Parliament of Paris, whereby a noblesse militaire, or military nobility, was created; the acquisition of which depended wholly upon martial character, but did not require any letters patent for the purpose of ennobling the individual. By the first article of this perpetual and irrevocable edict, as it was then stated, it was decreed that no person serving in the capacity and quality of officer in any of the king’s troops, should be liable to the land- or poll-tax, so long as he continued in that situation. (2) That by virtue of this edict, and from the date thereof, all general officers, not being otherwise ennobled, but being actually and bona fide in the service, should be considered as noble, and remain so, together with their children, born or to be born in lawful wedlock. (3) That in future the rank of general officer should of itself be sufficient to confer the full right of nobility upon all those who should arrive at that degree of military promotion; and that their heirs and successors, as well as their children, actually born and lawfully begotten, should be entitled to the same distinction; and that all general officers should enjoy all the rights and privileges of nobility from the date of their commissions. In Articles IV., V., VI., and VII., it was specifically provided upon what conditions those officers, who were not noble, and were inferior in rank to that of maréchal-de-camp, but who had been chevaliers or knights of the royal and military order of St. Louis, and who should retire from the service after having been in the army during thirty years without intermission, were to be exempted from the payment of the land- and poll-tax, and how the same privileges were to be transferred to their sons, provided they were in the service. By Article VIII. it was enacted, that those officers who had risen to the rank of captain, and were chevaliers or knights of the order of St. Louis, but who were disabled by wounds, or diseases contracted in the service, should not be obliged to fill up the period of thirty years as prescribed by the recited articles. By Article IX. it was provided that when any officer, not under the rank of captain, died in the actual exercise of the functions or bearing the commission of captain, the services he had already rendered should be of use to his sons, lawfully begotten, who were either in the service or were intended for it. It was specified in Articles X. and XI. that every officer born in wedlock, whose father and grandfather had been exempted from the land- or poll-tax, should be noble in his own right, provided he got created a chevalier or knight of St. Louis, had served the prescribed period, or was entitled to the exemption mentioned in Article VIII.; that if he should die in the service, he would be considered as having acquired the rank of nobility, and that the title so obtained should descend, as a matter of right, to the children, lawfully begotten, of such officers as had acquired it. It further specified, that even those who should have been born previous to their fathers being ennobled, were entitled to the same privilege. Article XII. pointed out the method by which proofs of military nobility were to be exhibited in conformity to the then existing edict. Articles XIII. and XIV. provided for those officers, who were actually in the service at the promulgation of the edict, in proportion as the prescribed periods were filled up. This provision related wholly to the personal services of officers; as no proof was acknowledged relative to services done by their fathers or grandfathers, who might have retired from the army, or have died prior to the publication of the edict. The XVth or last Article was a sort of register, in which were preserved the different titles that enabled individuals to lay claim to military nobility. The whole of this edict may be seen, page 206, in the 3d volume “Des Elemens Militaires.” The French emperor Bonaparte instituted an order of nobility called the “Legion of Honor,” the political influence of which appears to be greater than any order ever established, even than that of the Jesuits. He also adopted the ancient military title of duke, which was conferred only on men who had merited renown by their military greatness. The title of count was also established, and all the members of the Legion of Honor held a rank corresponding with the knights of feudal institution. Private soldiers and tradesmen, for acts of public virtue, have been created members of the Legion of Honor.

=Noblesse Oblige.= A French phrase,--rank has its obligations.

=Nocera dei Pagani= (anc. Nuceria Alfaterna). A town of Southern Italy, province and 8 miles northwest of Salerno. During the second Samnite war (315 B.C.) the Nucerians, who were on friendly terms with the Romans, were induced to abandon their alliance and make common cause with the Samnites, for which they were punished in 308 by the Roman consul Fabius, who invaded their territory, laid siege to their city, and compelled them to unqualified submission. In the second Punic war the city was besieged by Hannibal, and after a vigorous resistance was compelled by famine to surrender; it was given up to plunder and totally destroyed, while the surviving inhabitants took refuge in the other cities of Campania. It again became a flourishing town, and its territory was ravaged in the Social war, 90 B.C. The decisive battle between Narses and Teïas, which put an end to the Gothic monarchy in Italy (533 A.D.), was fought in its neighborhood. Its modern appellation is derived from the circumstance that in the 13th century a body of Saracens were established there by the emperor Frederick II.

=Nogent-le-Rotrou.= A parish and town of France, in the department of the Eure and Loire, 33 miles southwest from Chartres. Taken by the English in 1428.

=Nola.= A city of Italy, province of Terra di Lavoro, 14 miles east-northeast of Naples. The ancient Nola was founded by the Ausonians, but afterwards fell into the hands of the Tyrrheni (Etruscans). In 327 B.C. it was sufficiently powerful to send 2000 soldiers to the assistance of Neapolis. In 313 the town was taken by the Romans. It remained faithful to the Romans even after the battle of Cannæ, when the other Campanian towns revolted to Hannibal; and in consequence retained its own constitution as an ally of the Romans. In the Social war it fell into the hands of the confederates, and when taken by Sulla it was burnt to the ground by the Samnite garrison.

=Nolan’s Range-finder.= See RANGE-FINDER.

=Nolle Prosequi= (Practice). An entry made on the record of courts-martial, by which the prosecutor or plaintiff declares that he will proceed no further. The effect of a nolle prosequi, when obtained, is to put the defendant without day, but it does not operate as an acquittal; for he may be afterwards re-indicted, and even upon the same indictment fresh process may be awarded.

=Nomenclature.= Technical designation. For nomenclature of ordnance, see appropriate headings in this work.

=Nominal.= By name, hence nominal call, which corresponds with the French appel nominatif; and, in a military sense, with our roll-call.

=Non-combatant.= Any person connected with an army, or within the lines of an army, who does not make it his business to fight, as any one of the medical officers and their assistants, chaplains, and others, also any of the citizens of a place occupied by an army; also, any one holding a similar position with respect to the navy.

=Non-commissioned Officers= (Fr. sous-officers, Ger. unter-offizieren). Are the subordinate officers of the general staff, regiments, and companies who are appointed, not by commission, but by the secretary of war or commanding officers of regiments; and they are usually selected on account of good conduct or superior abilities.

=Non-effective.= Signifies men not fit or available for duty, in contradistinction to effective (which see).

=Noose.= A running knot, which binds the closer the more it is drawn.

=Nootkas=, or =Ahts=. The generic name of the Indians residing on Vancouver Island and the shore of the mainland along the sound of the same name. They are subdivided into many tribes and number about 14,000, some of whom are partially civilized.

=Nora.= A mountain fortress of Cappadocia, on the borders of Lycaonia, on the northern side of the Taurus, noted for the siege sustained in it by Eumenes against Antigonus for a whole winter.

=Norba=, or =Norbanus= (now Norma). A strongly fortified town in Latium, on the slope of the Volscian Mountains, and near the sources of the Nymphæus, originally belonged to the Latin and subsequently to the Volscian league. The Romans founded a colony at Norba in 492 B.C. It espoused the cause of Marius in the civil war, and was destroyed by fire by its own inhabitants when it was taken by one of Sulla’s generals.

=Nordlingen.= A walled town of Bavaria, in the circle of Swabia, 48 miles southwest from Nuremberg. Here the Swedes under Count Horn were defeated by the Austrians, August 27, 1634; and the Austrians and allies by Turenne in 1645.

=Noreia= (now Neumarkt, in Styria, Austria). The ancient capital of the Taurisci, or Norici, in Noricum. It was situated in the centre of Noricum, a little south of the river Murius, and on the road from Virunum to Ovilaba. It is celebrated as the place where Carbo was defeated by the Cimbri, 113 B.C. It was besieged by the Boii in the time of Julius Cæsar.

=Norfolk.= A city and capital of Norfolk Co., Va., on the Elizabeth River, an arm of Chesapeake Bay, about 18 miles from Fortress Monroe, has a fine harbor, safe, commodious, and of sufficient depth to admit the largest vessels. It is the largest naval station in the United States. Its navy-yard was destroyed on April 21, 1861, by the Federals, to prevent the ships of war and naval stores that were there from being appropriated and used by the seceding States.

=Noricum.= A Roman province south of the Danube, was bounded on the north by the Danube, on the west by Rhætia and Vindelicia, on the east by Pannonia, and on the south by Pannonia and Italy. Its inhabitants, the most important of which were the Taurisci, also called Norici, were conquered by the Romans toward the end of the reign of Augustus, after the subjugation of Rhætia by Tiberius and Drusus, and their country was formed into a Roman colony.

=Normandy= (Fr. Normandie). Formerly a province in the north of France, bordering on the English Channel; now divided into the departments of Seine-Inférieure, Eure, Orne, Calvados, and Manche. In the time of the Romans, the country bore the name of Gallia Lugdunensis II. Under the Frankish monarchs it formed a part of Neustria. From the beginning of the 9th century it was continually devastated by the Scandinavians, termed Northmen, or Normans, from whose irruptions Charles the Simple of France purchased immunity by ceding the duchy to their leader, Rollo, 905. Rollo, the first duke, and several of his successors held it as a fief of the crown of France, until William, the seventh duke, acquired England in 1066; it was reunited to France in 1204; was reconquered by Henry V. 1418, and held by England partially till 1450.

=Normans= (the Northmen). Toward the end of the 8th century Western Europe began to be scourged by the inroads of Scandinavian pirates, known to the inhabitants of the British Isles as “East-men” and “Danes,”--to those of the continent as “North-men.” These Northmen were of Germanic stock, a vigorous, seafaring race, not yet Christianized, peopling the coasts of the Baltic and of the two peninsulas which form the Norway and Sweden and the Denmark of to-day. Need and the national thirst for adventure and for strife drove forth from the thickening population, down upon the sunnier, richer, weaker South, swarms of vikings,--i.e. warriors,--who scourged the coasts of England, Germany, and France, pressed with their small, sharp, open vessels up the narrowest streams, burned, slew, and plundered, and sailed away laden with booty and with slaves. About the middle of the 9th century these raids began to assume an altogether new character and importance. The consolidation of the three great Scandinavian kingdoms broke the power of the petty kinglets and independent nobles, and drove many a jarl forth with his followers to seek a freer life in some new home. Northmen threw themselves in larger bands upon England, which the Wessex kings had not yet fairly centralized; upon the Frankish kingdoms, fast falling asunder under the later Karlings; harried the country, besieged and sacked the cities, wintered at the mouths of the rivers, and by the end of the century had wrested from Alfred half his kingdom, and begun to plant colonies on the coasts of France. Northmen ravaged Spain and the shores of the Mediterranean, fell upon Western Italy, penetrated Greece and Asia Minor, and there met others of their countrymen, who had pressed down through Russia. For in the Russia of that day, under the name of Verangians, Northmen had become the ruling class, a military aristocracy; while those who made their way still farther south had formed the famous Verangian body-guard of the Byzantine emperors, which maintained its existence and its distinctive character for five centuries. During the latter half of the 9th century, also, Scandinavians, sailing westward, found and settled Iceland. With the establishment, early in the 10th century, of settlements upon the continent, with the occupation Scandinavian energy now found at home in wars between the three new kingdoms, and with the gradual triumph of Christianity in the North, Europe gained, at last, comparative rest. England’s period of misery and humiliation under Ethelred the Unready (979-1016), ended by the establishment of a Danish dynasty (1017-42), marks the last great outburst of the pent-up heathenism.

=Northallerton.= A town of Yorkshire, England, 31 miles northwest from York. Near here was fought the “battle of the Standard,” where the English under the Earls of Albemarle and Ferrers totally defeated the Scotch armies, August 22, 1138. The archbishop of York brought forth a consecrated standard on a carriage at the moment when they were hotly pressed by the invaders, headed by King David.

=Northampton.= The chief town of Northamptonshire, situated on the Nen, or Nene, 60 miles northwest from London. It was held by the Danes at the beginning of the 10th century, and was burnt by them in 1010. Its castle was besieged by the barons in 1215, during the civil wars of King John. On July 10, 1460, a conflict took place between the Duke of York and Henry VI. of England, in which the king was defeated, and made prisoner (the second time) after a sanguinary fight which took place in the meadows below the town. It was seized and fortified by the Parliamentary forces in 1642. On March 30, 1645, Cromwell marched from it with 1500 horse and two regiments of foot to Rugby. After the restoration, October 17, 1661, the walls of Northampton were demolished, it having taken the side of the Parliament.

=North Carolina.= One of the Southern Atlantic States, and one of the original thirteen of the American Confederacy. Attempts were made under the auspices of Sir Walter Raleigh to settle North Carolina as early as between 1585 and 1589, but in one year after no trace of the colony could be found. The first permanent settlement was made on the banks of the Roanoke and Chowan, by some emigrants from Virginia, in 1653. John Culpepper rebelled against the arbitrary government of Miller in 1678, and held the government for two years. In 1693, North and South Carolina were separated. In 1711 the Tuscaroras, Corees, and other savages attacked and massacred 112 settlers, principally of the Roanoke and Chowan settlements; but the following year the united forces of the two Carolinas completely routed them, killing 300 savages. In 1729 the proprietors sold their rights to the crown. A party of malcontents, in 1771, rose against the royal governor, but after two hours’ contest, fled with considerable loss. A severe conflict with the Northwest Indians occurred in 1774, on the Kanawha River, which resulted in the abandonment of the ground by the savages. North Carolina took an early and active part in the events of the Revolution, and within her borders took place sanguinary conflicts at Guilford Court-house, Brier Creek Springs, Fishing Creek, and other places. The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence was made May 20, 1775: so North Carolina has the honor to have first proposed a separation from Great Britain. In the second war with Great Britain she also played a prominent part, although she had no serious losses on her territory. During the late civil war North Carolina suffered greatly, and was the scene of many important engagements, among which were the capture of Forts Hatteras and Clark in 1861, Roanoke Island and Newbern in February, 1862, and Fort Fisher in January, 1865. In March, 1865, the battles of Averysboro’ and Bentonville were fought by the armies of Gen. Sherman and J. E. Johnston, which ended in the final surrender of the latter, at Durham Station, April 26, 1865.

=Norwich.= A city of England, and the capital of the county of Norfolk, on the river Wensum, 108 miles from London. In 1549 the city was the scene of an insurrection resembling that of the Jacquerie in France and the Peasant’s war in Germany. The poor objected to the inclosure of certain commons and waste lands in the neighborhood of Attleborough and Wymondham; fences were thrown down; Robert, alias Knight, a tanner, a bold and resolute man, headed the rebels, aided by his brother William, a butcher. Their numbers increased, and, marching towards Norwich, they encamped on Mousehold Heath, took possession of the mansion of the Earl of Surrey, and thence proceeded to lay siege to the city. Having augmented their number to 16,000, and strongly fortified their camp, they summoned the city to surrender. For months they maintained hostilities, and the country round was pillaged and laid waste, until at length they gained an entrance to the city. A strong force was sent down for the defense of the city, under the Marquis of Northampton, who was defeated on St. Martin’s Palace plain; the rebels plundered and set fire to the city in many parts. The Earl of Warwick, assisted by his son Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, was then sent to the relief of the citizens. The city was stormed by the king’s troops, and the rebels forced to retreat after a two days’ sharp conflict, during which upwards of 3000 were killed, and the insurgents subdued. About 300 of the ringleaders, including the two Ketts, were executed.

=Nose-bag.= A bag of stout canvas with a leather bottom, and straps by which it can be hung over a horse’s head. It is used for feeding grain to horses out of stables.

=Note.= A brief writing intended to assist the memory. Members of courts-martial sometimes take notes. They are frequently necessary to enable a member to bring the whole body of evidence into a connected view, where the case is complex.

=Noted.= Well known by reputation or report; celebrated; as, a noted commander.

=Nottingham.= A large town of England, the capital of the county of the same name, 13 miles northeast from Derby. The castle here was defended by the Danes against King Alfred, and his brother Ethelred, who retook it, 868. William the Conqueror erected a castle, and constructed fortifications so strong as to render the place impregnable against any of the methods of attack which were then known. The castle of Nottingham, defended by the royalists, was besieged by the Parliamentary forces under the command of Col. Hutchinson, to whom, after a brave defense, it at length surrendered.

=Nottoways.= A tribe of Indians who formerly resided in Virginia on the river of the same name. As a distinct race they have ceased to exist.

=Novara.= A city of Northern Italy, defended by a castle, 53 miles west from Turin. In 1849 the Sardinians were disastrously defeated here by the Austrians; and in 1859 a French corps occupied the town.

=Nova Scotia.= A province of British North America, connected with New Brunswick by a narrow isthmus lying between Chignecto and Varte Bays. This country was discovered by Cabot in 1497; it was subsequently settled by the French; and came into the possession of the English in 1758.

=Novi.= A town of Northern Italy, situated at the foot of the Apennines, 13 miles southeast from Alessandria. It is noted for a sanguinary battle fought here in August, 1799, between the French under Joubert and the allied Austro-Russian forces under Suwarrow. The former were defeated, and among 10,000 of the French slain were Joubert and several other distinguished officers.

=Noyan= (Fr.). In English mandril; it also means the whole of the vacant space or bore of a cannon, under which are comprehended the diameter of the mouth, the vacant cylinder, the breech, and the vent. With respect to bombs, grenades, and hollow balls, that which is called noyan consists of a globular piece of earth, upon which the cover of bombs, grenades, and hollow balls is cast. The metal is poured in between this cover and the noyan, after which the noyan, or core, is broken, and the earth taken out.

=Nubia.= A large country of Africa, the ancient Æthiopia supra Ægyptum, said to have been the site of the kingdom of Meroë, received its name from a tribe named Nubes or Nubates. It is now subject to the viceroy of Egypt, having been conquered by Ibrahim Pasha in 1822.

=Nuddea.= A town of British India, in the district of Burdwan, 80 miles north of Calcutta. It was taken and entirely destroyed in 1204.

=Nuggar.= A term in the East Indies for a fort.

=Nuits.= A small fortified town near Dijon, in Burgundy, Northeast France. It was frequently captured and ravaged, especially in 1569, 1576, and 1636. It was taken by the Badenese under Von Werder, December 18, 1870, after five hours’ conflict, in which above 1000 French are said to have been killed and wounded, and 700 prisoners taken. The German loss was also heavy. A depot of arms and ammunition was gained by the victors.

=Numantia.= The chief town of the Celtiberian people, called Arevaci, in ancient Spain, was situated on the Douro, in Old Castile, and is celebrated for the long war of twenty years which it maintained against the Romans. See NUMANTINE WAR.

=Numantine War.= The war between the Romans and the Celtiberians (Celts who possessed the country near the Iber, now Ebro) began 143 B.C., on account of the latter having given refuge to their allies, the Sigidians, who had been defeated by the Romans. Numantia, an unprotected city, withstood a long siege, in which the army of Scipio Africanus, 60,000 men, was opposed by no more than 4000 men able to bear arms. The Numantines fed upon horse-flesh, and on their own dead, and at last drew lots to kill one another. At length, those whom plague and famine had spared destroyed themselves, so that no one remained to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, 133 B.C.

=Numéros= (Fr.). Round pieces of brass or other metal, which were numbered and used in the old French service in the detail of guards.

=Numidia.= An ancient country of North Africa, the seat of the war of the Romans with Jugurtha, which began 111 B.C., and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. The last king, Juba, joined Cato, and was killed at the battle of Thapsus, 46 B.C., when Numidia became a Roman province.

=Nuncio.= An ambassador from the pope.

=Nuremberg= (Ger. Nürnberg). A town of Bavaria, in the circle of Middle Franconia, stands on the Pegnitz, an affluent of the Regnitz. In 1219 it became a free city, independent of any European power, and as such it continued till it was given over by Napoleon in 1806 to the king of Bavaria. At the Reformation the inhabitants embraced the Protestant cause; and in the Thirty Years’ War they were on the side of the Swedes, and suffered much in 1632, during the blockade which Gustavus Adolphus endured from the imperial forces under Wallenstein. The city was occupied by the Prussians in 1866, and its fortifications demolished.

=Nurse.= A person whose whole business is to attend the sick in hospital. In the U. S. service, nurses are detailed in post hospitals from the companies who are serving at the post, and are exempt from other duty, but have to attend the parades for weekly inspections and the musters of their companies, unless especially excused by the commanding officer. Ordinarily one nurse is allowed to every ten persons sick in hospital. In the British service there are sergeants, orderly men, and nurses (generally women) in hospitals of regiments of the line.

=Nuthall’s Rifle.= See SMALL-ARMS.

=Nyköping.= A seaport of Sweden, pleasantly situated on the Baltic, about 60 miles southwest of Stockholm. In 1317 the castle of Nyköping was seized and sacked by the people, who demolished its keep and donjons. In 1719 the town was taken and dismantled by the Russians.

=Nystadt.= A town of Finland, on the eastern coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, 50 miles south of Biorneborg. Here, in 1721, a treaty was agreed to between Russia and Sweden, by virtue of which all the conquests of Peter the Great along the coasts of the Gulf of Finland were annexed to Russia.

O.

=Oakum.= A tangled mass of tarred hempen fibres, is made from old rope by untwisting the strands and rubbing the fibres free from each other. Its principal use is in calking the seams between planks, the space round rivets, bolts, etc., for the purpose of preventing water from penetrating.

=Oaths, Military.= The taking of the oath of fidelity to government and obedience to superior officers, was, among ancient armies, a very solemn affair. A whole corps took the oath together, and sometimes an entire army. The tribunes of every legion chose out one whom they thought the fittest person, and gave him a solemn oath at large, the substance of which was, that he should oblige himself to obey the commanders in all things to the utmost of his power, be ready to attend whenever they ordered his appearance, and never to leave the army but by their consent. After he had ended, the whole legion, passing one by one, every man, in short, swore to the same effect, crying, as he went by, Idem in me, “the same by me.” In modern times when so many other checks are used in maintaining discipline, the oath has become little more than a form. A recruit enlisting in the army or navy, or a volunteer enrolling himself, swears to be faithful to the government, and obedient to all or any of his superior officers. The members of a court-martial take an oath to try the cases brought before them justly, according to the evidence, to keep secret the finding and sentence of the court, until they shall be published by the proper authority, and to keep secret the votes or opinions given by the members individually. The judge-advocate swears that he will not reveal the individual opinions or votes of the members nor the sentence of the court to any but the proper authority. There is also an oath for the members and an oath for the recorder of a court of inquiry. The only other military oath is the common oath of a witness before a court-martial, to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR.

=Obedience= (Fr. obéissance). Submission to the orders of a superior. The first principle which ought to be inculcated and impressed upon the mind of every officer and soldier is obedience to all lawful commands. It is the mainspring, the soul and essence of military duty. It is evident that if all officers and soldiers are to judge when an order is lawful and when not, the captious and mutinous would never be at loss for a plea to justify their insubordination. It is, therefore, an established principle, that unless an order is so manifestly against law that the question does not admit of dispute, the order must first be obeyed by the inferior, and he must subsequently seek such redress against his superior as the laws allow. If the inferior disputes the legality before obedience, error of judgment is never admitted in mitigation of the offense. The redress now afforded by the laws to inferiors is not, however, sufficient; for doubtful questions of the construction of statutes, instead of being referred to the Federal courts of law for their true exposition, have received variable expositions from the executive, and left the army in an unfortunate state of uncertainty as to the true meaning of certain laws; and this uncertainty has been most unfavorable to discipline. Again, while the punishment of death is meted to officers and soldiers for disobedience of lawful commands, the law does not protect officers and soldiers for obeying unlawful commands. Instances have occurred in the United States, where officers and soldiers have been subjected to vexatious prosecutions, simply for obeying orders according to their oath of office. Would it not be just if the law, instead of requiring officers and soldiers thus nicely to steer between Scylla and Charybdis, should hold the superior who gives an illegal order alone responsible for its execution?

=Obedience to Orders.= An unequivocal performance of the several duties which are directed to be discharged by military men. All officers and soldiers are to pay obedience to the lawful orders of their superior officers.

=Obey, To.= In a military sense, is without question or hesitation to conform zealously to all orders and instructions which are legally issued. It sometimes happens that individuals are called upon (by mistake, or from the exigency of the service) out of what is called the regular roster. In either case they must cheerfully obey, and after they have performed their duty they may remonstrate.

=Obidos.= A town of Portugal, in the province of Estremadura, situated on the Amaya, 45 miles northwest from Lisbon. An engagement took place here between the French and English in 1808.

=Object.= A word in military movements and evolutions, synonymous with point. Thus, in marching forward in line, etc., the guide of a squad, company, or battalion, must take two objects at least to fix his line of march by which the whole body is regulated. As he advances he selects succession objects or points to prolong the line.

=Object.= The mark aimed at in the fire of small-arms or artillery.

=Objective-points.= The point to be reached or gained by an army in executing a movement, has been termed the “objective-point.” There are two classes of objectives, viz., natural and accidental. The term geographical is frequently used to designate the first of these.

A natural objective may be an important position, strong naturally, or made so by fortifications, the possession of which gives control over a tract of country, and furnishes good points of support or good lines of defense for other military operations. Or, it may be a great business centre, or a capital of a country, the possession of which has the effect of discouraging the enemy and making him willing to sue for peace.

Accidental objectives are dependent upon the military operations which have for their object the destruction or disintegration of the enemy’s forces. These objectives are sometimes called “objective-points of manœuvre.” The position of the enemy determines their location. Thus, if the enemy’s forces are greatly scattered, or his front much extended, the central point of his position would be a good objective-point, since the possession of it would divide the enemy’s forces, and allow his detachments to be attacked separately. Or, if the enemy has his forces well supported, a good objective would be on that flank, the possession of which would allow his communications with his base to be threatened. It is well to remark that the term “point” used in this connection is not to be considered merely in its geometrical sense, but is used to apply to the object which the army desires to attain, whether it be a position, a place, a line, or even a section of country.--Prof. J. B. Wheeler.

=Oblat= (Fr.). Disabled soldier formerly maintained by abbeys.

=Oblique.= In tactics, indicates a direction which is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the front, but more or less diagonal. It is a command of warning in the tactics for the movement. It is used in referring to diagonal alignments, attacks, orders of battles, squares against cavalry, changes of front, fires, etc.

=Oblique Deployments.= When the component parts of a column that is extending into line, deviate to the right or left, for the purpose of taking up an oblique position, its movements are called oblique deployments.

=Oblique Fire.= See FIRE, OBLIQUE.

=Oblique Flank.= See FLANK, OBLIQUE.

=Oblique Order of Battle.= See ORDER OF BATTLE, OBLIQUE.

=Oblique Percussion.= Is that wherein the striking body is not perpendicular to the body struck, or is not in line with its centre of gravity.

=Oblique Position.= Is a position taken in an oblique direction from the original line of formation.

=Oblique Projection.= Is that wherein the direction of the striking body is not perpendicular to the body struck, which makes an oblique angle with the horizontal line.

=Oblique Radius.= Is a line extending from the centre to the exterior side of a polygon.

=Oblique Step.= Is a step or movement in marching, in which the soldier, while advancing, gradually takes ground to the right or left at an angle of about 25°. It is not now practiced.

=Oblique, To.= In a military sense, is to move forward to the right or left, by obliquing in either of those directions, according to the words of command.

=Oblong Projectiles.= See PROJECTILES.

=Obsequies.= See FUNERAL HONORS.

=Observation, Army of.= An army assigned to the duty of observing and checking the movements of an enemy.

=Observer Sergeants.= In the United States, are sergeants in the signal service, stationed in large towns and important commercial centres, to give timely warning of the approach of storms, rise of rivers, and all other important weather news for the guidance of merchants and others.

=Observe, To.= To watch closely, etc. Hence, to observe the motions of an enemy, is to keep a good lookout by means of small corps of armed men, or of intelligent and steady spies and scouts, and to be constantly in possession of information regarding his different movements.

=Obsession.= The act of besieging.

=Obsidional.= Belonging to a siege.

=Obsidional Crown= (Fr. couronne obsidionale). A crown so called among the ancient Romans, which was bestowed upon a governor or general, who by his skill and exertions, either held out or caused the siege to be raised of any town belonging to the republic. It was made from the grass which grew on the spot, and was therefore called gramineus (Lat. gramen, “grass”).

=Obsidionale Monnaie= (Fr.). Any substitute for coin which has a value put upon it that is greater than its intrinsic worth; and a currency given to answer the convenience of the inhabitants of a besieged place.

=Obstacles.= Are narrow passes, woods, bridges, or any other impediments which present themselves when a battalion is marching to front or rear; or abatis, crows-feet, palisades, etc., which, being placed in the glacis of a fortress, obstruct the operations of an assaulting party.

=Obstinate.= In a military sense, means determined; fixed in resolution; as, an obstinate resistance.

=Obstruct.= To block up; to stop up or close, as a way or passage; to fill with obstacles or impediments that prevent passing; as, to obstruct a road, highway, channel, etc.

=Obstruction.= The act of obstructing, or the state of being obstructed. Also, that which obstructs or impedes; obstacle; impediment; hindrance.

=Obtain.= To get hold of by effort; to gain possession of.

=Obus=, or =Obusier= (Fr.). A species of small mortar, resembling a mortar in everything but the carriage, which was made in the form of that belonging to a gun, only shorter. It has been frequently used at sieges; and was well calculated to sweep the covert way, and to fire ricochet shots. They were usually loaded with cartouches.

=Obusier= (Fr.). Howitzer, called haubitz by the Dutch. In 1434 it was known under the name of husenicze.

=Oc.= A Turkish arrow.

=Ocana.= A town of Spain, in New Castile, 33 miles southeast from Madrid. Near here the Spaniards were defeated by the French, commanded by Mortier and Soult, November 19, 1809.

=Occasion= (Fr.). Has the same signification in military matters that affair bears among the French. Une occasion bien chaude, a warm contest, battle, or engagement; it further means, as with us, the source from whence consequences ensue. Les malheurs du peuple sont arrivés à l’occasion de la guerre, “the misfortunes of the people have been occasioned by the war,” or “the war has been the occasion of the people’s misfortunes.” The French make a nice distinction which may hold good in our language, between cause and occasion, viz.: Il n’en est pas la cause,--il n’en est que l’occasion, l’occasion innocente,--“He is not the cause, he is only the occasion, the innocent occasion of it.”

=Occupation.= The state of occupying or taking possession. Also, the state of being occupied or possessed; possession.

=Occupation, Army of.= An army which invades an enemy’s country and establishes itself in it either temporarily or permanently, is termed an army of occupation.

=Occupy.= Is a military phrase for taking possession of a work or fort, or to remain stationary in any place.

=Octagon.= A figure or polygon that has eight equal sides, which likewise form eight equal angles. The octagon in fortification is well calculated in its ground for the construction of large towns, or for such as have the advantage of neighboring rivers, especially if the engineer can so place the bastions, that the entrances and outlets of the rivers may be in some of the curtains. By means of this disposition no person could come in or go out of the garrison without the commandant’s permission, as the sentinels must have a full view from the flanks of the neighboring bastions.

=Oczakov=, or =Otshakov=. A town of Russia in Europe, in the government of Cherson, near the mouth of the Dnieper. This place was once the object of obstinate contests between the Turks and Russians.

=Oda.= The different corps or companies into which the Janissaries were divided bore this appellation. The word itself means a room, and the companies were so called from messing separately.

=Oda-Bachi.= Captain superintending the gunners at Constantinople.

=Odas.= Company of soldiers.

=Odessa.= A fortified seaport of European Russia, in the government of Cherson, on a small bay of the Black Sea between the Dniester and Dnieper, 85 miles west from Kherson. In the beginning of the 15th century the Turks constructed a fortress here, which was taken by the Russians in 1789. On the outbreak of the Crimean war, April, 1854, the British steamer “Furious” went to Odessa for the purpose of bringing away the British consul. While under a flag of truce, she was fired upon by the batteries of the city. On the failure of the written message from the admiral in command of the fleet to obtain explanations, 12 war-steamers invested Odessa, April 22, and in a few hours destroyed the fortifications, blew up the powder-magazines, and took a number of Russian vessels. On May 12, the English frigate “Tiger” stranded here, and was destroyed by Russian artillery. The captain, Giffard, and many of his men were killed, and the rest made prisoners.

=Odius.= A herald in the camp of the Greeks before Troy.

=Odometer.= An instrument attached to the wheel of a carriage to measure distances in traveling, indicating on a dial the number of revolutions made by the wheel.

=Odrysæ.= The most powerful people in Thrace, dwelt, according to Herodotus, on both sides of the river Artiscus, a tributary of the Hebrus, but also spread farther west over the whole plain of the Hebrus. Their king Teres retained his independence of the Persians 508 B.C. Sitalces, his son, enlarged his dominions, and in 429 aided the Athenians against Perdiccas II. of Macedon with an army of 150,000 men. Sitalces was killed in battle with the Triballi, 424. Cotys, another king (382-353), disputed the possession of the Thracian Chersonesus with Athens; after nine or ten years’ warfare, Philip II. of Macedon reduced the Odrysæ to tributaries.

=Œniadæ= (now Triyardon, or Trikhardo). An ancient town of Acarnania, situated on the Achelous, near its mouth. Œniadæ espoused the cause of the Spartans in the Peloponnesian war. At the time of Alexander the Great, the town was taken by the Ætolians, who expelled the inhabitants; but the Ætolians were expelled in their turn by Philip V., king of Macedonia, who surrounded the place with fortifications. The Romans captured and restored the town to the Acarnanians 211 B.C.

=Œnophyta= (now Inia). A town in Bœotia, on the left bank of the Asopus, and on the road from Tanagra to Oropus, memorable for the victory gained here by the Athenians over the Bœotians, 456 B.C.

=Oesel.= An island belonging to Russia, stretches across the mouth of the Gulf of Riga. It at one time belonged to the Teutonic knights, but was seized by the Danes at an early period, and ceded by them to Sweden in 1645. In the beginning of the 18th century it was taken possession of by Russia, to which power it was finally ceded in 1721.

=Ofanto= (anc. Aufidus). A river of Naples, which rises in the province of Principato Ultra, and after a course of 75 miles flows into the Adriatic, 4 miles from Barletta. Near its mouth was fought the famous battle of Cannæ, in which the Romans were defeated by Hannibal.

=Off, To Go.= To be discharged, as a gun.

=Off, To March.= To quit the ground on which you are regularly drawn up, for the purpose of going upon detachment, relieving a guard, or doing any other military duty.

=Off, To Tell.= To count the men composing a battalion or company, so as to have them readily and distinctly thrown into such proportions as suit military movements or evolutions.

=Offa’s Dyke.= An intrenchment from the Wye to the Dee, England, made by Offa, king of Mercia, to defend his country from the incursions of the Welsh, 779.

=Offense, Weapons of.= Those which are used in attack, in distinction from those of defense, which are used to repel.

=Offenses.= All acts that are contrary to good order and discipline, omissions of duty, etc., may be called military offenses. The principal ones are specified in the Articles of War (which see). No officer or soldier can be tried twice for the same offense, unless in the case of an appeal; nor can any officer or soldier be tried for any offense committed more than two years before the date of the order for trial, unless in cases where through some manifest impediment the offenders were not amenable to justice in that period, when they may be brought to trial any time within two years after the impediment has ceased.

=Offensive.= Used in attack; assailant; opposed to defensive; as, an offensive weapon or engine. Making the first attack; assailant; invading: opposed to defensive; as, an offensive war.

=Offensive and Defensive Fireworks.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Offensive and Defensive League.= A league that requires both or all parties to make war together against a nation, and each party to defend the other in case of being attacked.

=Offensive and Defensive Operations.= Are operations the object of which is not only to prevent the enemy’s advance, but to attack him whenever there is a favorable opportunity which promises success.

=Offensive Fortification.= See FORTIFICATION.

=Offensive War.= Military acts of aggression constitute what is called an offensive war. Those who assail an opposite or adverse army, or invade the dominions of another power, are said to wage an offensive war.

=Office.= Any place or department appointed for the officers and clerks to attend in, for the discharge of their respective employments; as, the adjutant-general’s office, etc.

=Office of Ordnance.= See BOARD OF ORDNANCE and ORDNANCE OFFICE.

=Officer, Brevet.= See BREVET.

=Officer, Field-.= See FIELD-OFFICER.

=Officer, General.= See GENERAL OFFICER.

=Officer in Waiting.= In the British service, the officer next for duty is so called. He is also mentioned in orders, and ought to be ready for the service specified at a minute’s warning. He must not on this account quit the camp, garrison, or cantonment.

=Officer, Non-commissioned.= See NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICER.

=Officer of the Day.= Is an officer whose immediate duty is to attend to the interior economy of the corps or garrison to which he belongs, or of those with which he may be doing duty. The officer of the day has charge of the guard, prisoners, and police of the garrison, inspects the soldiers’ barracks, messes, hospital, etc.

=Officer of the Guard.= An officer detailed daily for service with the guard. It is his duty, under the officer of the day, to see that the non-commissioned officers and men of his guard are well instructed in all their duties, he inspects the reliefs, visits the sentinels, is responsible for the prisoners and the property used by them and the guard; he is also responsible for good order, alertness, and discipline, and should never quit his guard duty unless properly relieved.

=Officer, To.= To furnish with officers; to appoint officers over.

=Officers.= Commissioned officers are all those officers of a government who receive their commissions from the executive, and are of various grades from the ensign to the marshal, all of which see under their respective headings. See APPOINTING POWER and COMMISSIONS.

=Officers, Marine.= All those who command in that body of troops employed in the sea service.

=Officers, Staff-.= Are all those officers who are not attached to regiments, whose duties extend over the whole, or a large section, such as a brigade or a division; such as the adjutant-general, the quartermaster-general, etc., and their subordinates, together with brigade-majors and aides-de-camp. The regimental staff-officers are those who are not attached to companies; they are the adjutant and quartermaster, in the U. S. service, and in European armies the surgeon, paymaster, adjutant, assistant-surgeon, and quartermaster. See STAFF.

=Officers, Subaltern.= Are all those officers below the grade of captain.

=Officers, Warrant-.= Are those who have no commissions, but only warrants from such boards or persons as are authorized by law to grant them. The only warrant-officers in the British service are master-gunners and schoolmasters. Technically the non-commissioned officers of the U. S. army are not warrant-officers, though they are appointed by warrants.

=Official.= All orders, reports, applications, memorials, etc., which pass through the regular channels of communication, are called official.

=Official Courtesies.= The interchange of official compliments and visits between foreign military or naval officers and the authorities of a military post are international in character. In all cases it is the duty of the commandant of a military post, without regard to his rank, to send a suitable officer to offer civilities and assistance to a vessel of war (foreign or otherwise) recently arrived. After such offer it is the duty of the commanding officer of the vessel to send a suitable officer to acknowledge such civilities, and request that a time be specified for his reception by the commanding officer of the post. The commanding officer of the post, after the usual offer of civilities, is always to receive the first visit without regard to rank. The return visit by the commanding officer of the military post is made the following day, or as soon thereafter as practicable.

When a military commander officially visits a vessel of war he gives notice of his visit to the vessel previously thereto, or sends a suitable officer (or an orderly) to the gangway to announce his presence, if such notice has not been given. He is then received at the gangway by the commander of the vessel, and is accompanied there on leaving by the same officer. The officer who is sent with the customary offer of civilities is met at the gangway of a vessel of war by the officer of the deck; through the latter he is presented to the commander of the vessel, with whom it is his duty to communicate.

When a civil functionary entitled to a salute arrives at a military post, the commanding officer meets or calls upon him as soon as practicable. The commanding officer tenders a review, provided the garrison of the place is not less than four companies of troops. When an officer entitled to a salute visits a post within his own command, the troops are paraded and he receives the honor of a review, unless he directs otherwise. When a salute is to be given an officer junior to another present at a post, the senior will be notified to that effect by the commanding officer. Military or naval officers of whatever rank, arriving at a military post or station, are expected to call upon the commanding officer. Under no circumstances is the flag of a military post dipped by way of salute or compliment.

=Officially.= By the proper officer; by virtue of the proper authority; in pursuance of the special powers vested; as, accounts or reports officially verified or rendered; letters officially communicated; persons officially notified.

=Off-reckonings.= A specific account was so called which existed between the government and colonels of British regiments for the clothing of the men.

=Ogee=, or =Ogive=. In pieces of ordnance, an ornamental molding on guns, mortars, and howitzers.

=Ogival.= The form given the head of oblong projectiles. It was found by Borda that this shape experienced less resistance from the air than any other.

=Ohio.= One of the Western States of the American Confederacy, lying between Lakes Michigan, Erie, and the Ohio River. In 1680, La Salle explored the State, and built a military post on the Ohio, which the French claimed; but in 1763 they relinquished it. The first settlement was made subsequent to the Revolution, a company of New Englanders having settled at Marietta in April, 1788. The early inhabitants were much annoyed by incursions of the Indians, who had successively defeated Gens. Harmar and St. Clair (the latter with great slaughter of his troops, leaving scarcely one-fourth) in 1791 and 1792, but were themselves in turn utterly routed by Gen. Wayne in August, 1794. Ohio was admitted as a State in 1802. In the second war with Great Britain, Ohio suffered greatly from raids by the British and Indians. Fort Sandusky was attacked by Gen. Proctor, with 500 regulars and as many Indians, and was successfully defended by Maj. Croghan, a youth of twenty-one years, with 160 men. But the most important action which occurred was the naval engagement on Lake Erie, fought at Put-in-Bay, September 10, 1813, in which Commodore O. H. Perry defeated a superior British fleet under command of Barclay. Ohio contributed greatly to the cause of the Union in the late civil war; she sent her full quotas of troops to the field, and the women attended to the sick and wounded with untiring zeal. The State was twice invaded by Confederate guerrillas, but suffered no material damage.

=Oillets=, or =Œillets=. Apertures for firing through in the walls of a fort.

=Ojibways.= See CHIPPEWAS.

=Okanagans=, or =Cutsanim=. A semi-civilized tribe of Indians who, to the number of about 300, reside to the east of the Cascade Mountains, in Washington Territory.

=Olcades.= An ancient people in Hispania Tarraconensis, north of Carthago Nova, nearer the sources of the Anas, in a part of the country afterwards inhabited by the Oretani. They are mentioned only in the wars of the Carthaginians with the inhabitants of Spain.

=Oldensworth= (Denmark). A conference was held here in 1713, between Peter the Great and Frederick IV. of Denmark.

=Olifant=, or =Oliphant= (Fr.). A horn which a paladin or knight sounded in token of defiance, or as a challenge.

=Olinde.= A sort of sword-blade.

=Olivenza.= A fortified town of Spain, in Estremadura, situated on the Guadiana, 16 miles southwest from Badajos. This town was ceded by Portugal to Spain in 1801; and for having arranged this cession, Godoy received his title of “Prince of Peace.” In 1811 it was taken by the French.

=Olmütz.= The chief fortress of Moravia, in the district of the same name, in Austria, 40 miles north-northeast from Brünn. Olmütz was taken by the Swedes during the Thirty Years’ War; but was besieged in vain for seven weeks by Frederick the Great in 1758. Lafayette was confined here in 1794. A conference was held here November 29, 1850, under the czar Nicholas, when the difficulties between Austria and Prussia respecting the affairs of Hesse-Cassel were arranged.

=Olot.= A town of Spain, in the province of Gerona, 85 miles from Barcelona. It figured and suffered much in the war of independence, being a strong point, and passed alternately into the hands of French and Spaniards, until the latter dismantled the fortifications. In the civil war of 1856 and 1857 it was much coveted and frequently attacked by the Carlists, but unsuccessfully.

=Oltenitza.= A fortified village of Turkey in Europe, in Wallachia, situated on the Danube, 2 miles north from Turtukai. A Turkish force having crossed the Danube under Omar Pasha, established themselves at Oltenitza in spite of the vigorous attacks of the Russians, who were repulsed with loss November 2-3, 1853. On November 4, a desperate attempt to dislodge the Turks by Gen. Danneberg with 9000 men, was defeated with great loss.

=Olympic Games.= Were instituted by Hercules A.M. 2856, in honor of Jupiter Olympus, at Olympia, a city of Elis, in Peloponnesus. They were celebrated about every four years, about the summer solstice. The design of them was to accustom the young military men to running, leaping, and every other military exercise.

=Olynthus.= A town of Chalcidice, stood at the head of the Toronaic Gulf, between the headlands of Sithonia and Pallene, about 60 stadia from Potidæa. During the second Persian invasion of Greece, Artabazus, the general of Xerxes, captured the town, slaughtered its Bottiæan inhabitants, and gave it to the Chalcidians. It was subdued in war by Sparta in 382-379 B.C. It resisted Philip of Macedon 350 B.C., by whom it was destroyed in 347.

=Omagh= (Irish, Oigh magh, “seat of the chiefs”). An ancient town, capital of the county of Tyrone, in Ireland, 34 miles south from Londonderry. Omagh grew up around an abbey founded in the year 792, but is first heard of as a fortress of Art O’Nial in the end of the 15th century, about which time it was forced to surrender to the English, although its possession long continued to alternate between Irish and English hands. It formed part of James I.’s “Plantation grants,” and was strongly garrisoned by Mountjoy. On its being evacuated by the troops of James II. in 1689, it was partially burned.

=Omaha Indians.= A tribe of aborigines, of Dakota stock, who, to the number of 1000, inhabit a reservation in Nebraska. They are generally peaceful and industrious.

=Omer, St.= A fortified town of France, in the department of Pas-de-Calais, 24 miles southeast from Calais. This place was taken by Louis XIV. in 1677. It suffered severely during the revolution of 1830.

=Omra=, or =Omhra= (plural of ameer, a “lord”) Ind. They were persons of considerable consequence in the dominions of the Great Mogul. Some of them had command of 1000 horse, others of 2000, and so on to 20,000; their pay being regulated according to their commands. The governors and great officers of state were generally chosen out of this body.

=On.= A preposition frequently used in military exercise. It precedes the word of command which directs the change or formation of bodies of men upon points that are fixed; as, form on the centre company.

=On the Alert.= In a state of vigilance or activity.

=Onagre= (Fr.). A warlike machine, which was used by the ancients to throw stones of different sizes. It is mentioned by Vegetius.

=Oneidas.= A tribe of Indians forming one of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, who resided in the county and near the lake which bears their name. They were continually at war with the early French settlers in Canada, and took sides with the colonists against the British in the war of the Revolution. For this they suffered severely. Their castle, church, and villages were destroyed by the Tories in 1780, and they were compelled to flee to the white settlements for protection. In 1788 they ceded most of their lands to the State and moved to Canada; subsequently some of the tribe settled in Wisconsin, where they are still comfortably located on a reservation; and a remnant still resides near Rome, Oneida Co., N. Y. They are well advanced in the arts of civilization, and, contrary to the usual fate of Indian tribes, have increased in numbers.

=Onein.= An offensive weapon of mediæval times, consisting of a staff with a hooked iron head.

=Onondagas.= One of the confederate tribes of Indians known as the Five Nations. They resided in the State of New York, in the county which bears their name. They were long the enemies of the Canadian French, with whom, and with the Hurons, they were continually at war. They were allies of the English in the French war, 1756-63, fought against the colonists in the Revolutionary war, and suffered severely in the contest. In 1788 they ceded their lands to the State and moved to Ontario, Canada, where about 400 of them now reside.

=Onset.= A rushing or setting upon; a violent attack; assault; a storming; especially the assault of an army or body of troops upon an enemy or a fort.

=Onsetting.= A rushing upon or assaulting.

=Onslaught.= Attack; onset; aggression; assault. “By storm and onslaught to proceed.”

=Onward.= Toward the point before or in front; forward; as, to move onward.

=Oodeypoor=, or =Mewar=. A Rajpoot state in India. It became tributary to the British government by the treaty of 1818. A corps of Bheels was raised in 1841 at the joint expense of the British and Oodeypoor governments, in order to reduce to subjection the Bheel districts of the country.

=Oojein=, or =Oojain=. A city of India, in the territory of Gwalior, 152 miles southwest from Goonah. It fell into the power of the Mohammedans in 1310. At this time it was the capital of Malwa; and along with this country it afterwards came under the power of the Patans, but was recovered by Akbar in 1561. In the middle of the 18th century it was conquered by the Mahrattas.

=Opatas=, or =Yakis=. An Indian people who reside in the state of Sonora, Mexico. They number about 25,000, and are generally peaceable and industrious.

=Open.= In military movements and dispositions, this term is frequently used in contradistinction to close; as, open column, open distance, open order, etc. It also constitutes part of a word of command; as, rear rank take open order. By open distance in column is meant that the intervals are always equal in depth to the extent in front of the different component parts of the column.

=Open Flank.= In fortification, is that part of the flank which is covered by the orillon.

=Opening of Trenches.= Is the first breaking of ground by the besiegers, in order to carry on their approaches towards the place.

=Operations, Lines of.= See LINES OF OPERATIONS.

=Operations, Military.= Consist in the resolute application of preconcerted measures in secrecy, dispatch, regular movements, occasional encampments, and desultory combats or pitched battles.

=Opinion.= In military proceedings that regard the interior government of an army, this word signifies decision, determination, judgment formed upon matters that have been laid before a court-martial or court of inquiry.

=Opinion.= Officers on courts-martial give their opinion by seniority, beginning with the youngest in rank.

=Oporto.= A city of Portugal, in the province of Entre-Douro-e-Minho, about 2 miles from the mouth of the Douro, and 175 miles north from Lisbon. It was attacked by the Moors under Abderrahman in 820. In 1092 certain knights of Gascony, commanded by Don Alfonso Fredrico, captured it from the Moors. It was famous for the strength of its fortifications during the Middle Ages, its walls being 3000 paces in circumference, 30 feet in height, and flanked with towers. From the 17th to the present century, Oporto has been the scene of an unusual number of popular insurrections. In 1808 it was taken by the French. The French, under Marshal Soult, were surprised here by Lord Wellington, and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. It was besieged in 1832 and 1833 by Dom Miguel, and successfully defended by Dom Pedro with 7500 men. In this siege, the city suffered severely, and more than 16,000 of the inhabitants were killed. It has since been the scene of civil war. The insurgents entered Oporto January 7, 1847; a Spanish force entered Oporto, and the Junto capitulated, June 26, 1847.

=Oppenheim.= A town of the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the left bank of the Rhine, 10 miles southeast of Mayence. It occupies the site of the Roman castle of Bauconia, and was made a royal palatinate under the Carlovingians. It afterwards became one of the most important free towns of the empire. It was taken in 1218 by Adalbert, archbishop of Mayence, in 1620 by the Spaniards, in 1631 by the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus, and in 1634 by the Imperialists, suffering much upon all these occasions. In 1689 the French under Melac almost entirely destroyed it.

=Opponent.= One who oppones, or opposes; an adversary; an antagonist; a foe.

=Oppose.= To act as an adversary against another; to resist, etc. It likewise signifies to place as an obstacle.

=Oppugn.= To fight against, whether in attack, resistance, or simple opposition; to attack; to oppose; to resist.

=Oppugnant.= Tending to awaken hostility; hostile; opposing.

=Or.= In heraldry the metal gold, represented in heraldic engravings by an unlimited number of dots.

=Oran.= A seaport town of Algeria, about 220 miles west-southwest of Algiers; it is defended by strongly armed forts. The town of Oran was built by the Moors. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1509, by the Turks in 1708, and again by the Spaniards in 1732. It was taken by the French in 1831, and has since remained in their hands.

=Orb.= In tactics, is the disposing of a number of soldiers in circular form of defense. The orb has been thought of consequence enough to employ the attention of the famous Marshal de Puysegur, in his “Art of War,” who prefers this position to throw a body of infantry in an open country to resist cavalry, or even a superior force of infantry; because it is regular, and equally strong, and gives an enemy no reason to expect better success by attacking one place than another. Cæsar drew up his whole army in this form when he fought against Labienus. The whole army of the Gauls was formed into an orb, under the command of Sabinus and Cotta, when fighting against the Romans. The orb was generally formed six deep.

=Orchomenus.= A city of Bœotia, and the capital of the powerful tribe of the Minyæ, was situated near the western shore of Lake Copaic, on a hill which overlooked the windings of the Cephissus. Its original inhabitants are said to have been Thessalian emigrants, and its name was derived from Orchomenus, one of the kings of the Minyans. Homer compares its treasures to those of Egyptian Thebes, and tells us that it sent 30 ships to the Trojan war. Some time after this event it became a member of the Bœotian confederacy. During the Persian war, like the other towns of Bœotia, it abandoned the national cause. Its government was thoroughly aristocratic, and after the Peloponnesian war, when Thebes became a democracy, Orchomenus took part with Sparta, and shared in its first triumph over Thebes; but the victory of Epaminondas at Leuctra (371 B.C.) placed it at the mercy of the Thebans, who soon after destroyed it by fire, and sold its inhabitants as slaves. It was again rebuilt during the Phocian war, but was a second time destroyed in the reign of Philip of Macedon, who, however, once more rebuilt it; but it never again became prominent in history. The site is now occupied by the modern village of Skripú.

=Orchomenus.= An ancient city of Arcadia, stood in a plain surrounded by hills, which separated its territory from that of Mantinea on the south and those of Pheneus and Stymphalus on the north. Its founder is said to have been Orchumenus, the son of Lycaon, and several of its kings are said to have spread their rule over all Arcadia. During the Peloponnesian war, when its acropolis had fallen into ruins, and its last king, Pisistratus, had been murdered by an oligarchical faction, Orchomenus began to decline. About 367 B.C. three of its tributary towns were depopulated to furnish inhabitants to the newly-founded city of Megalopolis; in 313 B.C. it was taken by the Macedonian general Cassander; and ever afterwards it continued to be bandied about between different belligerent powers. At the time of Pausanias it was still inhabited, and at the present day its ruins are seen near the village of Kalpáki.

=Order.= This term, considered in its relation to the army, embraces divers subjects. It gives an idea of harmony in the accomplishment of duties; a classification of corps or men; injunctions emanating from authority; measures which regulate service, and many tactical details. In tactics, the natural order is when troops coming upon ordinary ground are ranged in line of battle by the prescribed tactical means, and when they are formed in column, right in front. The oblique order is contradistinguished from the parallel, and in general means every tactical combination, the aim of which is to produce an effect upon two points of an enemy’s line by bringing a superior force to bear down on these two points. Such combinations constitute the oblique order, whatever manœuvres may be used to accomplish the object. The parallel order operates, on the contrary, against the whole front of an enemy. Turenne and Condé fought habitually in parallel order, although they sometimes made a skillful use of oblique attacks. Guibert well says that a contiguous and regular parallel order can be of no use in war.

=Order Arms.= A word of command directing that the musket be brought down to the right side of the soldier, the butt resting on the ground.

=Order, Beating.= In the British service, is an authority given to an individual empowering him to raise men by beat of drum for any particular regiment, or for general service. It consists of a warrant which is signed by the secretary at war, or issued in his name by the adjutant-general.

=Order Book.= Every company in the service has such a book, in which orders are written for the information of officers and men. Order books are also kept at all military headquarters.

=Order, Close.= In tactics, comprehends space of about one-half pace between ranks.

=Order, Entire.= When applied to rank, means a straight line composed of half-files.

=Order, Extended.= Is preparatory to rank entire, and is frequently practiced in light infantry manœuvres. It comprehends the opening of files of a battalion or company standing two deep, so as to have just space enough for one man between each two. The battalion or company, after it has obtained all its relative distances and been halted, is fronted, and each rear rank man springs into the vacancy when the word of command is given.

=Order of Alcantara.= A Spanish military order. It was established by Ferdinand II., king of Leon and Castile, in 1170. The knights wore a green cross upon their garments. See ALCANTARA.

=Order of Amaranth.= An order of military knighthood, instituted in Sweden by Queen Christina in 1645, at the close of an annual feast celebrated in that country, and called wirtschaft. Their device was the cipher of amarante, composed of two A’s, the one erect, the other inverted, and interwoven together; the whole inclosed by a laurel crown, with the motto, Dolce nella memoria.

=Order of Argonauts of St. Nicholas.= Was the name of a military order instituted by Charles III., king of Naples, in 1382, for the advancement of navigation, or, as some authors say, merely for preserving amity among the nobles. They wore a collar of shells inclosed in a silver crescent, from which hung a ship with the device, Non credo tempori.

=Order of Battle.= The arrangement or disposition of the different component parts of an army in one or more lines, according to the nature of the ground, for the purpose of engaging an enemy by giving or receiving an attack, or in order to be reviewed, etc.

=Order of Battle, Concave.= If the attack is made simultaneously on both wings, and the centre is refused, it is plain that the attacking army will assume a line of battle which will be concave towards the enemy’s line.

=Order of Battle, Convex.= If the attack is made in the centre of the enemy’s line, refusing both wings, the general direction of the line of battle of the attacking army will be convex towards the enemy’s line, and the term “convex order of battle” is applied to it. Other orders of battle are named by military writers. Their names will generally describe the direction of the hostile lines of battle and the particular formation adopted by the attacking army.

=Order of Battle, Oblique.= An arrangement of an army for battle with one wing advanced beyond the other, or a movement which brings the line in contact with an enemy’s flank; in general, any combination which brings a preponderating force upon any point of the enemy’s line. See ORDER.

=Order of Calatrava.= See CALATRAVA, ORDER OF.

=Order of Knights of St. Stephen.= Instituted in 1561, by Cosmo, duke of Florence. They wear a red cross with a border of gold.

=Order of Knights of the Band.= Instituted by Alphonso, king of Spain, in 1268. Their name proceeded from the knights wearing a red scarf, or lace of silk, the breadth of 3 inches, which hung on their left shoulder.

=Order of Knights of the Bath.= A military order in Great Britain, deriving its name from the ceremony of bathing, which was performed at the initiation of the knights. The earliest authentic instance of this ceremony was at the coronation of Henry IV. (1399). The last occasion on which this ceremony was used was the coronation of Charles II., in 1660, after which the order fell into oblivion until it was revived by George I., in 1725. It is now the second in rank among the orders of England, the order of the Garter being the highest. The order of the Bath comprises three classes: first class, Knights Grand Cross (K.G.C.), the number of whom is limited to 50 military men and 25 civilians, besides the royal family; second class, Knights Commanders (K.C.B.), = 102 military and 50 civil; these and the first have the title of Sir; third class, Companions (C.B.), = 525 military and 200 civil.

=Order of Knights of the Redemption.= Instituted in the kingdom of Aragon by King James, who conquered the island of Majorca, in 1212. Their garments are white, with a black cross thereon.

=Order of Knights Templar.= See TEMPLAR, KNIGHTS.

=Order of Maria Theresa.= This order was instituted in June, 1757, by the empress queen of Hungary. In 1765 an intermediate class, styled knights commanders, was added to the two classes that originally composed the order.

=Order of Merit.= Instituted by Frederick III., king of Prussia, as a reward to those officers whose behavior deserved some marks of distinction. The ensign of this order is a golden star of eight rays, enameled with blue, which is worn appendant to a black ribbon edged with silver. The motto is Pour le merite.

=Order of Mount Carmel.= Instituted by Henry IV. in 1608.

=Order of St. Alexander Newski.= Or the Red Ribbon, which was instituted by Peter I., emperor of Russia; but the czarina Catherine I. conferred it in 1725.

=Order of St. Hubert.= See HUBERT, ST., ORDER OF.

=Order of St. James.= See JAMES OF THE SWORD, ST.

=Order of St. Lazarus.= See LAZARUS.

=Order of St. Louis.= See LOUIS.

=Order of St. Mark.= See MARK, ST., KNIGHTS OF.

=Order of St. Michael.= Instituted in 1469 by Louis XII. in honor of the important services done to France by that archangel at the siege of Orleans, where he is supposed to have appeared at the head of the French troops, disputing the passage of a bridge, and to have repulsed the attack of the English, whose affairs ever after declined in that kingdom. The order is a rich collar, with the image of that saint pendent thereto; with the inscription, Immensi tremor oceani.

=Order of St. Michael and St. George.= This order of knighthood, founded for the Ionian Isles and Malta, April 27, 1818, was reorganized in March, 1869, in order to admit servants of the crown of England connected with the colonies.

=Order of St. Patrick.= See PATRICK, ST., ORDER OF.

=Order of Teutonic Knights.= Established towards the close of the 12th century, and thus called, as chiefly consisting of Germans, anciently called Teutons.

=Order of the Annunciation.= See ANNUNCIADA.

=Order of the Bear.= See BEAR, ORDER OF.

=Order of the Black Eagle.= See EAGLE, BLACK.

=Order of the Crescent.= See CRESCENT.

=Order of the Golden Fleece.= See GOLDEN FLEECE, ORDER OF THE.

=Order of the Golden Stole.= A Venetian military order, so called from a golden stole, which those knights wore over their shoulder, reaching to the knee both before and behind, a palm and a half broad. None are raised to this order but patricians, or noble Venetians. It is uncertain when this order was instituted.

=Order of the Holy Ghost.= See HOLY GHOST, ORDER OF THE.

=Order of the Knights of the Garter.= See GARTER, ORDER OF THE.

=Order of the Knights of Malta.= See ST. JOHN OF JERUSALEM.

=Order of the Knights of St. Jago.= Instituted by the king Ramico of Spain, in commemoration of a victory obtained against the Moors, 1030. Their ensign is a red cross in the form of a sword.

=Order of the Seraphim.= See SERAPHIM, ORDER OF THE.

=Order of the Sword.= See SWORD, ORDER OF THE.

=Order of the White Eagle.= See WHITE EAGLE, ORDER OF THE.

=Order, Open.= In tactics, comprehends an interval of about 3 yards between each rank.

=Order, Parade.= When a regiment of horse or foot, a troop, or company, is drawn up with the ranks open and the officers in front, it is said to be in parade order.

=Orderlies.= Non-commissioned officers and soldiers appointed to wait upon generals and other officers, to communicate orders and carry messages.

=Orderlies, Standing.= Are soldiers who permanently perform orderly duty.

=Orderly Book.= A book for the sergeants to insert the orders which are issued from time to time.

=Orderly Drum.= The drummer that beats the orders, and gives notice of the hour for messing, etc., is so called.

=Orderly Officer.= The officer of the day; especially the officer of the day about an army headquarters in the field.

=Orderly Room.= A room in the barracks, used as the office of a company.

=Orderly Sergeant.= The first sergeant of a company is so called in the U. S. army.

=Orders.= Are the instructions, injunctions, or commands issued by superior officers. The orders of commanders of armies, divisions, brigades, regiments, are denominated orders of such army, division, etc., and are either general or special. They are numbered, general and special in separate series, each beginning with the year. In Great Britain and other European countries, and in the United States, orders generally take the designation of the headquarters from which they are issued.

=Orders, General.= Are orders that are issued to announce the hours for roll-calls and duties; the number and kind of orderlies, and the time when they shall be relieved; police regulations, and the prohibitions required by circumstances and localities; returns to be made and their forms; laws and regulations for the army; promotions and appointments; eulogies or censures to corps or individuals, and generally, whatever may be important to make known to the whole command.

=Orders, Military.= Companies of knights, instituted by kings and princes either for defense of the faith, or to confer marks of honor on their military subjects. See KNIGHTS, and names of orders under appropriate headings.

=Orders, Regimental.= Are such orders and instructions as grow out of general or special orders from superior authority, or proceed immediately from the commanding officer of a regiment.

=Orders, Special.= Are such as do not concern the troops generally, and need not be published to the whole command; such as those that relate to the march of some particular corps, the detaching of individuals, the granting requests, etc.

=Orders, Standing.= Are certain general rules and instructions, which are to be invariably followed, and are not subject to the temporary intervention of rank. Of this description are those orders which the permanent commander may judge fit to have inserted in the order books, and which are not to be altered by the temporary commander.

=Ordinaire= (Fr.). The soldiers’ mess is so called among the French.

=Ordinary of Arms.= In heraldry, an index or dictionary of armorial coats, arranged, not according to names, like an armory, but according to the leading charges in the respective shields, so as to enable any one conversant with heraldic language, on seeing a shield of arms, to tell to whom it belonged.

=Ordinary Time.= In the U. S. army is quick time, which is 110 steps, or 86 yards in one minute, or 2 miles 1613 yards in an hour.

=Ordnance.= A general name for all kinds of weapons employed in war, and the appliances necessary for their use. Under the general term ordnance and ordnance stores are included all guns, howitzers, mortars, rockets, and projectiles of every description, the explosives used in warfare, all gun-carriages, limbers, caissons, mortar-beds, battery-wagons, and traveling-forges with their equipments, and all other apparatus and machines required for the service and manœuvres of artillery at sieges or in the field; together with the materials for their construction, preservation, and repair. Also all small-arms, side-arms, and accoutrements for artillery, cavalry, and infantry, all ammunition for cannon and small-arms; and all stores of expenditures for the service of the various arms, materials for the construction and repair of ordnance buildings, utensils and stores for laboratories, including standing weights, gauges, and measures, and all other tools and utensils required for the performance of ordnance duty. Harness and horse equipments are also furnished by the ordnance department. This general application of the word is not the purport of the present article; it is its special signification as used by the artillery with which we have to do. Technically speaking, ordnance is a term applied to all heavy fire-arms which are discharged from carriages.

History.--Although the battering-rams and the engines for projecting missiles employed by the ancients and during the Middle Ages are regarded as artillery, yet the military weapons in use before the invention of fire-arms cannot fairly come under this designation. At what exact date cannon were first used is not known, but guns called “Crakys of War” were employed by Edward III. against the Scots in 1327, by the French at the siege of Puy Guillaume in 1338, and by Edward III. at Crécy, and at Calais in 1346. The first cannon, or bombards, were clumsy, wider at the mouth than at the chamber, and made of iron bars hooped together with iron rings. Ancient cannon were also made of wood wound with rope or wire, and in some instances were even occasionally constructed of leather. The balls fired from these bombards were first made of stone, which was afterwards superseded by iron. In the 15th century various kinds were known by the names of cannon, bombards, culverins, serpentines, etc. Bombards of great length and power were employed by Louis XI. during his Flemish campaign in 1477, some with stone balls and some with iron. About this time cannon began to be made of cast iron instead of hooped bars; and bronze or brass as material began to be used as well as iron, and projectiles were also made of cast iron instead of stone. The introduction of cast-iron projectiles led to the invention of culverins, which corresponded very nearly in construction and appearance to the guns of the present day; these were in some instances made of enormous lengths from the erroneous idea that the range increased with the length of the piece. A remarkable gun of this description still exists at Dover, England, familiarly known as “Queen Anne’s pocket-piece;” while it carries a ball weighing only 18 pounds, it is more than 28 feet in length. From the earliest days of artillery there existed short-chambered pieces, which projected stone balls under great angles of elevation; and in 1478 hollow projectiles filled with powder began to be employed; but it is probable that the accidents which accompanied their use caused them to be abandoned for the time. In 1634, however, this difficulty was overcome, and these pieces were introduced into the French service, forming the class of cannon now known as mortars. Early attempts were also made to throw hollow projectiles from culverins and other long guns, but great difficulties were experienced in loading them, and the accidents to which they were liable caused them to be abandoned. Subsequently, however, the Dutch artillerists reduced their length so that the projectile could be inserted in its place by hand, and thus improved these cannon rapidly came into use under the name of howitzers, from the German Haubitz. A short cannon of large caliber for naval service was invented by Mr. Gascoigne in 1799, and called a carronade, after the Carron Iron-Works, Scotland, where it was first made. It was not for many years after hollow projectiles had been used that it was accidentally discovered that the firing of the gun-charge could be relied upon to light the fuze. Prior to this a long fuze lighted from the outside had been used. The difficulties and danger incurred in loading long guns with hollow projectiles delayed their application to shell-firing, and it was not until 1812 that they were used for firing both solid shot and shell at low angles. In this year a gun of this class, which was invented by Col. Bomford, Chief of Ordnance, U.S.A., was adopted by the United States, and a number of these guns were used in the war with England, 1812-15. About 1814 this invention of Col. Bomford’s was improved upon by himself, and the gun thus improved was called a columbiad. The columbiad gave way about 1859 to the gun invented by Gen. Rodman. (See RODMAN GUN.) The dimensions of the columbiads were first taken to Europe by a young French officer, and thus fell into the hands of Gen. Paixhans, who introduced them, with certain modifications, into the French service about 1822. They were by this means first made known to the rest of Europe by the name of Paixhan gun, and small calibers were afterwards used in the U. S. service under that name. Cannon up to this time were constructed on the smooth-bore principle; the rifle principle, although employed by the Russians in 1615, by the Prussians in 1661, and by the Germans in 1696, had not been brought into general use on account of its imperfectness. From 1696 to 1833 many attempts were made to rifle cannon with more or less success; but although the firing of smooth-bore guns was as aberrant as that of smooth-bore muskets, and from greater range even more so, yet, since the gunners were safe from musketry fire at 200 yards, and the cannon could be directed against masses of men with tolerable certainty up to three times that distance, there was no special inducement to improve their powers. But the introduction of rifled small-arms changed the relative advantages; for a rifled small-arm might pick off the gunners of a smooth-bore cannon before their weapon could come into effective play. The Crimean war set inventors vigorously to work, and many admirable guns have resulted from their attempts, the great difficulty of the day being to decide which is most effective. Rifled guns have nearly superseded smooth-bored cannon, except in the United States, which still gives the preference to the latter.

=Ordnance, Modern, History of.= Heavy modern ordnance dates properly from the casting of the great Rodman smooth-bores in the United States. To the impetus thus given may be ascribed the origin of the powerful guns of the present day. In Rodman’s study of gunpowder and the improvements introduced by him lay the germ of all subsequent progress in ordnance. His most important invention, perforated cake powder, was transplanted bodily to the continent of Europe, where, under the name of prismatic powder, it has been used ever since. So perfect is the theory of this powder that invention and science toiling over the subject for twenty years has produced nothing better. Since the first half of the decade--1860-70--the United States has fallen behind the nations of Europe in the power of her armament. Having been committed by her two great inventors, Rodman and Dahlgren, to cast-iron smooth-bores, which were fabricated in great numbers, her attitude has been that of Micawber,--waiting for something to turn up. England occupies the other extreme,--of all the powers she has ventured the greatest sums upon the theories of her gun-makers. Her private manufacturers have received such encouragement at home or abroad that they are now able to supply the whole world. Their only great rival on the continent is Krupp, who finds his market principally in Germany, Russia, and Turkey.

The early adoption of the rifle principle by all European powers placed them at once on a plane of advancement. The vexed questions of breech- and muzzle-loading and of gun construction have been decided by each nation in the manner most satisfactory to itself. Opinions differ widely, and it is probable that many changes may be made in these matters. Still, they all possess powerful guns which have certain features in common, essential to heavy ordnance in the present stage of its development. Large-grained powder, the first of these requisites, is universally used (for varieties, see GUNPOWDER). Great length of bore, to utilize the whole force of the powder, is another characteristic. Great power is secured by immense charges of powder and weight of shot. A caliber of at least 12 inches, giving an oblong shot of about 700 pounds, seems to be regarded as a sine qua non for all armaments. (See CANNON, ORDNANCE, GREAT BRITAIN, RUSSIA, FRANCE, etc.) England has taken the lead in all these improvements, and though it would appear from recent events that her choice of gun systems is unfortunate, there is no question that all great advances since Rodman’s day have been based upon her expensive experiments. The work of the celebrated “Committee on Explosives,” 1875, of which Col. Younghusband and Capt. Noble (now a member of Sir Wm. Armstrong’s firm) were members, did more to this end than any other investigation since Rodman’s experiments in gunpowder. Acting upon the obvious idea that the peril to the life of the gun is relieved by air-space, the committee recommended the enlargement of the bore at the seat of the charge, or the use of a chamber larger than the bore. This simple expedient led at once to an immense increase in the power of guns while the pressure endangering them was kept at a point lower than before. Every good thing can be pushed too far. The immense charges made possible by the English chamber have been continually added to by the Italians in their 100-ton Armstrong monsters and the vital air-space reduced till a charge of 552 pounds of powder has recently (1880) burst one of these magnificent guns.

Nomenclature of Ordnance.--For component parts of cannon and their description, see CASCABEL, BASE OF THE BREECH, BASE-LINE, BASE-RING, BREECH, CHASE, ASTRAGAL AND FILLETS, NECK, SWELL OF THE MUZZLE, FACE, TRUNNIONS, RIMBASES, BORE, and REINFORCE. For recent modifications in the external form of cannon, see ORDNANCE, STRAINS UPON.

UNITED STATES.--Smooth-bored.--The official system for the land service comprises the following smooth-bored cannon: The Napoleon gun for field service (see NAPOLEON GUN) and the mountain howitzer for mountain and prairie service. (See HOWITZER.) For siege purposes, the 8-inch howitzer, 8- and 10-inch and 24-pounder Coehorn mortars,--and for sea-coast defense, 13-, 15-, and 20-inch (Rodman) and 10-, 13- and 15-inch mortars. No 15-inch mortars have been yet cast. The 24-pounder flank defense howitzer, as well as the 8- and 10-inch smooth-bored Rodman and the 10-inch sea-coast mortar, no longer belong to the system, and are no more to be cast. The 13-inch smooth-bore is an experimental gun, not more than two or three of which have been cast. The smooth-bored gun principally used in the naval service is the Dahlgren. (See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.) The carronade is now little employed.

Rifled Cannon.--The rifled cannon adopted for the land service of the United States at the present time (1880) are, for the field service a 3- and 3¹⁄₂-inch rifle, having the exterior shape of Rodman guns, but made of wrought iron,--the former adopted in 1861; the 3¹⁄₂-inch gun has never been made--the model was adopted in 1870,--and three mitrailleurs, viz., 1-inch and ¹⁄₂-inch (Gatling), adopted in 1868, and a .45-inch Gatling, adopted in 1874, intended to replace the ¹⁄₂-inch, and to use the service cartridge of the rifle musket. In the siege service there is but one rifle gun properly belonging to the system of the United States, viz., 4¹⁄₂-inch, of casting, having the Rodman shape, but cast solid. The 30-pounder (4.2-inch) Parrott so extensively used is not a regulation gun. (See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.) The weight of the 4¹⁄₂-inch is 3570 pounds. It has an extreme length of 133 inches. The twist is uniform, and the weight of the solid projectile 32¹⁄₂ pounds, and of the charge 3¹⁄₄ pounds. The piece is loaded at the muzzle. The rifled sea-coast guns belonging to the system are a 10- and 12-inch, made of cast iron, and weighing 40,681 and 52,000 pounds respectively. The extreme length of the 10-inch is 180, and of the 12-inch 192 inches; the weight of the solid shot, 292 and 620 pounds respectively; the twist in each is uniform, and both are muzzle-loaders. Such is the official system of the United States. All the large guns are cast iron and are now useless as an armament to cope with modern armed ironclads. We have, however, a number of experimental guns, the models of which must be our immediate reliance in case of foreign war. In making these experimental rifles it has been held in view to utilize as far as possible the cast-iron ordnance now on hand. They are all made of cast-iron cases fitted with internal tubes of wrought iron (steel has also been used) after the plans of Parsons and Palliser. (See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.) The 12¹⁄₄-inch rifle, muzzle-loader, is an original construction, the case required being larger than the 15-inch smooth-bored. The weight of gun is 40 tons; charge, 110 pounds hexagonal powder; shot, 700 pounds. The others are converted guns,--the 10-inch rifle, muzzle-loader, converted from 13-inch smooth-bore by inserting wrought-iron tube; two patterns of 8-inch rifle, breech- and muzzle-loaders, converted from 10-inch smooth-bores by muzzle and breech insertion of tubes. Quite a number of the muzzle-loaders have been made and mounted. A similar gun has been made for the naval service by converting the 11-inch Dahlgren. Parrott 100-pounders have also been converted into 6.4-inch breech-loaders for the navy.

Although the Parrott gun does not belong to the system adopted by the United States, it has been much employed for both siege and sea-coast purposes, almost to the exclusion of other rifled cannon. They are also very generally used in the naval service. There are eight of these guns employed in the service of the United States, viz.: a 300-pounder (10-inch), 200-pounder (8-inch), and 100-pounder (6.4-inch), in use by both land and naval forces; a 60-pounder (5.3-inch) and 30-pounder (4.2-inch), used exclusively by the navy, and a 30-pounder (4.2-inch), 20-pounder (3.67-inch), and 10-pounder (3-inch), employed exclusively by the land forces. The Parrott cannon are all muzzle-loading and made of cast iron, reinforced with a wrought-iron jacket. See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

GREAT BRITAIN.--The cannon employed in the British service are all rifled, and nearly all muzzle-loaders.

Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.--The guns belonging to the British system, and made at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, are: for land service, an 11-inch gun, wrought iron, muzzle-loading, weighing 25 tons; two 7-inch, weighing 7 tons, and differing slightly in length and details of construction; a 16-pounder (3.6-inch), weighing 12 cwt.; and a 9-pounder (3-inch), weighing 8 cwt. These guns are all made of wrought iron. There are also an 8-inch howitzer weighing 46 cwt., also of wrought iron, and two converted guns, viz., a 64-pounder (6.29-inch) converted from 32-pounder, and an 80-pounder converted from 68-pounder smooth-bore. Both of these guns are of cast iron, with wrought-iron tubes, and were converted according to the Palliser method. For the Woolwich 38-ton gun, see ARMSTRONG CANNON. For sea service exclusively, there are made at the Woolwich Arsenal a 12-inch, weighing 35 tons; two 8-inch, weighing 9 tons respectively, of the same length, one having no preponderance, and differing in other details of their construction; two 7-inch, weighing 6.5 tons respectively, differing slightly in length and details; a 7-inch, weighing 4.5 tons; and 9-pounder (3-inch), weighing 6 cwt. These guns are all made of wrought iron, and are muzzle-loading. For both land and sea service, there are made at the Royal Arsenal a 12-inch, weighing 25 tons; a 10-inch, weighing 18 tons; two 9-inch, one of which has no preponderance, the other a preponderance of 5 cwt.; three 64-pounders (6.3-inch), each weighing 64 cwt., but differing in length and construction. These guns are all made of wrought iron; for both services is used a 64-pounder (6.29 inch), converted from 8-inch smooth-bored according to the Palliser method. There are besides two bronze guns, one called the “boat gun,” a 7-pounder (3-inch) weighing 200 pounds; the other a 9-pounder (3-inch), used in the Indian service, and weighing 8 cwt.; also a 7-pounder (3-inch) mountain gun of steel, and weighing 150 pounds; these are all muzzle-loaders. The 9-, 10-, 11-, and 12-inch calibers have all steel tubes; one 7-ton and one 6.5-ton gun have tubes of wrought iron.

Armstrong Cannon.--The guns used in the British service made by Sir William Armstrong are--for the land service--a 12-inch weighing 38 tons (some of these guns are bored to 12¹⁄₂ inches), an 11-inch weighing 25 tons, a 7-inch weighing 7 tons, a 40-pounder (4.75-inch) weighing 35 cwt., a 25-pounder (4-inch), and a 16-pounder (3.6 inch) weighing 18 and 12 cwt. respectively, a 9-pounder (3-inch) weighing 6 cwt., a 10-inch weighing 6 tons, having no preponderance. These guns are all of wrought iron and muzzle-loading. There are also used in the land service, and of the same make, a 7-pounder (3-inch) muzzle-loading steel gun weighing 150 pounds, an 8-inch muzzle-loading howitzer made of wrought iron and weighing 46 cwt., a 64-pounder (6.29-inch) converted from 32-pounder, and an 80-pounder (6.29-inch) converted by Palliser method from 68-pounder muzzle-loading, made of cast iron with wrought-iron tubes. The other guns manufactured by Sir William Armstrong, and used in the land service, are all breech-loading, viz.: a 7-inch (screw) weighing 72 cwt., a 20-pounder (3.75-inch screw) weighing 16 cwt., a 64-pounder (6.4-inch wedge) weighing 64 cwt., and a Gatling gun (0.45) weighing 3 cwt. 84 pounds. The guns used in the sea service of this make are a 12-inch weighing 35 tons, an 8-inch weighing 9 tons, two 7-inch weighing 6 tons 10 cwt. and 90 cwt. respectively, and a 9-pounder (3-inch) weighing 6 cwt. These are all muzzle-loading, and made of wrought iron. There is another muzzle loading gun used for sea service, viz., a 64-pounder (6.29-inch) converted from 8-inch, and weighing 71 cwt.; this gun is of cast iron with a wrought iron tube. The breech-loaders used for sea service are two 20-pounders (3.75-inch screw) weighing 15 and 13 cwt. respectively, 40-pounder (4.75-inch) wedge weighing 32 cwt., and a Gatling gun (0.65-inch) weighing 7 cwt. 35 pounds; these guns are all of wrought iron. For land and sea service are constructed a 12-inch weighing 25 tons, a 10- and 9-inch weighing 18 and 12 tons respectively, a 64-pounder (6.3-inch) weighing 64 cwt., a 9-pounder (3-inch) weighing 8 cwt., a 7-pounder (3-inch) weighing 200 pounds, and made of steel; the others are of wrought iron, and all are muzzle-loading. The breech-loading guns of this manufacture used in both land and sea service are a 7-inch (screw) weighing 82 cwt., two 40-pounders (4.75-inch) screw weighing 35 and 32 cwt., respectively, a 12-pounder (3-inch), 9-pounder (3-inch), and 6-pounder (2.5-inch) screw weighing 8, 6, and 3 cwt. respectively. They are all made of wrought iron. See ARMSTRONG GUN.

GERMANY.--In Germany the Krupp gun is almost entirely employed; they are all breech-loading and constructed of steel. (For particular construction, see ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.) Those used in the German land service are a 28-centimetre howitzer weighing 9.82 tons, caliber in inches 11.023, a long 21-centimetre weighing 9.84 tons, caliber 8.241 inches, a short 21-centimetre weighing 8.84, caliber 8.241 inches, a short 15-centimetre weighing 2.9 tons, caliber 5.869 inches, a 12-, 9-, 8-, and 6-centimetre, whose calibers are 4.735, 3.602, 3.090, and 2.362 inches, and whose weights are 1.37 tons, and 935, 649, and 235 pounds respectively. In the sea service are used a 30¹⁄₂-centimetre weighing 35.3 tons, caliber 12.007 inches, a short 26-centimetre weighing 17.67 tons, caliber 10.236 inches, a long 24-centimetre weighing 14.38 tons, caliber 9.267 inches, and a short 24-centimetre. For both land and sea service are employed a long 17-centimetre weighing 5.5 tons, caliber 6.771 inches, a short 17-centimetre, a long 15-centimetre weighing 3.03 tons, caliber 5.869 inches, and a long 15-centimetre weighing 3.09 tons.

FRANCE.--The guns adopted in the French service are both breech- and muzzle-loading, and are, for the land service, a siege-gun, 24-pounder rifled breech-loading, weighing 40.55 tons, caliber 6.01 inches, for fortress guns a 24- and 12-pounder rifled muzzle-loading, weighing 5953 and 3307 pounds, and having calibers of 6.01 and 4.77 inches respectively. For siege-guns a 24- and 12-pounder rifled weighing 4409 and 1940 pounds, whose respective calibers are 6.01 and 4.77 inches and muzzle-loading. For field artillery a 12-, 8-, and 4-pounder rifled, weighing respectively 1367, 1234.6, and 727.55 pounds, and whose calibers are 4.77, 4.17, and 3.40 inches respectively, all muzzle-loading. There is also a 4-pounder rifled muzzle-loading mountain piece weighing 220.5 pounds, whose caliber is 3.40 inches. In the sea-coast service there are a 30-pounder (muzzle-loader) not hooped, weighing 61 cwt., caliber 6.48 inches, a 30-pounder (muzzle-loader or breech-loader) hooped, weighing 70.86 cwt., caliber 5.46 inches, a howitzer 22-centimetre rifled and hooped, caliber 8.66 inches. In the French sea-service are a 32-centimetre weighing 34.5 tons, caliber 12.599 inches, and a 27-centimetre weighing 21.7 tons, caliber 10.803 inches. Both of these guns are breech-loading. For both land and sea service are used a 24-centimetre weighing 13.8 tons, caliber 9.499 inches, a 19-centimetre weighing 7.9 tons, caliber 7.638 inches, a 16-centimetre weighing 98.42 cwt., caliber 6.484 inches, a 14-centimetre weighing 52.26 cwt., caliber 5.456 inches. The guns used for sea service only, or for both land and sea service, are all made of cast iron, tubed with steel nearly to the trunnions, and strengthened near the breech by steel rings heated and shrunk on. The fortress guns, most of the siege, and all the field-guns are made of bronze. The large breech-loaders use the solid breech-screw fermeture. The term “pounder” as applied to certain guns has no reference to the weight of the oblong projectile used, but to the weight of the corresponding spherical solid shot.

RUSSIA.--In the Russian service the Krupp gun is rapidly taking the place of all others; there are, however, still used for sea service, a 12-inch and 6-inch breech-loader weighing 40 tons and 3.92 tons respectively; also a 12.2-pounder boat-gun weighing 792 pounds, and for both land and sea service an 8-inch breech-loader weighing 8.754 tons, and an 8-inch breech-loading mortar, weighing 3.21 tons. These guns are all made of steel.

=Ordnance, Ammunition for.= For convenience in loading and safety in transportation, cannon ammunition is prepared in a peculiar manner and with great care. The ammunition so prepared is classified into field and mountain, siege and sea-coast ammunition.

Ammunition for Field Service is composed of solid shot, shells, spherical case-shot, and canister-shot (see headings). In mountain service solid shot are omitted. A stand of ammunition is composed of the projectile, sabot, straps, cartridge-bag, cylinder, and cap. The projectile is secured by two tin straps, fastened at the ends with tacks driven into the sabot. The straps cross each other at right angles; for solid shot, one strap passing through a slit in the other; for hollow projectiles, both straps are fastened to a tin ring which surrounds the fuze-hole. A round of canister for the field service consists of a tin cylinder filled with cast-iron shot, which slips over the end of the sabot, to which it is secured with small nails. The materials of which cartridge-bags are made are flannel, wildbore, or serge; the fabric should be soft and closely woven, to prevent the powder sifting out. Fabrics of cotton and flax are not used, because the powder sifts through them, and they are more apt to leave fire in the gun than woolen stuffs. A cartridge-bag for the field service is made of two pieces,--a rectangular piece for the sides, and a circular piece for the bottom. The charge is determined by measurement. The cylinder and cap are made of stout paper. The cylinder is used to give stiffness to the cartridge at the junction of the sabot and bag; the cap covers the exposed portion of the bag, is drawn off before loading, and placed over the projectile, or thrown away. The cartridge-bag is attached to the projectile by tying it around the grooves of the sabot with twine.

Fixed Ammunition.--Ammunition thus prepared is called fixed ammunition. It is used in the field and mountain service for smooth-bore guns and howitzers. For rifled guns the bag and projectile are carried separately. The term strapped ammunition is applied when the projectile is attached to a sabot without grooves; and to give a proper form to the cartridge-bag, the mouth is closed with a cartridge-block, which resembles a sabot; hence the name strapped ammunition. This kind of cartridge is nearly obsolete.

Packing, etc.--As soon as ammunition is finished it should be gauged, to see that it is of the proper caliber; it is afterwards packed in boxes containing 10 rounds each.

Siege and Sea-coast Ammunition.--On account of the great weight of siege and sea-coast ammunition, the cartridge-bag and projectile are carried separately. The cartridge-bags for large charges of powder are made of two pieces of woolen stuff, or of a paper tube with a woolen cloth bottom. The former are preferred for rapid firing. For sea-coast howitzers the bag should fill the chamber; if the piece be fired with a reduced charge, a cartridge-block should be inserted into the bag to give it proper size. For mortars the bag is only used to carry the powder, and when the piece is loaded, the powder is poured into the chamber; bags of any suitable size will answer for this service. For hot-shot cartridges bags are made double, by putting one bag within another. Care should be taken to see that the bags are free from holes. For ricochet firing, or other occasions when very small charges are required, a cartridge-bag of inferior caliber may be used. In the siege and sea-coast services, solid shot are transported and loaded loosely, but hollow projectiles are strapped to sabots, to prevent the fuze from coming in contact with the powder of the charge. The sabots are made from thick plank, and the straps are fastened as in the field service.

=Ordnance, Carriages for.= The carriages for cannon may be classified from their use into field, mountain, prairie, and sea-coast carriages, and mortar-beds. (See particular headings.) They may be further divided into those required for the immediate service and transportation of cannon, as gun-carriages and mortar-beds, and those employed for the transportation of ammunition, implements and materials for repairs, as caissons, mortar-wagons, forges, and battery-wagons. The field-, mountain-, prairie-, and siege-carriages being required for the transportation of their pieces are similar in their construction; those for sea-coast purposes differ materially from the others.

Nomenclature of Artillery Carriage.--The principal parts of the field-carriage and of all artillery carriages, other than the sea-coast, are: stock, of squared wood in two pieces, which serves to connect the gun-carriage with the limber, and to direct the piece; it includes the head, to which the sponge-bucket ring is attached; groove, trail, or curved part of the stock, which rest on the ground when the piece is unlimbered; rounding of the trail, trail-plate, a piece of iron fastened to the end of the trail and terminated by a very strong ring, called the lunette, which receives the pintle-hook by which the limber is attached; pointing-rings, large and small, which receive the hand-spike; trail-handles, on each side of the stock for the purpose of raising it; prolonge-hooks, on which the prolonge is coiled; wheel-guard plates, lock-chain, used to keep the wheel from turning; it is on the side of the carriage, and has an eye-plate and bolt; sponge and rammer stop, sponge-chain and hasp, ear-plate for sponge-chain and hasp; ear-plate to support worm; key-chain and key; elevating-screw; the latter has a handle with four prongs; elevating-screw box, elevating-screw bed, rondelles, which connect cheeks and stock; cheeks, two pieces of wood between which the gun rests; washer-hooks for handspike, washer-hook for lock-chain, under-strap, right sponge-hook, sponge and worm-hook, handspike-rings, trunnion-plates, into the beds or depressions of which the trunnions fit; cap-squares, cap-square chain, key-chain and key. Axle, including axle-body, of wood; axle-tree, of iron, axle-arm, the rounded extremities of the axle-tree on which the wheels revolve; linch-pin, linch-pin washer and hook. Wheels; each includes nave, nave-bands, nave-box, spokes, felloes, tire. In the new model for field service, cannoneers’ seats are on the axle between the cheeks and wheels; each consists of an iron chair supported on a rectangular bar inserted in a vertical iron socket, and resting on a strong steel spring; the socket is supported by two brass braces fastened to the axle by axle-straps; to an iron cross-piece at the top of the socket are attached two iron braces, which help to support the iron foot-rest attached to the brass braces. The chair has arms and faces to the trail. This refers to the carriage proper, considered only in relation to the fire of the piece, or as a two-wheeled carriage. To suit it to the easy and rapid transportation of its load it must be converted into a four-wheeled carriage, which is done by attaching it to another two-wheeled carriage called a limber.

The limber consists of a similar axle-body, axle, and two wheels, and on these rests a frame-work, to receive the tongue. On top of the whole is an ammunition-box, the top of which forms a seat for three cannoneers. In rear of the axle-tree is a pintle-hook to receive the lunette of the trail. Connected with the frame-work in front is a fixed splinter-bar with four hooks, to which are attached the traces of the wheel horses. At the extremity of the tongue are placed two pole-chains, by which the tongue or pole is held up, and a pole-yoke with two movable branches, to prevent, as much as possible, the pole from oscillating and striking the horses. The principal parts of a field-limber are: pole, including pole-pad; pole-straps, by which the pole is guided when the team is hitched; pole-strap iron, pole-yoke, muff and collar, pole-yoke branches, to which are attached sliding-rings; splinter-bar, to which the horses are hitched by four trace-hooks; end-bands, middle-bands, pole-prop, including socket, ferrule, and chain; hounds, pieces of wood upon which the chests rest, connecting the axle-body with the splinter-bar; forks, pieces of wood between the hounds, forming an opening in which the pole is placed; fork-strap, foot-boards, foot-board brackets, chest, chest-handles, cover, of wood; cover-plate, of copper; turnbuckle, hasp, back-stay, front-stay, stay-pins, stay-pin keys, under strap, pintle-hook, on rear part of axle-tree, which attaches the limber to the carriage; pintle-hook key, axle, wheels. The field-carriages employed in the U. S. service are three, one for the 3-inch rifle carriage (which, with slight modifications, is adapted to the 1-inch mitrailleur), one for the 12-pounder, and one for the ¹⁄₂-inch and .45-inch mitrailleur. The corresponding parts of these carriages differ only in their dimensions. All limbers are similar.

Mountain-Carriage.--The mountain-carriage differs in construction from the field-carriage inasmuch as the stocks and cheeks are formed of the same piece by hollowing out the head of the stock, the wheels are smaller and the axle-tree is made of wood, the arms being protected from wear by skeans. It is arranged for draught by attaching a pair of shafts to the trail. The pack-saddle and its harness are constructed to carry severally the howitzer and shafts, the carriage, or two ammunition-chests; or it enables an animal to draw the carriage with the howitzer mounted upon it.

Prairie-Carriage.--The prairie-carriage is designed to carry the mountain howitzer, and is similar to the mountain-carriage in form; but being exclusively for draught, the axle-tree is of iron, and the wheels are made higher and the distance between them greater than in the mountain-carriage. It has a limber and is drawn by two horses abreast, as in field-carriages. The ammunition is packed in mountain ammunition-chests, two of which are carried on the limber.

Siege-Carriages.--There are three different kinds of siege-carriages used in the U. S. service, one for the 4¹⁄₂-inch rifle, another on which the 30-pounder Parrott is mounted, and a third for the 8-inch howitzer, being the old 12-pounder, 18-pounder, and 24-pounder siege-carriages modified; these are all constructed in the same manner, and differ only in their dimensions. Siege-carriages are similar to the field-carriage in construction (see FIELD-CARRIAGE), the principal difference being in the manner in which they are joined to the limbers. Projecting upwards from the limber and in rear of the axle-tree is placed a pintle, which enters a hole made in the trail from the under side, and a lashing chain and hook keep the two parts together when once in position; the weight of the stock bearing on the rear of the limber relieves the horses of the weight of the pole, which is long and heavy. On the upper surface of the cheeks near the rear ends are placed two projecting bolts, which with the curve of the cheeks form resting-places for the trunnions, when the piece is in position for transportation. They are called traveling trunnion-beds. When the piece is in this position the breech rests upon the bolster, which is a curved block of wood bolted to the upper side of the stock.

Sea-Coast Carriages are divided into barbette front-pintle and barbette centre-pintle carriages, casemate, and flank-defense carriages; depending upon the part of the work in which they are mounted. The casemate-carriage differs from the barbette in being much lower. Sea-coast carriages are now chiefly made of wrought iron. All are composed of two principal parts, viz.: the gun-carriage and chassis. The gun-carriage is composed of two cheeks, held together by two plates of boiler-iron, called the front and rear transoms respectively. Each cheek is formed of two pieces of boiler-iron cut to a triangular shape, separated at the edges by interposing the vertical portion or web of a T-shaped bar. The horizontal branches project over each side to form a double rim, which gives stiffness to the cheeks. Flat bars of iron are also placed between the plates at suitable intervals to stiffen the cheeks in the direction in which the weight and recoil of the piece bear upon them. All these parts are held together by screw-bolts. The motion to and from battery is regulated in the 8- and 10-inch carriages by a pair of eccentric truck-wheels, called manœuvring-wheels, which work on an axle-tree placed underneath and a little in front of the centre of the trunnions. When it becomes necessary to check the recoil of the gun-carriage, the wheels are thrown out of gear by means of a handspike inserted in the socket attached to the end of the axle-tree, and the carriage moved on sliding friction. When the gun is to be moved into battery, the wheels are thrown into gear in a similar manner, and the front of the carriage moves on rolling friction. The manœuvring-wheels mentioned above are fixed on the projecting ends of the axle-tree, the axis of the wheel being eccentric with the axis of the axle-tree. These eccentrics are so arranged that when the centres of the wheels are at their lowest points, the surfaces of the wheels bear on the rails of the chassis, and raise the gun-carriage from it; and when the centres are at their highest points, the surfaces of the wheels do not touch the rails, and the gun-carriage is in contact with them. In case there is no socket connected with the end of the axle-tree, the wheel is thrown into or out of gear, that is, made to bear on the rail of the chassis, or relieved from it, by turning the axle-tree with a wrench placed on the hexagonal end. In the 15-inch carriage there are two pairs of manœuvring-wheels, one pair being placed in front as above described, and the other pair near the rear end of the carriage. In all sea-coast carriages except the flank casemate the elevation and depression are given by a lever, the point of which works in a ratchet cut in the breech of the piece. The fulcrum (ratchet-post) is made of cast iron and rests on the rear transom of the gun-carriage. It has several notches for adjusting the position of the elevating bar. The chassis is a movable railway on which the gun-carriage moves to and from battery. It is composed of two wrought-iron rails inclined 3° to the horizon, and united by transoms as in the gun-carriage. In addition to the transoms, there are several diagonal braces to give stiffness to the chassis. For the 10-inch and smaller carriages, the chassis-rails are single beams of rolled iron, 15 inches deep; for all calibers above, the rails are made of long rectangular pieces of boiler-plate and T-iron, in a manner similar to that of the cheeks of the gun-carriage. In order to move the carriage horizontally in the operation of aiming the piece, the chassis is supported on traverse wheels, which roll on circular plates of iron, fastened to a bed of solid masonry, called the traverse circles. The motion of the gun-carriage is checked front and rear, by pieces of iron bolted to the top of the rails, called hurters and counter-hurters; and it is prevented from slipping off sideways by friction rollers and guides, which are bolted to the cheeks and transoms. In a late modification of the 15-inch carriage, the front eccentric axle is replaced by an ordinary one, dispensing with axle-pawls and friction-bands, the handspike pawls are made double instead of single, with a spring to keep them out of the ratchets, the front set of transoms and diagonal braces are removed from the chassis, and pneumatic or hydraulic buffers to check the recoil are put in with thick braces. When the rear manœuvring-wheels are out of gear, the top carriage touches the rails of the chassis and moves on sliding friction, and when they are in gear the front wheels are also made to touch the rails and the top carriage moves on rolling friction. To prevent the rear manœuvring-wheels from working out of gear while the gun is being run from battery, or jumping in gear when the gun is fired, pawls are provided for locking the rear axle. When no pawls are provided for locking the eccentric axle, it is often necessary for one cannoneer to remain embarred in the axle-socket to prevent the axle from flying out of gear. The 15-inch carriage allows an elevation of about 32° and a depression of about 6°, unless when fitted with pneumatic buffers, when no more than 25° elevation can be given. With the hydraulic buffer which passes along the centre of the chassis and is little used in the U. S. service the elevation is still further diminished. The 10-inch rifle and 13-inch smooth-bore are used with the 13-inch carriage, and the 12-inch rifle and 15-inch smooth-bore on the 15-inch carriage; the 20-inch gun has a separate carriage. The flank-casemate carriage is adapted to the mounting of the 24-pounder iron howitzer in the flanks of casemate batteries. Several modifications have been introduced into the carriages for the experimental rifled guns. For the largest calibers the chassis-rails are deeper in rear than in front. The pintle, set in a heavy flanged block of cast iron, is in front of the chassis, to which it is attached by a strap or heavy plate of iron. The top carriage is manœuvred by chain-gearing worked by a capstan near the rear of the chassis. The elevation is given by a wheel with projecting spokes on the side of the top carriage, which is geared to work a toothed arc attached to the breech of the gun, the reading being given by a pointer on a dial-plate above the wheel. Rubber buffers are placed at the rear transom of the chassis to assist the cylinders to take up the recoil. Friction-plates attached by india-rubber ends to the rear transom take the place of cylinders in certain smaller carriages. In some cases the traverse-wheels are made to relieve the pintle of part of the strain by grooving them to run on heavy traverse-rails and inclining them towards the pintle.

Mortar-Beds.--Mortars are fired from a bed; in the U. S. service there are three kinds of mortar-beds in use in the siege service; the 8-inch, 10-inch, and the Coehorn; the first two differ only in dimensions. They are made of wrought iron and put together after the manner of the sea-coast gun-carriage. The different parts are the cheeks, which, like those of the gun-carriage, are triangular in shape, and two transoms connecting the cheeks together. At the end of each cheek are projections, called front and rear notches, underneath which the cannoneers embar with their handspikes to move the bed on the platform; there are also two front and two rear manœuvring-bolts for the same purpose. The elevation and depression are given as in the gun-carriage by embarring with the iron elevating bar through the fulcrum into the ratchets on the breech of the mortar. The Coehorn-bed is made of a block of oak wood, in one piece, or two pieces joined together with bolts. A recess for the trunnions and part of the breech is made in the top of the bed, and the trunnions are kept in their places by plates of iron bolted down over them. Two iron handles are bolted to the bed on each side, by which four men can carry the bed with the mortar in its place, the entire weight being only 296 pounds. Sea-coast mortar-beds are similar to those for siege purposes, but they have eccentric truck-wheels for manœuvring the mortar-bed on the platform and the manœuvring-bolts are omitted. The 13-inch sea-coast mortar is now mounted upon a centre pintle-carriage. The usual bed, now become the top carriage, is placed upon a chassis resting on a platform. The top carriage has a crane attached to the left cheek, and to the inside of the right cheek is attached a pawl worked from the front, for locking the eccentric axle in and out of gear, and the carriage is strengthened by an additional rear transom about 5 inches wide, the pipe being omitted. The chassis has the usual appliance for throwing this class of carriages into gear, and in addition an eccentric axle placed at right angles to and supported by a double front transom, and carrying a traverse wheel, by means of which motion is communicated to the chassis. The chassis is otherwise transomed and braced in accordance with the system. Heretofore nearly all sea-coast carriages were made of wood, but in consequence of the great difficulty of preserving this material from decay, especially when exposed to the dampness of casemates, they have nearly all been replaced by wrought iron. The carriages principally employed for the transportation of ammunition, implements, and materials for repairs, are caissons, mortar-wagons, forges, and battery-wagons.

The Caisson.--Caissons are used for conveying ammunition for a field-battery; all are similar in form. It is a four-wheeled carriage, consisting of two parts, one of which is a limber similar to that of the gun-carriage, and connected in a similar way by a wooden stock and lunette. On the axle-body of the rear part and parallel to the stock are placed three rails, upon which are fastened two ammunition-chests, one behind the other, and similar to the one on the limber; so that the caisson has three ammunition-chests, which will seat 9 cannoneers. The interior compartments of the ammunition-chests vary according to the nature of the ammunition with which they are loaded. In rear of the last chest is placed a spare-wheel axle of iron, with a chain and toggle at the end of it. On the rear end of the middle rail is placed a carriage hook similar to a pintle-hook, to which the lunette of a gun-carriage whose limber has become disabled may be attached, and the gun carried off the field. The caisson has the same turning capacity and mobility as the gun-carriage, so that it can follow the piece in all its manœuvres, if necessary. It also carries a spare-wheel, spare-pole, etc. The principal parts of the caisson are: stock, or middle-rail; it has an iron lunette on its front end; side-rails, front foot-board, rear foot-board, middle-chest, rear-chest, spare-wheel axle; it has a body, two ribs, and a chain and toggle to secure the wheel; there are also two stays for the axle; lock-chains, fastened to lock-chain bridles under the front ends of the side-rails, and held up by lock-chain hooks fastened to the outside of the side-rails; spare-pole, spare-pole key, key-plate, chain, and pin; the key-plate is fastened to the under side of the lunette; the key is attached to the left side of the stock by a chain and eye-pin; carriage-hook, for attaching a carriage that has lost its limber; wheel-guard plates, spare-pole ring, held by the axle-strap; ring-bolt for spare hand-spike, key-plate and key, on the right side of the middle-rail; key-plate, chain, and key for the shovel-handle, on the inside of the right side-rail; middle assembling-bar, of iron; it has two ears in the middle to serve as stay-plates for the middle-chests, and a slot for the axe on the right of the middle-rail; rear assembling-bar; it supports the spare-wheel axle, and has a slot for the pickaxe on the left of the middle-rail. Axle, the axle-body, being notched to receive the middle-rail and tenoned to fit into the notches in the side-rails; staples for tool-handles; they are driven into the top of the axle-body in front of the iron axle-tree, one for the shovel-handle near the right side-rail, the other for the handle of the pickaxe on the left of the middle-rail. Wheels of all artillery carriages are similarly constructed; they differ, however, in the size and strength of certain parts, depending on the size of the carriage to which they are attached. The principal parts are: the nave, the nave-bands, the nave-box, the spokes, the felloes, and the tire. The nave constitutes the central portion of the wheel, and distributes the pressure of the axle-arm to the spokes. It is generally made of a single piece of wood, and strengthened by four iron bands called the nave-bands. It is also pierced with a conical hole for the axle-arm; and to diminish wear and friction, it is lined with a box of brass or cast iron, called the nave-box. The spokes serve to transmit the pressure of the load to the rim of the wheel. In all artillery carriages there are seven felloes and fourteen spokes. The felloes are the wooden segments which form the rim, and are joined together at their ends by wooden pins, or dowels. The tire is a strong band of iron, shrunk tightly around the felloes, to hold them together, and protect the rim from wearing away by contact with the ground.

Mortar-wagons are designed for the transportation of siege-mortars and their beds, or of guns or large shot, and shells. A limber similar to the one for siege-gun carriages is used with it. The body consists of a platform of rails and transoms resting on an axle-tree. The stock is formed by prolonging the two middle-rails. The side-rails projecting to the rear form supports for the pivots of a windlass-roller. This roller is used to load guns and mortars on the wagon by drawing them up the stock. A muzzle-bolster on the stock near the limber, and a breech-hurter near the hind part of the wagon, are provided and used when long pieces are transported on it. Mortars are usually carried mounted on their beds.

The traveling-forge is a complete blacksmith’s establishment, which accompanies a battery for the purpose of making repairs and shoeing horses. It consists of a body, upon which is constructed the bellows-house, etc., and the limber, which supports the stock in transportation. The body is composed of two rails, a stock, and an axle-tree. The bellows-house is divided into the bellows-room and iron-room. Attached to the back of the house is the coal-box, and in front of it is the fireplace. From the upper and front part of the bellows an air-pipe proceeds in a downward direction to the air-box, which is placed behind the fireplace. The vise is permanently attached to the stock, and the anvil, when in use, is supported on a stone or log of wood, and when transported is carried on the hearth of the fireplace. The remaining tools are carried in the limber-chest. When in working order the point of the stock is supported by a prop. Nomenclature of the traveling-forge body: Lunette, prop, vise, stock, wheel-guard plates, stock-stirrup, fireplace, back of fireplace, air-back, wind-pipe, bellows, ribs, hinges, hook, fulcrum, hook and staple, roof of bellows-house, bows, studs, girders, end-boards, bottom-boards, side-rail, lock-chain hook, coal-box, lid or roof, handles, hinges, turnbuckle, and hasp. A new pattern of field-forge has been proposed by Col. Laidley, U. S. Ordnance Corps.

The battery-wagon is employed to transport the tools and materials for repairs. Among the tools are those for carriage-makers, saddlers, armorers, and laboratorians’ use, scythes and sickles for cutting forage, and spare implements for the service of the piece. The body of the battery-wagon is a large, rectangular box, covered with a roof of painted canvas; and to the back part is attached a rack for carrying forage. The bottom of the body is formed of one middle- and two side-rails, resting on a stock and axle-tree, as in the traveling-forge. The tools and materials of the battery-wagon are carefully packed in the manner prescribed by the Ordnance Manual, in order that no difficulty may be experienced in finding a particular article when wanted. The smaller articles are carried in boxes properly lettered and numbered. The traveling-forge and battery-wagon are not confined to the service of field-batteries, but are used with siege and sea-coast carriages as occasion may require. Nomenclature of the battery-wagon body: Lunette, stock, wheel-guard plate, lock-chain, lock-chain bridle, lock-chain hook, studs, side-rails, upper rails, hinges, bows, cover-boards, cover-strap and turnbuckle, hasp, side-boards, stays, bottom-rails, bottom-boards, cross-bars, forage-rack, including chains, sides, and bars.

=Ordnance, Construction of.= The present condition of gun construction is mainly experimental. Iron in one form or another is the only material used for heavy artillery, but the particular form in which it is to be used, whether as cast, wrought, or steel, or whether in bars, coils, or ingots, or in combination,--as, for instance, steel or wrought iron interior and cast iron or wire-wrapped or hooped exterior,--is still undecided, and it is left for experiments which are still in progress, or to be made hereafter, to decide which is best. In the United States, cast iron is used for smooth-bore guns, and also for rifle guns, but as its use for the latter has not proved satisfactory, experiments are now being made with wrought iron lined and with wire-wrapped and other built-up guns, with fair prospect of success. In England, modern gun construction at one period inclined to the use of a steel or wrought iron interior tube, strengthened by an exterior casting of iron, which is the system of Palliser and Parsons. But the preference for the inventions of Sir William Armstrong, improved by those of Fraser, have resulted in the exclusive use, in that country at present, of the system of these two inventors. This method of gun construction is, in brief, a steel core (or body of the gun) strengthened by three or more exterior tubes of coiled wrought iron. This system is at present popularly known as the “Woolwich,” but sometimes called the “Elswick,” from the place where Sir William Armstrong’s works are now located. In Germany and Russia, and some other European nations, the Krupp system of heavy forgings of steel ingots is preferred. This last is by far the most expensive, and does not always produce the most durable guns. The question of breech- or muzzle-loading is still an undecided one. (See BREECH-LOADING and BREECH-MECHANISM.) The Germans prefer the first named, as do the French, Austrians, and Russians, for large calibers and for most small guns, while the English, after several years’ trial of the first, have of late abandoned its use and returned to the muzzle-loader, though the question has again been recently agitated. In the United States, experiments still going on have not yet demonstrated which principle is the best suited to the gun construction used in America. The advantages of loading at the breech with heavy guns are numerous and great; but the serious mechanical difficulties (see BREECH-MECHANISM) of perfecting the movable breech attachment have militated against its adoption, especially in a country committed like the United States to the use of cast iron. During the half-decade (1855-60), and the succeeding decade (1860-70), enormous strides were made in gun construction and in that of carriages and projectiles, and the manufacture of gunpowder.

Cast Metal Guns.--The principles which govern the construction of homogeneous cast metal guns as established by long practice will be considered under the following heads:

Exterior Form.--The exterior of cannon is generally divided into five principal parts, viz.: the breech, the first reinforce, the second reinforce, the chase, and the swell of the muzzle.

The breech (see BREECH) is the thickness of metal in the prolongation of the axis of the bore, and should be at least equal to one and a quarter times the diameter of the bore; a less thickness has been found insufficient for heavy iron guns.

The first reinforce (see REINFORCE) extends from the base-ring to the seat of the ball, and is the thickest part of the piece, for the reason that the pressure of the powder is found to be greatest before the projectile is moved far from its place. In shape this reinforce was formerly made slightly conical, under the impression that the pressure was greater at the vent than at the seat of the projectile; but it is now made cylindrical throughout. The thickness of bronze cannon at the seat of the charge is less than for iron guns.

The second reinforce (see REINFORCE) connects the first reinforce with the chase. It is made considerably thicker than is necessary to resist the action of the powder, in order to serve as a proper point of support for the trunnions, and to compensate for certain defects of metal liable to occur in the vicinity of the trunnions of all cast cannon, arising from the crystalline arrangement and unequal cooling of the different parts.

The Chase (see CHASE).--From the extremity of the second reinforce cannon taper more or less rapidly to the vicinity of the muzzle; this part called the chase constitutes the largest portion of the piece in front of the trunnions. The thickness of metal in the chase should be sufficient to resist the striking of the ball against the side of the bore. This injury being greater in bronze and soft iron guns, their taper is less than in cast-iron cannon. In the construction of bronze guns, the thickness of metal at the neck or thinnest part is about five-elevenths of that at the first reinforce. All projections on the surface of cannon not absolutely necessary for the service of the piece are omitted in cannon of late models. This omission simplifies their construction, renders them easier to clean, and obviates certain injurious strains that would otherwise arise from unequal cooling in fabrication.

Swell of the Muzzle.--The enlargement called swell of the muzzle was generally regarded as necessary, inasmuch as the metal situated immediately at the muzzle is supported only in rear, and it was thought necessary to increase its thickness in order to enable it to resist the action of the projectile at this point. At present, however, the tendency is to reduce the size of the swell of the muzzle and to omit it entirely on all sea-coast cannon.

Interior Form of Cannon.--The interior of a cannon may be divided into three distinct parts, viz.: the vent, or channel which communicates with the charge; the seat of the charge or chamber, if its diameter be different from the rest of the bore, and the cylinder, or that portion of the bore passed over by the projectile (see appropriate headings).

The vent (see VENT) is perpendicular to the axis of the piece, and the interior orifice is at a distance from the bottom of the chamber equal to a quarter of its diameter, or at the junction of the sides of the chamber with the curve of the bottom. Experiment has shown this position to be the most favorable to the full development of the force of the charge, and to be least injurious to the piece. The size of the vent should be as small as possible, in order to diminish the escape of the gas and the erosion of the metal which results from it. In the U. S. service all vents are 0.2 inch in diameter. Experiment has, however, shown that the actual loss of force by the escape of the gas through the vent, as compared to that of the entire charge, is inconsiderable, and in practice may be neglected. In the U. S. service some pieces are made with two unbushed vents which are situated in two vertical planes on opposite sides of and parallel to the axis of the bore, and at a distance from it of one-half the radius of the bore. The left vent is bored entirely through, the other stops one inch short of the surface of the bore. When the open vent is too much enlarged by wear for further use, it is closed with melted zinc, and the other is bored out. Each vent is calculated to endure at least five hundred service rounds. In English guns of old model, the vent is placed four-tenths of the length of the cartridge from the bottom of the bore. In most breech-loaders, as well as many large modern muzzle-loaders, the vent is in the axis of the piece through the breech.

Seat of the Charge.--The form of the seat of the charge, or that part of the bore of a fire-arm which contains the powder, will have an effect on the force of the charge and the strength of the piece to resist it. The considerations most likely to affect the force of the powder are the form of the surface and its extent compared with the inclosed volume. To obtain the full force of the charge it is necessary that the inflammation be nearly completed before the gas begins to escape through the windage, and the projectile is sensibly moved from its place, and as the tension depends much upon the heat evolved by the combustion, the absorbing surface should be a minimum compared with the volume. In cannon where the charge of powder is large, the form of the seat of the charge is simply that of the bore prolonged; this arrangement, when compared with the chamber, makes the absorbing surface of the metal a minimum and reduces the length of the charge, so that its inflammation will be as complete as possible before the gas escapes and the projectile is moved. To give additional strength to the breech, and to prevent the angle formed by the plane of the bottom and sides of the bore from becoming a receptacle for dirt and burning fragments of the cartridge-bag, it is rounded with the arc of a circle, whose radius is one-fourth the diameter of the bore at this point. Instead of being a plane bottom it is sometimes made hemispherical, tangent to the surface of the bore. In all United States cannon of the most recent model, the bottom of the bore is a semi-ellipsoid; this is thought to fulfill the condition of strength more fully than the hemisphere. With light pieces, in which it is necessary to use small charges of powder, if the charge were made into a cartridge of a form to fit the bore its length would be less than its diameter, and being ignited at the top, a considerable portion of the gas generated in the first instance of inflammation would pass through the windage, and a part of the force of the charge would be lost. To obviate this defect, to give the cartridge a more manageable form in loading, and to make the surface a minimum as regards the volume, the diameter of this part of the bore is reduced so as to form a chamber. The shape of the chambers of fire-arms is either cylindrical, conical, or spherical; the effect of these different forms of chambers on the velocity of the projectile will be modified by the size of the charge and the length of the bore. Up to a charge of powder equal to one-seventh of the weight of the projectile, and a length of bore equal to 9 or 10 calibers, experience shows that the presence of a chamber is advantageous, but beyond these it possesses no advantages to compensate for its inconvenience. For very small charges of powder and short lengths of bore, the cylindrical chamber gives better results than the conical chamber. For the same capacity, the conical chamber gives a shorter cartridge, and is therefore better suited to the rapid inflammation of a large charge of powder than the cylindrical chamber.

The Gomer chamber belongs to this class. (See GOMER CHAMBER.) The spherical chamber was formerly used particularly in mortars, but owing to the inconveniences which attend its construction and use, and its liability to deterioration, it is now entirely abandoned. In all the regulation guns of the U. S. land service, the bottom of the bore is a semi-ellipsoid. The adoption of this form simplifies the whole subject of chambers, and it is found to give increased ranges for small charges. No very careful experiments have been made to determine in a general way the effect of chambers on the strength of cannon; but late experience indicates that cylindrical chambers in heavy iron guns have an injurious effect on their endurance, and they have consequently been abandoned in these pieces.

The Bore (see BORE).--The length of the bore has an important effect on the velocity of the projectile, and it was formerly supposed that the longest pieces gave the greatest ranges; this belief was in a great measure due to the slow rate of burning of mealed powder, which was originally used in cannon, but was entertained even after gunpowder received its granular form. When a gun is discharged, the accelerating force is due to the expansive effort of the inflamed powder, which reaches its maximum when the grains of the charge are completely converted into vapor and gas. This event depends on the size of the charge, and the size and velocity of combustion of the grains. With the same accelerating force, the point at which a projectile reaches its maximum velocity depends on its density, or the time necessary to overcome its inertia. The retarding forces are:

(1) The friction of the projectile against the sides of the bore; this is the same for all velocities, but different for different metals.

(2) The shocks of the projectile striking against the sides of the bore; these will vary with the angle of incidence, which depends on the windage and the extent of the injury due to the lodgment and balloting of the projectile.

(3) The resistance offered by the column of air in front of the projectile; this force will increase in a certain ratio to the velocity of the projectile and length of the bore. As the accelerating force of the charge increases up to a certain point, after which it rapidly diminishes as the space in rear of the projectile increases; and as the retarding forces are constantly opposed to its motion, it follows that there is a point where these forces are equal, and the projectile moves with its greatest velocity; it also follows that after the projectile passes this point its velocity decreases, until it is finally brought to a state of rest, which would be the case in a gun of great length. Elaborate experiments have been made in this country and abroad to determine accurately the influence which the length of the piece exercises on the velocity of its projectile. The experiments made by Maj. Mordecai of the U. S. Ordnance Department with a 12-pounder gun, show that the velocity increases with the length of the bore up to 25 calibers; but that the entire gain beyond 16 calibers, or an addition of more than one-half to the length of the gun, gives an increase of only one-eighteenth to the effect of a charge of four pounds. It follows from the foregoing that the length of bore which corresponds to a maximum velocity depends upon the projectile, charge of powder, and material of which the piece is made, and taking the caliber as a unit of measure, it is found that this length is greater for small-arms which fire leaden projectiles than for guns which fire solid iron shot, and greater for guns than for howitzers and mortars, which fire hollow projectiles. For the same charge of powder it may be said that the initial velocity of a projectile varies nearly with the fourth root of the length of the bore, provided the variation in length be small.

Manufacture of Cannon.--Cannon for the U. S. service are made by private founders. The material and product of the casting are under the supervision of an ordnance officer, who receives the pieces only after they have satisfied all the conditions imposed by the regulations of the service. There are several foundries for making cast-iron cannon. Wrought-iron field cannon are principally made at the Phœnixville Iron-Works, Pa. There are also several private establishments where special cannon are made. The several operations of manufacturing cannon are, molding, casting, cooling, and finishing.

Molding, in general terms, is the process by which the cavity of the form of the gun is obtained by imbedding a wooden model in sand, and then withdrawing it. The wooden model is technically called the pattern, and the sand is confined in a box, which is divided into two or more parts for convenience in withdrawing the pattern. The pattern of the piece to be cast, somewhat enlarged in its different dimensions, is composed of several pieces of hard wood, well seasoned, or, for greater durability, of cast iron. The first piece of the model comprises the body of the piece from the base-ring to the chase-ring; the swell of the muzzle, and the sprue, or dead-head, are formed of the second piece; the breech, of the third; and the trunnions, of the fourth and fifth pieces. The sprue, usually called the “head,” is an additional length given to the piece, for the purpose of receiving the scoria of the melted metal as it rises to the surface, and furnishing the extra metal needed to feed the shrinkage. Its weight also increases the density of the lower portion of the piece. The breech is slightly lengthened in the direction of the knob of the cascabel, to form a square projection by which the piece can be held when being turned and bored. The best material for the mold is dry, hard, angular, and refractory sand, which must be moistened with water in which strong clay has been stirred, to make it sufficiently adhesive; when not sufficiently refractory, the sand is vitrified by the high temperature of the melted metal, and protuberances--not easily removed--are formed on the casting. When not sufficiently coarse and angular, the materials cannot be so united as to preserve the form of the molds. The mold is formed in a case of cast iron, and termed the “box,” or the “flask,” consisting of several pieces, each of which has flanges perforated with holes for screw-bolts and nuts, to unite the parts firmly. To form the mold, the pattern for the sprue and muzzle, previously coated with pulverized charcoal or coke, moistened with clay-water to prevent adhesion, is placed vertically on the ground, muzzle part up, and carefully surrounded by the corresponding parts of the jacket. When properly adjusted, the sand, prepared as above, is rammed around it. The model for the body of the piece is then placed on the top of this, and the corresponding parts of the jacket correctly secured, and filled in succession with the molding composition. The patterns for the trunnions and rimbases are bolted to the model of the piece, and when the sand is rammed firmly around these, the bolts are withdrawn, this part of the mold completed, and the end-plates screwed on. After completing the mold for the body of the piece, the model for the cascabel is properly adjusted and the mold completed. Care is taken to cover each portion of the model with the coke-wash mentioned above, and to sprinkle dry sand upon the top of the mold in each piece of the jacket, to prevent adhesion, so that the portions of the mold may be separated. In the body of the sand, a channel for the introduction of the metal is formed in the same manner as the mold cavity. It enters at the bottom of the mold, to prevent the bottom from being injured by the falling metal, and in an oblique direction, to give a circular motion to the metal as it rises in the mold, and thereby prevent the scoria from adhering to the sides. When the mold is completed, the parts of the flask are carefully taken apart, and the pieces of the model withdrawn from the mold contained in them. If any portions of the mold be injured in withdrawing the model, they are repaired, and the interior of the mold is covered with coke-wash; after which the several parts are placed in an oven to be gradually and perfectly dried. When this is accomplished, the parts are carried to a pit, where they are united and secured in a vertical position, with the breech below. Any portion of the sand broken off during the movements and adjustments should be replaced, and the whole of the interior covered with coke-wash. The object of coke-wash is to prevent the sand from adhering to the melted metal, which, when prepared, is made to flow in at the entrance of the side-channel. As the metal rises in the mold, a workman agitates it with a long pine stick, to cause the scoria and other impurities to rise to the surface, and brings them toward the centre of the mold, to prevent their entering the cavities for the trunnions.

Cooling.--After the mold is placed properly in the pit, it is usual to surround the box with sand, at least as high as the trunnions of the gun. This is done to prevent rapid cooling. With guns as heavy as 24-pounders, this sand is not removed for three days, and as the gun is heavier the time is prolonged, and is from seven to eight days for the 10-inch columbiad. At the proper time the sand is removed, and the gun, still imbedded in the box and sand of the mold proper, is hoisted out, the box taken off, and when nearly cold, the gun cleaned of the sand.

Boring and Turning.--A cannon is bored by giving it a rotary motion around its axis, and causing a rod armed with a cutter to press against the metal in the proper direction. The piece, supported in a rack, is carefully adjusted, with its axis horizontal, and made to revolve on this axis by machinery attached to the square knob on the cascabel. After adjustment, the sprue-head is first to be cut off. This is effected by placing a cutter opposite the point at which the section is to be made, and pressing it against the metal whilst the piece is turning. The head being cut off, and the cutter removed, the boring is commenced by placing the boring-rod, armed with the first cutter, called the piercer, in the prolongation of the axis of the piece, and pressing it against the metal. The piercer is used till it penetrates to the bottom of the chamber, after which a second cutter, or reamer, is attached to the boring-rod, and with this the boring is made complete to the round part of the chamber. The reamer is then removed and its place supplied by the chamber-cutter, which gives the necessary form and finish to that part of the bore. In hollow-cast cannon the piercer is dispensed with. Whilst the boring is taking place the workman contrives to finish the turning of all the exterior of the piece except the portion between the trunnions, which is afterwards planed off in another machine. These operations having been completed, the piece is placed in the trunnion-machine, and the trunnions are turned down to the proper size. Care is taken to make the trunnions of the same diameter, and perfectly cylindrical. Their axes should be in the same right line, perpendicular to the axis of the piece and intersecting it.

Boring the Vent.--Whilst in the trunnion-lathe, the axis of the piece is inclined to the horizon at the angle the vent is to make with it. A drill is placed vertically over the point where the vent is to be bored, and pressed against the metal whilst a rotary motion is given to it by hand or machinery. The time required to finish a cannon, ready for inspection, depends upon its size, or from three to four weeks for a 24-pounder gun, and six weeks for an 11-inch gun.

Cast Metal Guns, Modern Improvements in.--The first great step in this direction was taken by Gen. Rodman of the U. S. Ordnance Corps. It was his investigation into the crystallization of cast iron which led to the abolition of sharp angles or projections in the form of cannon. His reputation, however, rests mainly upon the principle of hollow casting. The general form of the old casting is that of a solid frustrum of a cone; it is therefore cooled from the exterior, which causes the thin outer layer to contract first, and forces the hotter and more yielding metal within towards the opening of the mold. Following this the adjacent layer cools and tends to contract, but the exterior layer to which it coheres has become partially rigid and does not fully yield to the contraction of the inner layer. The result is, the cohesion of the particles of the inner layer is diminished by a force of extension, and that of the outer layer increased by a force of compression. As the cooling continues this operation is repeated, until the whole mass is brought to a uniform temperature, and the straining force is increased to an extent which depends on the size and form of the mass, the rapidity with which it is cooled, and the contractibility of the particular metal used. The foregoing considerations led Rodman to cast the gun hollow and to cool it from the interior, to reverse the strains by external cooling, and make them contribute to the endurance rather than to the injury of the piece. The method employed is to carry off the internal heat by passing a stream of water through a hollow core, inserted in the centre of the mold cavity before casting, and to surround the flask with a mass of burning coals, to prevent too rapid radiation from the exterior. Results show that cast-iron cannon made by this plan are not only stronger, but are less liable to enlargement of the bore from continued firing. All large American guns of cast iron, including the cases for the experimental rifles, are now cast on the Rodman plan. The plan has also been adopted by most of the nations of Europe that use cast-iron guns,--France, Sweden, Italy, etc.

For improvements in bronze, see the methods of Dean and Uchatius, ORDNANCE, METALS FOR.

The following are among the best known of cast metal homogeneous guns:

Columbiad.--The columbiads are a species of sea-coast cannon containing certain qualities of the gun, howitzer, and mortar; they are long, chambered pieces capable of projecting solid shot and shells with heavy charges of powder, at high angles of elevation. The columbiad was invented by Col. Bomford, late of the U. S. service; the model was afterwards changed by lengthening the bore and increasing the weight of metal. (See ORDNANCE, HISTORY OF.) It was afterwards discovered that these pieces did not possess the requisite strength, and they were degraded to the rank of shell guns, and their places supplied by pieces of improved model. The change consisted in giving greater thickness of metal in the prolongation of the axis of the bore, which was done by diminishing the length of the bore itself; in substituting a hemispherical bottom to the bore, and removing the cylindrical chamber; in removing the swell of the muzzle and base-ring, and in rounding off the corner of the breech. In 1860 the model prepared by Capt. Rodman was adopted for all sea-coast cannon, and is essentially the same as the one described below.

Paixhan Gun.--See ORDNANCE, HISTORY OF.

Dahlgren Gun.--The guns constructed after the plan of Admiral Dahlgren of the U. S. navy, are used principally in the U. S. sea service. Those of large caliber are made of cast iron, solid, and cooled from the exterior. To produce uniformity in the cooling, the piece is cast nearly cylindrical, and then turned down to the required shape. The thickness of the metal around the seat of the charge is a little more than the diameter of the bore, as is true of nearly all the cast-iron guns. The chase, however, tapers more readily than in other cast-iron guns; they are smooth-bored, and the chamber is of the Gomer form. The principal guns of this system are of 9- and 11-inch caliber. A piece of 10-inch caliber has, however, been introduced into the navy for firing solid shot. The 15- and 20-inch naval guns are shaped exteriorly after the Dahlgren pattern, but are cast hollow, and have the elliptical chamber of the Rodman system.

Napoleon Gun.--A bronze field-piece in the U. S. service. See NAPOLEON GUN.

Rodman Gun.--The principal difficulty formerly experienced in manufacturing very large cast-iron cannon was the injurious strain produced by cooling the casting from the exterior. Gen. Rodman of the U. S. Ordnance Department developed a theory of the strains produced by cooling a casting like that of a cannon (see ORDNANCE, STRAINS UPON), and as a remedy for them proposed that cannon should be cast with a hollow core and cooled by a stream of water or air passing through it. This new mode of casting was afterwards adopted by the War Department. By this system of casting, guns of greatly-increased size and endurance are fabricated. The largest guns employed in the U. S. service (20-inch) are made on the Rodman plan, as well as the 15-inch, 13-, 10-, 8-inch, etc. The external form of Rodman guns is striking, as they are much larger at the seat of the charge than elsewhere. Their outline is made up of curved lines. This form has been almost universally adopted for U. S. guns. The Dahlgren, which preceded it, has nearly the same shape.

The great power demanded at the present day in heavy ordnance, however, cannot be attained by the use of cast iron alone. The difficulties of constructing homogeneous guns of the stronger metals--wrought iron and steel--have given birth in modern times to

Built-up Guns.--The term “built-up” is applied to those cannon in which the principal parts are formed separately, and then united together in a peculiar manner. One object of this mode of manufacture is to correct the defects of one material by introducing another of opposite qualities, as for instance, trials have been made to increase the hardness, and therefore endurance, of bronze cannon by casting them around a core of steel which formed the surface of the bore. Built-up cannon are not necessarily composed of more than one kind of metal. Some of the most noted are made of steel or wrought iron alone. In this case the defects which we have seen accompany the working of large masses of wrought iron (crystalline structure, cracks, false welds) are obviated by first forming them in small masses, as rings, tubes, etc., of good quality, and then uniting them separately. The mode of uniting a built gun may be by welding the parts, by shrinking, or forcing one over the other, or by screwing them together.

In the construction of built-up guns, makers have aimed at the ideal gun which has its strength proportioned to the strain it is called upon to bear in all its parts. All parts of the sides of a cannon are not strained equally, and are therefore not brought to the breaking-point at the same time. Any arrangement of the parts by which the explosive strain is distributed equally over the entire thickness of the piece, necessarily brings a greater amount of resistance into play to prevent rupture. There are two general plans for accomplishing this, viz.: First, by producing a strain of compression on the metal nearest the surface of the bore. This is termed an “initial strain,” and is brought about by shrinking heated bands or tubes around the part to be compressed, or by slipping a tube into the bore, which has been slightly enlarged by heat. In either case it is apparent that the extent of the strain depends on the relative size of the fitting surfaces, and the amount of heat used to produce expansion. Sometimes the parts are forced together by hydraulic pressure after they have been carefully bored and turned to the proper size. The second plan is based on “varying elasticity,” and is accomplished by placing that metal which stretches most within its elastic limit around the surface of the bore, so that by its enlargement the explosive strain is transmitted to the outer parts. By the selection of suitable materials and their proper management, both of these plans may be combined in the same gun, and thereby give it increased strength. See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

The best-known cannon of the built-up class are:

Ames Gun.--The rifled guns made by Mr. Horatio Ames, of Falls Village, Conn., are made of wrought iron on the built-up principle. The wrought iron is in the form of rings, made by bending a bar around a mandrel and welding the ends. After turning them in a lathe, two or more of these rings are fitted one within another to form a disk. These disks are welded in succession to a concave breech-piece. Some of these guns have shown remarkable endurance. They are weakest against longitudinal strains.

Armstrong Gun.--Is so much like the Woolwich, which it preceded, that a separate description is unnecessary. See WOOLWICH GUN.

Blakely Gun.--The most approved pattern of the gun invented by Capt. Blakely combines in its construction the principles of “initial tension” and “varying elasticity,” the object of which is to bring the strength of all the metal of the piece into simultaneous play to resist explosion. It is made of several tubes or barrels, the inner one of which is of low steel, having considerable but not quite enough elasticity. The next tube is made of high steel with less elasticity, and is shrunk on the barrel with just sufficient tension to compensate for the insufficient difference of elasticity between the two tubes. The outer cast jacket, to which the trunnions are attached, is the least elastic of all, and is put on with only the shrinkage by warming it over a fire. The steel tubes are cast hollow and hammered over steel mandrels under steam-hammers; by this process they are elongated, and at the same time the tenacity of the metal is increased, all the steel parts are annealed. Other combinations of iron and steel are used, except wrought iron, which is regarded as objectionable on account of its tendency to stretch permanently. Blakely guns were rifled with one-sided grooves, and are fired with expanding projectiles. This gun is no longer made under that name. As now made it is called the

Vavasseur Gun, and is manufactured by Messrs. J. Vavasseur & Co. of the London Ordnance-Works. It is made entirely of the best Sheffield cast steel, except the trunnions, which are wrought iron, and consists of an interior tube and outer tube and a number of hoops. The inner tube is forged from a solid ingot. It is rough bored and turned and then oil tempered. The outer tube and rings are cast hollow and hammered over steel mandrels. They are heated and shrunk on. Theoretically, it is difficult to pick a flaw in the construction of this gun. The rifling used is anomalous. It consists of three ribs instead of grooves projecting into the bore. The projectile has corresponding grooves. These guns have found quite a market in the South American republics.

Brooke Gun.--This gun was made after the plan of Capt. Brooke for the Confederate service; it resembles Parrott’s in shape and construction, except that the reinforcing band is made up of iron rings not welded together. The rifling is similar to that used in the Blakely guns.

Fraser Gun.--See WOOLWICH GUN.

Gatling Gun.--See GATLING GUN.

Krupp Gun.--See KRUPP GUN.

Lancaster Gun.--This gun is now little used; it was made of wrought iron. The bore was cut in a spiral form with an elliptical cross-section, and the projectile shaped to fit it, by which means a rotary motion was imparted.

Palliser Gun.--Maj. Palliser of the British service is the inventor of a system which has been successfully applied in England to utilize smooth-bore cast-iron guns by converting them into rifles. By his plan the gun is first bored to a cylinder or finely tapering cone, then lined with a tube of coiled wrought iron, the breech end of which is shrunk on; the exterior of the barrel has a uniform diameter throughout. The tube is double at this part to obtain the benefit of the tension and to enable any fracture of the inner layer to be made known without bursting the gun. The bottom of the barrel is closed by a wrought-iron cup screwed in. The tube is inserted into the gun from the muzzle without the application of heat. A small amount of play is allowed between the barrel and the cast-iron body; this disappears, or is much reduced by a “setting up charge,” which expands the barrel against the cast iron. The end of the barrel is made to bear accurately against the cast-iron breech. A collar screwed into the muzzle secures the tube in position, and prevents it from being thrust forward by the compression of the metal by repeated firing. In front of the trunnions a pin is screwed in through the cast iron, to resist the tendency of the tube to be turned by the bearing of the projectile in the grooves. On the exterior of that portion of the inner tube that is covered by the second tube is cut a spiral gas channel; this communicates with a tell-tale hole drilled through the cast-iron breech, by which gas can escape and announce the fracture of the inner tube. The venting and rifling are similar to those employed in the Woolwich guns. In the larger guns Maj. Palliser proposes to use two or more concentric tubes, in some the exterior one to be of steel. This system is being applied in the United States with the most promising results in the conversion of 10-inch Rodman guns into 8-inch rifles. The rifles thus obtained, though giving to a projectile a less muzzle velocity than does the 10-inch smooth-bore, has, on account of the increased weight of shot, greater penetrating power at all ranges, being doubled at some and trebled at others. Its accuracy is three times greater, and the capacity of its shell twice that of the original gun.

Parsons Gun.--The system upon which Mr. Parsons makes his guns is similar to that of Maj. Palliser. (See PALLISER GUN.) It depends upon the principle of varying elasticities, and is based upon the fact that wrought iron may be stretched three times as much as cast iron, and will offer three and a half to six times the resistance within the limit of its elasticity. These well-known gun constructions, known as converting systems, both consist in lining a cast-iron case with a wrought-iron or steel tube. In the Palliser or English method the tube is inserted from the muzzle. In the Parsons or American method, through the breech. In both nearly the whole of the longitudinal strain is transferred to the cast-iron case. Both systems were first perfected in England. Col. Crispin (U. S. Ordnance Corps) deserves the credit of introducing them into the U. S. service in constructing the new experimental rifles. The Parsons system is better adapted to constructing breech-loaders.

Parrott Gun.--The Parrott rifled gun is a cast-iron piece of about the usual dimensions, strengthened by shrinking a coiled band or barrel of wrought iron over that portion of the reinforce which surrounds the charge. The body of the larger Parrott guns are cast hollow, and cooled from the interior on the Rodman plan. The barrel is formed by bending a rectangular bar of wrought iron spirally around a mandrel, and then welding the mass together by hammering it in a strong cast-iron cylinder, or tube. In bending the bar, the outer side being more elongated than the inner one, is diminished in thickness, giving the cross-section of the bar a wedge shape, which possesses the advantage of allowing the cinders to escape through the opening, thereby securing a more perfect weld. The barrel is shrunk on by the aid of heat, and for this purpose the reinforce of the gun is carefully turned to a cylindrical shape, and about one-sixteenth of an inch to the foot larger than the interior diameter of the barrel in a cold state. To prevent the cast iron from expanding when the barrel is slipped on to its place, a stream of cold water is allowed to run through the bore. At the same time, and while the band hangs loosely upon it, the body of the gun is rotated around its axis to render the cooling uniform over the whole surface of the barrel. The proof of the Parrott guns consists in firing each piece 10 rounds with service charges.

Rodman Gun.--The principal difficulty formerly experienced in manufacturing very large cast-iron cannon was the injurious strain produced by cooling the casting from the exterior. Gen. Rodman of the U. S. Ordnance Department developed a theory of the strains produced by cooling a casting like that of a cannon (see ORDNANCE, STRAINS UPON), and as a remedy for them proposed that cannon should be cast on a hollow core and cooled by a stream of water or air passing through it. This new mode of casting was afterwards adopted by the War Department. By this system of casting, guns of greatly increased size and endurance are fabricated. The largest guns employed in the U. S. service (20-inch) are made on the Rodman plan, as well as many of the guns employed in the field service.

Whitworth Gun.--These guns are made of a species of low steel; the smaller are forged solid, the larger are built up with coils or hoops; the hoops are forced on by hydraulic pressure, and for this purpose are made with a slight taper and with the design to secure initial tension. The ends of the hoops are joined by screw-threads. The hoops are first cast hollow, and then hammered out over a steel mandrel. Before receiving their final finish they are subject to an annealing for some three or four weeks, which makes the metal very ductile, but at the same time slightly impairs its tenacity. The system differs from Krupp’s in the smaller masses used and the greater number of hoops. The process for making the hoops is better calculated to develop their tensile strength. The breech-pin is made with offsets in such a way as to screw into the end of the barrel and the next two surrounding hoops. The cross-section of the bore of the Whitworth gun is a hexagon with rounded corners. The twist is very rapid and the projectiles are made very long.

Woodbridge Gun (invented by Dr. Woodbridge, of Little Falls, New York).--The system of construction consists essentially of a thin steel barrel over which wire is wound, barrel and wire being subsequently consolidated into one mass by a brazing solder melted and poured into the interstices. The following brief description is extracted from one of the inventor’s letters to the chief of ordnance: “Square wire is wound upon a steel core somewhat longer than the intended bore of the gun, a sufficient number of wires being wound at once side by side to produce the required obliquity of the turns. The successive layers have opposite twists. When the mass has reached the required dimensions, it is inclosed in an air-tight case to protect it from oxidation, and is heated therein to a temperature somewhat above that required for the fusion of the soldering metal. The soldering metal having been melted is run in, filling all the interstices of the mass. When cooled the gun is bored and finished as usual.” The invention dates back to about 1850. A small gun made in this way was tested by Maj. Laidley (U. S. Ordnance Corps) in 1865. It endured 1327 rounds with excessive charges, when the attempt to burst it was abandoned on account of the breaking off of the trunnions. The only large gun ever made--a 10-inch gun--was fabricated at Frankford Arsenal. It was not entirely finished till April, 1876, soon after which it was displayed at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia. Certain defects in its manufacture prevent it from fairly representing the Woodbridge system.

Woolwich Gun.--The Woolwich or Fraser gun is in its construction a modification of the Armstrong plan, which latter had been previously used in Great Britain; the principal difference is in substituting for a number of single coils and a forged breech-piece a few long double and triple coils, and in using a cheaper quality of wrought iron. The number of pieces employed in the construction depends upon the size of the gun; an 8-inch rifled gun is composed of the inner tube (barrel) of steel, the muzzle-coil (trousers), the breech-coil (jacket), and the cascabel-screw. The barrel is made from a solid forged cylinder of cast steel, drawn by heating and hammering; it is turned, bored, and chambered; then heated to a uniform temperature in a vertical furnace and plunged into a covered tank of rape-oil, where it cools and soaks. The muzzle-coil is constructed of two single coils welded together endways. Each coil is formed by heating a long bar and wrapping it about a mandrel; this is next heated in a reverberatory furnace and welded under a steam-hammer. Before being united the two cylinders are turned and bored. The breech-coil is composed of a triple coil, a trunnion-ring, and a double coil welded together. The double coil is formed by placing a single coil, when cold, on a mandrel and winding over it, but in the reverse directions to break joints, a second bar; if over this a third bar is immediately wound in the same direction as the first, a triple coil will result. These coils are welded by being heated and hammered on the end and on the sides. The trunnion-ring is made by welding slabs of iron together on the flat end of a bar, and gradually forming a ring by driving through the centre wedges and mandrels increasing in size; the trunnions, one of which comes from the bar, are at the same time hammered into shape. The coils and the ring having been turned and bored, the latter is placed on a shoulder of the triple coil, the double coil is dropped through the trunnion-ring on the triple coil, and the joints welded in this position. The cascabel is forged of good scrap-iron; the different parts having been formed are accurately turned and bored with a slight taper. The muzzle-coil tube being heated is dropped over the barrel, which is stood in a pit, a stream of cold water circulating through the bore. The half-formed gun is then placed on its muzzle, water forced through the bore, and the breech-coil heated and slipped into position. The cascabel is screwed into the breech-coil abutting against the barrel, great care being taken that the contact is perfect. A tell-tale hole is cut along the thread on the cascabel to give warning by the escape of gas should the barrel break in firing. The vent is bored through hardened copper; it enters near the centre of the service cartridge. This gives greater velocity, but also greater pressure. The large guns have from seven to ten grooves. The twist is uniformly increasing; the shape of the grooves is circular, with curved edges.

Sutcliffe Gun.--This invention, by E. A. Sutcliffe of New York City, relates to a breech-mechanism for cannon. See BREECH MECHANISM.

Griffin Gun.--Name sometimes given to the 3-inch rifled field-piece in the U. S. service. It is made of wrought iron. The method of fabrication is to wrap boiler-plate around a mandrel and to weld it.

=Ordnance, Metals for.= The only metals ordinarily used for cannon are cast and wrought iron, steel, and an alloy of copper and tin, or a combination of these metals. Cannon metals should be able to resist the corroding action of the atmosphere, the heat and the products of combustion of the powder; should be susceptible of being easily bored and turned, and should not be too costly. The qualities necessary in cannon metals are strength to resist the explosion of the charge, weight to overcome severe recoil, and hardness to endure the bounding of the projectile along the bore. The shape of the bore would otherwise be rapidly altered by the action of the projectile. This quality is particularly necessary in rifled cannon. The term strength as applied to cannon metal is not confined to tensile strength alone, but embraces also elasticity, ductility, and crystalline structure, which affect its power to resist the enormous and oft-repeated force of gunpowder. (See ORDNANCE, STRAINS UPON.) Each discharge of a cannon, however small, impairs its strength, and repeated a sufficient number of times, will burst it; this arises from the fact that the feeblest strains produce a permanent elongation or compression of iron; this is technically known as the permanent set, and the same is probably true of all other metals. The property of ductility is of importance in enabling a metal to resist rupture after it has passed its elastic limit. The size and arrangement of the crystals of a metal have an important influence in its strength to resist a particular force. A metal will be strongest when its crystals are small, and the principal faces parallel to the straining force, if it be one of extension, and perpendicular to it, if it be one of compression. The size of the crystals of a particular metal depends on the rate of cooling; the most rapid cooling giving the smallest crystals.

Cast iron is very generally employed, notably in the United States, in the fabrication of heavy cannon for siege and sea-coast purposes. It possesses the very important qualities of tenacity, hardness, and cheapness, and with proper care is not seriously affected by rust. Its principal defect is an almost entire want of elasticity, in consequence of which its tenacity is destroyed after a certain number of applications of the straining force. But little is known of the causes which affect the quality of the cast iron used for cannon metal. The amount of carbon, the state of its combination, together with the ore, fuel, and fluxes, and the process of manufacture, all materially affect the quality of the iron. All that is known is, that certain ores treated in a certain way make cast iron suitable for cannon, and the fitness of a particular kind of cast iron for artillery purposes can only be determined by submitting it to the tests of the service. After this is known, a knowledge of certain physical properties, such as tenacity, hardness, density, and color, form and size of crystals presented in a freshly fractured surface, will be useful in keeping the metal up to the required standard. The pig-iron from which cannon are made should be soft, yielding easily to the file and chisel; the appearance of the fracture should be uniform, with a brilliant aspect, dark gray color, and medium-sized crystals. When remelted and cast into cannon, it should have about sufficient hardness to resist the file and chisel, but not to be so hard as to be bored and turned with much difficulty; its color should be a bright gray, crystals small, structure uniform, close, and compact. The density of gun metal should be about 7.25, and its tenacity about 30,000. There are several varieties of cast iron differing from each other by almost insensible shades. The principal divisions are, however, gray and white. Gray iron is softer and less brittle than the white, is slightly malleable and flexible, and does not resist the file. It has a brilliant fracture of a gray or bluish-gray color. This iron melts at a lower temperature than white iron and becomes more fluid, contracts less and contains fewer cavities; it fills the mold well, the edges of a casting are short, and the surface smooth, convex, and covered with carburet of iron. Gray iron is the only kind suitable for making castings which require great strength, such as cannon. White iron is very brittle, resists the file and chisel, and is susceptible of high polish, the surface of a casting is concave, the fracture presents a silvery appearance. Its qualities are the reverse of those of gray iron; it is therefore unsuitable for ordnance purposes. Mottled iron is a mixture of white and gray; it has a spotted appearance, and flows well. The casting has a plane surface with edges slightly rounded. It is suitable for making shot and shells. Besides these general divisions, there are several other varieties of iron whose qualities depend upon the proportion of carbon, and the state in which it is found in the metal. The color and texture of cast iron depend greatly on the size of the casting and the rapidity of cooling. See ORDNANCE, STRAINS UPON.

Wrought iron was among the earliest metals employed in the construction of cannon, but in consequence of the defects which almost invariably accompany the forging of large masses, it was superseded by bronze and cast iron to a great extent. Wrought iron is softer than cast iron, and, being pure iron, is more liable to be corroded by the action of the atmosphere and products of combustion of the powder; it possesses also considerable ductility. The tensile strength of wrought iron, which under the most favorable circumstances is double that of the best cast iron, depends on the character of the crystalline structure, and the manner of applying the tensile force, or in other words, wrought iron offers the greatest resistance to a force of extension when the structure is fibrous, and the force acts in the direction of the fibres. The practical difficulties of rapidly cooling large masses so as to form small crystals, and compressing them by hammering, rolling, or otherwise to develop and give a particular direction to the fibre, have not thus far been wholly surmounted. On the contrary, large masses are generally found to contain such internal defects as false welds, cracks, and a spongy and irregularly crystalline structure, arising from the more rapid cooling of the exterior surface.

Steel is a compound of iron and carbon, in which the proportion of the latter seldom exceeds 1.7 per cent. It may be distinguished from iron by its fine grain, its susceptibility of hardening by immersing it when hot in cold water, and with certainty by the action of diluted nitric acid, which leaves a black spot on steel, and on iron a spot which is lighter colored in proportion as the iron contains less carbon. For the construction of cannon, steel may be divided into high and low steel, the difference being that the former contains more carbon than the latter. High steel is very hard and has great ultimate tenacity. It has but little extensibility within or without the elastic limit, and is therefore too brittle for use in cannon, unless used in such large masses that the elastic limit will not be exceeded by the explosive force of the powder. It melts at a lower temperature than wrought iron and is difficult to weld, as its welding temperature is but little less than that at which it melts. Low steel is often known as “mild steel,” “soft steel,” “homogeneous metal,” and “homogeneous iron,” and is made by fusing wrought iron with carbon in a crucible; after which it is cast into an ingot and worked under a hammer. As it contains less carbon than high steel, it has greater specific gravity. It can be welded without difficulty, although overheating injures it. It more nearly resembles wrought iron in all its properties, although it has much greater hardness and ultimate tenacity, and a lower range of ductility depending on its proportion of carbon. It has less extensibility within the elastic limit than high steel, but greater beyond it, or in other words, greater ductility. Its great advantage over wrought iron for general purposes is that it can be melted at a practicable heat, and run into large masses possessing soundness and tenacity. Its advantages for cannon are greater elasticity, tenacity, and hardness. Its tenacity when suitable for cannon is three times as much as cast gun iron, and one-half more than the best wrought iron. The principal varieties of steel are:

Natural Steel.--This is made principally in Germany, and is used for making files and other tools. It is obtained by reducing the rich and pure kinds of iron ore with charcoal, and re-fusing the cast iron so as to bring it to a malleable state. The India steel, or Wootz, is a natural steel containing a small proportion of other metals.

Blistered Steel.--This is prepared by exposing alternate layers of bar-iron and charcoal in a close furnace for several days. When taken out the bars are brittle in quality and crystalline in appearance. The purpose for which the steel is to be used determines the degree of carbonization. The best qualities of iron (Russian and Swedish) are used for the finest kind of steel.

Tilted Steel.--This is blistered steel moderately heated and subjected to the action of a tilt-hammer, by which means its density and tenacity are increased.

Shear Steel.--A blistered or natural steel refined by piling thin bars into fagots, and then rolling or hammering them into bars, after they have been brought to a welding heat in a reverberatory furnace. The quality is improved by a repetition of this process, and the steel is known accordingly by the names, half shear, single shear, double shear, etc.

Cast Steel.--This is made by breaking blistered steel into small pieces, and melting it in close crucibles from which it is poured into iron molds. The ingot is then reduced to a bar by hammering or rolling with great care. Cast steel is the finest kind of steel, and is best adapted for most purposes; it is known by a very fine, even, and close grain, and a silvery homogeneous fracture. The most remarkable specimen of cast steel for tenacity which is on record was manufactured at Pittsburgh, Pa. It was tested at the Washington Navy-Yard, and found to sustain 242,000 pounds to the square inch. The strength of cast steel usually runs from 70 to 140,000 pounds.

Bessemer Steel.--This steel is produced by forcing air into melted iron, by means of which the carbon and silicon of the crude cast iron is oxidized. The essential difference between this process and the ordinary puddling is mechanical, and consists in the intense and violent stirring of the Bessemerized iron, to which alone is due the production and maintenance of a temperature, without any other fuel than the carbon and silicon contained, that keeps the metal fluid so that it can be cast into homogeneous malleable ingots. When decarburation has been carried far enough, the current of air is stopped, and a small quantity of white pig-iron containing a large amount of manganese is dropped into the liquid metal. No very large cannon have yet been made wholly of Bessemer steel, but several small ones have, which have shown great endurance. Experiments at the Woolwich Arsenal have shown that the tenacity of this steel is more than doubled by hammering.

Siemens-Martin.--In this process the ingredients of cast steel are melted together on the open hearth of a reverberatory furnace of special construction, and a certain proportion of manganese necessary to make a sound and practically malleable steel added. This steel is, however, little used in gun construction.

Semi-Steel.--If in the process of puddling or decarbonizing cast iron the process be stopped at a particular time, determined by indications given by the metal to an experienced eye, an iron is obtained of greater hardness and strength than ordinary iron, to which the name of semi-steel, or puddled steel, has been given. The principal difficulty in its manufacture is that of obtaining uniformity in the product, homogeneity and solidity throughout the entire mass. It is much improved by reheating and hammering under a heavy hammer; but it has not been found a reliable material for even cannon of small caliber. The celebrated guns made by Mr. Krupp of Germany are of cast steel, made from puddled steel, and of peculiar character, combining great tensile strength with the property of stretching to a great extent without breaking. Sir Joseph Whitworth improves the qualities of steel for his more recent guns by casting it under hydraulic pressure.

Chrome Steel.--An alloy of iron and chromium, which is not steel in the ordinary sense, but which possesses many of its characteristics. The tensile strength and resistance to crushing is much higher than ordinary cast steel. This material has been largely used in bridge-building, but has not yet been applied to cannon-making.

Bronze for cannon (commonly called brass) consists of 90 parts of copper and 10 of tin, allowing a variation of one part of tin more or less; by increasing the proportion of tin, bronze becomes harder, but more brittle and fusible; by diminishing it it becomes too soft for cannon, and at the same time loses a part of its elasticity. Bronze is more fusible than copper, much less so than tin. It is harder, less susceptible of oxidation, and much less ductile than either of its constituents. Its fracture is of a yellowish color, with little lustre, a coarse grain, irregular, and often exhibiting spots of tin which are of a whitish color. The density and tenacity of bronze when cast into the form of cannon, are found to depend upon the pressure and mode of cooling. In consequence of the difference of fusibility of tin and copper, the perfection of the alloy depends much on the nature of the furnace and the treatment of the melted metal. By these means alone the tenacity of bronze has been carried up to 60,000 pounds. Bronze is but slightly corroded by the action of the gases evolved from gunpowder, or by atmospheric causes; but its tin is liable to be melted away at the sharp corners by the great heat generated in rapid firing. It is soft, and therefore liable to serious injury by the bounding of the projectile in the bore. This injury is augmented as the force of the rebound is increased by the elasticity of the metal. It was established by experiments of Maj. Wade of the U. S. Ordnance Corps more than twenty years ago that the tensile strength of bronze is related to its density. It has been discovered since that this density can be produced by artificial compression. Two men claim the honors of the invention--Gen. Uchatius of the Austrian army, and S. B. Dean, an American inventor. The methods are essentially the same. After the gun is cast, steel mandrels slightly conical in shape are driven through the bore by hydraulic pressure,--each being succeeded by one slightly larger,--thus enlarging the bore and compressing the metal surrounding it. It is claimed that the bronze is thus rendered harder and stronger, and the defects above cited in a large measure obviated. The term “steel bronze” or “bronze steel” has been applied to the metal so treated. Many guns have been made of it for the Austrian service,--the largest of which is a 6-inch breech-loader throwing a projectile of 85 pounds. This gun has proved itself slightly superior in power to the same sized Krupp gun of steel.

Aluminium Bronze.--An alloy of 90 parts of copper and 10 of aluminium. It is harder than ordinary bronze; much stronger, being 100,000 pounds to the square inch; it does not tarnish readily. Its properties would seem to especially fit it for a gun metal. Phosphor bronze is an alloy with very similar properties.

Combined Metals.--Numerous trials have been made to improve the strength of cannon by combining two or more metals in such a way that the good qualities of one will counteract the defects of the others. But the only metals used to any extent are those described above. Steel is constantly gaining in favor as a cannon metal. It is now almost exclusively employed throughout Europe, and wherever the Krupp gun is used. The great perfection arrived at by Krupp and others in the manufacture of steel seems to place that metal above all others for gun construction, whilst the difficulty of handling large masses has been overcome by the enormous power of the machinery used. Steel is also sparingly employed both in the United States and England for converting smooth-bore guns into rifles according to the Palliser method, but experiments in the United States have shown that it is inferior to wrought iron for this purpose. See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

Wrought and cast iron are much used in this way for cannon in both the United States and in England. In the former, all the larger cannon belonging to the official system (both siege and sea-coast) are made of the cast metal, whereas the Parrott gun and the new rifled pieces are a combination of both. (See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.) The metal chiefly employed in England is wrought iron, in combination with steel; the largest guns made at the Woolwich Arsenal are of this nature. Bronze, except as modified by the Austrians, has now nearly entirely gone out of use as a cannon metal. In France and the United States, field-pieces, mortars, and howitzers are still made of this material.

=Ordnance, Strains Upon.= The exterior form of cannon is determined by the variable thickness of the metal which surrounds the bore at different points of its length. In general terms, the thickness is greatest at the seat of the charge, and least at or near the muzzle. This arrangement is made on account of the variable action of the powder and projectile along the bore, and the necessity of disposing the metal in the safest and most economical manner. The pressure at different points may be approximately determined by calculation, or, more accurately, by experiment. In the latter method, the plan generally employed consists in boring a series of small holes through the side of a gun at right angles to its axis at known distances apart. A steel ball is projected from each hole in succession into a target, or ballistic pendulum, by the force of the charge acting through it, and the pressure at the various points is deduced from the velocities communicated to these balls. This method was adopted by Col. Bomford. Instead of the projectile a steel punch may be employed, which is pressed by the force of the charge into a piece of soft copper. (See PRESSURE-GAUGE.) The weight necessary to make an equal indentation in the same piece is then ascertained by a testing machine. The strains to which all fire-arms are subjected may be classified as follows: (1) The tangential strain which tends to split the piece open longitudinally, and is similar in its action to the force which bursts the hoops of a barrel. (2) The longitudinal strain which acts to pull the piece apart in the direction of its length. Its action is greatest at or near the bottom of the bore, and least at the muzzle, where it is nothing; these two strains increase the volume of the metal to which they are applied. (3) A strain of compression which acts from the axis outward to crush the truncated wedges of which a unit of length of the piece may be supposed to consist; this strain compresses the metal and enlarges the bore. (4) A transverse strain which acts to break transversely by bending outward the staves of which the piece may be supposed to consist. This strain compresses the metal on the inner and extends it on the outer surface. It is known that rupture will take place due to the tangential strain alone, when three times the pressure upon a unit of surface of the bore is greater than twice the tensile strength. Due to the longitudinal strain alone, rupture will take place in the direction of the length, when the pressure is greater than twice the tensile strength; and if the transverse strain alone is considered, rupture will take place when twice the pressure is greater than three times the tensile strength. It therefore appears that the tendency to rupture is greater from the action of the tangential force than from any other, and for lengths above two, or perhaps three calibers, the tangential resistance may be said to act alone, as the aid derived from the transverse resistance will be but trifling for greater lengths of bore; but for lengths of bore less than two calibers, this resistance will be aided by both the transverse and the longitudinal resistance. Every piece should therefore have sufficient thickness of breech to prevent splitting through the latter; after this point has been attained, any additional thickness of breech adds nothing to the strength of the piece. It therefore appears that a fire-arm is strongest at or near the bottom of the bore, and that its strength is diminished rapidly as the length of the bore increases to a certain point (probably not more than three calibers from the bottom); after which, for equal thickness of metal, its strength becomes sensibly uniform. The metals of which cannon are made being crystalline in structure, the size and arrangement of the crystals have an important influence on its strength to resist a particular force; and a metal will have the greatest strength with reference to a particular force when its crystals are small, and the principal faces are parallel to the straining force, if it be one of extension, and perpendicular to it, if it be one of compression. The position of the principal crystalline faces of a cooling solid is found to be perpendicular to the cooling surface; the result of this arrangement of crystals is to create planes of weakness where the different systems of crystals intersect. The effect of this law upon cannons, it has been discovered, is to render radial specimens more tenacious than those cut tangentially from the same gun. The manner and rapidity of cooling have also a great effect upon the ability of cannon to resist strains, and as all solid bodies contract their size in the operation of cooling, it follows that if the different parts of a cannon cool unequally, it will change its form, provided it be not restrained by the presence of a superior force. If it be so restrained, the contractile force will diminish the adhesion of the parts by an amount which depends on the rate of cooling of the different parts, and the contractibility of the metal. This is an important consideration in estimating the strength and endurance of cannon, particularly those made of cast iron. All such cannon cooled from the exterior (see ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF) are affected by two straining forces; the outer portion of the metal being compressed, and the interior extended, in proportion to their distances from the neutral axis or line composed of particles which are neither extended nor compressed by the cooling process. The effect of this unequal contraction may be so great as to crack the interior metal of cast iron even before it has been subjected to the force of gunpowder. The strain produced by the explosion of gunpowder is not distributed equally over the thickness of metal, but it varies inversely as the square of the distance from the centre; it therefore follows that the sides of a cannon are not rent asunder as by a simple tensile force, but they are torn apart like a piece of cloth, commencing at the surface of the bore. Hence it is that the effect of ordinary cooling is to diminish the strength and hardness of the metal of cannon at or near a point where the greatest strength and hardness are required, i.e., at the surface of the bore. The strains produced by unequal cooling increase with the diameter of the casting and the irregularity of its form. This explains the great difficulty found in making large cast-iron cannon proportionally as strong as small ones, and also how projections like bands, moldings, etc., injure the strength of cannon. It also explains why cannon made of “light” cast iron, or cast iron made more tenacious by partial decarbonization, are not so strong as cannon made of weaker iron; for it is well known that such iron contracts more than the latter in cooling, and therefore produces a greater strain of extension on the surface of the bore. Capt. Rodman of the U. S. Ordnance Department has proposed a plan for cooling cannon from the interior (see ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF), thereby reversing the strains produced by external cooling, and making them contribute to the endurance rather than to the injury of the piece. It is likely, however, that the strains produced by unequal cooling are modified by time, which probably allows the particles to accommodate themselves to a certain extent to their constrained position. In confirmation of this, great endurance has been frequently found in old solid cast guns, as in the old 42-pounders tested about the beginning of the war, 1861-65.

=Ordnance Department.= In the United States, was first established May 14, 1812, and was not provided for in the reduction of the army in 1815, but continued in the service. In 1821 the department was merged into the artillery, attaching to each regiment of artillery 1 supernumerary captain, and giving to each company 4 subaltern officers. The corps of ordnance was re-established April 5, 1832. The department consists of 1 brigadier-general, 3 colonels, 4 lieutenant-colonels, 10 majors, 20 captains, 16 first lieutenants, and 350 enlisted men. It is the duty of the senior officer of the ordnance department to direct the inspection and proving of all pieces of ordnance, shot, shells, small-arms, and equipments procured for the use of the armies of the United States; and to direct the construction of all cannon and carriages, and every implement and apparatus for ordnance, and all ammunition-wagons, traveling-forges, and artificers’ wagons; the inspection and proving of powder, and the preparation of all kinds of ammunition and ordnance stores. It is also the duty of the senior officer of the ordnance department to furnish estimates, and, under the direction of the Secretary of War, to make contracts and purchases for procuring the necessary supplies of arms, ordnance, and ordnance stores, etc. In the British service, the ordnance department was a distinct branch of the war department, originally for the supply of all warlike stores used in the naval or military service. The first master of ordnance was created in the time of Henry VIII., and the Tower of London was probably the depot of arms and military stores; Robert, earl of Essex, is said to have been the first master-general, in 1596. It does not appear that the ordnance department of the British service became especially military until the early part of the 18th century, after the organization of the Royal Artillery, in 1743, under the Duke of Montague as master-general. From this time the ordnance department was administered by a master-general and board, the latter being composed of a lieutenant-general of ordnance, surveyor-general, clerk of the ordnance, principal store-keeper, clerk of the deliveries, and treasurer. About 1763 the department became a construction board, with charge of all forts and fortresses, and directed the construction of all the fortifications and military store-houses, and barracks for the ordnance corps. The board was finally abolished as a separate department, the duties carried on by the commander-in-chief, and the various civil branches by separate offices under the secretary of state for war.

=Ordnance Office.= Before the invention of guns, this office was supplied by officers under the following names: the bowyer, the cross-bowyer, the galeater, or purveyor of helmets, the armorer, and the keeper of the tents. Henry VIII. placed under the management of a master-general, a lieutenant, surveyor, etc. The master-general was chosen from among the first generals in the service of the sovereign. The appointment was formerly for life; but since the restoration, was held durante bene placito, and not unfrequently by a cabinet minister. The letters patent for this office were revoked May 25, 1855, and its duties vested in the minister of war. The last master-general was Lord Fitzroy Somerset, afterwards Lord Raglan.

=Ordnance Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Ordnance Sergeants.= In the U. S. service, are staff sergeants who are selected from the sergeants of the line of the army. Their duties consist in receiving and preserving the ordnance, arms, ammunition, and other ordnance stores at posts, under the direction of the commanding officer of the same. They must not be confounded with sergeants of ordnance, who are sergeants in the ordnance detachments at arsenals, etc.

=Ordnance Store-keeper.= In the British service, is a civil officer in the artillery who has charge of all the stores, for which he is accountable to the office of ordnance.

=Ordnance Store-keeper.= In the U. S. army, an officer of the ordnance department who holds the rank of captain. The grade has been abolished by act of Congress, and the duties appertaining to the office will be performed by other officers of the ordnance department.

=Ordnance Stores.= See ORDNANCE.

=Oregon.= One of the Pacific States of the American Confederacy. Oregon was the name formerly given to the whole territory north of the Rocky Mountains, and was first claimed by the Spanish government, and next by the government of the United States, as far as lat. 54° 40′ N. This latter claim was resisted by the British government, which asserted a right to the entire territory, and in 1818 a treaty was made, and renewed in 1827, giving joint occupation to the disputed territory. In 1846 a treaty was concluded, by which the boundary was settled on the 49th parallel. Previous to this latter treaty (1839) emigration from the United States, for the purpose of settlement, commenced, and it continued steadily until the opening of the gold mines in California, which attracted a great many emigrants. In 1849 it formed a Territorial government, and in 1859 it was admitted into the Union as a State. This State has been troubled greatly by Indians, and has been the scene of several wars in earlier days, notably, in 1853, on Rogue River; in 1855, when a general outbreak took place, of which the following is a brief summary: In 1855 a war broke out between the whites and the Indians of Washington Territory. The head and front of the outbreak on the part of the Indians was Kam-ai-a-kin. He took this stand from a fixed principle: that of resisting all encroachments on the part of the whites. He had seen the fate of the Indian race in the Willamette Valley, and he determined to anticipate such a result with regard to his own people, and, if possible, to prevent it. When Gov. Stevens made his arbitrary treaties with him, and left him no discretion but to sell his land; and when the miners began to traverse his country, he concluded that the hour had arrived to fight, and he called to his aid as many of the adjoining tribes as he could persuade into it. The manner in which the treaties on Puget Sound were conducted created great dissatisfaction among the Indians, and they were quite ready to join Kam-ai-a-kin. The war commenced by the killing of miners, who were picked off in the Yakama country as they were going to Fort Colville, scarcely a month after the council which was held at Walla Walla. The killing of the agent Bolen set the war in a blaze. The small detachment of troops sent to chastise them was driven back. This success on the part of the Klickatats encouraged the Sound Indians, who also took up arms, and in the absence of troops, fell upon and killed the inhabitants of White River; but the wholesale slaughter of women and children by a party under the command of Major Lupton on October 8, 1855, drove the Indians to desperation and caused them to commence the war in earnest; hostilities continued until the summer of 1856. Also, in later years, the Modoc war (1872), the Nez Pérces (1877), and the Bannock war (1878).

=Oreillere= (Fr.). Oreillet, ear-piece of an ancient helmet, shaped like an oyster-shell, for protecting the ear and cheek.

=Oreillon= (Fr.). Ear of a sword, languet, or small slip of metal on the hilt, which, when the sword is sheathed, extends along the scabbard.

=Organization.= The act of assigning and putting troops into such uniform state of discipline as may fit them to co-operate on any service. Organization may be said to be begun by grouping those combatants who have the same mode of action. These groups are known as “arms of service.” An arm of service may be defined to be “a union of combatants having the same mode of action.” There are four of these arms in modern armies, viz.: Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery, and Engineers. These four arms form the principal part of a mobilized army, and as they or their representatives are always formed into a line of battle to resist the attack of an enemy, or to make an attack, they are generally known as the “line of the army” or “troops of the line,” to distinguish them from other bodies of men who form parts of an army. These arms are subdivided into fractions for the purpose of instruction and of supply. The unit for instruction and the unit for supply may be the same or different. The unit of supply, as a general rule, is constant, and is also usually the unit of instruction in discipline. The unit of instruction in tactics will depend upon circumstances, and upon the kind of movements the commander desires to make. The common unit for the four arms, for supplying the men’s wants and for instruction in discipline, is the “company.” This unit receives, at other times, other names, depending upon circumstances. For instance, a battery of artillery is the same as company; the term squadron of cavalry frequently means a company, etc.

A company consists of a given number of men commanded by a commissioned officer who has the rank of captain. Two, sometimes three, and even more commissioned officers of a grade below that of captain are appointed to assist the captain in the discharge of his duties. These officers have the grade of lieutenant. Their number and the number of men forming a company are fixed by law. A certain number are selected from the men and appointed non-commissioned officers, with the rank of sergeant or of corporal. These non-commissioned officers are used to instruct the men in their military duties and in discipline. The whole company should be divided into squads of equal numbers, and each squad placed under the charge of a non-commissioned officer, who should be held responsible for the cleanliness of the men of his squad, not only as to their persons, clothing, and arms, but as to their tents or quarters. The company, with its size based on the theory that it must not be larger than one man on foot can thoroughly command in person, is the unit of organization. Two or three or more companies form a battalion. Four, and at the outside, five companies placed in line form, in these times, so extended a line that a single person in immediate and personal command of them will find difficulty in making himself heard and understood throughout the entire line. For this reason the battalion should not, as a rule, contain more than four companies.

The battalion is the tactical unit, both for instruction in tactics and in the execution of its movements. The battalion is sometimes made a unit of administration, and forms a complete organization under the command of a commissioned officer of the grade of major or lieutenant-colonel. The more usual rule is to increase the number of companies so as to have enough to form at least two battalions, and with these companies to form the organization known as a regiment.

The regiment is always an administrative unit, and is commanded by a commissioned officer who has the grade of colonel. The colonel is charged with the proper administration of the supplies for the regiment, and with preserving good order and promoting discipline. He takes every opportunity to instruct both the officers and men in the principles and details of all movements that ought in any case to be made by a battalion. Upon the organization of a regiment, the company officers are assigned to companies, and each company is designated by a letter of the alphabet. Upon the recommendation of the captains, the colonel appoints the non-commissioned officers of the companies. He appoints an adjutant from the lieutenants of the regiment, and a non-commissioned staff from the enlisted men, to assist him in his duties. He selects from the lieutenants a quartermaster, whose appointment is confirmed by the Secretary of War.

The elements of organization for the other three arms of service are practically the same, being that of a company or similar body of men under the command of a captain, and these units grouped together into a battalion or regimental organization for administrative purposes. This subdivision into companies and into regiments is most essential for instruction in discipline.

Discipline is an indispensable condition for the existence of a good army. It imparts cohesion and flexibility to the armed mass. Without discipline an army is only an armed mob over which a commander would have no control, and upon which he could not rely in the execution of his plans. When the army is to be mobilized the regiments are brought together and organized into brigades and divisions. Two or more regiments form a brigade; two or more brigades form a division. A general officer of the grade of brigadier-general is assigned to the command of a brigade, and one of the grade of major-general to the command of a division. These divisions and brigades may be composed entirely of one arm, or they may be composed of troops belonging to all four of the arms.

The division is the unit of organization and administration of a mobilized army, and is also the tactical unit of the general in command. When the army is very large, three or four divisions are joined together and form an army corps. The officer commanding an army corps should be of a higher grade than he who commands a division. This grade in the U. S. army would be that of lieutenant-general.

An army corps is most generally composed of all arms of service, and is, to all intents and purposes, an army complete in itself. Two or more army corps or armies would be under the command of the general, or of a “general-in-chief.” There has arisen an organization forming an essential part of every army, known as the general staff, and divided into corps and departments to which are assigned special duties. In some cases, the term “general staff” is limited to include only those officers who are used by the general to communicate his orders, and to inform him of the general and particular conditions of the troops; and the term “staff department” or “supply department” is used to include those officers whose duties are confined to distinct branches of service having for their object the supply of troops. If the army is one of very great size, the general ordinarily attaches to his headquarters a representative of the three arms of artillery, cavalry, and engineers, giving them the position of staff-officers with the name of “chief of artillery,” “chief of cavalry,” etc. They are required to keep the general informed of the state of supplies, and whatever concerns their particular arm, in a similar manner to that required by the other officers of the staff. The general also appoints from the subordinate officers belonging to his command a certain number of aides-de-camp. These officers are ex officio adjutants-general, and receive orders from the general himself. They are confidential officers, who are supposed to be used only in delicate and difficult duties, where they may in a degree represent the general. Hence, they are intrusted to deliver verbal orders which cannot be intrusted with propriety to enlisted men or to the ordinary means of communication.

Proportion of Arms of Service.--The mass of a modern army is composed of infantry. The amount of cavalry will depend upon the topographical features of the country, being in some cases as much as one-fourth of the infantry, and in others as little as one-tenth. The amount of light artillery depends upon the character of the country. There should be at least two guns to every thousand men. The quantity of heavy artillery, or number of siege-batteries, which enter the composition of an army, will depend to a great extent upon the plan of campaign and the probable use for which they may be intended. The circumstances of the case in each campaign will therefore decide as to the proportion to be employed. The number of engineer troops will depend both on the nature of the country and on the probable amount of work which will be required from this class of troops. Each division should contain at least one company of engineer troops. It is usual, if there be none, to detail one or more companies of infantry to act as engineer soldiers; they are designated as “pioneers.” These engineer troops, or troops acting in that capacity, marching in the advance, make the roads practicable for the command by repairing them, removing obstructions, etc. At the crossing of streams, where bridges are to be made, or where existing bridges are to be repaired to an extent requiring more knowledge of bridge construction than that usually possessed by the pioneer, another detachment of troops belonging to the engineer arm is brought forward to do the work. These troops are known as pontoniers, and have special charge of bridge construction for the army. They may be divided into two parts: one to have charge of construction of temporary bridges, especially of floating and trestle bridges, and construction of ferries; the other to have charge of repairs of bridges which have been broken or injured by the enemy, and where quick repair is of importance to an army’s movements. These troops charged with bridge construction usually form a part of the reserve, and are only attached to a division under peculiar circumstances. There should be also in the reserve several companies of sappers and miners; their number, like the heavy artillery, being dependent upon the nature of the campaign.

The army, as a machine, is now ready to be used by the general. The next step is to keep it in a condition so that it can be used; in other words, to preserve the fighting condition of the army. The discipline and drill have been cared for, and with the organization just sketched out, the general can move the whole mass as a unit in accordance with his will. The army can be kept ready for use only by supplying all the actual and necessary wants of the soldier, and by keeping him in comfort and good health. To do this there must be ammunition, clothing, food, shelter, medicines, surgical attendance, hospital comforts, etc., provided for his use. Also a good system of recruiting must be adopted, by means of which the natural losses due to sickness and death may be made good.

The transportation of the munitions, equipments, provisions, hospital supplies, tents, engineering tools, bridge equipage and boats, baggage, cooking utensils, etc., necessary for the use of an army moving against an enemy, requires the use of large numbers of wagons and a great number of draught animals, which of course should not exceed the absolute necessity of the service. These accompaniments to the army received from the Romans the name of impedimenta, for the reason that they hindered the movement of the army. These supply departments form important parts of the composition of a modern army, and the method of executing the duties assigned them constitutes an important branch of the “science and art of war.”--Prof. J. B. Wheeler.

=Organize.= To arrange or constitute in parts, each having a special function, act, office, or relation; as, to organize an army, etc.

=Orgue= (Fr. un orgue). A term used to express that arrangement or disposition of a certain quantity of musket-barrels in a row, which, by means of a priming train of gunpowder, may be subjected to one general explosion. This machine has been found extremely serviceable in the defense of a low flank, a tenaille, or to prevent an enemy from crossing the ditch of a fortified place.

=Orgues.= Are beams of wood hanging perpendicularly over the entrance of a fortified town, which were formerly used as a portcullis, to be dropped in case of any emergency. They are not now used.

=Orient.= The east or eastern part of the horizon. In surveying, to orient a plan signifies to make its situation or bearing with respect to the four cardinal points.

=Oriflamme=, or =Auriflamme=. A banner which originally belonged to the abbey of St. Denis, and was borne by the counts of Vexin, patrons of that church, but which, after the country of Vexin fell into the hands of the French crown, became the principal banner of the kingdom. It was charged with a saltire wavy or, with rays issuing from the centre crossways. In later times the oriflamme became the insignia of the French infantry. The name seems also to have been given to other flags; the oriflamme borne at Agincourt was an oblong red flag split into five parts.

=Orihuela.= A town of Spain, in Valencia, on the Segura, 31 miles southwest from Alicante. It was a place of some importance in the Moorish invasion, and was held in 713 successfully by Theodoric against Abd-el-Aziz after the battle of the Guadalete. It was conquered in 1265 by Don Jaime of Aragon for his father-in-law, Don Alonso, king of Castile. The city was sacked in 1520 in the civil war at that time raging, and again in the War of the Succession, 1706. It was held for some time in 1837 by the Carlist general Forcadell.

=Orillon.= This may be described as a projection at the shoulder of a bastion beyond the ordinary flank of a curved portion of rampart and parapet, the curve being convex to the ditch. The orillon, introduced during the 17th century, was generally used in conjunction with a retired flank, made ordinarily with a curve concave to the ditch. Both orillon and retired flank are now obsolete.

=Orissa.= An extensive province of Hindostan, in the Deccan. A race of Hindoo princes governed the country till 1592, when they were conquered by the viceroy of Akbar. The French, who had taken possession of a part of the country long known as the Northern Circars, attempted to drive the English (who had formed commercial settlements on the coast) out of India. The result of the contest for supremacy in India between the French and English is well known. The Mahrattas, who had seized a portion of Orissa in 1740, were forced to surrender it to the English in 1803. The soldiers of the East India Company were marched into Orissa at the commencement of the present century, and an engagement was subsequently entered into between the Company and the native chiefs and princes, by which the former bound themselves to perform certain services for the country (as maintaining the river-banks in good repair), while the latter engaged to pay a yearly tribute.

=Orizaba.= A town of Mexico, in the department of Vera Cruz, 60 miles southwest from Vera Cruz. It was occupied by Gen. Prim, in command of the Spanish troops that formed part of the expedition sent by England, France, and Spain to Mexico in March, 1862. A conference was held here shortly after the occupation of the town between the plenipotentiaries of the three powers, when the English and Spanish commissioners determined to withdraw their contingents from Mexico, in accordance with the terms of the treaty of Soledad, while the French on the other hand resolved to push on to the capital, to establish a settled government in the country in lieu of that of Juarez.

=Orkney Islands= (anc. Orcades). A cluster of islands in the North Sea, separated from the north coast of Scotland by the Pentland Firth. From an early period the Norsemen resorted to these islands as a convenient spot from which to make a descent on the Scotch and English coasts. In 876 Harald Haarfager conquered both them and the Hebrides; they were conquered by Magnus III. of Norway in 1499, and were ceded to James III. in 1469.

=Orle.= In heraldry, one of the charges known under the charge of sub-ordinaries, said to be the diminutive of a bordure, but differing from it in being detached from the sides of the shield. Or an orle gules was the coat borne by John Baliol. An orle of heraldic charges of any kind denotes a certain number (generally eight) of these charges placed in orle, as in the coat of the old Scottish family of Gladstanes of that Ilk; argent, a savage’s head couped, distilling drops of blood proper, thereon a bonnet composed of bay and holly leaves all proper, within an orle of eight martlets sable.

=Orléans.= An important town of France, capital of the department of Loiret, 75 miles south-southwest from Paris by railway. Orléans, originally called Genabum, afterwards Aureliani (probably from the emperor Aurelian), was besieged by Attila in 451, but relieved by the Romans, who here defeated Attila. It afterwards passed into the hands of the Franks, was taken by the Northmen in 855, and again in 865. In 1428 it was besieged by the English under the Duke of Bedford, but was delivered from the besiegers by the inspiriting exertions of Joan of Arc, who on this account is also named the Maid of Orléans. In the civil wars of the 16th century it was besieged in 1563 by the Duke of Guise, who was assassinated before the walls. During the Franco-Prussian war, 1870-71, Orléans was occupied by the Germans, September 27, and evacuated November 10, 1870.

=Ormskirk.= A town of England, county of Lancaster, 12 miles north by east from Liverpool. Near this place, in 1644, the royalists were defeated by the Parliamentary troops with great slaughter.

=Ormus=, or =Ormuz=. A small island in the strait of the same name, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, and within 10 miles of the Persian coast. It is about 12 miles in circumference, and belongs to the sultan of Muscat. It was occupied by the Portuguese in the 16th century. The town was demolished in 1622 by Shah Abbas, assisted by the English, and its trade was removed to Gombroon.

=Ornamental Fireworks.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Ornaments, Military.= Are those parts of the dress of a soldier which are more for appearance or distinction than for absolute use, as plates for belts, trimmings, etc.

=Orneæ.= An ancient town in Argolis, near the frontiers of the territory of Philius, and 120 stadia from Argus. It was originally independent of Argos, but was subdued by the Argives in the Peloponnesian war, 415 B.C.

=Orteil.= See BERME.

=Ortelsburg.= A town of East Prussia, in the government of Königsberg, 80 miles southeast of Königsberg. Several engagements took place here between the French and Russians in 1807.

=Orthez=, or =Orthes=. A town of France, in the department of the Lower Pyrenees, situated on the Gave de Pau, 25 miles northwest from Pau. It suffered much during the civil wars in France after the Revolution. Near this town the British and Spanish armies commanded by Wellington defeated the French under Soult, February 27, 1814.

=Ortona.= An ancient city of Latium, situated on the confines of the Æquian territory. It is twice mentioned during the wars of the Romans with the latter people: first in 481 B.C., when it was besieged and taken by the Æquians; and again in 457 B.C., when the Æquians by a sudden attack took Corbio, and after putting to the sword the Roman garrison there, made themselves masters of Ortona also; but the consul Horatius engaged and defeated them at Mount Algidus, and after driving them from that position, recovered possession both of Corbio and Ortona. No mention of it is found in later times, and it probably ceased to exist.

=Orvieto.= Called in the time of the Longobards Urbs Vetus, of which its present name is a corruption, a city of Italy, province of Perugia; is of Etruscan origin, but of its early history nothing is known. It has been a place of residence and retreat in turbulent times of upwards of thirty popes.

=Osage Indians.= A tribe of aborigines of Dakota stock who are located, to the number of about 2500, on a reservation in Indian Territory. They are divided into eight bands,--the Beavers, Big Chiefs, Big Hills, Black Dogs, Clammores, Half-Breeds, Little Osages, and White Hairs, and have made but little progress in civilization.

=Oschatz.= A town of Saxony, circle of Leipsic, 31 miles east-southeast from Leipsic. It was here that the treaty of peace was concluded between Frederick the Great and the empress Maria Theresa which put an end to the Seven Years’ War, in 1763.

=Osci=, or =Opici=. One of the most ancient tribes of Italy; they inhabited the centre of the peninsula, from which they had driven out the Siculi. Their principal settlement was in Campania, but we also find them in parts of Latium and Samnium. They were subdued by the Sabines and Tyrrhenians, and disappeared from history at a comparatively early period. They were called in their own language Uskus.

=Osnabruck=, or =Osnaburg=. A town in Hanover, 71 miles from Hanover. Here was concluded the peace of Westphalia in 1648.

=Ossun.= A town of France, in the department of the Upper Pyrenees, 7 miles southwest from Tarbes. A great battle was fought with the Saracens, in the 8th century, in its neighborhood.

=Ostend.= A fortified seaport town of Belgium, province of West Flanders, situated on the coast of the North Sea, 67 miles northwest from Brussels. During the war of the Dutch against Spain, Ostend sustained a memorable siege for more than three years (1601-4). So tremendous was the bombardment that the noise of the Spanish artillery is said to have been occasionally heard at London. At last, after a loss of 50,000 men on the part of the garrison, and 80,000 on that of the Spaniards, the town surrendered on honorable terms, and the Spanish general Spinola was put in possession of Ostend, now reduced to heaps of ruin. On the death of Charles II. of Spain, the French seized Ostend; but in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by the allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In 1756 the French garrisoned this town for the empress queen Maria Theresa. In 1792 the French once more took Ostend, which they evacuated in 1793, but regained in 1794. The English destroyed the works of the Bruges Canal; but the wind shifting before they could re-embark, they surrendered to the French, May 19, 1798.

=Ostrolenka.= A town of Poland, on the Narew. Near here the French repulsed the Russians under Essen, February 16, 1807, and an indecisive and bloody engagement took place between the Poles under Skrzynecki and the Russians under Diebitsch, May 26, 1831.

=Ostrovno.= A village of Russia, in the government of Mohilev, 90 miles northwest from Mohilev. The Russians were defeated here in 1812 by the French.

=Oswego, Fort.= See FORT ONTARIO.

=Oswestry.= A town of England, in Shropshire, 15 miles northwest from Shrewsbury. Oswestry is said to derive its name (originally Oswaldstree) from Oswald, the king of Northumbria, who was slain here in the early part of the 7th century, in a battle fought with the ferocious Penda, king of Mercia.

=Otaheite=, or =Tahiti=. The largest of a cluster of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, that were frequently visited by Capt. Cook, and named by him the Society Islands. In 1799, King Pomare ceded the district of Matavai to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare was compelled to put herself under the protection of France, September 7, 1843. She retracted, and Otaheite and the neighboring islands were taken possession of by Admiral Dupetit-Thuars in the name of the French king, November, 1843. The French imprisoned Mr. Prichard, the English consul, March 5, 1844, but the act was censured in France.

=Otchakow.= A small town and seaport of South Russia, in the government of Kherson, 40 miles east-northeast from Odessa. During the Russian wars with Turkey in the 18th century, Otchakow was alternately the property of each, until it was taken by Potemkin in 1788, and definitively annexed to the Russian dominions.

=Otoes.= A tribe of Indians of Dakota stock who reside with the Missourias on a reservation in Nebraska. They are generally peaceful and industrious, and number with their kindred tribe about 450.

=Otomis=, or =Othomis=. An ancient tribe of Indians who are said to have inhabited the Valley of Mexico before the Aztecs. They are now scattered through different parts of the country, and having lost all tribal distinctions are become amalgamated with other Mexican races.

=Otricoli.= A town of Italy, 37 miles north of Rome. The Neapolitans were defeated by the French in its neighborhood in 1798.

=Ottawas.= A tribe of Algonkin Indians, who formerly resided on the shores of Lake Erie. They subsequently moved to Kansas, and in 1870 settled in Indian Territory, where they now prosper. They are well advanced in civilization. A number of this tribe settled in Canada, where their descendants may yet be found; some are also settled on Lake Michigan with the Chippewas.

=Otterburn= (or Chevy Chase), =Battle of=. Was fought in August, 1388; a fight which Froissart declares to have been the bravest and most chivalrous which was fought in his day. According to the ballad (named Chevy Chase) Percy vowed that he would enter Scotland and take his pleasure for three days in the woods of his rival, and slay the deer therein at will. Douglas, when he heard the vaunt, exclaimed, “Tell him he will find one day more than enough.” Accordingly, at the time of the hay harvest, Percy, with stag-hounds and archers, passed into the domains of his foe, and slew a “hundred fallow deer and harts of grice.” When the English had hastily cooked their game and were about to retire, Earl Douglas, clad in armor and heading his Scottish spears, came on the scene. Haughty challenge and defiance passed between the potentates, and the battle joined. In the centre of the fray the two leaders met. “Yield thee, Percy!” cried Douglas. “I will yield to no Scot that was ever born of a woman!” cried Percy. During this colloquy, an English arrow struck Douglas to the heart. “Fight on, my merry men!” cried he, as he died. Percy, with all the chivalrous feeling of his race, took the dead man by the hand, and vowed that he would have given all his lands to save him, for a braver knight never fell by such a chance. Sir Hugh Montgomery having seen the fall of Douglas, clapped spurs to his horse, dashed on Percy, and struck his spear through his body, a long cloth-yard and more. Although the leaders on both sides had fallen, the battle, which had begun at break of day, continued till the ringing of the curfew-bell. Scotsmen and Englishmen claim the victory. When the battle ended, representatives of every noble family on either side of the border lay on the bloody greensward.

=Oude=, or =Oudh=. A province of British India, separated on the north from Nepaul by the lower ranges of the Himalaya, whence it gradually slopes to the Ganges, which forms its boundary on the south and southwest. The people of this province are of a decidedly warlike disposition; they mainly supply the famous (or infamous) Sepoys of the Bengal army. Oude is believed by Sanscrit scholars to be the ancient Kosala, the oldest seat of civilization in India. The country was conquered by a Mohammedan army in 1195, and made a province of the Mogul empire. In 1753 the vizier of Oude, Saffdar Jung, rebelled against his imperial master, Ahmed Shah, and forced the latter to make the governorship hereditary in his family. When the mutiny of 1857 broke out, Oude became one of the great centres of rebellion. The country was subdued by the British.

=Oudenarde= (Fr. Audenarde). A town of Belgium, in East Flanders, 14 miles southwest from Ghent. The town was taken by the French, aided by an English force, in 1658; it was again besieged in 1674 by the stadtholder William (III. of England) of Orange; and in 1706 it was taken by Marlborough. An attempt made by the French to retake it brought on the famous battle of Oudenarde, one of Marlborough’s most celebrated victories, which was gained on July 11, 1708, with the aid of Prince Eugène, over a French army under the Duke of Burgundy and Marshal Villars. After this battle the French king made offers of peace, which were not accepted.

=Oulart= (Southeast Ireland). Here 5000 Irish insurgents attacked the king’s troops in small number, May 27, 1798. The North Cork militia, after great feats of bravery, were cut to pieces, 5 men only escaping.

=Ourique.= A town of Portugal, province of Alemtijo, 30 miles southwest of Beja. Hero Alfonso, count or duke of Portugal, is said to have encountered and signally defeated five Saracen kings and a prodigious army of Moors, July 25, 1139, and to have been hailed king on the spot. Lisbon, the capital, was taken, and he soon after was here crowned as the first king, the Moorish dominion being overthrown.

=Outbar.= To shut out by fortification.

=Outbrave.= To excel in bravery or boldness; to defy.

=Outfit.= In the British service, is the necessaries, uniform, etc., which an officer provides when he is gazetted to a regiment, or as proceeding to India. No allowance is made for an outfit, excepting in case of officers first promoted from the ranks, when £100 is granted to infantry and £150 to cavalry officers.

=Outflank.= To go beyond on the flank or side; to get the better of, as by extending one’s lines beyond or around that of one’s enemy.

=Outgeneral.= To exceed in generalship; to gain advantage over by superior military skill.

=Outguard.= A guard at a distance from the main body of an army; or a guard at the farthest distance; hence, anything for defense placed at a distance from the thing to be defended.

=Outline=, or =Tracing=. Is the succession of lines that show the figure of the works, and indicate the direction in which the defensive masses are laid out, in order to obtain a proper defense.

=Outlyers.= In the British service, formerly this term applied to men who were permitted to work, on condition that the whole of their pay was left in the hands of their captain for the time they were so employed. This sum the officer appropriated to his own use, to enable him to increase his pay and to keep a handsome table when he mounted guard. It was also a common practice to place on the muster-rolls the names of officers’ children, and instances have occurred of girls receiving men’s pay as outlyers.

=Outlying.= Lying or being at a distance from the main body; as, outlying pickets. Also, being on the exterior or frontier.

=Outmanœuvre.= To surpass in manœuvring.

=Outmarch.= To march faster than; to march so as to leave behind; as, the horse outmarched the foot.

=Outnumber.= To exceed in number; as, the French were outnumbered.

=Outpart.= At a distance from the main body.

=Out-pensioner.= A pensioner attached to a hospital, as Greenwich or Chelsea, England, who has liberty to live where he pleases.

=Outpost.= A post or station without the limits of a camp, or at a distance from the main body of an army. The troops placed at such a station.

=Outposts.= The term, outposts, is used at the present time to designate the particular detachments of troops and the method of arranging them, by means of which an army when in bivouac, in camp, or in cantonment, is protected from surprise by an enemy.

=Outrank.= To take the precedence of, or be superior to, in rank; to rank.

=Out-sentry.= A sentry who guards the entrance or approach to a place; an outguard.

=Outside.= In fencing, that part which is to the right of the line of defense.

=Outside Guard.= A guard used with the broadsword and sabre, to defend the outside of the position.

=Outwall.= The exterior wall of a building or fortress.

=Outward Face.= A word of command for troops to face to the right and left from their centre.

=Outwing, To.= To extend the flanks of an army or line in action, so as to gain an advantageous position against the right or left wing of an enemy.

=Outworks.= In fortification, are minor defenses constructed beyond the main body of a work, for the purpose of keeping the enemy at a distance, or commanding certain salient points which it is undesirable that he should occupy. Such works are ravelins, lunettes, hornworks, crown-works, demi-lunes, tenailles, etc. They occur in certain necessary order, as a ravelin before the curtain and tenaille, a hornwork before a ravelin, and so on.

=Ovation.= See TRIUMPH.

=Ovens.= Are always provided in garrisons, so that the troops may bake their own bread. A large saving of flour is thus made, which is the most considerable element of the post fund. A brick oven large enough to bake 500 rations can be constructed in less than twenty-four hours. The cylindrical form is greatly to be preferred, as it is more easily made and requires less material than the ordinary forms. The want of brick for the arch and fireplace of ovens may be supplied in the field by two gabions of semicircular or semi-elliptical form. They are placed one above the other on the flat side, and form a cradle. The interior and exterior is plastered with clay, which must penetrate the interstices of the basket-work. The front and back parts are shut in the same manner, or with sods. The cradle is then covered with earth to retain the heat; and in order that the superincumbent weight may not cause it to give way, withes are attached to the top of the basket-work, passed vertically through the embankment, and then fastened to the longitudinal beam of a wooden horse straddled against the exterior curve. Ovens may also be made of wood or earth. To construct rapidly an earthen oven, dig a slope with a step, and on its prolongation dig the length of the oven in a trench separated from the step by a mass of earth, to be pierced later as the mouth of the oven. Then dig laterally portions of an elliptical arch so as to make the arch a given breadth. This work finished, pierce the mouth, and cover the trench with from three to five sods as arch stones, leaving a chimney-place at the bottom. Ovens for from 100 to 250 rations may be thus made. In some European armies they have very convenient portable ovens.

=Over.= Above in place, position, or authority; as, he was placed in command over Lord Monkton.

=Overcharge.= An excessive charge, as of a gun.

=Overcharge.= To fill with too much powder and ball, as a gun.

=Overcharged Mine.= A mine whose crater is wider at top than it is deep.

=Overlap.= Is to overspread any preceding object. In marching by echelon for the purpose of forming upon any given point, but particularly in wheeling from column into line, troops may lose their relative distances by not taking ground enough; when this occurs, the rear division, company, or section, unavoidably crowds upon its preceding one, and is then said to overlap.

=Overmarch.= To fatigue or wear out by too much marching.

=Overmatch.= To be too powerful for; to conquer; to subdue; to suppress by superior force. Also, one superior in power; one able to overcome.

=Overpower.= To vanquish by force; to subdue; to defeat.

=Overrun.= In a military sense, to ravage, to lay waste. A country which is harassed by incursions is said to be overrun.

=Overseer.= An officer in the ordnance department, who superintends the artificers in the construction of works, etc. He is also called a superintendent.

=Overshoot.= To shoot beyond the mark.

=Overslaugh.= To hinder or stop; as, by an overslaugh or unexpected impediment; as, to overslaugh a military officer, that is, to hinder or stop his promotion or employment by the appointment of another to his rank or duties.

=Overthrow.= Total defeat; discomfiture; rout.

=Overturn.= To overthrow; to conquer.

=Oviedo.= A town of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, 55 miles north-northwest of Leon. This city was twice plundered of its ecclesiastical and other treasures during the war of independence, first by Soult, and subsequently by Bonnet.

=Own, King’s= or =Queen’s=. A term which has been attached to some British regiments since the revolution in 1688. Thus the 4th Foot, which landed with William III., was called the 4th King’s Own.

=Owyhee=, or =Hawaii=. An island in the North Pacific Ocean, the most eastern, and by far the largest of the Sandwich Islands. It was on this island that the celebrated Capt. Cook fell a sacrifice to a misunderstanding, or sudden impulse of revenge on the part of the natives, on Sunday, February 14, 1779.

=Ox.= See BULLOCK.

=Oxford.= An ancient and famous city in England, the chief town of the county of Oxford, 55 miles west-northwest from London. The townsmen closed their gates against William the Conqueror, who stormed the town in 1067, and gave it to one of his followers, Robert d’Oyley, who built a castle here to overawe the disaffected Saxons. The paction that terminated the strife between Stephen and Henry II. was drawn up at Oxford. During the great civil war of the 17th century, it was for a while the headquarters of the royalist forces, and was conspicuous for its adherence to the cause of Charles I.

=Oxford Blues.= See HORSE GUARDS, ROYAL.

P.

=Pace= (Lat. passus). In its modern acceptation, is the distance, when the legs are extended in walking, between the heel of one foot and that of the other. Among disciplined men the pace becomes one of constant length, and as such is of the utmost value in determining military movements, the relative distances of corps and men being fixed by the number of paces marched, and so on. The pace varies in different countries; in the United States it is 28 inches direct step, and 33 double step; in Great Britain 30 inches direct step, and 33 double step. With the Romans the pace had a different signification; the single extension of the legs was not with them a pace (passus), but a step (gradus); their pace being the interval between the mark of a heel and the next mark of the same heel, or a double step. This pace was equivalent to 4.84 English feet.

=Pack and Draught Animals.= All animals which are used as beasts of burden and of draught, and all artillery horses are considered under this head. Taking the usual effect of a man’s daily labor as unity, a horse can carry a load on a horizontal plane 4.8 to 6.1 times, and a mule, 7.6 times greater than a man. Taking a man with a wheel-barrow as unity, a horse in a four-wheel wagon can draw 17.5, and in a cart, 24.3, and a mule in a cart, 23.3 times greater burden. On account of the peculiar build of a mule he is a superior pack-animal to the horse. There are from 91 to 130 draught horses required for a field-battery; for siege-train about 1900 (see SIEGE-TRAIN); and 8 for a siege-gun. The load allotted to a light artillery horse is 700 pounds; to a heavy field artillery horse, 800 pounds; and to a siege artillery horse, 1000 pounds, including weight of carriages. It is less than that drawn by a horse of commerce, in consequence of bad roads, bad forage, rapid movements, and forced marches. A team of four horses can draw, with useful effect, including the weight of carriage, 2400 pounds; six horses, 3000 pounds; eight horses, 3600 pounds; and twelve horses, 4800 pounds. It is usual to estimate the weight of a carriage exceeding 1200 pounds as part of the load. A pack-horse can carry 250 to 300 pounds 20 miles a day; and a draught horse, 1600 pounds 23 miles a day, weight of carriage included. Usually a horse can draw seven times as much as he can carry. An ordinary march is about 15 miles at 2¹⁄₂ miles per hour for six hours; this must depend upon the condition of the horses, state of the roads, and various other circumstances. Horses starting fresh, and resting after their work, may, on tolerable roads, perform 2 miles in half an hour; 4 miles in one and a half hours; 8 in four, and 16 in ten hours. The daily allowance of water for a horse is four gallons. For the daily ration of forage supplied to animals in the U. S. service, see FORAGE. An army requires to be accompanied by several thousand pack-animals, sometimes horses, but preferably mules; and in Asia, commonly camels, or even elephants. In battle, the immediate reserves of small-arm ammunition are borne in the rear of divisions by pack-animals; the heavy reserves being in wagons between the army and its base of operations.

Buffalo.--An animal of the ox tribe, very important and useful to man. It is a native of the East Indies, where it has long been domesticated, and from which it was carried to Egypt and the south of Europe. It was introduced into Italy about the close of the 6th century A.D., is now very generally used as a beast of draught and of burden in that country, as it is also in India; it is also used in the latter country by the military as a beast of burden.

Bullock.--This beast is admirable for slow draught, especially over rough roads, or through forests, or other places where there are no roads at all. Bullocks stand fire better than any other animals, and used to be employed in India for draught in field-batteries. They must not be hurried; their ordinary pace is from 2 to 2¹⁄₂ miles an hour. If used over hard roads, they require shoeing. They want but little care, and thrive well on poor food. They attain their prime at six years, age to be known by annular swelling on horns, allowing three years for first ring, and one for each of the others. They are used in many parts of India as pack-animals, when they carry a load of 200 pounds.

Camels.--These animals are used in East India from three to sixteen years of age; about 7 feet high (to top of hump), about 8 feet long from nose to tail; pace about 2 miles an hour, kept up steadily for the longest marches; load for work on service about 400 to 450 pounds. They thrive well upon leaves of trees, and can go without water longer than any other animal. During temporary halts the laden camel can kneel down and rest. They are admirably adapted for carrying long articles, such as scaling-ladders, pontons, etc. The camel is at home in the desert and works well in the plains of India; it is unsuited for hilly countries. After rain in clay soil, and over rocks and stony places, they split up and are consequently useless there. They are good for fording rivers that are deep but not rapid, and where the bottom of the river is shifting sand, the passage of a number of camels over it renders it hard and firm. The average weight of the camel is about 1170 pounds.

Elephant.--A gigantic animal of the order Proboscidea, is the largest and heaviest of existing quadrupeds, and is celebrated for sagacity and docility. The ancient Carthaginians and other nations employed elephants in war, not only as beasts of burden but as combatants. These animals formed part of the army which Hannibal led across the Alps, and they are said to have decided the victory at the battle of Trebia. For a long period the elephant was as important an arm of war as the artillery of modern nations. Seleucus is said to have had more than 100 elephants at the battle of Ipsus. The elephant is the king of beasts of burden, becoming fit for work at twenty years of age, and lasting well to fifty and even sixty years of age. The load for steady work varies from 1680 to 2240 pounds exclusive of the pad; pace from 3 to 3¹⁄₂ miles an hour; when laden can keep up well with infantry in their daily marches; full grown his height is from 10 feet to 11 feet; is most tractable in disposition, is invaluable during marches in countries flooded by rain for extricating carts, guns, and wagons that have stuck in the mud. They are now used in India for the draught of guns in siege-trains; before such guns are taken under fire it is necessary to have the elephants taken out and replaced by bullocks, as the former cannot be made to stand fire. The average weight of an elephant in India is about 6600 pounds. They are often used in hilly countries to carry mountain guns on their back.

Lama, or Llama.--Is a most useful South American quadruped of the family Camelidæ. It was in general use as a beast of burden on the Peruvian Andes at the time of the Spanish conquest, and was the only beast of burden used by the natives of America before the horse and ass were introduced by Europeans. From the peculiar formation of its feet it can walk securely on slopes too rough and steep for any other animal. The burden carried by the lama should not exceed 125 pounds, and its rate of traveling is about 12 to 15 miles per day.

Mule.--This is an excellent draught animal and almost rivals the horse for general military purposes. Their common load, including weight of pack-saddle, is from 200 to 250 pounds; height varies from 13 to 16 hands. They will eat almost anything, and require less careful management than the horse; the mule from the male ass and the mare is the best; their voices take after the sire. The real value of the mule is felt most strongly in mountainous countries.

=Packer.= A man whose duty it is to place and adjust the loads of pack-animals and to take charge of them upon the march. As packing requires long training and experience, packers are usually hired when needed.

=Packing.= Is the act of making up and adjusting the load of a pack-animal. It may be considered one of the arts.

=Pack-mule.= Mule used for carrying a pack.

=Pack-saddles= (Sp. aparejos). Are variously fitted, according to the objects to be carried; some for provisions or ammunition; others for carrying wounded men, tents, and, in mountain warfare, even small cannon. The one in general use in the U. S. army (called aparejo) is 4 feet 9 inches long by 2 feet wide.

To “set up” an aparejo.--Prepare straight, smooth sticks, from ¹⁄₂ to 1 inch in diameter (wild-rose stems are the best, but any tough elastic wood will answer), and the coarsest grass that can be obtained. The grass should be cut green, free from flower-stalks, and dried slowly in the shade. Place the aparejo upside-down; take four sticks 1 inch in diameter, cut them to fit tightly, two in the width and two in the length; place one in each end, and one in each side of the compartment. Then place sticks ¹⁄₂ to ³⁄₄ of an inch in diameter, cut to fit tightly, lengthwise of the compartment at intervals of 2 inches. Shake the grass thoroughly, and place layer after layer on the sticks without displacing them, until the compartment is as full as it can be stuffed with the hand. Great care is necessary to insure an equal distribution of the grass in the compartment. The corners are stuffed as hard as possible, a sharp stick being used for the purpose. When the aparejo is stuffed, it should be put on the mule for which it is intended, and the crupper adjusted.

An aparejo cincha is canvas, 72 inches long and 20 wide, folded so as to bring the edges in the centre of the cincha. A semicircle of strong leather pierced with two holes is stitched on one end, and two loops of strong leather on the other.

The latigo strap is strong bridle leather, 72 inches long, 1¹⁄₂ inches wide at one end and tapering to ¹⁄₂ inch at the other. The wide end has holes punched in it. The aparejo cincha and latigo strap are used to tighten the aparejo.

Under the aparejo is placed a saddle-blanket, and a corona, or upper saddle-blanket; the latter is made by stitching two or three folds of old blanket or other woolen cloth together. It is the same size as the saddle-blanket and used over it.

The hammer-cloth is made of matting or canvas, of a size to exactly cover the aparejo. Two pieces of hard wood 20 inches long, 2 inches wide, 1¹⁄₂ inches thick, flat on one side, round on the other, and beveled to an edge at the ends, are placed 6 inches from the ends of the cloth. They have leather caps stitched over their ends. The hammer-cloth is used over the aparejo and under the aparejo cincha.

The sling-rope is of half-inch rope, 16 feet long.

The lash-rope is of one and a fourth inch hemp rope, 32 to 36 feet long; one end spliced to the cincha ring, the other end served.

The cincha is strong canvas, 33 inches long by 11 inches wide; two rectangular pieces of strong leather 8 inches long by 5¹⁄₂ inches wide are stitched on one end, one on either side; in one of these pieces of leather there is a slit through which a hard-wood hook is passed and firmly fastened with a leather thong. There is a ring 3 inches in diameter securely stitched in the other end of the cincha.

There is also a pack-cover made of canvas, 5 feet square; and a blind made of leather, with strings and loop of the same material. The aparejo when securely placed on the pack-animal is a very serviceable pack-saddle, and cannot readily be displaced.

=Pack-train.= A number of loaded pack-animals with their drivers. Pack-trains are employed in mountainous countries or regions impassable for vehicles to carry supplies for armies. The mule is more generally serviceable in this work than the horse.

=Padua= (anc. Patavium, It. Padova). A town of Italy, capital of the province of the same name. It is surrounded by walls and ditches, and is fortified by bastions. Patavium was founded by the Trojan chief Antenor, and according to Strabo, it could send an army of 120,000 men into the field. The Patavians were constantly at war with, and successfully withstood, the Cisalpine Gauls; and in 301 B.C. they also defeated Cleonymus the Lacedæmonian, who had unexpectedly landed at the mouth of the Medoacus (the modern Brenta), and attacked them. Patavium fell eventually under the power of Rome, though it seems to have retained a semblance of independence. In 452 its prosperity came suddenly to an end, when it was taken and destroyed by Attila; and in 601 it was again taken and burnt to the ground by Agilulf, king of the Longobards. It rose, however, from its ashes, and in the 10th century it had already become, as it has continued, one of the most important cities of Upper Italy. In 1164 Padua formed, with Verona, Vicenza, and Treviso, a league for the protection of their liberties against Frederick I. (Barbarossa); in 1167 it joined the great Lombard League; and by the peace of Constance in 1183 had at length its liberties acknowledged. In 1239, Eccelino da Romano made himself master of it, and after having practiced unheard-of cruelties, in 1256 he was driven out and defeated by a crusade formed against him by most of the towns in Upper Italy. After a period of stormy independence, Padua in 1337 fell under the sway of the house of Carrara, who held it till the year 1405, when it was taken by the republic of Venice, with which, in 1797, it passed into the hands of Austria, by the treaty of Campo Formio. In 1866 it was ceded to Napoleon III., and by him transferred to the kingdom of Italy.

=Pæones.= A powerful Thracian people, who in early times were spread over a great part of Macedonia and Thrace. Their country was called Pæonia. The Pæonian tribes on the lower course of the Strymon were subdued by the Persians, 513 B.C.; but the tribes in the north of the country maintained their independence. They frequently invaded and plundered the territories of the Macedonian monarchs; but they were eventually subdued by Philip, the father of Alexander the Great. After the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 168, the part of Pæonia east of the Axius formed the second, and the part of Pæonia west of the Axius formed the third of the four districts into which Macedonia was divided by the Romans.

=Pæstum= (anc. Posidonia, It. Pesto). Anciently a Greek city of Lucania, in the present Neapolitan province of Principato Citeriore, on the Sinus Pæstanus, now the Gulf of Salerno. It was founded by the Trœzenians and the Sybarites some time between 650 and 610 B.C. It was subdued by the Samnites of Lucania, who named it Pæstum, and slowly declined in prosperity after it fell into the hands of the Romans, who established a colony here about 273 B.C. In 210 B.C. it furnished ships to the squadron with which D. Quintus repaired to the siege of Tarentum; and in the following year it was among the eighteen colonies which still professed readiness to furnish supplies to the Roman armies. In the 10th century it was burnt by the Saracens, and the site is now occupied by the modern village of Pesto.

=Pageant.= In ancient military history, a triumphal car, chariot, or arch, variously adorned with colors, flags, etc., carried about in public shows, processions, etc. Also gorgeous show or spectacle.

=Pagræ= (now Pagras, Bagras, Bargas). A city of Syria, on the eastern side of Mount Amanus, at the foot of the pass called by Ptolemy the Syrian Gates, on the road from Antioch to Alexandria, the scene of the battle between Alexander Balas and Demetrius Nicator, 145 B.C.

=Pah.= The name of the stockaded intrenchments of the New Zealanders.

=Pah-Ute Indians.= A tribe of aborigines of Shoshone stock, who, to the number of 2000, reside on two reservations in Nevada. (See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.) They are a peaceable race, but are low down in the scale of civilization.

=Pailler= (Fr.). An ancient body of French militia. The soldiers belonging to it were probably so called either from the circumstance of their wearing straw in their helmets, in order to know one another in action, or because they were accustomed to set fire to the habitations of their enemies with bundles of straw, which they always carried with them for that purpose.

=Paladin= (Fr.). A name given to those ancient knights who were either what the French call comtes du palais, “counts of the palace,” or princes lineally descended from Charlemagne and other old kings.

=Paladin.= A term originally derived from the counts Palatine, or of the palace, who were the highest dignitaries in the Byzantine court, and thence used generally for a lord or chieftain, and by the Italian romantic poets for a knight-errant.

=Palæsta= (now Palasa). A town of Epirus, on the coast of Chaonia, and a little south of the Acroceraunian Mountains. Here Cæsar landed his forces when he crossed over to Greece to carry on the war against Pompey.

=Palæstra.= In Grecian antiquity, a public building where the youth exercised themselves in the military art, wrestling, running, etc.

=Palais Royal.= A heterogeneous mass of buildings on the eastern side of the Rue Richelieu, in Paris, composed of a palace, theatres, public gardens, shops, cafés, etc. The old palace was built between 1624 and 1636 on the site of the Hôtel Rambouillet by Cardinal Richelieu, who, at his death, bequeathed it to Louis XIII. It was taken possession of by the republican government, and used for the sittings of the tribunes during the Reign of Terror. The palace was sacked by the mob during the revolution of 1848.

=Palanka.= A species of permanent intrenched camp attached to Turkish frontier fortresses, in which the ramparts are revetted with large beams, rising 7 or 8 feet above the earthwork, so as to form a strong palisade above.

=Palanquin= (Hind. palki). A vehicle commonly used in Hindostan, China, Japan, and other Asiatic countries by travelers. The palanquin in use in Hindostan is a wooden box, about 8 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 4 feet high, with wooden shutters, which can be opened or shut at pleasure, and constructed like Venetian blinds for the purpose of admitting fresh air, while, at the same time, they exclude the scorching rays of the sun and the heavy showers of rain so common in that country. At each end of the palanquin, on the outside, two iron rings are fixed, and the hammals, or palanquin-bearers, of whom there are four, two at each end, support the palanquin by a pole passing through these rings. Traveling in this mode is continued both by day and night, and the palanquin is accompanied by a train of attendants, who carry the traveler’s clothes and whatever articles he may not immediately need. Similar modes of traveling have been at various times in use in Western Europe, but only for short distances. The Roman lectica (“litter”), the French chaise à porteurs, and the English sedan-chair were the forms of vehicles most in use, and the two latter were in general use in towns till they were superseded by coaches, etc. The Roman litter was one of the criteria of its owner’s wealth, the rich man generally exhibiting the prosperous condition of his affairs by the multitude of the bearers and other attendants accompanying him.

=Palatinate, The= (Ger. Pfalz). A name applied to two German states, which were united previously to the year 1620. They were distinguished as the Upper and Lower Palatinate. The Upper now forms apart of the kingdom of Bavaria, and the Lower a part of Rhenish Prussia, situated on both sides of the Rhine, between Worms and Carlsruhe. By the peace of Lunéville (1801), the Duke Maximilian of Zweibrücken was compelled to cede a portion of the Rhenish Palatinate to France, a part to Baden, a part to Hesse-Darmstadt, and a part to Nassau. Treaties of Paris of 1814 and 1815 re-assigned the Palatinate lands beyond the Rhine to Germany, Bavaria receiving the largest share, and the remainder being divided between Hesse-Darmstadt and Prussia.

=Palatine.= A town of Montgomery Co., N. Y., on the north side of the Mohawk River. Near here, at Stone Arabia, an engagement took place October 18, 1780, between the Tories under Johnson and the Continental militia under Col. John Brown, in which the latter were defeated and their leader slain.

=Pale.= In heraldry, one of the figures known as ordinaries, consisting of a horizontal band in the middle of the shield, of which it is said to occupy one-third. Several charges of any kind are said to be “in pale” when they stand over each other horizontally, as do the three lions of England. A shield divided through the middle by a horizontal line is said to be “parted per pale.” The pallet is the diminutive of the pale, and is most generally not borne singly. Three pallets gules were the arms of Raymond, count of Provence. When the field is divided into an even number of parts by perpendicular lines, it is called “paly of” so many pieces. When divided by lines perpendicular and bendways crossing, it is called “paly bendy.” An endorse is a further diminutive of the pallet, and a pale placed between two endorses is said to be endorsed.

=Pale.= In Irish history, means that portion of the kingdom over which the English rule and English law were acknowledged. There is so much vagueness in the meaning of the term, that a few words of explanation appear necessary. The vagueness arises from the great fluctuations which the English authority underwent in Ireland at various periods, and from the consequent fluctuation of the actual territorial limits of the Pale. The designation dates from the reign of John, who distributed the portion of Ireland then nominally subject to England into twelve counties palatine, Dublin, Meath, Kildare, Louth, Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Tipperary, and Limerick. To this entire district, in a general way, was afterwards given the designation of the Pale. But as it may be said that the term is commonly applied by the writers of each age to the actual English territory of the period, and as this varied much, care must be taken to allude to the age of which the name Pale is used. Thus at the close of the reign of Edward III., the English law extended only to the four counties of Dublin, Carlow, Meath, and Louth. In the reign of Henry VI., the limits were still further restricted. In a general way, however, the Pale may be considered as comprising the counties of Dublin, Meath, Carlow, Kilkenny, and Louth. This, although not quite exact, will be sufficient for most purposes.

=Paleagas.= See POLYGARS.

=Palembang.= A Dutch province in the island of Sumatra, comprehending the former kingdom of that name. In 1811 the Dutch had merely a commercial factory at Palembang, when the sultan began hostilities against them; and in order to insure their entire destruction, under pretense of conveying them safely to Batavia, sunk during the night the ships in which they had embarked by means of holes previously made. The Dutch regained Palembang in 1816. The Dutch factory was cannonaded by the sultan’s forces in 1818, and the country remained in rebellion until 1821, when it was entirely conquered by the Dutch. The sultan still retains his title, but the supreme power is exercised by a Dutch regent, who resides at Palembang, the capital.

=Palermo= (anc. Panormus). A fortified city of Sicily, situated on the north side of the island. Palermo is of Phœnician origin, and is first brought into notice in 480 B.C., when the Carthaginians under Hamilcar made it their headquarters against Himera. How it came into their hands we have no means of knowing; but it continued for a long time to be their principal naval station, and the capital of their possessions in Sicily. With the exception of a short time, about 276 B.C., when it was taken by the Greeks, it continued to be the headquarters of the Carthaginians, until it was taken by the Romans during the first Punic war (254 B.C.). When Sicily was conquered by the Goths, Palermo, along with the rest of the island, fell into their hands; but it was recovered by Belisarius, and the Byzantine empire retained possession of it till 855 A.D., when it was taken by the Saracens, and made the capital of their Sicilian possessions. The Vandals and afterwards the Arabs made it the capital of the island, and after the Norman conquest it continued to be the seat of the king of Sicily. It still remained the royal residence under the Aragonese kings; but the court was removed (1269) after Sicily became united to the kingdom of Naples. In 1860 the inhabitants flocked to the standard of Garibaldi, and in the same year the city was annexed to the new kingdom of Italy.

=Palestine=, or =Holy Land=. A country of Asia, lying along the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea, and occupying the southwestern part of Syria, which is included within the limits of the Turkish empire. It now forms the modern pashalic of Beirut or Beyrout, and part of the pashalic of Damascus. This is the country in which the principal events recorded in Scripture took place. When it was conquered by the Israelites, Joshua divided this and a portion of the country to the east of the Jordan among the twelve tribes. It was conquered, however, by the kings of Assyria, who carried captive, first Israel and then Judah, into the eastern provinces of their empire. After the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, the Jews were allowed to return to their country, to rebuild their temple, and re-establish their ecclesiastical constitution. Judæa thus continued a province of Persia until Asia was invaded by Alexander the Great, to whom it submitted without resistance. The Jews were again exposed to oppression from some of the Ptolemies, who attempted to enforce the adoption of the idolatrous worship of the Greeks on the Jewish people. The Jews, however, under the guidance of the Maccabees, offered a most determined resistance to the Egyptian monarch who sought to deprive them of the exercise of their own religion, and Judæa once more became an independent country. It subsequently fell under the dominion of Rome, which established the Herods as tributary kings. It was at this crisis that Judæa became the theatre of those great events which form the foundation of the Christian faith. The Jews, however, having repeatedly rebelled against the authority of the Romans, Titus entered Judæa with a large force in 70, and after a long siege, during which the Jews endured terrible hardships and privations, he took Jerusalem, and razed it to the ground. The temple which had been twice rebuilt, after having been burnt by Nebuchadnezzar and plundered by Antiochus, was again destroyed. More than 1,100,000 Jews perished in the siege and destruction of the city, and about sixty-five years after the Jewish people were banished from Judæa by a decree of the emperor Hadrian. The country continued to form a part of the Roman empire until it was divided into the Eastern and Western empires, when Palestine became a province of the former. Although it was frequently invaded by the Parthians, Persians, and Saracens, it was held by the emperors of Constantinople until it was wrested from them by the last-named people in 638. It then fell under the sway of the Mohammedans, in whose power the land remained until 1099, when the Holy Land was recovered by the Crusaders, and erected into a Latin kingdom under Godfrey de Bouillon. This kingdom lasted till 1187, when it was conquered by Saladin, on the decline of whose kingdom it passed through various hands, till, in 1517, it was finally swallowed up in the Turkish empire.

=Palestrina= (anc. Præneste). An episcopal city of the present kingdom of Italy, built upon the site of one of the most ancient as well as powerful cities of Latium. We first hear of Præneste as member of the Latin League; but in 499 B.C. it quitted the confederacy and joined the cause of the Romans. In 380 B.C. the Prænestines, having rejoined their ancient allies, waged war against Rome; but were completely routed on the Allia by T. Quintus Cincinnatus, and beaten back to their own gates. They took a prominent part in the famous Latin war, 340 B.C. Having given shelter to the younger Marius in the year 82 B.C., this city was besieged by the forces of Sulla, and on its being taken, all the inhabitants were put to the sword. A military colony was then established in their place, and soon the city began to flourish anew. The town became the stronghold of the family of Colonna in the Middle Ages; but was given to the Barberini family by Urban VIII.

=Palestro.= A village of Piedmont, 12 miles southwest from Novara. It is famous as the scene of a battle between the Sardinians and Austrians in May, 1859. On May 30 the Piedmontese drove the Austrians from this village, and on May 31 defended it with great bravery against an Austrian attack. The Piedmontese in the battle of May 31 were assisted by 3000 French Zouaves, and on that occasion the Austrians lost 2100 men killed and wounded, 950 prisoners, and 6 pieces of cannon. On July 1 the allies entered Novara.

=Palgaut.= A city of India, in the south of Hindostan, captured by the British in 1790.

=Palisade.= To surround, inclose, or fortify with stakes or posts.

=Palisades.= Are strong palings 6 or 7 inches broad on each side, having about one foot of their summits sharpened in a pyramidal form. They are frequently placed at the foot of slopes as an obstacle to the enemy. A large beam or lintel, sunk about 2 or 3 feet, is often used to unite them more firmly. Their tops should be a foot above the crest of the parapet behind which they stand, and in field fortifications they form a very good obstruction, if protected from artillery. An expeditious mode of planting them is to sink a small ditch, about 2 feet 6 inches deep and the same breadth, and to nail the ends of the palisades to a piece of timber, or the trunk of a tree laid on the bottom of it, and then fill in the earth, and ram it well. The palisades should be 9 or 10 feet long, so that when finished, the ends shall be at least 7 feet above the ground. They may be made out of the stems of young trees of 6 or 8 inches diameter; but stout rails, gates with the ends knocked off, planks split in half, cart-shafts, ladders, and a variety of such things will come into play, where more regular palisades are not to be had. If the materials are weak, a cross-piece must be nailed to them near the top, to prevent their being broken down, and they must not be placed so close together as to cover an enemy.

=Palliser Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Palmyra.= The name given by the Greeks to an ancient city of Upper Syria. It occupied a fertile oasis, 140 miles east-northeast from Damascus. Palmyra was, in the time of Solomon, a bulwark of the Hebrew kingdom against the wandering hordes of Bedouins. After the fall of Seleucia, it became a great commercial centre, and greatly increased both in wealth and magnificence after the time of Trajan, who subjected the whole country to the Roman empire. In the 3d century, Odonathus, a Syrian, founded here an empire, which, after his murder, rose to great prosperity under his wife, Zenobia, and included both Syria and Mesopotamia; but this was not of long duration, for the Roman emperor Aurelian conquered it in the year 275, and the city was soon after almost entirely destroyed in revenge for the slaughter of a Roman garrison. It never recovered from this blow, although Justinian fortified it anew. The Saracens destroyed it in 774, and in 1400 it was plundered by Tamerlane. A village called Tedmor, inhabited by a few Arab families, now occupies its site.

=Palo Alto.= A noted battle-field, situated near the southern extremity of Texas, between Point Isabel and Matamoras, about 9 miles northeast of the latter. Here, on May 8, 1846, the Americans, numbering 2111, under Gen. Taylor, defeated 6000 Mexicans, commanded by Gen. Arista. The loss of the former was 32 killed (among whom was the brave Maj. Ringgold), and 47 wounded; that of the latter, 252 killed.

=Paludamentum.= Was a garment worn by the Romans, and differing little, if at all, from the chlamys. It was worn by the officers and principal men in time of war, who were therefore called paludati, and this distinguished them from the common soldiers, who, because they wore the sagum, were called the sagati. The paludamentum, which was generally white or red, came down to the knees, or lower, was open in front, hung loosely over the shoulders, and was fastened across the chest by a clasp.

=Paly.= In heraldry, divided into four or more equal parts by perpendicular lines, and of two different tinctures disposed alternately.

=Pamphylia.= An ancient district on the south coast of Asia Minor, with Cilicia on the east and Lycia on the west. It was originally bounded on the inland or northern side by Mount Taurus, but was afterwards enlarged, so as to reach the confines of Phrygia. The inhabitants--a mixed race of aborigines, Cilicians and Greek colonists--spoke a language the basis of which was probably Greek, but which was disfigured and corrupted by the infusion of barbaric elements. Along with Phrygia and Lycia, it fell to the share of Antigonus on the partition of the Macedonian empire. It afterwards passed successively into the hands of the Græco-Syrian princes, the kings of Pergamus, and the Romans.

=Pamplona=, or =Pampeluna=. A fortified town of Spain, the capital of the province of Navarre, on the Arga, 39 miles southeast from St. Sebastian. Pamplona was called by the ancients Pompeiopolis, from the circumstance of its having been rebuilt by the sons of Pompey in 68 B.C. It was taken by Euric the Goth in 466, by the Franks under Childebert in 542, and again under Charlemagne in 778, who dismantled it. It was subsequently for a time in possession of the Moors, who corrupted the name Pompeiopolis into Bambilonah, whence the modern Pamplona. In the 11th century the three districts of the town were separately fortified. The continual intestine contests of these three fortresses caused Carlos III., in the beginning of the 15th century, to destroy the interior walls and strengthen the common bulwarks; he also erected a citadel, in the defense of which, against André de Foix, in 1521, St. Ignacio was wounded. It was taken by a stratagem by the French under D’Armagnac, and remained in their power until recaptured after a blockade by Wellington in 1813. In the civil war that followed the death of Ferdinand VII., Pamplona was the strong place of the liberals. The citadel was seized and held for a short time by O’Donnell in September, 1841.

=Pan.= That part of the lock of a musket, pistol, etc., which holds the priming powder, the necessity of which is superseded by the use of percussion-caps.

=Pan.= The distance which is comprised between the angle of the epaul and the flanked angle in a fortification.

=Pan.= A name well known among the shepherds of antiquity, and frequently used by modern writers in their rural fictions. In military history it signifies a man who was lieutenant-general to Bacchus and his Indian expedition. He is recorded to have been the first author of a general shout, which the Grecians practiced in the beginning of their onsets in battle.

=Pan Coupé.= The short length of parapet by which the salient angle of a work is sometimes cut off.

=Panache= (Fr.). A plume worn upon the crest of an ancient helmet; military plume or feather.

=Pancarte= (Fr.). An ancient exercise or tournament, which was performed in the Roman amphitheatre, when strong athletic men were opposed to all sorts of enraged animals.

=Pandoor.= See PANDOUR.

=Pandosia= (now Castel Franco). A town in Bruttium (which see) near the frontiers of Lucania. Lævinus, the Roman consul, was defeated at Pandosia by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 280 B.C.

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