A Military Dictionary and Gazetteer Comprising ancient and modern military technical terms, historical accounts of all North American Indians, as well as ancient warlike tribes; also notices of battles from the earliest period to the present time, with a concise explanation of terms used in heraldry and the offices thereof. The work also gives valuable geographical information. Compiled from the best authorities of all nations. With an appendix containing the Articles of war, etc. (part 2 of 8)

A Military Dictionary and Gazetteer Comprising ancient and modern military technical terms, historical accounts of all North American Indians, as well as ancient warlike tribes; also notices of battles from the earliest period to the present time, with a concise explanation of terms used in heraldry and the offices thereof. The work also gives valuable geographical information. Compiled from the best authorities of all nations. With an appendix containing the Articles of war, etc. (part 2 of 8)

=Civita Castellana.= A town of Italy, 24 miles north from Rome. In its neighborhood an engagement took place between the Neapolitans under Mack and the French under Macdonald, on December 4, 1798.

=Civita Vecchia.= The principal seaport of the Papal States, in Italy, built on a bay of the Mediterranean. It was frequently sacked in the different wars. In April, 1849, a French force of 6000 men, under Gen. Oudinot, landed here on its way to Rome, where the republic had been proclaimed, and a triumvirate appointed. The French troops overthrew the republic and restored the pope to Rome, from which he had fled in 1848.

=Civitella del Tronto.= A fortified town of Italy, in the province of Abruzzo Ultra. Here the Neapolitan garrison surrendered to the Piedmontese general Mezzacapo on March 20, 1861.

=Clarigation.= In Roman antiquity, a ceremony which always preceded a formal declaration of war. The chief of the heralds went to the territory of the enemy, where, after some solemn prefatory indication, he, with a loud voice, intimated that he declared war against them for certain reasons specified, such as injury done to the Roman allies, or the like.

=Claymore= (Gaelic, signifying great glaive, or sword). Properly a great two-handed sword, used by the Highlanders only.

=Clayonages= (Fr.). A species of hurdle, with which the timber-work of a gallery is covered. It is likewise used in saps.

=Clermont.= A town of France, department of Oise, 16 miles by rail south-southeast of Beauvais. It was burned by the English in 1359; besieged by Marshal de Boussac in 1430; captured by the English in 1434; taken by Henry IV. in 1595, and occupied by the Prince de Condé in 1615.

=Clermont-Ferrand.= A city of France, capital of the department Puy-de-Dôme. It was captured by the Vandals in 408; besieged without success by the Visigoths in 473. It was taken by Thierry in 506; sacked by Pepin in 761; captured by the Normans in 853. The great council in which the crusades originated was held here in 1095.

=Clice= (Fr.). A long and curved Turkish sabre.

=Clide= (Fr.). A machine of war, used during the Middle Ages to throw rocks on besieging parties.

=Clifton Moor= (England). Here the Scotch insurgents were defeated by the royal troops in 1745.

=Clipeus.= A large shield worn by the ancient Greeks and Romans, which was originally of a circular form, made of wicker-work or wood covered over with ox-hides several folds deep, and bound round the edge with metal.

=Clontarf.= A place near Dublin, Ireland, the site of a battle fought on Good Friday, April 23, 1014, between the Irish and Danes, the former headed by Brian Boroihme, monarch of Ireland, who defeated the invaders, after a long and bloody engagement. Brian was wounded, and soon afterwards died. His son Murchard also fell, with many of the nobility; 11,000 Danes are said to have perished in the battle.

=Close Column.= A column of troops in which the subdivisions are at less than full distance,--that is, less than the length of one of the subdivisions.

=Clostercamp.= A village of Rhenish Prussia. Here the French gained a victory on October 15-16, 1760.

=Closterseven= (Hanover), =Convention of=. Was entered into September 8, 1757, between the Duke of Cumberland, third son of George II., and the Duke of Richelieu, commander of the French armies. By its humiliating stipulations, 38,000 Hanoverians laid down their arms, and were dispersed. The duke immediately afterwards resigned all his military commands, and the convention was soon broken by both parties.

=Clothing.= The President of the United States is authorized to prescribe the kind and quality of clothing to be issued annually to the troops of the United States. The manner of issuing and accounting for clothing shall be established by general regulations of the War Department. The clothing of the British army is determined by a permanent board, composed of the commander-in-chief and a certain number of general officers, who act under the authority of the sovereign.

=Club, To.= To throw into confusion, to deform through ignorance or inadvertence. To club a battalion, to throw it into confusion. This happens through a temporary inability in the commanding officer to restore any given body of men to their natural front in line or column, after some manœuvre has been performed.

=Coa.= A river in Portugal, province of Beira. The spur which separates the Coa from the Agueda incloses the plateau of Fuentes d’Onore, famous for the battle of 1811, which was fought by Masséna with the English. See FUENTES D’ONORE.

=Coat-armor.= Coats of arms; armorial ensigns.

=Coat of Arms.= A habit formerly worn by knights over their armor. It was a short-sleeved coat or tunic reaching to the waist, and embroidered with their armorial ensigns and various devices. Any representation of the armorial devices upon such a habit; an armorial device.

=Coat of Mail.= A piece of armor covering the upper portion of the body, consisting of a net-work of iron rings.

=Coblentz.= A fortified town of Rhenish Prussia, situated at the conflux of the Rhine and Moselle, opposite the great Prussian fortress of Ehrenbreitstein. In 1794 this place was taken by Napoleon I., and made the capital of the department of the Rhine and Moselle.

=Cocherel.= Near Evreux, Northwest France. Here Bertrand and Du Guesclin defeated the king of Navarre, and took prisoner the Captal de Buch, May 16, 1364.

=Cochin.= A city of Hindostan, presidency of Madras. It was held by the Portuguese in 1503; by the Dutch in 1663; was taken by the British in 1796, and ceded to them in 1814.

=Cockade= (Fr. cocarde). The word signified originally a cocked-hat, or a hat with the broad flap looped up on one side, and then applied to the knot of ribbon with which the loop is ornamented. The word is now, however, restricted to signify an appendage worn on the hat of military and naval officers.

=Cock-feather.= In archery, the feather which stood up on the arrow, when it was rightly placed upon the string, perpendicularly upon the cock or notch.

=Code.= A compilation or collection of laws made by public authority, as the Code Napoléon.

=Code.= A list of signal symbols. See SIGNALING.

=Codogno.= A town of Italy, in the province of Milan, between the Adda and the Po. Here the Austrians were defeated by the Spaniards in 1746, and by the French in 1796.

=Coehorn.= So named from the military engineer, Baron Van Coehorn, who invented it. It is a small howitzer, or mortar, generally 4³⁄₅ inches caliber. These implements of war, being easily moved and adjusted, and taking little powder, are found very useful in sieges, if grouped in great numbers.

=Coehorn Beds.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, MORTAR BEDS.

=Coeverden=, =Coevorden=, or =Koevorde=. A fortified town of Holland; it was captured by the French in 1795.

=Coffer.= In fortification, a hollow lodgment, sunk in the bottom of a dry ditch, from 6 to 7 feet deep, and from 16 to 18 feet broad. Its length corresponds with the whole breadth of the said ditch, from side to side. The besieged generally make use of these coffers to repulse the besiegers when they attempt to pass the ditch; they are distinguished only by their length from caponnières. They are covered with joists, hurdles, and earth, raised 2 feet above the bottom of the ditch, so as to serve the purposes of a loop-holed parapet.

=Cohort.= A division of the ancient Roman armies, consisting of about 600 men, divided into centuries. It was the tenth part of a legion, and its number, consequently, was under the same fluctuation as that of the legions. In the time of the empire the cohort often amounted to 1000 men.

=Coif.= Was originally an iron skull-cap, worn by knights under their helmets; it was introduced before 1259. It is now especially applied in Great Britain to a cap worn by sergeants-at-law.

=Coimbra.= An ancient city of Portugal, capital of the province of Beira. It appears to have been originally built by the Goths; from them it passed to the Moors, from whom it was finally conquered in 1064 by Fernando the Great, aided by the gallant Cid. It was taken by the troops under the British colonel Kent, October 7, 1810.

=Coin= (Fr. coin d’artilleur). In gunnery, a kind of wedge to lay under the breech of a gun, in order to raise or depress the metal. Written also quoin.

=Colberg=, or =Kolberg=. A strongly fortified seaport of Prussian Pomerania. It stands on a hill, surrounded with swamps which can be laid under water, and is chiefly remarkable for the protracted sieges it has undergone. In 1102, Duke Boleslaus, of Poland, besieged it in vain. It endured long sieges in the Thirty Years’ War and in the Seven Years’ War, and again in 1807, when it was most gallantly defended against the French.

=Colchester.= The chief town in the county of Essex, England. It was taken from the Danes in 921 by Edward the Elder, who founded the castle. It was ravaged by the plague in 1348, in 1360, and again in 1665. In 1648 it was taken by Lord Goring for Charles I., but was retaken by Fairfax after a siege of 11 weeks, when the castle was dismantled.

=Cold Harbor.= A village of Hanover Co., Va., about 10 miles northeast of Richmond. During the civil war a series of desperate struggles took place in and around this place (May 28-June 3, 1864) between the forces of Gens. Grant and Lee, resulting in a loss of probably 13,000 men on the Federal side.

=Coldstream.= A border-town of Scotland, in Berwickshire, on the left bank of the Tweed. Near this place is the famous ford where the English and Scottish armies formerly crossed the Tweed. Here Gen. Monk raised the regiment still known as the Coldstream Guards.

=Coldstream Guards.= A regiment in the Foot Guards, or Household Brigade, is the oldest corps in the British army except the First Foot. It was raised at Coldstream in 1660, by Gen. Monk, and was first called Monk’s regiment, but when Parliament consented to give a brigade of guards to Charles II., this corps, under its present name, was included in it.

=College of Arms.= See HERALD’S COLLEGE.

=Collet= (Fr.). In gunnery, that part of a cannon which is between the astragal and the muzzle.

=Colmar.= A city of France, capital of the department of Haut-Rhin. This city had an active share in the civil wars under Rodolph of Hapsburg and Adolphe of Nassau; it was captured by the Swedes in 1632; by the French in 1635 and 1673. It was ceded to France by the peace of Ryswick in 1697. Occupied by the Bavarians on January 3, 1814.

=Colocotroni.= See KOLOCOTRONI.

=Cologne.= A fortified city of Prussia, the capital of the province of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank of the Rhine. It is a fortress of the first rank. It was taken by the French in 1795, and assigned to Prussia in 1814.

=Colombia, United States of.= A republic of South America, known by this name since 1861, but formerly called New Granada. It united with Venezuela in 1819, and established one central government for the purpose of resisting Spain, but in 1829 was separated from it, and soon after another republic--that of Ecuador--was formed from it, three republics being thus formed out of what was formerly but one.

=Colombo.= A fortified seaport town and capital of Ceylon; it was fortified in 1638 by the Portuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch in 1666; the latter surrendered it to the British, February 15, 1796. The British troops were murdered here in cold blood by the Adigar of Candy, June 6, 1803.

=Colonel.= The title of the highest officer of a regiment, ranking next below a brigadier-general, and above a lieutenant-colonel. The rank of captain in the navy corresponds with this title.

=Colonel, Lieutenant-.= The rank next below that of colonel.

=Colonia do Santissimo Sacramento= (i.e., Colony of the Most Holy Sacrament). A fortified maritime town of South America, in Uruguay, opposite Buenos Ayres. On August 31, 1845, it was taken by the English and French fleets.

=Colonial Corps.= Are certain regiments forming part of the regular army of the British empire, and paid for out of the imperial revenues. The native troops of India are paid from the Indian revenues.

=Colorado.= One of the United States, bounded on the north by Dakota and Nebraska, on the east by Nebraska and Kansas, on the south by New Mexico, and on the west by Utah. In 1857 an exploring party started through its territory, but were driven back by hostile Indians. The country is now, however, being rapidly settled, owing to its great fertility and the presence of auriferous deposits.

=Color-bearer.= The bearer of the colors.

=Color-Guard, The.= In the U. S. infantry, consists of the color-bearer and a guard of 7 corporals in each regiment. They must all be good soldiers. The color-guard is attached to the right centre company in the line, and its post on the field is one of honor as well as danger.

=Colorno.= A fortified castle in Italy, on the banks of the Po; it was captured by the Marquis de Maillebois, from the Austrians under the Prince of Würtemberg, in 1734.

=Colors.= A military term applied to banners or flags carried by each regiment of infantry. The banners of the cavalry are called standards. Each U. S. regiment has two colors, one national and one regimental.

=Colors.= In heraldry, the colors generally used are red, blue, black, green, and purple, which are called gules, azure, sable, vert or sinople, and purpure. Colors and metals, when engraved, are generally indicated by dots and lines: or, gold, by dots; argent, silver, is left plain; gules, red, is indicated by perpendicular lines from top to bottom; azure, blue, by horizontal lines from side to side; sable, black, by horizontal and perpendicular lines crossing each other; vert, green, by diagonal lines from right to left; and purpure, purple, by diagonal lines from left to right.

=Color-Sergeant.= Is the sergeant detailed to carry the regimental colors. He is usually selected for military deportment and soldierly bearing, and when carrying the colors is escorted by a guard of 7 corporals. In the British service he has a distinct rank, but in the U. S. service he ranks no higher than other sergeants.

=Colt’s Pistol.= The most celebrated of modern revolvers. Invented by an American, Col. Samuel Colt; first patented in 1835, and perfected about 1845. It has kept pace with the times, and is still one of the first of its kind.

=Columbia.= The capital of South Carolina, situated on the left bank of the Congaree River. It was taken by Gen. Sherman’s army, February 17, 1865, and was then much injured by fire.

=Columbiad Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Column.= Signifies, in military evolutions, a mass of soldiers several ranks in depth as opposed to line. There may be columns of brigades, of regiments, of divisions, or of companies, presenting a front of limited width, but a depth depending on the number of elements in the column. In a battalion the formation is called open column when the distance between the elements of the column is such as to admit of their wheeling into line; when the distance is only a few yards it is termed close column; when intermediate between these two, it is “column at half distance.” Battalions are drawn up in column with either the right or left in front, or the battalions may be doubled upon their centres. To pass from column into line is to “deploy”; to pass from line to column is to “ploy.” Sometimes the name column is given to a small army, especially when engaged in active operations. In drawing up troops for action, as a general rule, the French prefer the column, the Americans and English the formation in line.

=Column, Military.= Among the Romans, a column on which was engraven a list of the forces in the Roman army, ranged by legions in their proper order. They had another kind of military column called columna bellica, standing before the temple of Janus, at the foot of which the consul declared war by throwing a javelin towards the enemy’s country.

=Column, Triumphal.= A column erected among the ancients in honor of a hero, and decorated with various kinds of crowns, corresponding to the number of his achievements in battle. Each crown had its particular name, as vallaris, which was filled with spikes, in memory of his having faced a palisade; muralis, adorned with little turrets or battlements, for having mounted an assault; navalis, of prows and beaks of vessels, for having vanquished at sea; obsidionalis, or graminalis, of grass, for having raised a siege; ovans, of myrtle, which expressed an ovation, or minor triumph; and triumphalis, of laurel, for a grand triumph.

=Comanche Indians=, or =Comanches=. An extremely warlike and predatory tribe of Mexico and Texas. They have a reservation in Indian Territory with some Kiowas and Apaches. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Combat.= An engagement of no great magnitude, or one in which the parties engaged are not armies.

=Combustion.= The phenomena attending intense chemical actions which are accompanied by heat and light. Usually restricted to the burning of bodies by their union with oxygen. It is difficult to draw the line where combustion ends and explosion begins.

=Combustion, Velocity of.= Is the space passed over by the surface of combustion in a second of time, measured in a direction perpendicular to its surface. It has been determined that the velocity of combustion of dry French war-powder is 0.48 inch, and of English powder, which American powder closely resembles, is 0.4 inch.

=Comes.= Was with the Romans an officer with territorial jurisdiction in the provinces, and especially on the frontiers.

=Comigne= (Fr.). A shell of extreme magnitude, which takes its name from the person who originally invented it.

=Comines=, or =Commines=. A town of France, situated on the Lys, opposite the Belgian town of the same name. Near here Oliver de Clisson defeated the Flemings in 1382.

=Command.= In fortification, the height of the top of a parapet above the ground or another work.

=Command.= A body of troops, or any naval or military force or post, under the command of a particular officer. The word command, when applied to ground is synonymous with overlook; and any place thus commanded by heights within range of cannon is difficult to defend, if the enemy have been able to seize the heights.

=Command.= The 62d Article of War (new, 122) states who shall command when different corps of the army happen to join or do duty together, but as the wording of this article has been interpreted differently by different officers, it is thought best to give a decision rendered by President Fillmore on October 25, 1851, in General Orders from the War Department. The 62d Article of War provides that “If upon marches, guards, or in quarters, different corps of the army shall happen to join, or to do duty together, the officer highest in rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or militia, by commission there, on duty, or in quarters, shall command the whole and give orders for what is needful to the service, unless otherwise specially directed by the President of the United States, according to the nature of the case.” The interpretation of this act has long been a subject of controversy. The difficulty arises from the vague and uncertain meaning of the words “line of the army,” which neither in the English service nor in our own have a well-defined and invariable meaning. By some they are understood to designate the regular army as distinguished from the militia; by others as meant to discriminate between officers by ordinary commissions and those by brevet; and finally, by others, to designate an officer not belonging to the staff.

The President states that “He has maturely considered the question, and finds himself compelled to differ from some for whose opinions he entertains a very high respect. His opinion is, that although these words may sometimes be used in a different sense (to be determined by the context and subject-matter), in the 62d Article of War they are used to designate those officers of the army who do not belong to the staff, in contradistinction to those who do, and that the article intended, in the case contemplated by it, to confer the command exclusively on the former.” In the discussion which took place in 1828 relating to ordinary rank and rank by brevet, the then Secretary of War (Gen. Porter) says, “Rank in the line of the army or lineal rank, as understood by the President, is applicable to the existing organization of that portion only of the army which is intended for field operations or the exertion of physical force against an enemy. It is commonly used in contradistinction to the staff,” etc. He then goes on to show that in the 62d Article it has another meaning,--House Document 58, 20th Congress, 2d session, page 13. In the same discussion, Mr. Drayton, as chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs of the House of Representatives, expresses the same opinion. He says, “Rank in the line of the army is conceived to be rank in a military body specially organized for the exertion of physical force, or in other words, for combating an enemy; and an officer in such a body has a direct and paramount command over the troops which compose it. The expressions ‘rank in the line of the army,’ ‘rank in the line,’ ‘lineal rank,’ are generally used in contradistinction to staff appointments.” He adds, “and to rank which confers upon officers only an occasional right to command, including brevet officers,” etc. Thus we see that these gentlemen admit that these words, in their proper and usual signification, are employed to distinguish the combatant from the staff or non-combatant portions of the army.

If we look at the policy of the law, we can discover no reasons of expediency which compel us to depart from the plain and ordinary import of the terms; on the contrary, we may suppose strong reasons why it may have been deemed proper, in the case referred to by the article, to exclude officers of the staff from command. In the first place, the command of troops might frequently interfere with their appropriate duties, and thereby occasion serious embarrassment to the service. In the next place, the officers of some of the staff corps are not qualified by their habits of education for the command of troops, and although others are so qualified, it arises from the fact that (by laws passed long subsequently to the article in question) the officers of the corps to which they belong are required to be appointed from the “line of the army.” Lastly, officers of the staff corps seldom have troops of their own corps serving under their command, and if the words “officers of the line” are understood to apply to them, the effect would often be to give them command over the officers and men of all the other corps when not a man of their own was present, an anomaly always to be avoided, where it is possible to do so. Whatever doubts may be entertained on this subject in regard to the officers of other staff corps, none can exist in regard to those of the Medical Department and the Pay Department. The law of 1847 expressly excludes them from command. Now the officers of these corps are not a distinct and independent body, but are a part of the army, and as they cannot command, it follows that when on duty they must be commanded.

=Commandant.= An officer who has the command of a garrison, fort, castle, regiment, company, etc.; called also commander.

=Commander-in-Chief.= The title given to the officer who has supreme command of the land or naval forces of a nation. The President is ex officio commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States.

=Commands.= In the military service there are two kinds, the preparatory command, such as forward, which indicates the movement that is to be executed, and the command of execution, such as MARCH, or HALT, or in the manual of arms, the part of the command which causes the execution. The tone of command is animated, distinct, and of a loudness proportioned to the number of men under instruction.

Each preparatory command is pronounced in an ascending tone of voice, but always in such a manner that the command of execution may be more energetic and elevated.

The command of execution is pronounced in a tone firm and brief. The trumpet ought to be used for giving commands whenever it can be done to advantage.

=Commilitones.= This word had with the Romans the same significance as the English words comrade soldiers.

=Commissariat.= A name given to the organized system whereby armies are provided with food and daily necessaries. In the old Roman armies the duty of supplying troops was performed by the quæstors, who filled the place of the commissary officers of our own times. In the U. S. service this department is under charge of an officer of the rank of brigadier-general, called the commissary-general of subsistence.

=Commissary.= In general means any one to whom the power or authority of another is committed; used in military affairs in relation to officers who have charge of the subsistence of troops, musters, etc.

=Commissary of Muster.= See MUSTER.

=Commissary Sergeants.= In the U. S. service, are sergeants who are selected from the line of the army, by the Secretary of War; they must be steady and reliable men, and their duties are to assist the commissary officer in receiving, storing, preserving, issuing, selling, and accounting for the subsistence supplies at their posts, according to the regulations for the subsistence departments.

=Commission.= A writing, generally in the form of a warrant or letters-patent, authorizing the performance of duties, or exercise of powers belonging to another. Instruments bearing this title are issued by the Executive to officers in the army or navy, who, on confirmation of their appointment, are known as commissioned officers. The practice of buying and selling all commissions under the rank of colonel, which formerly prevailed in the British army, was abolished in 1871.

=Commissioned.= One having a commission; furnished with a commission; empowered or authorized to act; as, a commissioned officer.

=Common Time.= In marching, the length of the direct step in common time is 28 inches, and the cadence is at the rate of 90 steps per minute.

=Communication, Line of.= A fantastical name applied by Belidor to mines with immense charges, which he proposed to use for the destruction of countermines, and which were used successfully in the attack of Schweidnitz, under Frederick II.

=Commutation.= Is the conversion of allowances, such as fuel, forage, and quarters, into their money value.

=Comorn.= A royal free town of Hungary, 48 miles from Buda. Its citadel is considered one of the strongest in Europe. Its works and intrenchments extend about 7 miles along the banks of the rivers (Waag and Danube), and it requires for its defense at least 15,000 men and 400 pieces of artillery. It has the reputation of being impregnable, and justified it in the Hungarian war, for the Austrians besieged it from October, 1848, to September, 1849, and only became masters of it at last in virtue of a capitulation.

=Compagnies de Discipline= (Fr.). “Companies of discipline.” These companies were created by Napoleon I. in 1802; the basis of their actual organization was laid by a royal order, dated April 1, 1818. This order fixes the number of companies at 10, 6 of fusileers and 4 of pioneers, the former to be composed of soldiers of the army who were guilty of indiscipline, and the latter to be formed of men of the former who were deemed incorrigible. The number of companies is now reduced to 7, who are stationed in Algeria. There are also 4 companies similarly organized which are stationed in the French colonies.

=Compagnies d’Ordonnance= (Fr.). The name of a corps of cavalry, which was organized in France by Charles VII. in 1439; it numbered 16 companies, and the entire strength was 9600 men. This was the first regular cavalry organized in France.

=Company= (Fr. compagnie). In military organization, is a body of men commanded by a captain, and forming an aliquot part of a regiment or battalion. In the British service a full company consists of about 100 men, and a regiment of infantry generally comprises 10 or 12 companies, or if there is more than 1 battalion, each has this number of companies. The captain of each company is assisted by 2 subalterns. In the U. S. army each regiment of infantry is divided into 10 companies, and each company has a captain and 2 lieutenants. The artillery and cavalry regiments are divided into 12 companies each, and the former has a captain and 4 lieutenants to each company. See ORGANIZATION.

=Company Column.= The successive improvements that have been made in fire-arms during the last hundred years have been followed by a gradual diminution of the depth of tactical formations, until to-day the “open order,” or the formation as skirmishers, is the only one adopted under the fire of the enemy. In the most recent development of the “open order” the company, composed of 250 men, is recognized as the “fighting unit,” while the battalion, composed of 4 companies, is regarded as the “tactical unit,”--that is, the smallest body of men that can be safely employed independently.

The adoption of breech-loaders has not changed the principles of strategy and grand tactics, nor has it diminished the number of lines in which armies are drawn up to give and receive battle. It has simply demonstrated the impossibility of attacking positions in battalion columns, and, as a consequence, has necessitated a division of the troops into smaller fractions, which, under fire, can be moved with the greatest rapidity and least exposure, thereby insuring the least loss of life. Hence the formation of troops in “company column” in the German and other European armies.

In the German army, the company is formed in three ranks; the tallest men are in the front rank; the most adroit and best shots are selected for the third rank, because the special duties of this rank require these qualities; the distance between ranks is 2 feet. The company is divided into divisions (or platoons). If the divisions consist of 20 or more files, they are divided into subdivisions (or half platoons); the subdivisions are again divided into sections of not less than 4, nor more than 6 files. If the company be of full strength, it will have a front of 72 files; each division will contain 36 files; each subdivision 18 files; and each section 6 files. The battalion consists of 4 companies.

The “company column” is formed in the following manner: The battalion being in line, at the command to “form company column,” the third rank of each even division of the right wing faces about, marches 12 paces to the rear, halts, and faces to the front; the first and second ranks of the uneven divisions face to the left, and place themselves 6 paces in rear of the first and second ranks of the even divisions; the third rank of the uneven subdivisions faces to the left, and, filing in front of the third rank of the even division, forms with it a third division in double rank. The movement is executed in the uncadenced step. The column when formed consists practically of 3 platoons in double rank. In the left wing the movement is similarly executed; the even subdivisions ploying in rear of the uneven subdivisions. The third division of each column is called the “shooting division.”

In the French army the company is formed in 2 ranks, and is normally divided into 4 sections, the first two of which constitute the first platoon, the last two the second platoon. The “company column” is always formed on the second section from the right, which stands fast; the distance between sections is 6 paces.

The “company column” in Italy, Austria, and Russia, as in France, varies very slightly from the German.

With a battalion of 8 or 10 companies, subdivisions may be dispensed with, and, so long as this organization is retained in England and America, the “company column” will not therefore become a necessity. Should the regimental system of 3 battalions, of 4 companies each, be adopted, all of the advantages claimed for the “company column” can be secured by adopting the double column of fours for each company.--Armies of Asia and Europe, UPTON.

=Compass, Prismatic.= A pocket instrument for measuring horizontal angles by means of the magnetic meridian. It is much employed in the military service for sketching the general features of a country, and in reconnoissances. It consists of a small glass-covered box containing a magnetized needle attached to a graduated card. A sight-vane with a fine wire stretched longitudinally in the slot is hinged to one side of the box. On the opposite side is a prism. To use it the sight-vane is turned up to the perpendicular. The eye is applied to the prism, and the wire directed on the object. The division in the card coinciding with the reflection of the wire gives the angle with the meridian.

=Compassionate Allowances.= In the British service, are grants of allowances which are made to the legitimate children of deceased officers of the land forces in all cases in which the widow of the officer would be entitled to be placed on the pension-list, provided it be shown that they are deserving objects of the sovereign’s bounty, and are in distressed circumstances.

=Compiègne.= A town of France, department of Oise. It was besieged by the English in 1430, who failed to capture it owing to the brave defense made by its governor, Flavia. Joan of Arc, who came to the assistance of this town, was taken prisoner by the English besiegers. The emperor Napoleon III. and the king of Prussia met here on October 6, 1861.

=Complement of the Curtain.= That part in the interior side of a fortification which makes the demi-gorge.

=Complement of the Line of Defense.= The remainder of the line of defense after the angle of the flank is taken away.

=Compliment.= The military mark of respect shown by a body of troops to official personages, to an officer, or to another body of troops.

=Compositions, Pyrotechnic.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Compound Armor.= See ARMOR PLATES.

=Compression Strain.= See ORDNANCE, STRAINS UPON.

=Compulsion=, or =Inevitable Necessity=. Is a constraint upon the will whereby an officer is urged to that which his judgment disapproves, and which, it is to be presumed, his will (if left to itself) would reject. As punishments are, therefore, only inflicted for the abuse of that free will which God has given to man, it is highly just and equitable that an officer should be excused for those acts which are done through unavoidable force and compulsion.

=Comrade.= A soldier who acts as the friend of another soldier, rendering him friendly services, etc. Each soldier generally has one special friend who is recognized as his comrade. The term comrade is also extended so as to include all the members of a particular corps, branch of the service, or the army generally.

=Concarneau.= A maritime town of France, department of Finistère; it was taken by Du Guesclin in 1373, and by the Leaguers in 1576. The town is defended by a fort and surrounded by ancient walls.

=Concave Order of Battle.= See ORDER OF BATTLE, CONCAVE.

=Concepcion.= A port of Chili, capital of a province of the same name. In 1554, 1555, and 1603, it was taken and burnt by the Araucanians. A portion of it was again devastated by the Araucanians in 1823.

=Concord.= A town of Middlesex Co., Mass., 11 miles from Boston. Here, on April 19, 1775, one of the first conflicts took place between the Americans and the British troops. A monument is erected at this place to commemorate the event.

=Concrete.= A coarse building mortar, containing broken stone, gravel, etc., used much in fortifications.

=Condé.= A town of France, in the department of the North. It is strongly fortified and has a military arsenal. In 1793 this town was taken by the Austrians.

=Condemned Property.= In the military service, property must be condemned by an inspector before it can rightfully be destroyed.

=Condottieri.= A name given in the 14th century to the leaders of certain bands of military adventurers in Italy, who, for booty, offered their services to any party in any contest, and often practiced warfare on their own account purely for the sake of plunder. The Compagnies Grandes in France at about the same period were somewhat similar to the condottieri, and were so powerful at one time that in 1361 they routed the king’s forces at Brignais, and slew Jacques de Bourbon, constable of France.

=Conduct Unbecoming an Officer and a Gentleman.= See UNGENTLEMANLIKE OR UNOFFICERLIKE, and APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 60 and 61.

=Confederate Projectiles.= See PROJECTILE.

=Confederate States of America=, or =Southern Confederacy=. The efforts of the Southern States for the extension of slavery, and the zeal of the Northern States for its abolition, with the consequent political dissensions, led to the great secession of 1860-61. On November 4, 1860, Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, was elected President of the United States. Hitherto, a President in the interest of the South had been elected. On December 20, South Carolina seceded from the Union; and Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina seceded early in 1861. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated President of the Southern Confederacy at Montgomery, Ala., February 18, 1861. For important events of the civil war which ensued, see the different States of America throughout this work, and the names of battles, etc., which were fought during this war. On the 20th day of August, 1866, the President (Andrew Johnson) proclaimed the insurrection at an end, and that peace, order, tranquillity, and civil authority existed throughout the whole of the United States.

=Confederation of the Rhine.= The league of the German states, formed by Napoleon Bonaparte, July 12, 1806, when he abolished the Holy Roman Empire, and the emperor of Germany became emperor of Austria. In December it consisted of France, Bavaria, Würtemberg, Saxony, and Westphalia; 7 grand duchies, 6 duchies, and 20 principalities. The princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of war, and established a diet at Frankfort. This league terminated with the career of Bonaparte in 1814. It was replaced by the Germanic Confederation, and it, in its turn, was replaced by the North German Confederation.

=Confiscation.= The appropriation to the public use of private property. A right which is conferred under certain circumstances by the laws of war. See CONTRABAND OF WAR.

=Conflans= (near Paris), =Treaty of=. Between Louis XI. of France and the Dukes of Bourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, October 5, 1465. By its provisions Normandy was ceded to the Duke of Berry, and an end was put to the “War of the Public Good.” It was confirmed by the treaty of Peronne, 1468.

=Congreve Rocket.= See ROCKET.

=Coni=, or =Cuneo=. The capital of a province of the same name in Piedmont. It was once a fortified place, and had to undergo several sieges. After being taken and retaken, the victory of Marengo gave it into the hands of the French, who demolished the fortifications and turned them into promenades.

=Connecticut.= One of the original States of the American Confederation, and the most southwestern of the New England States. The country was early explored by the Dutch, but the first permanent settlements were made by English emigrants in 1634. In 1637 the settlers were much annoyed by Indians, who were shortly afterwards subdued, however, in engagements at Mystic and Fairfield, and never after gave any serious trouble. The State took an active part in the cause of American independence, and also in the late war for the Union, and throughout both these eventful contests she sustained eminent distinction as well for the wisdom of her statesmen as for the bravery and patriotism of her soldiers.

=Conquer.= To gain or acquire by force; to take possession of by violent means; to gain dominion over; to subdue; to reduce, etc. To gain the victory; to overcome.

=Conqueror.= One who conquers; one who subdues and brings into subjection or possession by force or by influence.

=Conquest.= The act of conquering or acquiring by force; the act of overcoming or subduing opposition by force; subjugation; victory.

=Conquisitores.= So were called the recruiting officers of the Romans.

=Consarbruck.= A village of Rhenish Prussia where the French were defeated by the Duc de Lorraine, August 11, 1675.

=Conscription.= A system of enrolling men for military service, which is in vogue in France and some other foreign countries. Voluntary enlistments being so very few, the compulsory system of keeping up the armies is deemed indispensable. An account is kept of all the youths who reach the age of 20 in one year, and out of these the number required for the army is drawn by lot.

=Consigne= (Fr.). Parole or countersign.

=Constable.= The title in the Middle Ages of the highest military officer in France under the king. The term comes from the low Latin phrase comes stabuli, count of the stables.

=Constable of the Tower.= In England, is a general officer who has the chief superintendence of the Tower, and is lord-lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets. He holds his appointment by letters-patent from the sovereign, and is not removable at pleasure.

=Constantine=, or =Constantina=. A fortified city of Algeria, capital of a province of its own name. It stands on the site of the ancient Cirta, celebrated as the bulwark of Numidia. It is built upon a high rock, formed into a species of peninsula by the Rummel. It was besieged by the French in 1836, but held out till October, 1837, when it was taken by assault.

=Constantinople.= A celebrated city of Turkey in Europe, the capital of the Ottoman empire. It was formerly called Byzantium, but having been rebuilt by the emperor Constantine in 328, it received his name. No city in the world has been subjected to as many numerous and celebrated sieges, yet it was only taken twice,--by the Crusaders in 1204 (held by them till 1261), and by the Turks under Mohammed II., May 29, 1453,--an event which completed the extinction of the Roman empire in the East.

=Contest.= In a military sense, to struggle to defend; as, the troops contested every inch of ground. Earnest struggle for superiority, defense, or the like; strife in arms.

=Continental.= A term adopted by the Americans in the Revolutionary war in contradistinction to British.

=Contingent.= This term is applied to the quota of troops furnished to the common army by each member of a confederation of states; the proportion of troops or money furnished by each party to an alliance.

=Contingent.= In the British service, the sum paid monthly to each captain of a troop, company, or battery, to defray the expense of stationery, the care of arms, and other minor demands. A contingent account is also the account, sent in by a staff-officer, of money expended for miscellaneous purposes.

=Contours.= Are the lines in which a site or ground surface is cut by horizontal planes, usually taken at equidistances.

=Contraband of War.= Are such articles as a belligerent has by the law of nations the right of preventing a neutral from furnishing to his enemy. Articles contraband of war are, in general, arms and munitions of war and those out of which munitions of war are made. Contraband articles are subject to confiscation; but very arbitrary interpretations have been affixed to the term by powerful states, when able to enforce them by arms. Thus, provisions are held contraband of war when it is the object to reduce the enemy by famine. But with respect to these and other articles not in their nature contraband, it seems to be the practice that the belligerent should purchase them from the neutral for a reasonable equivalent, instead of confiscating.

=Contramure.= In fortification, is a wall built before another partition-wall to strengthen it, so that it may receive no damage from the adjacent buildings.

=Contravallation.= In fortification, is an intrenchment formed in the same manner as the line of circumvallation, to defend the besiegers against the enterprises of the garrison. An army forming a siege lies between the line of circumvallation and contravallation. The trench of this line is towards the town, at the foot of the parapet, and is never made but when the garrison is numerous enough to harass and interrupt the besiegers by sallies. This line is constructed in the rear of the camp, and by the same rule as the line of circumvallation, with this difference, that, as it is only intended to resist a body of troops much inferior to a force which might attack the circumvallation, its parapet is not made so thick, nor the ditch so wide and deep.

=Contre-forts= (Fr.). Brick-work which is added to the revetment of a rampart on the side of the terre-plein, and which is equal to its height. Contre forts are used to support the body of earth with which the rampart is formed. They are likewise used in the revetments of counterscarps, in gorges and demi-gorges, etc. Contre-forts likewise form a part of the construction of powder-magazines, which are bomb-proof.

=Contreras.= A celebrated battle-field of Mexico, about 14 miles south of the capital. Here, on August 19 and 20, 1847, the American forces under Gen. Scott defeated and totally routed, with loss of all his artillery, the Mexican general Valencia.

=Contribution.= In a military sense, is an imposition or tax levied on the people of a conquered town or country.

=Control Department.= In the British service, is the department which performs all the administrative duties of the army, in fact, all duties neither combatant, educational, nor scientific. It has a sub-department which performs all work connected with supply and transport, and to which is attached the “Army Service Corps,” a body of men officered by the control department, and employed as butchers, bakers, military train, dispensers, hospital attendants, and those engaged in non-combatant duties generally.

=Controller.= In the British service, the highest grade in the control department. The officers holding it--three in number--rank with major-generals. A deputy controller belongs to the second grade in the control department. Officers holding it rank with lieutenant-colonels.

=Convalescent.= A soldier who though discharged from hospital is not sufficiently recovered to do duty.

=Convention.= In a military sense, is an agreement made between hostile armies for some well-defined purpose, such as the evacuation of a fort, territory, etc. One of the most celebrated conventions of modern times was that of Cintra (1808), between the French and the English generals.

=Conversion.= A change of front, as of a body of troops attacked in the flank.

=Conversion, Bridge by.= See PONTONS.

=Converted Guns.= A term applied to cast-iron guns lined with wrought iron or steel tube. See ORDNANCE, PALLISER and PARSONS GUNS.

=Convex Order of Battle.= See ORDER OF BATTLE, CONVEX.

=Convoy.= In the military service, is a train of wagons laden with provisions or warlike stores, or a detachment of troops appointed to guard such a train.

=Cooling of Cannon.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Coptic Legion.= In 1799 the French army in Egypt not receiving any reinforcements, grew weaker every day through loss in combat and disease, when Gen. Kleber, who commanded after the departure of Napoleon, formed a corps of Copts, or native Christians, about 600 strong, which was known by this name. They were armed the same as the French troops.

=Cordon.= In military operations, is a line of sentries inclosing or guarding any particular space of ground, to prevent the passage of persons other than those belonging to the army. The word also applies in fortifications to a row of stones made round on the outside, and placed between the termination of the slope of the wall, so as not to be offensive to the eye.

=Córdova.= A city of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, founded about 152 B.C.; taken by the Goths in 572, and made the capital of an Arab kingdom in 756. It was rescued from the Arabs by Ferdinand III. of Castile in 1236; was taken by the French under Dupont and disgracefully ravaged, June 8, 1808; surrendered to Joseph Bonaparte, January, 1810, and abandoned by the French in 1813.

=Corduroy Road.= A roadway formed of logs laid side by side across it, as in marshy places; so called from its rough or ribbed surface, resembling corduroy. See CORDWAY.

=Cordway.= This way or road is made over extensive marsh tracks, and is constructed as follows, from the description of material usually abounding in such places: Trees and poles of almost any description will be found to answer. Cut as many as is thought requisite. Divide them into three classes,--ground-poles, cross-poles, and stringers. The ground-poles should be the largest and heaviest. The cross-poles are comparatively short lengths, and lie across the ground-poles with their ends projecting some distance beyond. They are laid closely together, and then secured and bound down by the stringers which lie on them. A tree-nail driven in here and there serves to keep all in place by nipping the cross-poles tightly. The ends of the ground-poles and stringers may be either scarfed and tree-nailed, or laid side by side and tied with withers or strips of suitable bark. This road is quickly made and found very useful in transporting the supplies of an army over a wet, marshy country.

=Core.= When cannon are cast hollow, after the plan of Rodman, a core is used to make the bore. It consists of a hollow cast-iron pipe, fluted on the outside, called the core-barrel. This is wrapped with rope and the molding sand is plastered over the rope. A water-pipe entering the core-barrel and reaching nearly to the bottom, and another leaving it near the top, are used to maintain a circulation of water through it, thus cooling the casting from the interior.

=Corea=, or =Korea=. Is an extensive peninsular country in Northeastern Asia, whose limits are not accurately known. It is bounded east by the Sea of Japan, south by the Strait of Corea, and west by the Whang-hai, or Yellow Sea. Corea was first subjected by the Tartars, but in about 1120 B.C. the Chinese appear to have gained possession of the country The Japanese conquered and held it between the years 1692 and 1698, when it again fell under the sway of China, and still pays a small annual tribute to the emperor.

=Corfu.= The capital and principal town of the Ionian Islands. It was first occupied by the Phæcians, and then by the Liburnians; but the accounts of it are somewhat mythical until its settlement by the Corinthians about 734 B.C., and through its commerce it soon after acquired a considerable importance. It soon quarreled with the mother-country, and after many vicissitudes of fortune passed under the dominion of the Romans about 229 B.C. The town is defended by two fortresses, and garrisoned by British troops since 1864, though belonging to the kingdom of Greece.

=Corinth.= An ancient and celebrated city of Greece, the capital of a department of the same name, situated on the Isthmus of Corinth. It was totally destroyed by L. Mummius, the Roman consul, and burnt to the ground, 146 B.C. It remained in ruins for a century, and was rebuilt in the year 46 by Julius Cæsar, after which it again arose to be a populous and prosperous city. After the taking of Constantinople it fell into the hands of the Turks, from whom it was retaken in 1687 by its former possessors, the Venetians. In 1715 it was again possessed by the Turks, who held it till 1823, when it was taken by the Greeks.

=Corinth.= A village in the northeast of Mississippi, about 90 miles east of Memphis. It was evacuated by the Confederates under Beauregard, May 29, 1862, and next day occupied by the Federal forces under Gen. Halleck. The Confederates, under Gens. Van Dorn, Price, and others, attempted to take this place, but they were thoroughly defeated after several desperate struggles by Gen. Rosecrans, October 3-5, 1862. The Confederate loss in prisoners alone was nearly 3000.

=Corinthian War.= Began 395 B.C.; received this name because it was carried on mostly in the neighborhood of Corinth; waged by a confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives against the Lacedæmonians. It was closed by the peace of Antalcidas, 387 B.C.

=Corium.= Leather body-armor, formed of overlapping leaves or scales, worn by Roman soldiers, and those of other nations. Its use was continued in England till the reign of Edward I.

=Cork.= A city of Ireland, capital of the county of the same name; built in the 6th century, it was garrisoned by Henry II., 1172; taken by Cromwell in 1649. The Earl of Marlborough besieged and took this city from King James’s army, 1690.

=Cornet= (Ital. cornetta, a “small flag”). Is the lowest grade of commissioned officers in the cavalry, equivalent to ensign in the infantry, his duty being to bear the standard. In the U. S. army there are no cornets.

=Cornet.= In the military history of the ancients, an instrument much in the nature of a trumpet: when the cornet only sounded, the ensigns were to march alone without the soldiers; whereas, when the trumpet only sounded, the soldiers were to move forward without the ensigns. A troop of horse was so called.

=Cornette-blanche= (Fr.). An ornament which in ancient times served to distinguish French officers who were high in command. It was worn by them on the top of their helmets. It likewise meant a royal standard, and was substituted in the room of the royal pennon. The cornette-blanche was only unfurled when the king joined the army; and the persons who served under it were princes, noblemen, marshals of France, and old captains, whose orders came direct from the king.

=Coroneia.= An ancient town of Bœotia. The Athenians were here defeated by the Bœotians, and their leader, Tolmides, slain, 447 B.C. The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians having entered into a league, offensive and defensive, against Sparta, Agesilaus, after diffusing the terror of his arms from his many victories, even into Upper Asia, engaged the allies at Coroneia and achieved a great victory over them, 394 B.C.

=Corporal.= In the military service, is a non-commissioned officer next in rank below a sergeant. He is distinguished by two chevrons worn on the arm.

=Corporal, Lance.= A private soldier who acts as corporal. He wears one chevron, but has no increase of pay.

=Corporal-Major.= In the British service, a troop corporal-major is the non-commissioned officer of the highest rank in a troop of the Household Cavalry; his position and authority are the same as those of a color-sergeant of infantry. A regimental corporal-major is the non-commissioned officer of the highest rank in each of the three regiments of Household Cavalry, and corresponds to a sergeant-major of infantry.

=Corporal’s Guard.= Used to indicate a detachment of several men under arms. May be applied to a squad equal to that usually placed under the charge of a corporal for drill, police, guard duty, etc. Generally made use of in a derisive manner.

=Corps.= A body of men; especially a body of troops; an organized part or division of an army.

=Corps d’Armée.= In the military organization of large armies two or more divisions form a corps d’armée, or army corps, which is complete in itself as an army, with everything needed for service. In European states, where large standing armies are kept, this custom of dividing them into corps, each under an officer of very high rank, and quartering them in different provinces, is followed even in times of peace.

=Correspondence, Official.= Is correspondence carried on officially between military officers and various departments of the service, such as orders, reports, letters, indorsements, etc. All official correspondence between the heads of the different departments of the staff of any command and its commander must pass through the adjutant-general, assistant adjutant-general, or adjutant of the command, as the case may be. Communications to or from a commander and those under his command must pass through the adjutant-general, assistant adjutant-general, or adjutant on duty with it; excepting only such communications between a disbursing officer and the chief of his particular branch of the staff as relate exclusively to the ordinary routine of business in their own department. All communications, whether from an inferior to a superior, or vice versa, are, as a general rule, to be passed through the intermediate commanders. The same rule governs in verbal applications: for example, a lieutenant seeking an indulgence must apply through his captain, the captain through the adjutant, and so on. All correspondence relating to or involving the personnel of the army when forwarded to the Secretary of War for his orders, must be forwarded through the adjutant-general for the consideration of the general of the army.

=Corridor.= The covered way lying round the whole compass of the fortifications of a place.

=Corselet.= A little cuirass, or piece of armor to cover the front of the body, worn formerly by pikemen.

=Corsica.= An island in the Mediterranean, held by the French. This island has been successively occupied by the Carthaginians, Romans, Goths, Saracens, Franks, the popes, and Genoese; and lastly by the French, in whose possession it now remains, and to whom it was ceded by the Genoese in 1768. This island was held by the British from June, 1794, to Oct. 22, 1796.

=Cortege.= The official staff, civil or military.

=Corus=, =Corupedion=, or =Cyropedium=. A plain in Phrygia, Asia Minor, where the aged Lysimachus was defeated by Seleucus, and slain, 281 B.C. These two were the only survivors of Alexander the Great’s generals.

=Corygaum.= An insignificant village in the presidency of Bombay; historically interesting in connection with the final subjugation of the Peishwa of the Mahrattas. On Jan. 1, 1818, it was defended for nine hours by a mere handful of men under Capt. Staunton, against a native force numbering at least 3000 infantry and about 20,000 cavalry, the struggle terminating in the repulse of the assailants after terrible slaughter.

=Cossacks= (Russ., Kasacks). A military organization of irregulars in the Russian service. They contribute much to the military strength of Russia; but several insurrections, of which the most alarming was that of 1773, have taken place since they became subjects to the Russian government.

=Cossova.= A plain in Servia. Here Amurath I. totally defeated the Christian army (Servians, Hungarians, etc.), September, 1389; but was himself killed by an expiring soldier. At this place, in 1448, John Huniades was defeated by a Turkish army four times larger than his own.

=Costa Rica.= The most southern state of Central America; bounded north by Nicaragua, northeast by the Caribbean Sea, south by New Granada, and south and west by the Pacific. The government of Costa Rica was established in 1832, and is accounted as the best and most liberal in Central America.

=Coston’s Lights.= Colored pyrotechnical compositions used for night signaling. Sometimes used in the form of a pistol cartridge.

=Cotice=, or =Cost=. In heraldry, one of the diminutives of the bend. It is a fourth part of the bend, and is usually borne in couples, with a head between.

=Couchant.= In heraldry, a beast lying down, with his head up, is couchant. If the head is down, he is dormant.

=Coulmiers.= A village 10 miles west of Orleans, Central France. Here the Bavarians under Gen. Von der Tann were defeated by the French army of the Loire under Gen. d’Aurelle de Paladines, who took about 2000 prisoners, Nov. 9, 1870, and regained Orleans.

=Council of War.= A conference of officers in military or naval warfare, on some matter in which the commander wishes to fortify his judgment by an appeal to that of others. The commandant of a garrison generally solicits the opinion of a council of war before surrendering to besiegers.

=Counter-approach.= A trench by which the besieged proceeds to meet the approaches of the besiegers. It is generally zigzag.

=Counter-arch.= A vertical arch connecting the top of the counter-forts.

=Counter-battery.= A battery which returns the fire of an opposing battery.

=Counter-changed.= In heraldry, when several metals and colors are intermixed, one being set against the other, they are said to be counter-changed.

=Counter-forts.= Interior buttresses constructed for the purpose of strengthening masonry revetments.

=Counter-guards.= Sometimes called couvre-faces, are works constructed in permanent fortifications to cover a bastion or demi-lune. They consist of two faces forming a salient angle.

=Counterhurters.= In gunnery, are pieces of iron bolted to the rails on which the gun-carriage moves to check it in front and rear. See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST CARRIAGES.

=Countermand.= To revoke, as a former command; to direct or order in opposition to an order previously given, thereby annulling it, or prohibiting its execution.

=Countermarch.= A change of direction of a company or battalion in column from front to rear, by a flank movement, retaining the same ground.

=Countermine.= A gallery underground so constructed as to facilitate the formation of mines, by means of which those of the enemy may be reached and destroyed.

=Countermine.= To oppose by means of a countermine; to frustrate the designs of, by sinking a well and gallery in the earth, in search of an enemy’s mine.

=Counter-parole.= A word given in any time of alarm, as a signal.

=Counterpoise Carriage.= A gun-carriage which, applied to a gun mounted in barbette, allows it to recoil behind the parapet or other shelter, and by means of a counterpoise brings it, or assists in bringing it, again into battery after it has been loaded. Among the best known of these carriages are Moncrieff’s and King’s,--the former invented by Capt. Moncrieff, of the British army, and the latter by Capt. W. R. King, of the U. S. Engineers. In Moncrieff’s carriage the counterpoise is a heavy weight between the cheeks of the top carriage. In King’s the weight is in a well under the pintle-block, and is attached to the carriage by a wire cable.

=Counter-round.= A body of officers, whose duty it is to visit and inspect the rounds and sentinels.

=Counterscarp.= In fortification, is the vertical or nearly vertical side of the ditch nearest to the besiegers, and opposite to the scarp or escarp. It is generally faced or revetted in permanent works, to render the descent into the ditch difficult.

=Counterscarp Galleries.= Galleries under the counterscarp at the salients, for the purpose of flanking the ditch.

=Countersign.= In military discipline or manœuvres, is a watch-word given by the commanding officer of an army or garrison daily, in order that a friend may be distinguished from an enemy. The countersign is given to sentinels, and others who are immediately concerned. It is given in garrison to prevent unauthorized persons from passing the guards. The countersign is usually the name of a battle.

=Counter-swallowtail.= In fortification, is a kind of an outwork very much resembling a single tenaille.

=Counter-trenches.= Are trenches made against the besiegers, which consequently have their parapets turned against the enemy’s approaches, and are enfiladed from several parts of the place on purpose to render them useless to the enemy, if they should chance to become masters of them; but they should not be enfiladed or commanded by any height in the enemy’s possession.

=Counter-vair.= A heraldic fur. It differs from vair by having its cups or bells of the same tinctures placed base against base, and point against point. The tinctures are or and azure.

=Coup de Grace.= A finishing or decisive stroke.

=Coup de Main.= A sudden and vigorous attack, for the purpose of instantaneously capturing a position.

=Coup d’Œil.= The gift of rapidly grasping and turning to the best account the contingencies of war, and the features of the country which is its scene.

=Couped= (Fr. coupé). A term in heraldry, used to describe the head or any limb of an animal cut off from the trunk, and smooth. When crosses, bends, bars, etc., are cut so as not to touch the sides of the escutcheon, they are also said to be couped.

=Coupe-gorge= (Fr.). Literally means cut-throat. It is used in a military sense to signify any spot or position which affords an enemy so many advantages that the troops who occupy it must either surrender or be cut to pieces.

=Coupures.= In fortification, are passages cut through the glacis, of about 12 or 15 feet broad, in the re-entering angle of the covert way, to facilitate the sallies of the besieged. They are sometimes made through the lower curtain, to let boats into a little haven built in the re-entrant angle of the counterscarp of the outworks.

=Courçon= (Fr.). A long piece of iron which is used in the artillery and serves to constrain or tighten cannon.

=Courier.= In a military sense, means a messenger sent post or express to carry dispatches of battles gained, lost, etc., or any other occurrences that happened in war.

=Courland.= A duchy of Livonia, subjected to Poland in 1582, conquered by Charles XII. of Sweden in 1701; Ernest Biren, duke, 1737; his son, Peter, 1769; annexed to Russia, March, 1795.

=Couronement=, or =Couronnement=. In fortification, implies the most exterior part of a work when besieged.

=Courtel.= A military implement which served both for a knife and a dagger.

=Court-martial.= In the army, a tribunal for the examination and punishment of offenders against martial law or against good order and discipline. Under the present construction of law, members of courts-martial become judges and jurors. In ancient feudal times the lords had arbitrary power over vassals who held their lands by tenure of military service, and punished them as they saw fit, and courts of chivalry took cognizance of offenses committed by the nobles. With the decline of feudalism the system of military despotism became obnoxious to the English people, and although the necessity for a standing army was admitted in time of peace, it could only exist with the consent of Parliament. The first military act passed after the accession of William to the throne of England is believed to have laid the foundation of the present system of courts-martial, which has also been adopted to a certain extent in the American service. Parliament having been notified that a body of English and Scotch troops who were ordered to Holland had mutinied, that body passed, on April 3, 1689, an act for punishing mutiny, desertion, etc., which has been renewed annually by Parliament to the present day. It authorized the king to grant commissions to certain officers to hold courts-martial for the trial of crimes committed by officers and soldiers. Similar acts were at different times passed in relation to offenses committed in the navy. A court-martial is a court of limited and special jurisdiction called into existence by force of express statute for a special purpose, and to perform a particular duty; and when the object of its creation is accomplished it ceases to exist. The law presumes nothing in its favor. He who seeks to enforce its sentences, or to justify its conduct under them, must set forth affirmatively and clearly all the facts which are necessary to show that it was legally constituted, and that the subject was within its jurisdiction. And if in its proceedings or sentence it transcends the limits of its jurisdiction, the members of the court and its officer who executes its sentence are trespassers, and as such are answerable to the party injured in damages in the courts of common law. Courts are classed into general, garrison, summary, regimental, and field-officers’, according as the authority convening, the nature of the offenses to be inquired into, the punishment to be awarded, or other circumstances may determine. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 72 to 114; also TRIAL.

=Court of Honor.= Is a military court authorized by the regulations of the Prussian service, convened for the purpose of sustaining the honor of the service and of individuals, and of punishing officers who may be found guilty of conduct deviating even in the least from the principles which actuate military men as men of honor. The court of honor of a regiment consists of all commissioned officers in it, except the prosecutor, the defendant, near relations, officers appearing as witnesses in the case, officers on leave, detached service, under arrest, or awaiting trial before any court; and has for its regular business management a council of honor, consisting of the senior captain, senior first lieutenant, and senior second lieutenant. The court has jurisdiction over all acts or omissions (not provided for by any fixed laws) which are unofficerlike or ungentlemanly in their nature, particularly such as contracting debts, improper choice of society, excessive use of intoxicating liquors, gambling, quarrels, carelessness or neglect of duty, and scandal. With the exception of general officers, all officers of the standing army, the reserve, the landwehr, and those of the retired list are subject to the laws of the court of honor. The court to investigate the conduct of a field-officer is made up of the field-officers of the division to which the officer belongs.

=Court of Inquiry.= In the military service of the United States, is a legally constituted court which may be ordered by the President or by any commanding officer to examine into the nature of any transaction of, or accusation or imputation against, any officer or soldier upon a demand by the officer or soldier whose conduct is to be inquired into. It may consist of one, two, or three officers, and a judge-advocate or other suitable person as recorder, all of whom are sworn. It has the same powers as a court-martial to summon witnesses and to examine them on oath. Courts of inquiry cannot award punishment, but must report to the officer by whose order they were assembled. (See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 115 to 121; also INQUIRY, BOARD OF.) In the British service courts of inquiry are not regulated by any statute or standing regulation, but depend on the will of the sovereign, or of the superior officer convoking the court, both as to the officers who may compose it, and as to every particular of its constitution. It is not a judicial body, but is rather a council, having no power to compel the attendance of witnesses not of the army or navy, nor to administer oaths.

=Courtrai.= A fortified town of Belgium, on the river Lys. Here Robert, count of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings in 1297, was defeated and slain by them, July 11, 1302. The conflict was named the “Battle of the Spurs,” from the number of gilt spurs collected.

=Coussinet à Mousquetaire= (Fr.). A bag formerly worn by a French soldier on his left side beneath the cross-belt. It hung on a hook near the butt of his musket. It likewise signifies a wedge used to support the mortar in its frame.

=Coutere.= A piece of armor which covered the elbow.

=Coutras.= In Southwestern France. Here Henry of Navarre totally defeated the Duc de Joyeuse and the Royalists, October 20, 1587.

=Cover.= Natural or artificial protection from the fire of the enemy, the former being afforded by hills, woods, banks, walls, etc., the latter by fortifications constructed for the purpose. To cover is, in military language, to stand exactly behind another man.

=Covering.= Standing exactly in front or in rear of another man or an object.

=Covering-fascines.= Are those made of stout picket stuff, not less than 1 inch thick, without any mixture of small brush-wood. They may be used in place of planks for the superstructure of wooden bridges; and may also be used, if no stout planks or spars are to be had, for the roofs of field powder-magazines. They may be made of the usual diameter of 9 inches. Their length will depend upon the special purpose for which they are intended. The withes should be particularly good.

=Covert Way=, or =Covered Way=. Is a road or broad path outside the fosse or moat of a fortified place, between the counterscarp and the glacis. It is usually about 30 feet wide, and sunk so far below the crest of the glacis that soldiers standing upon it cannot be seen by the besiegers; hence the name. The covert way is broad enough to allow troops to form on it, either to act defensively or make sorties; and to increase this accommodation enlarged portions, called places of arms, are made at certain spots.

=Covinarii.= The soldiers who fought on the covinus were so called.

=Covinus.= A kind of war-chariot used by the ancient Britons and Belgians.

=Cowardice.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 42.

=Cow-boys.= A band of marauders in the time of the American Revolution, consisting mostly of refugees who adhered to the British side, and who infested the so-called “neutral ground” lying between the American and British lines, plundering all those who had taken the oath of allegiance to the Continental Congress. See SKINNERS.

=Cowpens.= A village in Spartanburg Co., N. C. At this place Gen. Morgan defeated Col. Tarleton, January 17, 1781; it is said that Tarleton lost 300 men in killed and wounded, and about 500 prisoners. The American loss was also considerable.

=Cracow.= A city in Austrian Poland, on the left bank of the Vistula. It was taken by Charles XII. in 1702; taken and retaken several times by the Russians and other confederates. The Russians were expelled from the city March 24, 1794; but it surrendered to the Prussians June 15, the same year, and in 1795 was awarded to Austria. It was occupied by 10,000 Russians, who followed the defeated Poles, September, 1831. It was finally incorporated with the Austrian empire, November 16, 1846.

=Cradle.= A narrow frame-work of heavy timbers upon which heavy guns are sometimes placed, to be moved upon rollers.

=Crakers.= Choice soldiers were so called in the time of Henry VIII.

=Crakys.= An old term for great guns.

=Crampets.= The cramp rings of a sword scabbard.

=Crampton’s Gap.= A pass in the South Mountains, Frederick Co., Md. A stubborn fight of four or five hours took place here September 14, 1862, between part of Gen. McClellan’s army under command of Gen. W. B. Franklin and a portion of the Confederate army under Gen. Cobb, which was defending the pass. The Confederates were forced to retire, having suffered severe loss in killed and wounded.

=Cranon.= In Thessaly, Northern Greece. The Macedonians under Antipater and Craterus defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by sea, and once by land, near Cranon.

=Craonne.= A town of France, in the department of Aisne. Here Victor and Ney defeated the Prussians under Blücher, after a severe contest, March 7, 1814.

=Crater.= The pit left by the explosion of a military mine.

=Cravant.= See CREVANT-SUR-YONNE.

=Crécy=, or =Cressy=. A village in France, department of the Somme, famous for a great victory obtained over the French, under Philip of Valois, by Edward III. of England, August 26, 1346. In this battle fell the king of Bohemia, the Count of Flanders, 8 other sovereign princes, 80 bannerets, 1200 knights, 1500 gentlemen, 4000 men-at-arms, with the Duke of Alençon and the flower of the French nobility. The English army was drawn up in three lines; of which the first was commanded by Edward, prince of Wales, assisted by the Earls of Warwick and Oxford; the second led by the Earls of Arundel and Northampton; while the third, or body reserve, was posted along the summit of a hill, under the command of the king in person, attended by the Lords Mowbray, Mortimer, and others. The English loss in this battle was very small.

=Crécy-sur-Serre.= A town of France, department of Aisne. Its castle was taken and razed by Louis le Gros in 1115. The English took the town in 1339, 1358, and 1373; it was taken by the forces of the League in 1589; and it was burned by the Spaniards in 1662.

=Creedmoor.= About 10 miles east of New York, noted for its splendid rifle range, which was established in 1871.

=Creek Indians.= Formerly a numerous and powerful tribe dwelling in Georgia and Alabama. Their number was much reduced by the war of 1814, in which year they waged war against the United States, but were subdued by Gen. Jackson. Of the survivors most removed beyond the Mississippi, and are now settled in Indian Territory, where they are rapidly advancing in the art of civilization. For numbers, etc., see INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Creil.= A town of France, department of the Oise. It was ravaged several times by the Normans; taken by the king of Navarre in 1358; by the English in 1434; by Charles VII. in 1441; pillaged by the Calvinists in 1567, and occupied by forces of the League in 1588.

=Cremaille.= In field fortification, is when the inside line of the parapet is broken in such a manner as to resemble the teeth of a saw. This advantage is gained by the measure, that a greater fire can be brought to hear upon the defile than if only a simple face was opposed to it; and consequently the passage is rendered more difficult.

=Crémaillère= (Fr.). An indented or zigzag line of intrenchment.

=Cremona.= A fortified city of Northern Italy, the capital of the province of the same name. It was besieged by the Gauls in 200 B.C.; by Primus, a general of Vespasian, in 69; by Frederick Barbarossa in 1160. Prince Eugène took possession of it in 1702; it was taken by the French in 1796 and 1800.

=Crenaux= (Fr.). In fortification, small openings or loop-holes, made through the walls of a fortified town or place. They are extremely narrow towards the enemy, and wide within; so that the balls from the besiegers can scarcely ever enter, whereas two or three soldiers may fire from within.

=Crenelle=, or =Crenel=. A term used sometimes to denote a battlement, but more frequently an embrasure in a battlement. The adjective crenellated is employed to signify that a building is supplied with crenelles.

=Crépy.= A town of France, department of the Oise; it was captured and sacked by the English in 1339; by the Duke of Lancaster in 1373; occupied by the Burgundians in 1418; by Pothon and Xaintrailles in 1419; it was besieged by the Duke of Burgundy in 1420; taken by the English and their allies in 1431; by Charles VII. in 1433; by the Duc de Mayenne in 1588.

=Crépy en Laonois.= A town of France, department of Aisne. It was sacked by the English in 1339 and 1373, and taken by the Burgundians in 1418 and 1420. A treaty of peace was concluded here between Spain and France, September 18, 1544.

=Crescent.= The figure or likeness of the new moon borne in the Turkish flag or national standard; also the standard itself.

=Crescent.= The name of three orders of knighthood; the first instituted by Charles I., king of Naples and Sicily, in 1268; the second by René of Anjou, in 1448; and the third by the sultan Selim, in 1801. Of these the last is still in existence, and is remarkable for the fact that none but Christians are eligible. See CRESCENT, TURKISH ORDER OF.

=Crescent.= In heraldry, is used both as a bearing or charge, and as a difference or mark of cadency. In the latter case it designates the second son, and those that descend from him.

=Crescent, Turkish Order of the.= In 1799, after the battle of Aboukir, the sultan Selim III. testified his gratitude to Nelson by sending him a crescent richly adorned with diamonds. Selim was flattered by the value which the English admiral seemed to attach to this gift, and it was this circumstance which determined him, in 1801, to found the order of the Crescent, which is only conferred on Christians who have done service to the state. The second person on whom it was conferred was Gen. Sebastiani, for his defense of Constantinople against the English fleet in 1807.

=Cressit.= A small crease or dagger.

=Crest.= Signifies the line which marks the top of a parapet. It is sometimes called the interior crest. The exterior, or sub-crest, is the line marking the meeting of the exterior and superior slopes.

=Crest.= In feudal times was the distinctive ornament of the helmet; hence the term is frequently applied to the helmet itself. In heraldry the crest is shown as an appendage to the shield, placed over it, and usually borne upon a wreath. It is generally either some portion of the coat-armor, or a device commemorative of some incident in the history of a family, and often contains an allusion to the office of the bearer.

=Crete.= In fortification, implies the earth thrown out of the ditch in a fortification, trench, etc. The most elevated part of a parapet or glacis.

=Crete.= See CANDIA.

=Crevant-sur-Yonne.= In Northern France; besieged by John Stuart, earl of Buchan, with a French army, July, 1423, and relieved by the Earl of Salisbury with an army of English and Burgundians; after a severe contest the French were totally defeated.

=Creveldt.= Near Cleves, Western Prussia. Here, on June 23, 1758, Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated the French under the Count of Clermont.

=Crimea.= A peninsula of Southern Russia, formed by the Sea of Azof and the Black Sea. It was the Taurica Chersonesus of the ancient Greeks, by whom it was colonized about 550 B.C. Here was founded the kingdom of Bosporus, which formed part of the dominions of Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose descendants continued to rule the country under Roman protection until the irruption of the Goths, Huns, etc., 258 A.D. It fell into the hands of the Mongols in the 13th century, was subjected to the Ottoman yoke in 1475, and was ceded to Russia in 1783. War having been declared against Russia by England and France, March 28, 1854, an expedition against the Crimea was determined on. Accordingly, the allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 men, commanded by Lord Raglan and Marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna September 3, and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th without opposition at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked the Russians (40,000 to 50,000 strong), who were intrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed to be unassailable. After a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. It was the scene of several other engagements during the continuance of the war, until the proclamation of peace in April, 1856. The allies quitted the Crimea July 12, following.

=Crimes, Capital.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 21, 22, 23, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 56, 57, 105, and Section 1343.

=Crimes, Military.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR.

=Crimisus.= A river in Sicily, near which Timoleon defeated the Carthaginians, 339 B.C.

=Crimping-houses.= Houses in which persons were entrapped into the army; hence the name of “crimp sergeant.” In a riot in London some of these receptacles were destroyed by the populace, in consequence of a young man who had been enticed into one being killed in endeavoring to escape, September 16, 1794.

=Criques= (Fr.). Small ditches which are made in different parts of a ground for the purpose of inundating a country, in order to obstruct the approaches of an enemy.

=Croatia.= A province of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. This region was anciently inhabited by the Pannonians, who were conquered by the Romans in the reign of Augustus. It was conquered by Coloman, king of Hungary, in 1102, and was with that country united to Austria in 1526.

=Croats.= In military history, light irregular troops were so called; generally people of Croatia. They were ordered upon all desperate services, and their method of fighting was the same as the Pandours.

=Crochert.= A hagbut or hand-cannon, anciently in use.

=Cronstadt.= A seaport and fortress of Russia, about 20 miles west from St. Petersburg. It was founded by Peter the Great in 1710, the island having been taken from the Swedes by him in 1703. A Swedish fleet was defeated here by the Russians in 1790, and in 1855 an English fleet, commanded by Sir Charles Napier, proceeded to the Baltic, with the view of taking this place or destroying its fortifications; but either from the inadequacy of the means placed at his disposal, or from the great strength of the forts, no attempt was made upon them.

=Cropedy Bridge.= Near Banbury, Oxfordshire, England. Here the royalists defeated Sir William Waller and the army of Parliament, June 29, 1644.

=Cross-belts.= Belts worn over both shoulders, and crossing the breast.

=Cross-bow.= A weapon formerly used in discharging arrows, formed by placing a bow crosswise on a stock.

=Crossen.= A town of the Prussian province of Brandenburg. In 1758 this place was taken by the Russians.

=Cross-fire.= The crossing of lines of fire from two or more points or places.

=Cross, Victoria.= See VICTORIA CROSS.

=Crotchet.= In fortification, an indentation in the glacis of the covered way at a point where a traverse is placed.

=Crotchet.= The arrangement of a body of troops, either forward or rearward, so as to form a line nearly perpendicular to the general line of battle.

=Croton=, or =Crotona=. One of the most celebrated of the Greek colonies in Southern Italy, founded about 710 B.C. About 510 a Crotoniat army of 100,000 men, under Milo, defeated a greatly superior force of Sybarites on the banks of the Tracis, took the city of Sybaris, and utterly destroyed it. (See SYBARIS.) In the second Punic war the Bruttians, with the assistance of the Carthaginian general Hanno, succeeded in making themselves masters of the city of Crotona, with the exception of the citadel, which held out until induced to surrender on terms. The ravages of this war completed the decay of the city, and it sunk into the condition of an obscure provincial town.

=Crown.= The emblem of sovereignty in modern Europe. It was originally an Oriental decoration, and was adopted by Alexander the Great from the kings of Persia. In modern states crowns were of various forms, till heralds devised a regular series of them to mark the various gradations of sovereignty, from that of the emperor down to what are called the coronets of counts and barons. In England, so entirely has the crown been regarded as the symbol of sovereignty, that the word is frequently used as synonymous with the monarchy.

=Crown, Civic.= See CIVIC CROWN.

=Crown, Mural.= See MURAL CROWN.

=Crown, Obsidional.= See OBSIDIONAL CROWN.

=Crown, Triumphal.= See TRIUMPHAL CROWN.

=Crown, Vallary.= See VALLARY CROWN.

=Crowning.= A term in fortifications generally applied to the operation, by the besieged, of establishing works on the crest of the glacis or summit of the breach. It is sometimes used when describing the movements of troops, to signify that they have reached the top of a hill or parapet, which they are said to have crowned.

=Crown-work.= A term used in fortification to signify a work consisting of two or more fronts of fortification, joined by two long branches to the ditch of another work, a river, a village, etc. It is generally used to defend a bridge or suburb.

=Crows=, or =Absorokas=. A tribe of Indians inhabiting the northern part of Wyoming Territory and the southern part of Montana. They are divided into two bands, and belong to the Dakota family. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Crows-foot.= An implement of metal with four points, so formed that, in whatever way it falls, there is one point upward; intended to injure the feet of horses; a caltrop.

=Crucible, Steel.= Steel melted in crucibles; cast steel. See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR.

=Crusader.= A knight engaged in the Crusades.

=Crusades.= From the Latin crux, a “cross.” A term applied to the military expeditions undertaken by Christian powers in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries for the recovery of Palestine, or the “Holy Land,” from the Mohammedans. They were originated by Peter the Hermit, an enthusiastic French officer of Amiens, who turned pilgrim. There were in all eight crusades, from 1096 to 1270. The last one ended in the Christians being driven out of Syria.

=Ctesiphon= (afterwards Al Madayn). On the Tigris, the splendid capital of Parthia, was taken by Trajan in 116, and by Alexander Severus (who made 100,000 captives), 198. Its defenses deterred Julian from the siege, 363. Through the cowardice or treachery of the defenders, it was taken by Omar and the Saracens, 637, and utterly destroyed. He built Cufa near it with the remains.

=Cuba.= An island in the Caribbean Sea, at the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico. It is the largest of the West Indian group, belongs to Spain, and is the most important of the Spanish colonial possessions. It was discovered by Columbus, October 28, 1492, and the Spaniards formed their first settlement on it in 1511, and have remained in possession ever since. Havana, a city of Cuba, was taken by the British in 1762, but was restored to Spain the following year. In May, 1850, and August, 1851, unsuccessful attempts to revolutionize the island were made by bands of adventurers under a Spaniard named Narcisso Lopez. In the latter expedition, the whole 450 who landed were either slain in fight or taken prisoners. In 1868 the inhabitants revolted against Spain, and declared a republic. Spain at once proceeded to crush them into submission, but the patriots held out until, in 1878, abandoning all hope of assistance or recognition from abroad, they were obliged to succumb, and the Spaniards resumed full control of the country.

=Cubical Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Cuddalore= (India). On the coast of the Carnatic, was acquired by the English in 1681. It was reduced by the French in 1758, but recaptured in 1760 by Sir Eyre Coote. Again lost in 1781, it underwent a destructive siege by the British under Gen. Stuart, in 1783, which was continued until peace was signed, when it reverted to them, 1784.

=Cuenca.= A city of Spain, in New Castile, about 84 miles from Madrid. It was captured from the Moors by the kings of Castile and Aragon in 1176.

=Cuirass= (Fr. cuir, leather). Originally a jerkin, or garment of leather for soldiers, so thick and strong as to be pistol-proof, and even musket-proof. The name was afterwards applied to a portion of armor made of metal, consisting of a back-plate and breastplate hooked or buckled together. The cuirass is worn in the British army by the Life Guards and the Horse Guards.

=Cuish.= Defensive armor for the thighs, written also cuisse.

=Cul-de-sac= (Fr.). The “bottom of a bag.” A passage with only one outlet; a position in which an army finds itself, with no way of exit but to the front.

=Cullen Rifle.= See MAGAZINE GUNS.

=Cullen’s-wood.= In Ireland. A horrible slaughter of the English by the Irish took place at a village near Dublin on Easter or Black Monday, so called from this massacre, March 30, 1209. The English were a colony from Bristol inhabiting Dublin, whence they went to divert themselves at Cullen’s-wood, when the O’Byrnes and O’Tooles fell upon them, and destroyed 500 men, besides women and children.

=Culloden=, or =Drummossie Moor=. A wide heath in Scotland, 3 miles east of Inverness, on which the Duke of Cumberland gained a decisive victory over the Highland army in their attempt to restore the Stuart dynasty to the throne, in 1746.

=Culpeper Court-house.= See FAIRFAX.

=Culverin.= A long cannon used from the 14th to the 16th century; generally carried a shot of 18 pounds. The gun at Dover Castle, called Queen Elizabeth’s pocket-pistol, is a specimen of a large culverin. A demi-culverin was a similar piece, carrying a 9-pound shot.

=Cumæ.= An ancient and celebrated Greek city on the coast of Campania, about 6 miles north of Cape Misenum. The Tyrrhenians and Carthaginians attacked it by sea, and were defeated by Hieron, 474 B.C. In 420 the Samnites laid siege to the city, and after repeated attacks succeeded in carrying it by assault. It was given up to pillage and its inhabitants put to the sword. In the second Punic war Hannibal made an attempt upon the city, but was repulsed by Sempronius Gracchus. It was chosen by the Gothic kings as the depository of their regalia and valuables, and was the last place in Italy that held out against Narses.

=Cumberland Gap.= Is a natural gap in the Cumberland Mountains, about 80 miles in length, and about 150 miles south by east from Lexington, Ky. During the civil war it was an important strategic point, and was held at different times by each of the contending forces. It was held by the Confederates without any serious interference until Chattanooga was occupied by the forces of Gen. Mitchell, when it was evacuated about June 18, 1862, and occupied on the same day by the Union general Geo. W. Morgan. It was held by him until September 17, when he was compelled to evacuate it. It was again occupied by the Confederates, who to the number of 2000 under Gen. Frazer surrendered to Gen. Burnside, September 9, 1863. A large quantity of stores and 10 pieces of artillery were captured.

=Cunaxa.= In Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, where Cyrus the Younger was defeated and slain by his brother Artaxerxes II., against whom he had conspired, 401 B.C.

=Cunette=, or =Cuvette=. A trench in the bottom of a dry ditch; an obstacle in the passage of an enemy (especially if filled with water), and also acting as a drain.

=Cunnersdorf=, or =Kunnersdorf=. A village in Bohemia, 12 miles north-northwest of Buntzlau. On August 12, 1759, Frederick the Great with 50,000 men attacked the Austrian and Russian army of 90,000 in their camp near this place, and at first gained considerable advantages; but pursuing them too far, the Austrians and Russians rallied, and gained a complete victory. The Prussians lost 200 pieces of cannon and 30,000 men in killed and wounded.

=Curaçoa.= An island in the Caribbean Sea, settled by the Spaniards about 1527, was seized by the Dutch in 1634. In 1800 the French settled on part of this island, quarreled with the Dutch, who surrendered it to a British frigate. It was restored to the Dutch in 1802; taken from them by the British in 1807, and again restored in 1814.

=Curiet.= A breastplate made of leather.

=Current Series.= In military administration, orders issued from established commands, such as divisions, departments, etc., being numbered in regular order for each year; this term is frequently used when referring to orders issued in the year passing or current, when the expression is employed.

=Currier.= A small musketoon with a swivel mounting.

=Currytown.= A village in Montgomery Co., N. Y., noted for the attack on and murder of its settlers by nearly 500 Indians and a few loyalists, commanded by a Tory named Doxstader, July 9, 1781. The settlers were unsuspicious of danger, and were generally at work in the fields when the enemy fell upon them. After killing and capturing all they could, the Indians set fire to the buildings, and drove away most of the cattle and horses in the neighborhood. Next day Col. Willett, who was at Fort Plain when the attack was made, pursued the enemy with about 150 men, attacked and killed about 40 of them, and recovered all their plunder.

=Curtain.= In fortification, is that part of the rampart or wall between two bastions or two gates.

=Curtail=, or =Curtald=. An ancient piece of ordnance, apparently a short one.

=Curtatone.= Near Mantua, Northern Italy. Here the Austrians under Radetzky crossed the Minco, and defeated the Italians after a severe conflict, May 29, 1848.

=Customs of the Service.= Sometimes called common law of the army. Signifies generally a right or law not written, but established by long usage. To render a custom valid it has been said that the following qualities are requisite: 1, habitual or long established practice; 2, continuance without interruption; 3, without dispute; 4, it must be reasonable; 5, certain; 6, compulsory; 7, customs must be consistent with each other. It may be said that the common law of the army derives its force from the tacit consent of those in the service. Gen. Kautz states that officers of the army have certain duties to perform that are governed by certain laws, rules, and regulations, which are interpreted and executed in a certain way, called “Customs of the Service.” A knowledge of these rules of the service, and their application, constitutes the military profession, and is the true art of war. To this extent it is an exact science, and may be acquired by application and experience.

=Custozza.= Near Verona, Northern Italy. Here the Italians were defeated by Marshal Radetzky, July 23, 1848; and here they were again defeated June 24, 1866, after a series of desperate attacks on the Austrian army. The Italians were commanded by their king, Victor Emmanuel, and the Austrians by the Archduke Albrecht.

=Cut Off, To.= To intercept, to hinder from union or return. In a military sense this phrase is variously applicable, and extremely familiar.

TO CUT OFF AN ENEMY’S RETREAT is to manœuvre in such a manner as to prevent an opposing army or body of men from retiring, when closely pressed, either to their intrenchments or into a fortified town from which they had marched or sallied.

=Cut up, To.= To destroy promiscuously. When the cavalry are sent in pursuit of a flying enemy, the latter are generally cut up.

=Cuttack= (anc. Catac). A province in the East Indies, ceded to the East India Company in 1803. Cuttack, the capital, was taken by Col. Harcourt, October 14, 1803. This province was captured by the Mahrattas in 1750.

=Cuzco.= A city of Peru, capital of a department, and the ancient capital of the Peruvian empire, in South America. This city was entered by Pizarro in November, 1533, and taken by him in August, 1536, after a five months’ siege.

=Cylinder-gauge.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Cylinder-staff.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Cyprus.= The most eastern island in the Mediterranean, near the mouth of the Gulf of Iskanderoon. It was divided among several petty kings till the time of Cyrus of Persia, who subdued them. It was taken by the Greeks in 477 B.C., and ranked among the proconsular provinces in the reign of Augustus. It was conquered by the Saracens, 648 A.D., but recovered by the Greeks in 957. It was reduced by Richard I. of England in 1191, and given by him to Guy de Lusignan, who became king in 1192, and whose descendants governed it until 1489, when it was sold to the Venetians. It was taken by the Turks in August, 1571, and held by them until June, 1878, when it was awarded to England by the “Peace Congress of Berlin.”

=Czaslau.= A town of Bohemia, 45 miles east-southeast of Prague. Here Frederick the Great gained a victory over the Austrians, May 17, 1742.

D.

=Dacia.= The land of the Daci or Getæ. It comprised the various countries now known as Eastern Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia. The Getæ came originally from Thrace, and were divided into various tribes, and seem to have been the most valiant of the Thracian barbarians. Curio, the first Roman general who ever penetrated as far north as the Danube, did not venture to assail them. Julius Cæsar, however, is said to have intended their subjugation. In 10 B.C., Augustus sent an army up the valley of the Maros. From this time a continual war was waged by the Dacians against the Romans, who actually compelled the latter, in the reign of Domitian, to pay a tribute. In 101 A.D. the Emperor Trajan crossed the Theiss, and marched into Transylvania, where he fought a great battle near Thorda. The Daci, who were commanded by their famous chief Decebalus, were defeated. A second expedition of the emperor’s (104 A.D.) resulted in the destruction of their capital, the death of Decebalus, and the loss of their freedom. In 270 and 275 A.D. the Romans abandoned the country to the Goths, and the colonists were transferred to Mœsia. After a series of vicissitudes, Dacia fell into the possession of the Magyars in the 9th century.

=Dacota.= See DAKOTA.

=Dadur.= A town of Beloochistan, 5 miles to the east of the Bolan Pass. It is said to be one of the hottest places in the world, and is celebrated as the place where, in November, 1840, the British troops routed a Kelat force.

=Dag.= A thick, clumsy pistol, used in the 15th and 16th centuries.

=Dagen.= A peculiar kind of poniard.

=Dagger.= A weapon resembling a sword, but considerably smaller, being used for stabbing at close quarters. Daggers are generally two-edged, and very sharp towards the point.

=Daghestan.= A province of Russia, on the west coast of the Caspian Sea. It was conquered by the czar Peter in 1723; restored to Persia, 1735; but re-annexed to Russia by Alexander I. in 1813.

=Dague= (Fr.). Dagger, a short thick poniard which was formerly used when individuals engaged in single combat.

=Dahlgren Gun.= So named from Admiral Dahlgren, its inventor. An improved form of ordnance used for howitzers, heavy artillery, and especially in naval gunnery. It having been demonstrated that in ordinary cast guns the weight of the metal forward is greater than is needed, and that by far the greatest strain in firing is at the breech, Dahlgren greatly increased the relative size and weight of the breech, with the best results. These guns are chiefly used by the U. S. forces. See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Dahme.= A town of Prussia, on the river of the same name. It is defended by a strong citadel, and inclosed by walls. Here, in 1713, the French were defeated by the Prussians.

=Dahomey.= An independent state of Guinea, Western Africa, extending along the coast from Fort Badagry on the east, to the river Volta, which separates it from Ashantee on the west. The Dahomans, who came into possession of this tract of country about the beginning of the 18th century, are for the most part tall, well formed, and intelligent, and, for an African race, singularly honest and far advanced in agriculture. With the exception of a few Mohammedans, whose religious belief is in no way interfered with, they are all pagans, and practice fetish-worship. The king is the most absolute of despots, having entire control over the lives and property of his subjects. Wholesale murder is one of the chief features in religious and state ceremonies, and the most valued ornaments of the royal residence are human skulls. As many as 2000 human victims are sometimes sacrificed at one “grand custom.” Of the regular army of 12,000, about one-half are Amazons (devoted to celibacy), who are described as much more effective soldiers than their male companions in arms; but at the same time as blood-thirsty and ferocious as tigresses.

=Dahra.= In Algeria; on June 18, 1845, above 500 Kabyles at war with the French, were suffocated in a cave by smoke, the fire having been kindled by order of Gen. Pelissier, afterwards Duke of Malakoff. They had fired on a messenger bearing an offer of truce. The massacre was condemned by Soult, the minister of war, but justified by Marshal Bugeaud.

=Dakota.= A Territory in the north central part of the United States. It was organized under a territorial form of government March 2, 1861, but very extensive alterations have since been made in its boundaries. The Territory has been greatly disturbed by marauding bands of Sioux Indians, or Dakotas, who were in 1862 and 1863 especially daring and aggressive, and though they have frequently been defeated by U. S. troops, notably under Gens. Sully and Sibley in 1863, they are still very troublesome, necessitating the frequent intervention of troops for the protection of the settlers.

=Dakota Indians.= A numerous and powerful tribe or collection of tribes of Indians of common stock, often called Sioux, who formerly roamed over the territory between the Missouri and Mississippi, but have moved farther west since 1851, and are settled on agencies in Dakota, Montana, Nebraska, etc. A great proportion of them still preserve their nomadic habits and are still frequently troublesome. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Dalecarlians.= Natives of Dalecarlia, Sweden, who revolted against Christian of Denmark, 1521, and placed Gustavus Vasa on the throne of Sweden.

=Dalmatia.= A narrow strip of territory extending along the Adriatic Sea; bounded north by Istria and Croatia, and east by Bosnia and Herzegovina. In ancient times Dalmatia was a considerable kingdom, and, after many unsuccessful attempts, was first subjugated by the Romans in the time of Augustus. After the fall of the Western empire, Dalmatia, which had formed the most southern part of the province of Illyricum, was captured by the Goths, from whom it was taken by the Avari (490), who in their turn yielded it to the Slavonians about 620. It continued under the rule of the Slavonians until the beginning of the 11th century, when King Ladislaus of Hungary incorporated a part of it with Croatia, while the other part, with the title of duchy, placed itself under the protection of the Venetian republic. The Turks afterwards made themselves masters of a small portion, and by the peace of Campo-Formio (1797), the Venetian part, with Venice itself, became subject to Austrian rule, and when Austria, in 1805, had ceded this part to Napoleon, it was annexed to the kingdom of Italy; afterwards (1810) to Illyria. Since 1814, excepting the Turkish portion, it has been reunited with Austria.

=Damages, Barrack.= In the British service, is the term applied to the injuries done to barracks, barrack furniture, etc., by soldiers, when the actual perpetrator cannot be discovered. The term is also applied to the sum levied from the company or regiment generally, to make good the injury. Damages to arms, clothing, etc. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 17.

=Damascus.= A city of Syria, in Asiatic Turkey. During the time of the Hebrew monarchy, it was the capital of Syria, but afterwards passed successively under the rule of the Assyrians, Persians, Macedonians, Romans, and Saracens; and finally, in 1516, it was captured by the Turks (under Sultan Selim I.), in whose hands it has remained ever since. Damascus was at one time celebrated for the manufacture of sword-blades of the finest temper and most exquisite workmanship, but the process by which such unequaled specimens of art were perfected appears no longer to exist.

=Damaskin.= A certain kind of sabre; so called from the manufacture of Damascus.

=Dame= (Fr.). Among miners any portion of earth which may remain after the explosion of a mine has taken place. It likewise means a piece of wood with two handles used to press down turf or dirt in a mortar.

=Damietta.= A city of Lower Egypt, on the east branch of the Nile. It was taken by the Crusaders, 1219; lost, 1229; retaken by Louis IX., June 5, 1249; surrendered as his ransom when a prisoner, May 6, 1250.

=Damnonii=, =Dumnonii=, or =Dumnunii=. A powerful people who inhabited the southwest of Britain, comprising Cornwall, Devonshire, and the western part of Somersetshire, from whom was called the promontory Damnonium (now Cape Lizard), in Cornwall.

=Danai.= An ancient name of the Greeks, derived from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C.

=Danala.= A city in the territory of the Trocmi, in the northeast of Galatia, notable in the history of the Mithridatic war as the place where Lucullus resigned the command to Pompey.

=Dancetté.= One of the lines of partition in heraldry, differing from indented only in the greater size of the notches. See INDENTED.

=Danes=, or =Northmen=. Natives of Denmark; during their attacks upon Britain and Ireland they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned and ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Normans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 911. The Danes invaded England, Scotland, and Ireland with varying successes from 783 to 1084.

=Dangerous Space.= That zone, partly before and partly beyond the object fired at (the sights having been correctly elevated), which is covered by the trajectory; the object may be displaced to the front or rear of its correct range-point, a distance equal, in the aggregate, to the depth of this zone, and still be struck by the projectile. “Dangerous space” is calculated under the assumption that the gun when fired is 56 inches from the ground, that it is aimed at a point 34 inches from the ground, and that the stature of a man is 68 inches; and that the head of a man on horseback is 8 feet above the ground. The “dangerous space” will, of course, be increased by the firer lying down and aiming at his adversary’s feet. A part of the “dangerous space” is near the muzzle of the gun in the rising branch of the trajectory; the rest of it is in the falling branch; these two parts being continuous up to and including the “battle-range” (which see). The “dangerous space” varies with the weapon used and the object fired at; and for the same arm diminishes as the range increases beyond “battle-range”; up to this point it increases with the range. A perfect understanding of this subject is essential to effective infantry fire upon the field of battle. Valuable tables will be found upon it in Laidley’s “Rifle Firing.”

=Dannebrog.= The ancient battle-standard of Denmark, bearing the figures of a cross and crown. It was fabled to have fallen from heaven at the battle of Volmar, in Esthonia (1219), during a crusade against the heathens. It was twice taken in battle and twice recaptured. In 1500 a mere fragment remained.

=Dannebrog, Order of the.= Is the second of the Danish orders of knighthood. It is said to have been founded in 1219, but fell into decay, and was restored in 1671.

=Dannevirke=, or =Dannewerke=. A series of earthworks considered almost impregnable, stretching across the long narrow peninsula of Sleswick, Holstein, and Jutland,--said to have been built during the “stone age.” It was rebuilt in 937 by Thyra, queen of Gormo the Old, for which she was named Dannabod, “the pride of the Danes.” It was again repaired between 995 and 1000. Near here the Prussians, aiding the duchies, defeated the Danes, April 23, 1848.

=Dantzic=, or =Danzig=. A city of Prussia; is surrounded with ramparts, mounted with cannon, and the town may be considered as being one of the strongest fortresses in Prussia. In the 10th century it was known as the capital of Pomerali; it passed with that province, in 1295, under the authority of Poland; but in 1308, Ladislaus IV. ceded the whole to the Teutonic knights, who held it till 1454. In that year it was again seized by the Poles; and in 1575, having refused to acknowledge Stephen Bathory, it had to sustain a siege by that monarch, and was taken in 1577. From 1360 to 1641 it was one of the principal towns in the Hanseatic League. When this league was dissolved, Dantzic joined Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen; and these four cities, down to a very late period, retained their name of Hanse Towns. In 1734 it was forced to surrender to the Russians and Saxons, who were then besieging Stanislaus of Poland. In 1793 it was occupied by the Prussians. It was taken by the French in May, 1807, after a long siege, by Marshal Lefevre, who thence acquired his title of duke of Dantzic. After Bonaparte’s disastrous campaign in Russia, it was blockaded and obliged to surrender, after a long and able defense by Gen. Rapp. At the peace of Paris, in 1814, it reverted to Prussia.

=Dardanelles=, or =Hellespont= (anc. Hellespontus). A narrow strait between Europe and Asiatic Turkey, connecting the Sea of Marmora and the Ægean Sea. As it is the key to Constantinople, there are on both shores of this narrow channel numerous forts and batteries, there being 8 on the European and 7 on the Asiatic side. It was here the invading armies of Xerxes crossed on a bridge of boats to enter Europe. The passage of the strait was achieved by the British under Sir John Duckworth, February 9, 1807; but he repassed with great loss, March 2, two castles occupying the sites of the ancient Sestos and Abydos, hurling down stones of many tons weight upon the British. The allied English and French passed the Dardanelles at the sultan’s request, October, 1853.

=Dart.= A pointed, missile weapon, intended to be thrown by the hand; a short lance; a javelin; hence, any missile weapon.

=Dartmouth.= A seaport town of England, in Devonshire; it was burnt by the French in the reigns of Richard I. and Henry IV. In a third attempt (1404) the invaders were defeated by the inhabitants, assisted by the valor of the women. In the war of the Parliament, Dartmouth was taken, after a siege of four weeks, by Prince Maurice, who garrisoned the place for the king (1643); but it was retaken by Gen. Fairfax by storm in 1646.

=Dauphin= (Dolphin), Fr. An ornamental handle on brass guns over the trunnions, so called from its resemblance to that fish.

=Dauphiné.= An old province of Southeast France, successively held by the Allobroges, Burgundians, and Lombards; was, about 723-24, delivered from the invading Saracens by Charles Martel. Its counts were called dauphins; and when it was ceded to Philip of Valois, in 1349, the title of dauphin was given to the eldest son of the king of France, to whom it continued to be applied till the revolution of 1830.

=David’s Day, St.= The 1st day of March is annually commemorated by the Welsh, in honor of St. David. Tradition states that on St. David’s birthday, 540, a great victory was obtained by the Welsh over their Saxon invaders, and that the Welsh soldiers were distinguished by order of St. David by a leek in their caps.

=Dax.= A well-built town of France, department of Landes. It is surrounded by an old wall, flanked with towers, and is also protected by a castle. Dax was taken by the English in the 12th century, and remained in their possession till the middle of the 15th century.

=Day-book.= In the British service, is a sort of private memorandum-book, in which the pay-sergeant enters all details of expenditure other than pay under each man’s head. These entries are made at the moment, and afterwards transferred to the ledger.

=Day’s March.= See MARCH.

=Dead Angle.= In fortification, is any angle or piece of ground which cannot be seen, and which therefore cannot be defended from behind the parapet of the fortification.

=Dead-head.= In casting a cannon, is the surplus metal in the top of the mold; called also the sprue.

=Dead March.= A piece of solemn music intended to be played as an accompaniment to a funeral procession.

=Dead Pay.= Was the pay formerly drawn for soldiers really dead, whose names were kept on the rolls; and whose pay was appropriated by dishonest officers.

=Dead-shot.= An unerring marksman.

=Debark.= To leave a ship or boat and pass to the land; to go on shore; as, the troops debarked at 4 o’clock; disembark.

=Deblai.= The hollow space or excavation formed by removing earth for the construction of parapets in fortification. Thus the ditch or fosse whence the earth has been taken represents the deblai, while the earth itself, so removed, constitutes the remblai.

=Deblayer un Camp= (Fr.). To evacuate a camp for the purpose of cleaning and purifying the ground.

=Debouch.= A military term, signifying to march out from a wood, defile, or other confined place into open ground; also an outlet or available issue by which an army can march out.

=Débris= (Fr.). Remains, ruins of a building or town which has been sacked; broken remains of an army after defeat.

=Debruised.= A term in English heraldry used to indicate the restrained position of an animal in a coat of arms, by having any of the ordinaries laid over it.

=Decagon.= In fortification, is a polygon figure, having 10 sides, and as many angles; and if all the sides and angles be equal, it is called a regular decagon, and may be inscribed in a circle. The sides of a regular decagon are in power and length equal to the greatest segment of a hexagon, inscribed in the same circle and cut in extreme and mean proportion.

=Decamp, To.= To march an army or body of men from the ground where it before lay encamped. It also signifies to quit any place or position in an unexpected manner.

=Decanus.= In Roman military history, a petty officer who presided over the 10 soldiers of his contubernium, or those living in the same ten.

=Deccan.= An extensive region of India; invaded by the Mohammedans in 1294. About 1686-90, Aurungzebe I. recovered the Deccan, but soon lost great part of it to the Mahrattas. A large part of the Deccan was ceded to the English in 1818.

=Deceased Officers and Soldiers.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 125, 126.

=Dechargeurs= (Fr.). Are men appointed to attend the park of artillery, and to assist the non-commissioned officers, etc., who are employed on that service. It is the duty of the former to keep a specific account of articles received and consumed, in order to enable the latter to furnish their officers with accurate statements.

=Decimation.= A military punishment inflicted among the Romans on cowardly or mutinous troops. It consisted in selecting by lot one-tenth of the whole body of troops who misbehaved, and putting them to death. There have been a few instances of this species of punishment in modern times. In 1642 the Archduke Leopold employed it against a regiment of cavalry; Marshal Créqui also had recourse to it against the mutinous garrison of Trèves, and before the battle of Waterloo Blücher is said to have punished in this manner a body of mutinous troops.

=Decisions.= In courts-martial, the majority of votes decides all questions as to the admission or rejection of evidence, and on other points involving law or custom. If equally divided, the doubt is in favor of the prisoner.

=Declaration of Independence.= This celebrated document by which the thirteen United Colonies of America announced their intention of taking their affairs into their own hands, renouncing their allegiance to Great Britain, and asserting their freedom, was drawn up by Thomas Jefferson, and received the unanimous approval of the delegates in the Congress of the Colonies, July 4, 1776.

=Declaration of War.= The formal announcement by a government of its intention to wage war against another, is a proceeding which is observed among all civilized nations. In the United States the declaration of war is a power exercised by Congress alone. During the age of chivalry, a herald made declaration of war at the enemy’s court, his tabard on his arm.

=Decompte= (Fr.). Signifies a liquidation or balance, which from time to time was made in the old French service, between the captain of a company and each private soldier for money advanced or in hand.

=Decoration Day.= The anniversary, in the United States, on which flowers are placed on soldiers’ graves, and which is observed on May 30. This day was set apart for the purpose mentioned soon after the war of the Rebellion, 1861-65.

=Decoration, Military.= A medal, cross of honor, etc., bestowed for distinguished services.

=Decorations.= In pyrotechny, are the compositions which are placed in the heads of rockets, in paper shells, etc., to make a brilliant display when the receptacle is burst.

=Decouplé.= In heraldry, signifies severed or disjoined, so that the ends stand at a distance from one another, as a chevron decouplé.

=Decoy.= To lead or to entice into a snare; to lead into danger by artifice; to entrap. An enemy is said to be decoyed when a small body of troops draws them in to action, whilst the main body lies in ambush ready to act with the greatest effect.

=Decrement.= Is a heraldic term by which the wane of the moon is indicated. Decrescent and decours are also used in the same sense. A moon decrescent is a half-moon with her horns turned to the sinister.

=Decurion.= An officer in the Roman cavalry, who commanded a decuria, which was a body consisting of 10 men.

=Deeg.= A strong fortress of Hindostan, in the province of Agra, which was captured by the British arms under Gen. Lake in 1804.

=Deep.= A term used in the disposition or arrangements of soldiers placed in ranks before each other; hence, two deep, three deep, etc. Deep line of operations, a long line.

=Default.= A military offense, in the British service, is so called.

=Defaulter.= A soldier who has been guilty of a military offense. It is generally applied to men sentenced to confinement to barracks, and attaches to them until the completion of their punishment.

=Defaulter Book.= The book in which the defaulter sheets are contained. The regimental defaulter book containing regimental, and the company defaulter book company, defaults.

=Defaulters’ Sheet.= For every soldier there are two sheets of foolscap paper, in one of which, called his company defaulter sheet, are entered all offenses and the punishments awarded. The other, called the regimental defaulter sheet, contains only offenses for which a man has been punished by more than seven days confined to barracks, or other awards considered of equal gravity.

=Defeat.= This word expresses the complete want of success of an army; a repulse signifying less, and a rout more, than defeat.

=Defeat.= To resist with success; as, to defeat an assault.

=Defection.= The act of abandoning a person or cause to which one is bound by allegiance or duty, or to which one has attached himself.

=Defend.= To secure against attack; to maintain; as, to defend a town; to defend a cause.

=Defender.= One who defends; one who maintains, supports, protects, etc.

=Defense.= In military law, is the defendant’s answer to the plea; an opposing or denial of the truth or validity of the plaintiff’s case; the method of proceeding adopted by the defendant to protect himself against the plaintiff’s action.

=Defense.= In fortification, consists of all sorts of works that cover and defend the opposite posts; as flanks, parapets, casements, etc.

=Defense, Active.= Comprehends every species of offensive operation which is resorted to by the besieged to annoy the besiegers.

=Defense, Distant.= Consists in being able to interrupt the enemy’s movements by circuitous inundations; to inundate, for instance, a bridge, when a convoy is passing, or to insulate batteries, the heads of saps or lodgments which have been made in the covert way. By this species of defense an enemy’s communications may be perpetually intercepted, and his approaches so obstructed as to force him to leave dangerous intervals.

=Defense, Line of.= Represents the flight of a rifle-ball from the place where the soldiers stand, to scour the face of the bastion. The line of defense should never exceed the range of a rifle. It is either fichant or rayant. The first is when it is drawn from the angle; the last, when it is drawn from a point in the curtain, ranging the face of the bastion in fortification.

=Defense, Lines of.= Are the distances between the salient angle of the bastion and the opposite flank; that is, the faces produced to the flanks.

=Defense, Passing.= Is chiefly confined to inundations, and is effected by letting out water in such a manner that the level ground which lies round a fortified town or place may be entirely overflowed, and become an inert stagnant pool.

=Defensive.= A force is said to be on the defensive, or to assume a defensive attitude, when it takes up a position to receive an attack.

=Defensive War.= See WAR, DEFENSIVE.

=Defilading=, or =Defilement=. The art of arranging the plan and profile of works, so that their lines shall not be liable to enfilade, nor their interior to plunging or reverse fire.

=Defile.= A narrow passage, or road, through which troops cannot march otherwise than by making a small front and filing off.

=Defile, To.= To reduce a body of troops into a small front, in order to march through a defile; also, to defilade.

=Deformer= (Fr.). In a military sense, signifies to break; as, deformer une colonne, to break a column.

=Dégat= (Fr.). The laying waste an enemy’s country, particularly in the neighborhood of a town which an army attempts to reduce by famine, or which refuses to pay military exactions.

=Degorgeoir= (Fr.). A sort of steel pricker used in examining the vent of a cannon; a priming wire.

=Degradation.= In military life, the act of depriving an officer forever of his commission, rank, dignity, or degree of honor, and taking away at the same time every title, badge, or privilege he may possess.

=Degraded.= In heraldry, means placed upon steps or degrees.

=Degsestan, Battle of.= See SCOTLAND.

=Dehors.= In the military art, all sorts of outworks in general, placed at some distance from the walls of a fortification, the better to secure the main places, and to protect the siege, etc.

=Delaware.= One of the Middle States of the United States, and one of the original thirteen. It derives its name (as do the Delaware River and Bay and Delaware Indians) from Thomas West, lord de la Warr, who visited the bay in 1610, and died on his vessel at its mouth. It was first settled by the Swedes and Dutch, but came into possession of the English in 1664, and formed part of the grant to William Penn in 1682. In 1701 it was separated from Pennsylvania, though subject to the same governor down to the period of the Revolution, to the success of which it contributed its full share, and for the maintenance of the results of which it has ever been a zealous advocate.

=Delaware Indians.= A tribe of aborigines, called by themselves Lenni-Lenape, who formerly lived on the Delaware River, but are now settled in Indian Territory, on the Wichita Agency, with the Caddos. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Delf.= A heraldic charge representing a square sod or turf, the term being probably derived from the word delve, to dig. A delf tenné is the appropriate abatement for him who revokes his challenge, or otherwise goes from his word.

=Delhi.= A celebrated city of Northern India, situated on an offset of the river Jumna. The city was taken by a British army under Lord Lake, September 8, 1803, and has ever since continued under British rule. In 1857 it was held by the Sepoys, who murdered several English subjects, but was retaken, after a successful assault, September, 1857.

=Deliver Battle.= A term taken from the French livrer bataille, meaning to enter practically upon a contest; the opposing armies being in sight of each other.

=Dellamcotta.= A fortress of Northern Hindostan, in the province of Bootan, commanding the principal pass into that province. It was stormed by the British troops in 1773, which so alarmed the Booteans that they petitioned for peace. The fortress was then restored to them.

=Dellis.= Were Bosnian and Albanian horsemen, who served without pay in the Turkish armies.

=Delphi= (now Castri). An ancient town of Phocis, Greece, celebrated on account of its oracle of Apollo. Its temple was burnt by the Pisistratidæ, 548 B.C. A new temple was raised by the Alcmæonidæ. The Persians (480 B.C.) and the Gauls (279 B.C.) were deterred from plundering the temple by awful portents. It was, however, robbed and seized by the Phocians, 357 B.C., which led to the Sacred War, and Nero carried from it 300 costly statues in 67 A.D.

=Demembré=, or =Dismembered=. A heraldic term signifying that the members of an animal are cut from its body.

=Demerara and Essequibo.= Colonies in Guiana, South America, founded by the Dutch in 1580, were taken by the British, under Maj.-Gen. Whyte, April 22, 1796, but were restored at the peace of Amiens, 1802. They again surrendered to the British under Gen. Grinfield and Commodore Hood, September, 1803, and became English colonies in 1814.

=Demi=, or =Demy=. In heraldry, an animal is said to be demi when only the upper or fore half of it is represented.

=Demi-bastion.= A piece in fortification, which generally terminates the branches of crown-works or horn-works towards their head.

=Demi-brigade.= A half brigade.

=Demi-cannon.= A kind of ordnance, anciently used, carrying a ball of from 30 to 36 pounds in weight.

=Demi-culverin.= A kind of ordnance anciently used, carrying a ball of 9 or 10 pounds in weight.

=Demi-distances= (Fr.). Half distances; as, serrez la colonne à demi-distances, close to the column at half distances.

=Demi-file= (Fr.). Is that rank in a French battalion which immediately succeeds to the serre-demi-file, and is at the head of the remaining half of its depth.

=Demi-gorge.= In fortification, is half the gorge or entrance into the bastion, not taken directly from angle to angle, where the bastion joins the curtain, but from the angle of the flank to the centre of the bastion, or the angle which the two curtains would make by their prolongation.

=Demihag.= A long pistol, much used in the 16th century.

=Demi-lance.= A light lance; half-pike. Also a light horseman who carried a lance.

=Demi-lune.= In fortification, is a work constructed beyond the main ditch of a fortress, and in front of the curtain between two bastions, intended to defend the curtain; a ravelin.

=Demi-parallel.= In fortification, is a place of arms formed between the second and third parallels to protect the head of the sap.

=Demi-pike.= A kind of spontoon, 7 feet long, used by infantry or for boarding.

=Demi-place d’Armes.= In fortification, a circular trench constructed upon the prolongation of the lines of the covered way, to the right and left of the zigzags, to cover the troops employed in their defense.

=Demi-revetment.= A revetment of the scarf only to the height protected by the glacis.

=Demmin.= A town of Prussia, on the river Peene, on the borders of Pomerania and Mecklenburg. It is a town of considerable antiquity, having been a place of importance in the time of Charlemagne, and is noted for the number of sieges it has sustained. Its fortifications were destroyed in 1759. In 1807 several engagements took place here between the French and Russians.

=Demonstration.= In military operations, is an apparent movement, the chief object of which is to deceive the enemy, and induce him to divide his force, as if to meet dangers from various quarters. When thus divided and weakened, he may be attacked with greater chance of success.

=Denain.= A village of France, department of the North. It is celebrated in history as the scene of the decisive victory gained in 1712 by Marshal Villars over the allies commanded by Prince Eugène.

=Denbigh.= The capital town of the county of the same name, North Wales. In ancient times it was a place of great military importance. The castle was gallantly held by Col. William Salisbury for the king during the civil wars of the revolution, but finally surrendered to the Parliamentary forces under Gen. Mytton.

=Dendermonde.= A town of Belgium, in the province of East Flanders. It is fortified, and has a citadel dating from 1584, and possessing the means of laying the surrounding country under water in case of an attack. Louis XIV. besieged it in vain in 1667, but Marlborough, aided by a long drought, succeeded in taking it in 1706.

=Denmark.= A kingdom of Northern Europe, which, with Sweden and Norway, was originally called Scandinavia. In ancient times it was occupied by a fierce and warlike people, whose principal occupation was piracy. In 832 the Danes landed in England, and there established two kingdoms, and two centuries afterwards the conquest of England was completed by Canute, king of Denmark. In the 15th century Christian I. connected Norway, Sleswick, and Holstein with the crown of Denmark, but in consequence of siding with Napoleon, Denmark was obliged to cede Norway to Sweden in 1814. In 1848 Sleswick and Holstein revolted, the duchies being aided by Prussia and other powers of the Germanic Confederation, who, however, concluded a peace on their own account, July 2, 1850. The duchies continued the war, were defeated at Idstet, July 25, 1850, and peace was restored by the intervention of the powers in January, 1851. Hostilities again commenced in 1863, and were terminated by the peace of Vienna in 1864, Denmark renouncing all claim on Sleswick-Holstein.

=Dennewitz.= A small village in the province of Brandenburg, Prussia. Here was fought, on the 6th of September, 1813, a battle between 70,000 French, Saxons, and Poles, commanded by Marshal Ney, and 45,000 Prussians, under Gen. Tauentzien. Both armies more than once drove each other from their positions, but the Prussians finally prevailed, and Ney gave orders to retreat. At this moment Bernadotte, crown-prince of Sweden, appeared at the head of a large army, and turned the retreat of the French army into a complete rout.

=Denonciateur= (Fr.). In a general sense, may not improperly be called a military informer. So rigid indeed were the regulations (even in the most corrupt state of the French government) against every species of misapplication and embezzlement, that if a private dragoon gave information to the commissary of musters of a troop horse that had passed muster, having been used in the private service of an officer, he was not only entitled to his discharge, but received, moreover, 100 livres in cash, and became master of the horse and equipage, with which he retired unmolested. The officer was summarily dealt with.

=Densimeter.= An apparatus for obtaining the specific gravity of gunpowder by immersing it in mercury. It consists of an open vessel containing mercury, a frame supporting a glass globe communicating by a tube with the mercury in the open vessel, and joined at top to a graduated glass tube, which communicates by a flexible tube with an ordinary air-pump. Stop-cocks are inserted in the tubes above and below the glass globe, and a diaphragm of chamois-skin is placed over the bottom orifice and one of wire cloth over the top orifice of the globe. The arrangement allows the globe to be filled with mercury to any mark on the graduated tube, or with gunpowder and mercury. The globe can be taken off and weighed in both cases. The specific gravity is obtained from the relation between the weights in the two cases.

=Density.= The density or specific gravity of gunpowder is one of its most important properties. In the form of dust, the velocity of combustion increases rapidly with the density up to about 1.60, when it decreases. In grained powder the velocity of combustion decreases as the density increases. For English or American powder this velocity is about four-tenths of an inch per second. For French and most of the continental powders, which are less dense than the English, it is about forty-eight-hundredths of an inch. The excellent preservative qualities of English and American powders are largely due to their high densities,--the standard being about 1.75. A certain degree of density is absolutely essential to grain powder to prevent the inflamed gases from penetrating the pores of the powder and flashing off the whole mass to the destruction of the gun. In the manufacture of powder the density depends, first, upon the amount of trituration to which the ingredients are subjected in the incorporating mill; second, upon the pressure employed to form the cake; and, third, upon the degree of moisture it contains when subjected to these operations, particularly the last. The pressure-gauge is not a reliable measure of the density given to a powder, though a good indication of the hardness, with which density must not be confounded. Dry powder meal offers a great resistance to compression, but becomes very hard,--the work being consumed in consolidating the surface particles. To obtain uniform density a certain amount of moisture is necessary to assist the particles in their movement. As much as 6 per cent. of moisture is used in making prismatic powder.

=Department Commander.= See GEOGRAPHICAL DEPARTMENT, COMMANDER OF.

=Department, Military.= A military subdivision of a country. The whole territory of the United States is divided into military departments, each under a general officer. See GEOGRAPHICAL DEPARTMENT, COMMANDER OF.

=Department of War.= That department of a government which takes charge of all matters relating to war. See SECRETARY OF WAR.

=Depenses= (Fr.). In a military sense, implies secret service money.

=Deploy.= Signifies a military movement, in which a body of troops is spread out in such a way that they shall display a wider front and a smaller depth than before deploying. To ploy is to execute the reverse of this movement.

=Deployment.= The act of unfolding or expanding any given body of men, in order to extend their front.

=Deposits, Soldiers’.= Soldiers in the U. S. service may deposit with the paymaster any portion of their savings, in sums not less than $5, the same to remain so deposited until final payment on discharge. Interest on deposits at the rate of 4 per cent. per annum will be paid on final settlement upon each deposit from the date thereof to date of discharge. No interest is payable, however, upon any deposit of less than $50, or upon any sum, whatever its amount, which has been on deposit for a less period than six months prior to date of discharge. Deposits are forfeited by desertion.

=Depot.= Any place at which military stores are deposited for the use of an army. It also signifies a fort or other suitable place appropriated for the reception of recruits, or detached parties belonging to different regiments. In fortification, the term is likewise used to denote a particular place at the trail of the trenches out of the reach of the cannon of a besieged place. It is here that besiegers generally assemble when ordered to attack the outworks, or support the troops in the trenches when there is reason to imagine the besieged intend making a sally.

=Depredate.= To take plunder or prey; to commit waste; as, the troops depredated on the country; also, in an active sense, to plunder or pillage; to spoil; to lay waste.

=Depressed Gun.= Any piece of ordnance having its mouth depressed below the horizontal line.

=Depression.= The pointing of any piece of ordnance so that its shot may be projected short of the point-blank.

=Depth.= A technical word, peculiarly applicable to bodies of men drawn up in line or column. The depth of a battalion or squadron is the number of men in rank and file from front to rear.

=Deputy-Marshal.= In the British service, is the senior sergeant-major of each regiment of Foot Guards, who sees after and makes out the routes of deserters, and receives an allowance for so doing.

=Deraser= (Fr.). To cut off the superfluous clay from a gun-mold previous to its being placed in the pit.

=Derayeh, El.= A town of Arabia, nearly in the centre of the district called El Nedjed. It is tolerably well fortified, but after a siege of seven months, in 1819, it was nearly destroyed by the troops of Ibrahim Pasha.

=Derbend=, or =Derbent=. A town of Russia, the capital of the province of Daghestan. It is surrounded by strong walls and flanked and strengthened by massive bastions. It was taken from Persia by Russia in 1722, restored to the former power in 1735, and retaken by the Muscovites in 1795.

=Derivation= (Fr.). Drift of rifle projectiles. See PROJECTILES.

=Descend.= In a military sense, means to make an attack or incursion as if from a vantage-ground.

=Descents.= In fortification, are the holes, vaults, and hollow places made by undermining the ground.

=Descents into the Ditch.= Cuts and excavations made by means of saps in the counterscarp, beneath the covert way. They are covered with thick boards and hurdles; and a certain quantity of earth is thrown upon the top in order to obviate the bad effects which might arise from shells, etc.

=Descriptive Book.= A book in which descriptive lists of the soldiers belonging to a company are kept.

=Descriptive List of Soldier.= A paper giving a short history of the soldier, a description of his person, and the statement of his account. It accompanies him wherever he goes, being intrusted to his detachment or company commander.

=Descriptive Memoir.= This memoir, which should always accompany a sketch of a topographical reconnoissance, is intended to convey that information relating to the natural features of the ground not expressed upon the sketch; to express that information for which there are no conventional signs, and to present those facts relative to the ground which become important by being considered in connection with the probable military operations to be undertaken.

=Desenzano.= A town of Lombardy, in the province of Brescia. Garibaldi, in command of the Italian volunteers, defeated an Austrian force near this place in 1859.

=Desert.= To quit a service without permission; to run away; as, to desert from the army; to forsake in violation of duty; as, to desert one’s colors.

=Deserter.= A soldier who absconds, during the period for which he is enlisted, from the service of the army or navy. In England this crime was by certain old statutes made punishable with death, but now the punishment is left to the discretion of a court-martial. In the United States, deserters in the time of war may be sentenced to death, but in time of peace the penalty for this offense is lighter.

=Desertion.= The act of absence from duty without intention to return. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 47.

=Despatch=, or =Dispatch=. An official military letter sent by the commander of an army in the field to the authorities at home. The term is also applied to the military letters giving an account of military operations sent by subordinate officers holding detached commands to the general of an army in the field. See DISPATCHES.

=Detach.= To separate for a special object or use; as, to send out a body of men on some particular service, separate from that of the main body.

=Detached Bastion.= In fortification, is that basis which is separated from the enceinte by a ditch.

=Detached Works.= In fortification, are such outworks as are detached, or at a distance from the body of the place; such as half-moons, ravelins, bastions, etc.

=Detachment.= In military affairs, an uncertain number of men drawn out from several regiments or camps equally, to march or be employed as the general may think proper, whether on an attack, at a siege, or in parties to scour the country. A detachment of 2000 or 3000 men is a command for a general officer, 800 for a colonel, 500 for lieutenant-colonel, 200 or 300 for a major, 80 or 100 for a captain, 40 for a lieutenant, 12 for a sergeant, and 6 for a corporal.

=Detachment, Gun.= The men required for the service of a piece of artillery.

=Detachment, Manœuvring.= The men required for mechanical manœuvres of a siege or sea-coast gun.

=Detail for Duty.= Is a roster, or table, for the regular performance of duty either in camp or garrison. The general detail is regulated by the adjutant-general, according to the strength of the several corps. The adjutant of each regiment superintends the detail of officers and non-commissioned officers for duty, and orderly sergeants detail the privates.

=Detmold.= A town of Northwestern Germany, capital of the principality of Lippe-Detmold, on the Werra. In the vicinity is the battle-field on which the army of Varus was destroyed by the Germans under Arminius, in 9 A.D.

=Detonating Powder.= A term applied in chemistry to fulminating mercury and silver, and to other compounds which suddenly explode when struck or heated. Some of these compounds have been much used for the ignition of gunpowder in percussion locks.

=Detonation.= The instantaneous conversion of an explosive into gas; a term applied to the phenomena attending the explosion of certain substances, such as nitro-glycerine, chloride of nitrogen, iodide of nitrogen, gun-cotton, the picrates, etc. Detonation, or explosion of the first order, is distinguished from ordinary explosion, or explosion of the second order, by the different way in which the explosion is propagated. Ordinary explosion proceeds by inflammation, being nothing more than a rapid combustion. Detonation is propagated by vibration. A detonating agent is a substance used to produce the initial vibration, or “impulse of explosion.” The exploder, or cap, used for this purpose is usually primed with fulminate of mercury, a substance having a wide range in bringing about detonation in the high explosives.

=Dettingen.= A village of Bavaria, on the Maine. It is noted for a victory gained by the English, under George II., over the French, commanded by Marshal Noailles, in 1743.

=Devastation.= In warfare, is the act of destroying, laying waste, demolishing, or unpeopling towns, etc.

=Deviation of Projectiles.= See PROJECTILES.

=Device.= The emblem on a shield or standard.

=Devicotta.= A fort and seaport town in the south of India, and district of Tanjore. It was taken in 1749 from the rajah of Tanjore.

=Devonshire.= A maritime county in the southwest peninsula of England, between the Bristol and English Channels. The Saxons failed to conquer Devonshire till the 9th century. It was ravaged by the Danes in the 9th and 10th centuries, and by the Irish in the 11th century. In 1688 the Prince of Orange landed at Tor Bay, in this county.

=Deyrah=, or =Dehra=. A town of Northern Hindostan, and the principal place of the British province designated the Deyrah Doon. During the Nepaul war in 1815, the Deyrah Doon became the scene of military operations, and acquired a mournful celebrity by the obstinate defense made by the Goorkhas at Kalunga, or Nalapani, in the siege of which the British lost a considerable number of men, including their gallant commander, Gen. Gillespie.

=Diable= (Devil-carriage), Fr. A truck-carriage on four trucks, for carrying mortars, etc., to short distances; it is provided with draught-hooks at each end, so as to be drawn to front or rear.

=Diameter.= In both a military and geometrical sense, implies a right line passing through the centre of a circle, and terminated at each end by the circumference thereof.

=Diaphragm Shell.= An obsolete spherical shell formerly used in the English service, so named from the arrangement of the interior.

=Diapré.= A term applied in heraldry to fields and charges relieved by arabesque and geometrical patterns. This ornamentation, not affecting the heraldic value of the objects to which it was applied, was generally left to the fancy of the painter.

=Diarbekir.= A city of Asiatic Turkey, and capital of the pashalic of Diarbekir. This place was successively taken, retaken, and destroyed, in the ancient wars between the Persians and Romans. It was pillaged by Tamerlane in the year 1393; and was successively taken and retaken by the Persian kings, until it was conquered by Selim, the first sultan of the Osmanli Turks, in the year 1515. In 1605 it again fell into the power of Persia; but it was afterwards retaken by the Turks, under whose dominion it has since continued.

=Dictator.= In the earliest times, was the name of the highest magistrate of the Latin Confederation, and in some of the Latin towns the title was continued long after these towns were subjected to the dominion of Rome. In the Roman republic the dictator was an extraordinary magistrate, irresponsible and endowed with absolute authority. The dictatorship could not lawfully be held longer than six months. Dictators were only appointed so long as the Romans had to carry on wars in and out of Italy, or when any vigorous measure had to be acted upon. The limits of his power were as follows: he could not touch the treasury; he could not leave Italy; and he could not ride through Rome on horseback without previously obtaining the permission of the people.

=Dideon’s Formulas.= Certain equations relating to the trajectory of a projectile in the air, obtained by Capt. Dideon of Metz by integrating the differential equations of the trajectory under certain assumptions as to the law of the resistance, etc. See PROJECTILES, TRAJECTORY, IN AIR.

=Diego.= A very strong and heavy sword.

=Diest.= A town of Belgium, in Southern Brabant, on the Demer. This town was taken by the Duke of Marlborough in 1705, but retaken by the French, and dismantled, in the same year. Since 1830 it has been surrounded with fortifications and made a place of great strength.

=Dietary, Military.= See SUBSISTENCE OF ARMIES and FOOD.

=Dieu et Mon Droit= (Fr.). “God and my Right.” The motto of the royal arms of England, first assumed by Richard I., to intimate that he did not hold his empire in vassalage of any mortal. It was afterwards assumed by Edward III., and was continued without interruption to the time of William, who used the motto Je maintiendray, though the former was still retained upon the great seal. After him Anne used the motto Semper eadem; but ever since her time Dieu et mon droit has continued to be the royal motto.

=Differences.= In heraldry, are marks introduced into a coat of arms to distinguish brothers and their descendants from the father or head of the house, while he is alive; marks of cadency being used for a similar purpose after his death.

=Differential Pulley.= A hoisting apparatus consisting of an endless chain and two pulleys of slightly different diameters. The chain winds upon one while unwinding from the other. It is attached to a crane, and used to hoist heavy shot to the muzzle of large cannon.

=Dijon.= An ancient walled city of France, chief town of the department of Côte-d’Or. It has been several times captured in war. It was attacked by the Germans under Gen. Beyer, October 30, 1870. The heights and suburbs were taken by Prince William of Baden, and the town surrendered October 31.

=Dike=, or =Dyke=. A channel to receive water; also a dam or mound, to prevent inundation. Dikes differ from sluices; the former being intended only to oppose the flowing of other water into a river, or to confine the stream by means of strong walls, pieces of timber, or a double row of hurdles, the intervals of which are filled with earth, stones, or pebbles.

=Dimachæ.= In ancient military affairs, were a kind of horsemen, answering to the dragoons of the moderns.

=Dimidiation.= In heraldry, a mode of marshaling arms, adopted chiefly before quartering and impaling according to the modern practice came into use, and subsequently retained to some extent in continental, though not in English heraldry. It consists in cutting two coats of arms in halves by a vertical line, and uniting the dexter half of one to the sinister half of the other. Coats of husband and wife were often so marshaled in England in the 13th and 14th centuries.

=Diminish.= In a military sense, means to decrease the front of a battalion; to adopt the columns of march, or manœuvre according to the obstructions and difficulties which it meets in advancing.

=Diminished Angle.= Is that formed by the exterior side and line of defense in fortification.

=Diminutions.= A word sometimes used in heraldry for differences, marks of cadency, and brisures, indifferently.

=Dinan.= A town of France, in the department of Côtes-du-Nord, situated on the Rance. This place was often besieged during the Middle Ages; in 1373 was taken by Du Guesclin, and in 1379 by De Clisson.

=Dinant.= A town of Belgium, on the Meuse, 14 miles south from Namur. It was taken by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1466, when 800 of its inhabitants were taken by twos, tied back to back, and thrown into the Meuse. The town was also razed to the ground; but in 1493 it was rebuilt. In 1554 and 1675 it was again taken by the French.

=Dinapore=, or =Dinapoor=. A town of British India, in the presidency of Bengal, on the Ganges. It is an important military station, containing extensive barracks and cantonments for English and native troops.

=Dindigul.= Capital of a district in the south of India, in the presidency of Madras. It was captured by the British troops, under Col. Stuart, in 1790.

=Dipping of the Muzzle.= A piece of artillery when fired has been explained by the action of the vent in bringing increased pressure on the elevating screw or quoin, the reaction from which throws down the muzzle.

=Direct Fire.= See FIRE, DIRECT.

=Directing Sergeant.= When a company is being drilled in marching, a sergeant distinguished for precision in marching is selected, who is called a directing sergeant, and placed in front of the guide on the line established. This sergeant is charged with the direction and step, and marches on points selected by himself directly in front of him. The right guide of the company marches straight in the trace of the directing sergeant.

=Direction.= In military mechanics, signifies the line or path of a body in motion, along which it endeavors to force its way, according to the propelling power that is given to it.

=Direction.= In gunnery, is that element of pointing which relates to the movement of the piece around an imaginary vertical axis. The direction is given when the plane of sight passes through the object. Elevation is a movement about a horizontal axis.

=Directory.= In the history of France, the name given by the constitution of 1795, to an executive body composed of five members of the French republic. They assumed authority in a moment of immense peril. France was environed with gigantic adversaries, while distrust, discontent, and the malice of rival factions made her internal administration almost hopeless. The frantic heroism of her soldiers saved her from spoliation by the foreigner; but, on the contrary, the home policy of the Directory was deplorable. In 1799 the Directory was overthrown by the coup d’état of the 18th Brumaire, November 9, 1799, and was succeeded by the Consulate.

=Dirk.= Is a short dagger which at various times and in various countries has been much used as a weapon of defense. It is still worn by Highland regiments in the British service.

=Dirk-knife.= A clasp-knife, having a large, dirk-like blade.

=Disability.= State of being disabled; want of competent physical or intellectual power. When a soldier becomes disabled from exposure, accidents, or other causes, he is discharged from the service on a surgeon’s certificate of disability, which enables him to draw a pension.

=Disarm.= To deprive of arms; to take away the weapons of; to deprive of the means of attack or defense.

=Disarmament.= The act of disarming.

=Disarmed.= Soldiers divested of their arms, either by conquest, or in consequence of some defection.

=Disarmer.= One who disarms.

=Disarray.= To throw into disorder; to break the array of.

=Disarray.= Want of array or regular order; disorder.

=Disbanding.= Is the breaking up of a military organization and the discharge of soldiers from military duty.

=Disbursing Officer.= An officer whose special function is to make disbursements of money.

=Discharge.= From military service, is obtained by non-commissioned officers and privates by expiration of term of service, which varies in different countries; on surgeon’s certificate of disability, and by special authority for various reasons, when recommended by the commanding officer. Soldiers are also discharged with ignominy for great offenses, being in some cases stripped of their decorations and drummed out of the service.

=Disciplinarian.= An officer who pays particular regard to the discipline or the soldiers under his command.

=Discipline.= In military and naval affairs, is a general name for the rules and regulations prescribed and enforced for the proper conduct and subordination of the soldiers, etc. This is the technical meaning. In a higher sense discipline is the habit of obedience. The soldier acquires the habit of subordinating his own will, pleasure, and inclinations to those of his superior. When the habit has become so strong that it is second nature, the soldier is disciplined.

=Discomfit.= Defeat, rout, overthrow.

=Discretion.= Se rendre à discrétion, surrendering unconditionally to a victorious enemy.

=Disembarkation.= The act of landing troops from a boat or ship. The term has lately been applied to the act of quitting a railway train.

=Disembody.= To disarm a military body, and to dispense with its services.

=Disengage.= To separate the wings of a battalion or regiment, which is necessary when the battalion countermarches from its centre and on its centre by files. It likewise means to clear a column or line which may have lost its proper front by the overlapping of any particular division. It also signifies to extricate oneself and the troops commanded from a critical situation. It likewise means to break suddenly from any particular order in line or column, and to repair to some rallying-point.

=Disengage.= In fencing, means to quit that side of an adversary’s blade on which one is opposed by his guard, in order to effect a cut or thrust where an opportunity may present.

=Disgarnish.= To take guns from a fortress.

=Disgarrison.= To deprive of a garrison.

=Dishelm.= To deprive of the helmet; to take the helmet from.

=Dish of a Wheel.= Is the inclination outward of the spokes when fastened in the nave.

=Dislodge.= To drive an enemy from a position.

=Dismantle.= To render fortifications incapable of defense, or cannon unserviceable.

=Dismiss.= To discard, or deprive an officer of his commission or warrant. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OR WAR.

=Dismount.= To dismount the cavalry is to use them as infantry. Guards, when relieved, are said to dismount. They are to be marched with the utmost regularity to the parade-ground where they were formed, and from thence to their regimental or company parades, previously to being dismissed to their quarters. To dismount cannon, is to break their carriages, wheels, etc., so as to render them unfit for service. It also implies dismounting by the gin, etc.

=Disobedience of Orders.= Any infraction, by neglect or willful omission, of orders. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 21.

=Dispart.= In gunnery, half the difference between the diameter of the base-ring at the breech of a gun and that of the swell of the muzzle. In guns which have no front sights, it is therefore the tangent of the natural angle of sight to a radius equal to the distance from the rear of the base-ring, or base-line, to the highest point of the swell of the muzzle, measured parallel to the axis. For convenience the muzzle sight is usually made equal in height to the dispart in modern guns,--giving a natural line of sight parallel to the axis of the piece.

=Dispatches.= Official messages. In war, important dispatches which have to pass through the enemy’s country, or in the vicinity of his forces, are only intrusted to officers to whom their contents can be confided. Dispatches are frequently in cipher, especially when telegraphed or signaled with a liability to interception. See DESPATCH.

=Disperse.= To scatter any body of men, armed or unarmed, who may have assembled in an illegal or hostile manner. The cavalry are generally employed on these occasions.

=Displaced.= Officers in the British service are sometimes displaced from a particular regiment in consequence of misconduct, but they are at liberty to serve in any other corps.

=Display, To.= In a military sense, is to extend the front of a column, and thereby bring it into line.

=Displayed.= In heraldic usage, means expanded; as, an eagle displaced, or what is commonly known as a spread eagle.

=Displume.= To deprive of decoration or ornament; to degrade.

=Dispose.= To dispose cannon, is to place it in such a manner that its discharge may do the greatest mischief.

=Disposition.= In a general sense, is the just placing of an army or body of men upon the most advantageous ground, and in the strongest situation, for a vigorous attack or defense.

=Disposition de Guerre= (Fr.). Warlike arrangement or disposition. Under this head may be considered the mode of establishing, combining, conducting, and finally terminating a war, so as to produce success and victory.

=Disrespect to a Commanding Officer.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 20.

=Disrespectful Words.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 19.

=Distance.= In military formation, signifies the relative space which is left between men standing under arms in rank, or the interval which appears between those ranks.

=Distance of the Bastion.= In fortification, is the term applied to the exterior polygon.

=Distances of Objects.= See POINTING.

=Distribution.= Means, generally, any division or allotment made for the purposes of war; also minor arrangements made for the supply of corps.

=District, Military.= One of those portions into which a country is divided, for the convenience of command, and to insure a co-operation between distant bodies of troops.

=Disvelloped=, or =Developed=. Are heraldic terms applied to the colors of a regiment, or army, when they are flying.

=Ditch.= In fortification, is an excavation made round the works, from which the earth required for the construction of the rampart and parapet is obtained. Ditches are of two kinds, wet and dry; but in modern fortification the dry ditch is considered preferable to the wet one. When the excavation is on the side farthest from the enemy it is called a trench.

=Diu.= A once celebrated island and fortress of Hindostan, in the peninsula of Kattywar. In 1515 the Portuguese gained possession of it; they fortified it, and in ten years rendered it impregnable against all the powers of India. With the decline of Portuguese power it fell into decay, and was plundered by the Arabs of Muscat in 1670.

=Diversion.= An attack upon an enemy in a place where he is weak and unprovided, in order to draw off his forces from making an irruption elsewhere; or a manœuvre, where an enemy is strong, which obliges him to detach part of his forces to resist any feint or menacing attempt of his opponent.

=Divest.= To strip of clothes, arms, or equipage.

=Divine Service.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 52.

=Division.= In military matters, is one section of an army, comprising 2 or more brigades, commanded by a general officer. In regimental formation, 2 companies of a regiment or battalion constitute a division, when in column.

=Dizier, St.= A town of France, on the Marne. The emperor Charles V. besieged and took this place in 1544; and in its neighborhood Napoleon defeated the allies in two battles fought January 27 and March 26, 1814.

=Djokjokarta.= A Dutch residency of Java, near the middle of the south coast of that island. The town of the same name is the seat of a Dutch resident and a native sultan, who has a body-guard of young females, completely armed and equipped, some of whom do duty on horseback. It was taken by the British in 1812.

=Dobrudscha= (anc. Scythia Minor). A name used to denote the northeastern portion of Bulgaria. The Dobrudscha has long been a famous battle-ground. Some of the earliest incidents of the Russian war of 1854-56 took place here.

=Dolabra.= A rude ancient hatchet. They are represented on the columns of Trajan and Antoninus, and abound in all museums. When made of flint, which was their earliest and rudest form, they are usually called celts.

=Dôle.= A town of France, in the department of Jura, on the right bank of the Doubs. In 1479 it was taken by Louis XI., when the greater part of the town was destroyed, and many of its inhabitants were put to the sword. It subsequently came into the hands of the Spaniards, and was fortified by Charles V. in 1530. In 1636 it was ineffectually besieged by the Prince of Condé. In 1668 it was taken by the French; and again in 1674, when its fortifications were destroyed.

=Dolphins.= Two handles placed upon a piece of ordnance with their centres over the centre of gravity, by which it was mounted or dismounted. They are no longer in use in the U. S. service.

=Domingo, San.= The capital of the Spanish part of the island of Hayti, in the West Indies. About the year 1586 the city was sacked by Sir Francis Drake.

=Dominica.= An island in the West Indies, belonging to the Leeward group, lying about 20 miles to the north of Martinique. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was claimed alternately by England, France, and Spain: it was finally ceded to Great Britain in 1763.

=Dommage= (Fr.). In a general acceptation of the term, signified in the old French service, the compensation which every captain of a troop, or company, was obliged to make in consequence of any damage that their men might have done in a town, or on a march.

=Donabue.= A town in India, in the British province of Pegu. In 1825, during the Burmese war, it maintained a successful resistance against the assault of a British force under the command of Brigadier Cotton; and here in 1853, during the last war with the same nation, the British troops suffered a repulse in an encounter with a Burmese force, losing several officers.

=Donauwörth.= A town of Bavaria, situated at the confluence of the Wernitz and the Danube. Here Marlborough stormed and carried the intrenched camp of the Bavarians in 1704, and on October 6, 1805, the French under Soult obtained a victory over the Austrians under Mack.

=Donelson, Fort.= A position on a slight bend of the Cumberland River, in Tennessee, which was strongly fortified by the Confederates during the civil war. On the afternoon of February 14, 1862, Commodore Foote commenced with his gunboats an attack on this place, but met with a decided reverse. Meantime, Gen. Grant’s army, advancing from the capture of Fort Henry, gradually approached, and surrounded the fort, with occasional skirmishing on the line. Next day the Confederates attacked them, but were repulsed with loss, and finding all hope of reinforcements unavailing, they surrendered the fort on the 16th. About 10,000 prisoners, 40 pieces of artillery, and a large quantity of stores of all kinds fell into Gen. Grant’s hands.

=Dongola, New=, or =Maraka=. A town on the Nile, and capital of a province of the same name, in Nubia. Ibrahim Pasha took it from the Mamelukes in 1820.

=Donjon=, or =Dungeon=. The principal tower or keep of a castle or fortress. It was so called either from being placed on a dun or elevation, natural or artificial, or because, from its position, it dominated or commanded the other parts of the fortress. From the circumstance that the lower or under-ground story of the donjon was used as a prison, has come the modern meaning of the word dungeon.

=Doolee.= A palanquin litter, used in Indian armies, to carry sick and wounded men.

=Dormans.= In Northeast France. The Huguenots and their allies under Montmorency were here defeated by the Duke of Guise, October 10, 1575.

=Dormant.= (Fr.). Sleeping. In heraldic representation, an animal dormant has its head resting on its fore-paws, whereas an animal couchant has its head erect.

=Dornach.= A village of Switzerland, 20 miles northeast from Soleure, remarkable for the victory obtained by the Swiss over the Austrians, July 22, 1499, and which gave Switzerland her independence.

=Dorogoboozh=, =Dorogobush=, or =Dorogobouge=. A town of Russia, in the government of Smolensk. At this place the French were defeated by the Russians, October 12, 1812.

=Dosser.= In military matters, is a sort of basket, carried on the shoulders of men, used in carrying the earth from one part of a fortification to another, where it is required.

=Dossière= (Fr.). Back-piece of a cuirass.

=Douai=, or =Douay=. A fortified town of France, on the small river Scarpe, 18 miles south from Lille. This place was taken from the Flemings by Philip the Fair in 1297; restored by Charles V. in 1368. It reverted to Spain, from whom it was taken by Louis XIV. in 1667. It was captured by the allies, under the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugène, in 1710, but was retaken by the French, September 8, 1712.

=Double.= To unite, as ranks or files, so as to form one. To double upon, to inclose between two fires.

=Double-quick.= Performed in the time called double-quick; as, a double-quick step or march.

=Double-quick.= To move, or cause to move, in double-quick time.

=Double-rank.= A line formed of double files.

=Double-shell.= A shell used in the 7-inch English rifles. It is 27 inches long, and has a large cavity. To strengthen it against outside pressure it has three internal longitudinal ribs projecting about an inch into the cavity.

=Double-shotting.= Is an increase of the destructive power of ordnance by doubling the shot fired off at one time from a gun. Sometimes three shots are fired at once, in which case the piece is said to be treble-shotted.

=Double-time.= The fastest time or step in marching, next to the run, requiring 165 steps, each 33 inches in length, to be taken in one minute. The degree of swiftness may vary in urgent cases, and the number of steps be thus increased up to 180 per minute.

=Doubling.= The putting of two ranks of soldiers into one.

=Doublings.= The heraldic term for the linings of robes or mantles, or of the mantlings of achievements.

=Doullens.= A town of France, 15 miles northeast of Amiens. This place was taken by the allies in 1814.

=Doune.= A village of Perthshire, Scotland. The ruins of Doune Castle, a large and massive fortress built about the 14th century, are situated on the point of a steep and narrow elevation. Doune was held for Prince Charles in 1745, and here he confined his prisoners taken at Falkirk, among the rest the author of the tragedy of “Douglas.”

=Douro.= A large river in Spain and Portugal, which was crossed in 1809 by the British army under the Duke of Wellington, when he surprised the French under Marshal Soult, and won the battle of Oporto.

=Dover= (anc. Dubris). A city and seaport of England, in the county of Kent, on Dover Strait. The city is defended by Dover Castle, which is built on chalk-cliffs 320 feet high, and is a fortress of great strength and extent. The castle is said to have been founded by the ancient Romans. Near here Julius Cæsar is said to have first landed in England, August 26, 55 B.C., and here King John resigned his kingdom to Pandolf, the pope’s legate, May 13, 1213.

=Dowletabad.= A celebrated city and fortress of Hindostan, province of Hyderabad, deemed impregnable by the natives; but notwithstanding its strength, it has been frequently taken.

=Drabants.= A company of 200 picked men, of which Charles IX. of Sweden was captain.

=Draft.= A selecting or detaching of soldiers from an army, or any part of it, or from a military post; also from any company or collection of persons, or from the people at large for military service.

=Draft.= See DRAUGHT.

=Draft, To.= To draw from a military band or post, or from any company, collection, society, or from the people at large; to detach; to select. Written also draught.

=Dragon.= An old name for a musketoon.

=Dragon et Dragon Volant= (Fr.). Some old pieces of artillery were anciently so called. The Dragon was a 40-pounder; the Dragon Volant a 32-pounder. But neither the name nor the size of the caliber of either piece is now in use.

=Dragonner= (Fr.). According to the French acceptation of the term, is to attack any person in a rude and violent manner; to take anything by force; to adopt prompt and vigorous means; and to bring those people to reason by hard blows, who could not be persuaded by fair words.

=Dragoon.= From the old fable that the dragon spouts fire, the head of the monster was worked upon the muzzle of a peculiar kind of short muskets which were first carried by the horsemen raised by Marshal Brissac in 1600. This circumstance led to their being called dragoons; and from the general adoption of the same weapon, though without the emblem in question, the term gradually extended itself till it became almost synonymous with horse-soldier. Dragoons were at one time a kind of mounted infantry, drilled to perform the services both of horse and foot. At present, dragoon is simply one among many designations for cavalry, not very precise in its application. This term is not now used in the U. S. service.

=Dragoon, To.= Is to persecute by abandoning a place to the rage of the soldiers.

=Dragoon Guards.= In the British service, seven regiments of heavy cavalry bear this title.

=Drag-rope.= This is a 4-inch hemp rope, 28 feet long, with a thimble worked into each end, one of the thimbles carrying a hook. Six handles, made of oak or ash, are put in between the strands of the rope, and lashed with a marline. It is used to assist in extricating carriages from different positions by the men, for dragging pieces, etc.

=Drag-rope Men.= The men attached to light or heavy ordnance, for the purpose of expediting movements in action. The French servans à la prolonge are of this description.

=Drain=, or =Drein=. In the military art, is a trench made to draw water out of a ditch, which is afterwards filled with hurdles and earth, or with fascines or bundles of rushes, and planks, to facilitate the passage over the mud.

=Drake.= A small piece of artillery, no longer used.

=Draught.= The act of drawing men from a military band, army, or post, or from any company or society; draft; detachment; also, formerly, a sudden attack or drawing upon an enemy.

=Draughted.= The soldiers of any regiment allotted to complete other regiments are said to be draughted, or drafted.

=Draught-hook.= Either of two large hooks of iron fixed on the cheeks of a gun-carriage, two on each side, used in drawing the gun backward and forward.

=Drawbridge.= A bridge of which the whole or part is made to be let down, or drawn or turned aside, to admit or hinder communication at pleasure, as before the gate of a town or castle. It is called bascule, swivel, or rolling bridge according as it turns on a hinge vertically, on a pivot horizontally, or is pushed lengthwise on rollers.

=Drawing.= In a military sense, is the art of representing the appearances of all kinds of military objects by imitation or copying, both with and without the assistance of mathematical rules.

=Drawn Battle.= A fight from which the combatants withdraw without either side claiming the victory.

=Draw off, To.= In a military sense, means to retire; also to abstract or take away; as, to draw off your forces. To draw on is to advance; also to occasion; as, to draw on an enemy’s fire. To draw over is to persuade to revolt; to entice from a party. To draw out is to call the soldiers forth in array for action. To draw up is to form in battle array. To draw out a party is to assemble any particular number of armed men for military duty. The French say, faire un detachement.

=Drayton-in-Hales=, or =Market Drayton=. A town of England, in Shropshire. Here the partisans of the house of York defeated the Lancastrians in 1459.

=Dresden.= The capital of the kingdom of Saxony, and one of the best built towns of Europe. Taken by Frederick of Prussia in 1756; by the Austrians in 1759; bombarded in vain by Frederick, July, 1760. On August 26-27, 1813, the allies were defeated in a terrible battle by the French under the walls of this city; and about a mile from it is a granite block, surmounted by a helmet, marking the spot where Moreau fell in the conflict, while conversing with the emperor Alexander.

=Dress.= A word of command for alignment of troops; also of the alignment itself.

=Dressers.= See GUIDES.

=Dress, Full.= Dress uniform. The French is grande tenue, or grande uniforme.

=Dress Parade.= Parade in full uniform; one of the ceremonies prescribed in tactics.

=Dress, To.= To cause a company or battalion to take such a position or order as will preserve an exact continuity of line in the whole front, or in whatever shape the command is to be formed. Soldiers dress by one another in ranks, and the body collectively by some given object. To dress the line is to arrange any given number of soldiers, so as to stand perfectly correct with regard to the several points of an alignment that have been taken up.

=Dress Uniform.= The dress prescribed for occasions of ceremony.

=Dreux.= An old town of France, in the department of the Eure and Loire, on the Blaise. In 1188 this town was burned by the English; and in 1562 the Prince of Condé was taken prisoner in a severe action fought between the Huguenots and Roman Catholics in its neighborhood.

=Drift.= A tool used in driving down compactly the composition contained in a rocket, or like firework.

=Drift.= A deviation peculiar to oblong rifle projectiles. See PROJECTILES.

=Drill.= Is a general name for the exercises through which soldiers and sailors are passed, to qualify them for their duties. There are many varieties of drill,--that of the cavalry, infantry, and artillery,--all have different drills conformable to their different organizations.

=Drill-Sergeant.= A non-commissioned officer, whose office it is to instruct soldiers as to their duties, and to train them to military evolutions.

=Drogheda.= A seaport town of Ireland, in the counties of Meath and Louth, built on both sides of the Boyne. From the 14th to the 17th century, Drogheda was the chief military station in Ulster. In 1641 the town was besieged by O’Neal and the northern Irish forces, but was gallantly defended by Sir Henry Tichbourne, and after a long blockade relieved by the Marquis of Ormond, who also relieved it a second time when invested by the Parliamentary army under Col. Jones. In 1649, Cromwell was twice repulsed in besieging this town; but in the third attempt he was successful, when most of the garrison were slaughtered. This place surrendered to William III. the day after the battle of the Boyne, which was fought in 1690 at Oldbridge, 4 miles west of Drogheda.

=Drum.= A musical instrument of percussion, formed by stretching a piece of parchment over each end of a cylinder formed of thin wood, or over the top of a caldron-shaped vessel of brass; the latter is hence called a kettle-drum. The large drums which are beaten at each end are called double drums, or bass drums, and are used chiefly in military bands. Kettle-drums are always used in pairs; one of which is tuned to the key-note, the other to the fifth of the key. The drum is principally used for military purposes, especially for inspiring the soldiers under the fatigue of march or in battle. It is supposed to be an Eastern invention, and to have been brought into Europe by the Arabians, or perhaps the Moors. In the French army the drum is now, to some extent, abolished.

=Drum.= To execute on a drum, as a tune;--with out, to expel with beat of drum; as, to drum out a deserter, etc.; with up, to assemble by beat of drum; to gather; to collect; as, to drum up recruits, etc.

=Drumclog.= In Western Scotland; here the Covenanters defeated Graham of Claverhouse, June 1, 1679. An account of the conflict is given by Walter Scott, in “Old Mortality.”

=Drum-head.= The head or upper part of a drum.

=Drum-head Court-martial.= A court-martial called suddenly by the commanding officer to try offenses committed on the line of march, and which demand an immediate example. This method is not resorted to in time of peace.

=Drum-Major.= Is that person in a regiment of infantry who has command of the drummers and teaches them their duty. He also directs the movements of the regimental band, while on parade.

=Drummer.= The soldier who plays a drum. The majority of drummers are boys, generally the sons of soldiers. In former times it was the part of a drummer’s duty to flog men sentenced to corporal punishment.

=Drumming Out.= The ceremony of ignominiously discharging a soldier from the service. The culprit is marched out of the garrison at the point of the bayonet, the drummers or musicians playing the “Rogue’s March.”

=Drum-stick.= A stick with which a drum is beaten, or shaped for the purpose of beating a drum.

=Drunk on Duty.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 38.

=Druses.= A warlike people dwelling among the mountains of Lebanon, derive their origin from a fanatical Mohammedan sect which arose in Egypt about 996, and fled to Palestine to avoid persecution. They now retain hardly any of the religion of their ancestors. In 1860, in consequence of disputes, the Druses attacked their neighbors, the Maronites, whom they massacred, it was said, without regard to age or sex. This led to a general massacre of Christians soon after. But the Turkish troops, with French auxiliaries, interfering on behalf of the Christians, invaded Lebanon in August and September, when the Druses surrendered, giving up their chiefs, January, 1861.

=Dry Camp, To Make a.= Troops on the march are said to make a dry camp when they are compelled by exhaustion, or other causes, to camp at a place where there is no water. For such camps water is usually transported with the troops.

=Dualin.= See EXPLOSIVES.

=Dubicza=, or =Dubitza=. A town and fort of European Turkey, in Bosnia, on the Unna. The Austrians took this town in 1738.

=Dublin.= The capital city of Ireland, on the Liffey, close to its entrance into Dublin Bay. It is alleged that this city has been in existence since the time of Ptolemy. In the earlier part of the 9th century, Dublin was taken by the Danes, who infested it for several centuries thereafter. In 1169 it was taken by storm by the English under Strongbow. From about this period the history of Dublin is that of Ireland.

=Ducenarius.= An officer in the Roman armies who commanded two centuries.

=Dudgeon.= A small dagger (rare).

=Duel.= Was the old form of a combat between two persons, at a time and place indicated in the challenge, cartel, or defiance borne by one party to the other. A duel generally takes place in the presence of witnesses, called seconds, who regulate the mode of fighting, place the weapons in the hands of the combatants, and enforce compliance with the rules which they have laid down. In the United States the practice of fighting duels, being declared illegal by statutes, is very seldom resorted to.

=Dueling.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 26, 27.

=Duffadar.= A rank in the East Indian Native Cavalry, corresponding with that of sergeant.

=Duffadar, Kot.= A non-commissioned officer in the East Indian Native Cavalry, corresponding with a troop sergeant-major.

=Duffadar Major.= A rank in the East Indian Native Cavalry, corresponding with that of regimental sergeant-major.

=Duke.= From the Latin dux, a “leader,” a title that first came into use when Constantine separated the civil and military commands in the provinces. This title was successively borrowed by the Goths and Franks, and since the time of the Black Prince, who was created first duke in England (Duke of Cornwall) in 1335, it has been a title of the nobility, ranking next below the blood royal.

=Dukigi-Bachi.= Second officer in the Turkish artillery, who commands the Topelas, or gunners and founders.

=Duledge.= A peg of wood which joins the ends of the felloes, forming the circle of the wheel of a gun-carriage; and the joint is strengthened on the outside of the wheel by a strong plate of iron, called the duledge plate.

=Dumdum.= The name of a town and of a valley in India, well known in the military history of the country; it is 8 miles to the northeast of Calcutta, having extensive accommodations for troops, and a cannon-foundry. The place is famous in connection with the mutiny of 1857, as the scene of the first open manifestation on the part of the Sepoys against the greased cartridges.

=Dumfries.= A royal burgh and parish of Scotland, the capital of Dumfriesshire, on the Nith. This town was exposed to repeated calamities from the invasions of the English during the border wars. In this town John Comyn, the competitor for the Scottish throne, was stabbed by Robert Bruce in 1305.

=Dünaburg.= A strongly fortified town of Western Russia, on the Düna. It is of great military importance, owing to the strength of its fortifications. It was founded by the Knights of the Sword in 1277.

=Dunbar.= A seaport town of Scotland, in Haddingtonshire, at the mouth of the Frith of Forth. On the high rocks at the entrance to the new harbor are a few fragments of the ruins of an old castle, which was once very strong, and an important security against English invasions. Edward I. took it, and Edward II. fled thither after the battle of Bannockburn; it was demolished in 1333, and rebuilt in 1336; it was successfully defended in a siege of six weeks against the Earl of Salisbury by Black Agnes, countess of Dunbar, in 1338; it sheltered Queen Mary and Bothwell in 1567; and in the same year it was destroyed by the regent Murray. In 1650, Cromwell, at the “Race of Dunbar,” defeated the Scottish army under Leslie.

=Dunblane=, or =Dumblane=. A town and parish of Scotland, in Perthshire, on the Allan. Not far from this place is Sheriffmuir, where, in 1715, a battle was fought between the royal troops and the followers of the Pretender.

=Dungan Hill= (Ireland). Here the English army, commanded by Col. Jones, signally defeated the Irish, of whom 6000 are said to have been slain, August 8, 1647.

=Dungeon= (originally Donjon, which see). A prison; a dark and subterraneous cell or place of confinement.

=Dunkirk.= A fortified seaport town in the extreme northern part of France, in the department of the North. In 1558 the English, who had for some time held possession of the town, were expelled from it by the French, who, in the ensuing year, surrendered it to the Spaniards. In the middle of the 17th century it once more passed into the hands of the French, who, after a few years’ occupation of it, again restored it to Spain. In 1658 it was retaken by the French and made over to the English. It was sold to the French king by Charles II. in 1662. In 1793 it was attacked by the English under the Duke of York, who, however, was compelled to retire from before its walls with severe loss.

=Dunnottar.= A parish of Scotland, in Kincardineshire. It contains the castle of Dunnottar, now in ruins. In the time of the civil wars, this was the fortress in which the Scottish regalia were deposited. After being besieged by Cromwell’s forces for six months, it capitulated; but, before this, the regalia were secretly conveyed from it.

=Dunsinane.= In Perthshire, Scotland. On the hill was fought the battle between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, and Siward, earl of Northumberland, July 27, 1054. Macbeth was defeated, and it was said pursued to Lumphanan in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1056 or 1057.

=Durazzo= (anc. Epidamnus). A town of Albania, European Turkey. It is fortified, and is a place of considerable antiquity. Durazzo was founded about 627 B.C. by a conjoined band of Corcyræans and Corinthians under one Phaleus, a Heracleidan. It became a great and populous city, but was much harassed by the internal strifes of party, which ultimately led to the Peloponnesian war. Under the Romans it was called Dyrrachium (whence its modern name). Here Pompey was for some time beleaguered by Cæsar. In the 5th century it was besieged by Theodoric, the Ostro-Goth; in the 10th and 11th centuries by the Bulgarians; and in 1081 it was captured, after a severe battle, by the Norman, Robert Guiseard of Apulia.

=Düren.= A town of Prussia, on the Roer. This was a Roman town, and is mentioned by Tacitus by the name of Marcodurum. Charlemagne held two diets here in 775 and 779, when on his way to attack the Saxons. It was taken by assault and burned by Charles V., after an obstinate resistance, in 1543. In 1794 it fell into the hands of the French, but was ceded to Prussia in 1814.

=Dürkeim.= A town of Rhenish Bavaria, 20 miles north from Landau. The summit of a height near this town is crowned by a rampart of loose stones 6 to 10 feet high, 60 to 70 feet wide at the base, and inclosing a space of about two square miles called the Heidenmauer (“heathens’ wall”), which the Romans are said to have built to keep the barbarians in check, and where Attila is said to have passed a winter, after having wrested the fortress from the Romans, when passing on his way to Rome.

=Durrenstein.= A town of Austria, on the Danube. In the neighborhood, on a rock, are the ruins of the castle in which Richard Cœur de Lion was imprisoned in 1192. In 1805 the Russian and Austrian armies were defeated here by the French.

=Duties.= This word is used in military parlance to express the men paraded for any particular duty, such as guards, etc.

=Duty.= There is no word oftener used in military parlance than this. In the technical sense it refers to the various services necessary for the maintenance, discipline, and regulation of armies,--as signal duty, staff duty, the duties of a sentinel, etc. To be on duty is to be in the active exercise of military functions; to be off duty is to have these functions temporarily suspended; to be put on duty is to be assigned to duty by order of a superior. Military duties are variously classed as duties of detail, which are recurring and governed by a roster, such as guard, fatigue, etc.; special duties which are determined by appointment, selection, or order; extra duty, continuous special duty of enlisted men, entitling them to pay; daily duty, short terms of special service for enlisted men. In a higher and broader sense duty is that which is due one’s country. It covers all the soldier’s obligations, and forms his simplest and sublimest rule of action.

=Dyer Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Dynamite=, called in the United States “giant powder,” is formed by mixing nitro-glycerine with certain porous substances, and especially with certain varieties of silica or alumina, these substances absorbing the nitro-glycerine. It was invented in 1867 by the Swedish engineer Nobel, who proposed to prevent the frequent and unexpected explosions of nitro-glycerine, at the same time without sacrificing any of its power. This he effected by the use of certain silicious earths as a base for the absorption of the nitro-glycerine, the experiment resulting in the new compound which he called dynamite, its transportation and handling being no more dangerous than that of ordinary gunpowder. It is not liable to spontaneous explosion like pure nitro-glycerine, nor can it be exploded by moderate concussion; when unconfined, if set fire to, it will burn without explosion; it may be safely kept at any moderate temperature; is inexplosive when frozen, and acts effectively under water. Its effects are proportional to the quantity of nitro-glycerine held in absorption; but under circumstances where a sustained bursting pressure is required, not being as instantaneous in its action as nitro-glycerine, its effects are more powerful than those of an equal weight of the pure material. The best absorbent of nitro-glycerine for the formation of dynamite is a silicious earth found at Oberlohe, Hanover. During the siege of Paris, a scientific committee of investigation, engaged in experimenting on different substances as a substitute for this earth, selected as the best silica, alumina, and boghead cinders. Any of these, they declared, when combined with nitro-glycerine, formed a substance which possessed all the remarkable qualities attributed to the dynamite of Nobel. During the siege of Paris dynamite was used successfully by the French engineers to free a flotilla of gunboats caught in the ice on the Seine, below Charenton, by simply placing a quantity of it on the surface of the ice. The explosion dislodged the ice for a great distance, and the masses thus loosened, being directed into the current by the aid of a small steamer, floated down the stream, and left the river open. There are various other compounds of nitro-glycerine, such as dualin, glyoxiline, etc., all differing in the matter used as a base, they being generally some explosive substances; but none of them appears to have come into such general use or to be as reliable as dynamite. Many preparations of chlorate and picrate of potassium have also been used from time to time as explosive agents; but their great sensibility to friction or percussion renders them extremely dangerous; they are, therefore, not liable to come into general use. A preparation of potassium chlorate and sulphur, not liable to explode by concussion, but very sensitive to friction, is used with great effect as a charge for explosive bullets.

=Dynamometer.= An instrument for measuring the force of recoil in a small-arm, consisting usually of a spiral spring so arranged as to be compressed by the butt of the gun in firing. An index shows the number of pounds required to produce a similar compression. The instruments now used by the U. S. Ordnance Department are graduated to show the effect of the recoil in foot-pounds or units of work. This sensible change was made at the suggestion of Lieut. Henry Metcalfe of that department.

E.

=Eagle.= In heraldry, is used as an emblem of magnanimity and fortitude. In the Roman armies the eagle was used as a military standard, and even previous to that time the Persians under Cyrus the Younger used the same military emblem. In modern times, France, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and the United States have adopted the eagle as a national military symbol. The Austrian eagle is represented as double-headed.

=Eagle, Black.= A Prussian order of knighthood, founded in 1701; united with the order of the Red Eagle, or order of Sincerity, instituted by the margraves of Bayreuth.

=Earl Marshal.= Of England, is one of the officers of state; is the head of the college of arms, which has jurisdiction in descents and pedigrees; determines all rival claims to arms; and he grants armorial-bearings, through the medium of the kings-of-arms, to parties not possessed of hereditary arms.

=Early Cannon.= See ORDNANCE, HISTORY OF.

=Earth-bag.= See BAGS.

=Earth-house=, or =Eird-house=. The name generally given throughout Ireland and Scotland to the underground buildings (which in some places are called also “Picts’ houses”) which served to hide a few people and their goods in time of war. The earth-house is a single irregularly-shaped chamber, from 4 to 10 feet in width, from 20 to 60 feet in length, and from 4 to 7 feet in height, built of unhewn and uncemented stones roofed by unhewn flags, and entered from near the top by a rude doorway, so low and narrow that only one man can slide down through it at a time. Implements of various kinds have been found in them,--such as bronze swords, gold rings, etc.

=Earthworks.= In fortification, is a general name for all military constructions, whether for attack or defense, in which the material employed is chiefly earth.

=East Indian Army.= In 1861 the British Secretary of State for India brought forward a measure for reorganizing the Indian army, which has been passed into a law. The British portion of the Indian army is to form part of the queen’s army generally, with certain honorary distinctions, and is to take its turn at home and in the colonies like the rest; but the expenses are to be paid out of Indian, not Imperial revenues. The native portion is to be wholly in India; in its reconstruction many improvements are made to lessen the chances of future revolt.

=Ebersberg=, or =Ebelsberg=. A town of Upper Austria, on the Traun, 8 miles northwest from Ens, remarkable for being the scene of the defeat of the Austrians by the French in 1809.

=Eboulement= (Fr.). The crumbling or falling of the walls of a fortification.

=Ebro.= A river in Spain, the scene of a signal defeat of the Spaniards by the French under Lannes, near Tudela, November 23, 1808; and also of several important movements of the allied British and Spanish armies during the Peninsular war (1809-13).

=Eccentric.= A device applied to the truck wheels of top carriages and beds of mortars in sea-coast artillery to give either rolling or sliding friction at will. The wheels turn on axle-arms which project eccentrically from the ends of an axle passing through both cheeks; when the axle is turned the axle-arms carry the wheels up or down; when at the lowest point the weight of the carriage is borne by the wheels, and the system moves on rolling friction; the wheels are then said to be in gear; when out of gear, or at their highest points, the wheels do not touch the rails or platform plates, but the cheeks rest on them, and the carriage moves upon sliding friction. A similar device is attached to the chassis near the pintle to enable it to be readily traversed when in gear, and give it stability when out of gear.

=Eccentric Projectiles.= A spherical projectile in which the centre of inertia does not coincide with the centre of figure. Such projectiles are subject to great deviations, which can be predicted as to direction by knowing the position of the centre of inertia of the shot in the bore of the gun. (See PROJECTILES, DEVIATION OF.) The side of the ball upon which the centre of inertia lies can be found by floating it in a bath of mercury, and marking the highest point where it comes to a state of rest; the centre of inertia lies nearest the opposite side; its exact position is determined by a kind of balance called the eccentrometer; the ball is placed in the balance with the marked point nearest the fulcrum; the distance of the centre of inertia or gravity from the fulcrum is obtained by dividing the product of the counterbalancing weight and its distance from the fulcrum by the weight of the projectile.

=Echarge, Feu=, or =Feu d’Echarge=. Is employed to signify that a column of troops is struck at a very oblique angle.

=Echaugette.= In military history, signifies a watch-tower, or kind of sentry-box.

=Echelon.= A military term applied to a certain arrangement of troops when several divisions are drawn up in parallel lines, each to the right or the left of the one preceding it, like “steps,” or the rounds of a ladder, so that no two are on the same alignment. Each division by marching directly forward can form a line with that which is in advance of it. There are two sorts of echelon, direct and oblique, the former of which is used in an attack or retreat.

=Eckmühl=, or =Eggmühl=. A small village of Bavaria, on the Great Laber. This place is celebrated for the important victory gained by the French over the Austrians on April 22, 1809, and which obtained for Davoust the title of Prince of Eckmühl.

=Eclaireurs= (Fr.). A corps of grenadiers raised by Bonaparte in France, who from their celerity of movements were compared to lightning.

=Eclopes= (Fr.). A military term to express those soldiers who, though invalids, are well enough to follow the army. Among these may be classed dragoons or horsemen whose horses become lame and cannot keep up with the troop or squadron. They always march in the rear of a column.

=Ecole Polytechnique.= A celebrated military school in Paris, established in 1794, chiefly for the artillery service. The examinations for the schools are public to all France. It not only furnishes officers of artillery, but also civil and military engineers of every description. The pupils of this school defended Paris in 1814 and 1830.

=Economy.= In a military sense, implies the minutiæ or interior regulations of a regiment, troop, or company. Hence regimental economy.

=Ecorcheurs= (Flayers). A name given to bands of armed adventurers who desolated France and Belgium during the 15th century, beginning about 1435, and they at one time numbered 100,000. They are said to have stripped their victims to their shirts, and flayed the cattle. They were favored by the English invasion and the civil wars.

=Ecoutes.= Small galleries made at equal distances in front of the glacis of the fortifications of a place. They serve to annoy the enemy’s miners, and to interrupt them in their work.

=Ecreter= (Fr.). To batter or fire at the top of a wall, redoubt, epaulement, etc., so as to dislodge or drive away the men that may be stationed behind it, in order to render the approach more easy. Ecreter les pointes des palissades is to blunt the sharp ends of the palisades. This ought always to be done before you attack the covert way, which is generally fenced by them.

=Ecu= (Fr.). A large shield which was used by the ancients, and carried on their left arm, to ward off the blows of sword or sabre. This instrument of defense was originally invented by the Samnites. The Moors had ecus, or shields, sufficiently large to cover the whole of their bodies. The clipei of the Romans only differed from the ecu in shape; the former being entirely round, and the latter oval.

=Ecuador=, or =Equator=. A South American republic, founded in 1831, when the Colombian republic was divided into three; the other two being Venezuela and New Granada. Gen. Franco was here defeated in battle by Gen. Flores, August, 1860. Several insurrections have taken place in Ecuador since 1860.

=Edessa=, or =Callinhoe=. An ancient city of Mesopotamia. In 1144 the Edessenes were defeated by the Saracen chief Nur-ed-deen, and all who were not massacred were sold as slaves. After many vicissitudes, it fell successively into the hands of the sultans of Egypt, the Byzantines, the Mongols, Turkomans, and Persians; the city was finally conquered by the Turks, and has ever since formed a portion of the Turkish dominion. Its modern name is Oorfa.

=Edge.= The thin or cutting part of a sword or sabre.

=Edgehill.= An elevated ridge in Warwickshire, England, 7 miles northeast from Banbury. Here was fought, on Sunday, October 23, 1642, the first great battle of the civil war, between the royalist forces under Charles I. and the Parliamentarians under the Earl of Essex. Prince Rupert, who led the right wing, charged with his cavalry the left wing of the Parliamentarians, broke it, and pursued it madly to Keinton. Essex with his force defeated the right wing of the royalists.

=Edinburgh.= The metropolis of Scotland, situated about 1¹⁄₂ miles from the Firth of Forth. It was taken by the Anglo-Saxons in 482; retaken by the Picts in 695; city fortified and castle rebuilt, 1074; besieged by Donald Bane, 1093. The city was taken by the English in 1296; surrendered to Edward III. in 1356. It was burnt by Richard II., 1385, and by Henry IV., 1401. A British force landed from a fleet of 200 ships, in 1544, and burned Edinburgh. The castle surrendered to Cromwell in 1650. The young Pretender occupied Holyrood September 17, 1745, and the battle of Preston Pans took place September 21, 1745.

=Effective.= Fit for service; as, an army of 30,000 effective (fighting) men.

=Efficient.= A thoroughly trained and capable soldier. It is also a term used in connection with the volunteers. A volunteer is said to be efficient when he has performed the appointed number of drills and fired the regular number of rounds at the target, in the course of the year.

=Egham.= A village in the northwest of Surrey, 18 miles west of London. In the vicinity is Runnymede, a meadow on the Thames, where King John conferred with his barons before signing the Magna Charta in 1215.

=Egypt.= A country in Northeast Africa. On the division of the Roman empire (395 A.D.) Egypt became a part of the dominions of Arcadius, ruler of the Eastern empire. But, owing to religious feuds of the Jacobites and Melchites, it became a province of Persia (616) for twelve years. In 640 the governor, Makaukas, endeavored to make himself independent, and invited the arms of the Arabs, and Amrou easily conquered Egypt. Although Alexandria was retaken by Constantine III., the Arabs drove him out and maintained their conquest, and Egypt remained an appendage of the caliphate. It afterwards passed into the dynasty of the Turks, and was administered by pashas. Constant rebellions of the Mamelukes, and the violence of contending factions, distracted the country for more than two centuries. The most remarkable event of this period was the French invasion by Bonaparte in 1798, which, by the conquest of Alexandria and the battle of the Pyramids against the Mamelukes, led to the entire subjection of the country, from which the French were finally expelled by the Turks and British in 1801, and the country restored to the Ottoman Porte. The rise of Mohammed Ali in 1806 imparted a galvanic prosperity to Egypt by the destruction of the Mamelukes, the formation of a regular army, and the introduction of European civilization. He considerably extended its boundaries, even into Asia; but in 1840 he was dispossessed of his Asiatic conquests. The treaty of London, however, in 1841, confirmed the viceroyalty of Egypt as a fief of the Ottoman empire to him and his descendants.

=Ehrenbreitstein.= A town and fortress of Rhenish Prussia, situated on the right bank of the Rhine, directly opposite Coblentz, with which it is connected by a bridge of boats. The fortress of Ehrenbreitstein occupies the summit of a precipitous rock 490 feet high, and has been called the Gibraltar of the Rhine, on account of its great natural strength and its superior works. It is capable of accommodating a garrison of 14,000 men, and provisions for 8000 men for ten years can be stowed in its vast magazines. Ehrenbreitstein was besieged in vain by the French in 1688, but fell into their hands in 1799, after a siege of fourteen months. Two years after, the French, on leaving, at the peace of Lunéville, blew up the works. It was assigned, however, to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna in 1814, and under that country was restored and thoroughly fortified. It is now one of the strongest forts in Europe.

=Eighty-ton Gun.= A large Woolwich gun designed as an armament for the “Inflexible.” Its construction was authorized in March, 1874, and the gun was ready for proof in October, 1875. When first made it weighed 81 tons, having a caliber of 14¹⁄₂ inches. It was bored during the progress of the experiments to 16 inches, and was given an enlarged chamber. The experiments were conducted by the celebrated “Committee on Explosion.” See ORDNANCE, RECENT HISTORY OF.

=Eilau-Preussisch.= A town of Prussia, government of Königsberg. It is chiefly celebrated for the victory gained there by the French over the united Prussian and Russian armies, February 8, 1807.

=Einsiedeln.= A small town of Switzerland, in the canton of Schwytz. It contains a fine abbey, which was rifled by the French in 1798.

=Ejector.= The device used in breech-loading small-arms to throw out the metallic cartridge-case after it is fired.

=Ejector Spring.= The spring which operates an ejector.

=El Arish.= A village of Lower Egypt on the Mediterranean, on the route from Egypt to Syria. It is but little more than a fort and a few houses, and was taken by the French in 1799; and here the French general Kleber signed, in 1800, a convention with Sir Sydney Smith, engaging to leave Egypt with his troops.

=Elath=, or =Eloth=. A seaport situated at the head of that gulf of the Red Sea, to which it gave its name. It was a fortified port in the time of Solomon; revolted against Joram; was retaken by Azariah; and was eventually conquered by Rezui, and held by the Syrians till it became a Roman frontier town. Under the Mohammedan rule it rose for a while to some importance, but has now sunk into insignificance.

=Elba.= An island belonging to the kingdom of Italy, in the Mediterranean Sea, between Corsica and the coast of Tuscany, from the latter of which it is separated by a channel 5 miles in breadth. Elba has been rendered famous in history from having been Napoleon’s place of exile from May, 1814, till February, 1815.

=El Boden.= A mountain-range, near Ciudad Rodrigo, in Spain, where the British troops distinguished themselves against an overwhelming French force in 1811.

=Elbow-gauntlet.= An ancient piece of armor, a gauntlet of plate reaching to the elbow, adopted from the Asiatics in the 16th century.

=Elbow-piece.= An ancient piece of armor, a metal plate used to cover the junction of the rere-brace and rant-brace, by which the upper and lower half of the arm were covered.

=Elchingen.= A village of Bavaria, on the Danube, 7 miles northeast from Ulm. Here the Austrians were defeated by the French in 1805. For this victory Marshal Ney received the title of Duke of Elchingen.

=Electric light.= An intense light produced by passing an electric current between points of carbon forming electrodes of the circuit. There are many forms of the apparatus. It will be extensively used in future wars for lighting harbor channels, approaches to forts, etc.

=Elements.= In a military sense, signify the first principles of tactics, fortification, and gunnery.

=Elephant.= See PACK AND DRAUGHT ANIMALS.

=Elevate, To.= Is to raise the muzzle of the cannon or rifle so that the latter shall be directed at a point above that which it is intended shall be struck.

=Elevating Arc.= In gunnery, is an arc attached to the base of the breech parallel to the ratchets and graduated into degrees and parts of a degree. A pointer attached to the fulcrum points to the zero of the scale when the axis of the piece is horizontal. Elevations and depressions are indicated by the scale. Besides the graduations on the arc, the ranges (in yards) and charges for shot and shell are given.

=Elevating Bar.= An iron bar used in elevating guns or mortars having ratchets at the breech.

=Elevating Screw.= The screw by means of which the breech of a cannon is raised, the result being to depress the muzzle.

=Elevating Sight.= See SIGHT, ELEVATING.

=Elevation.= In gunnery, is one of the elements of pointing, being the movement of the axis of a piece in a vertical plane as distinguished from direction or its movement horizontally. The elevation is usually positive,--that is, the gun is pointed above the horizontal. When it is pointed below, it is said to be depressed. The word is also used to express degree, or as a synonym for angle of elevation. The sights or elevating apparatus of guns are graduated on the theory that the object is in the horizontal plane of the piece, or that the line of sight is horizontal, which is not always the case in practice. When the elevation is determined by sights the angle of elevation is the angle between the line of sight and the axis of the piece, when these lines are in the same vertical plane,--or the angle between the line of sight and a plane containing the axis of the piece and a horizontal line intersecting it at right angles, when they are not. The graduations of tangent scales and fixed breech-sights give this angle in degrees. The graduation of the pendulum hausse gives the angle correctly only when the line of sight is horizontal. When the elevation is given by elevating arcs or gunner’s quadrant, the angle of elevation becomes the angle of fire, or the angle which the axis of the piece makes with the horizontal. Elevation is necessary to overcome the effect of gravity on the projectile. The degree of elevation increases with the range. In vacuo the elevation corresponding to the maximum range is 45°. In the air the angle of maximum range diminishes with the velocity and increases with diameter and density of the ball. It is greater in mortars than in howitzers, and greater in howitzers than in guns. In mortars it approximates to 42°; in guns it is about 37°.

=Ellisburgh.= A village of Jefferson Co., N. Y. In 1814 an engagement took place here between the Americans and British, in which the latter were defeated.

=Elmina.= A fortified town and seaport of West Africa, founded by the Portuguese in 1481; was the first European settlement planted on the coast of Guinea. It was taken by the Dutch in 1637, and was ceded by them to Portugal. It was burned by the British troops in 1873.

=Elsass= (Fr. Alsace). One of the old German provinces, having the Rhine on the east and the Vosges Mountains on the west. It was ceded to France in 1648; but after the Franco-German war was annexed by Prussia, under treaty of May 10, 1871.

=Elswick Compressor.= An arrangement for compressing friction plates used in the English navy to take up the recoil of gun-carriages upon their slides. The 7 friction plates arranged longitudinally under the carriage and attached to its lower part, have alternating between them 6 long flat bars attached at their ends to the slide by bolts passing through them, but allowing them a side motion. The plates and bars are tightly clamped by short rocking levers, the lower ends of which act on the outside plates. The levers are worked by collars on a threaded shaft, which catch their upper ends. The shaft is called the compressor shaft, and has a handle or crank on the outside of each cheek or bracket,--one is called the adjusting lever, the other the compressor lever. The first is used to give an initial compression to suit the charge, the other is operated by the recoil being forced down by a tripper on the slide. Two forms of the compressor are used,--one for the single plate, the other for the double-plate carriage. In the double-plate carriage the adjusting lever can be set to any degree of compression without causing any motion in the compressor shaft or lever.

=Elswick Gun.= Armstrong gun (which see).

=Elvas.= A strong frontier town of Portugal, in the province of Alemtejo, situated on a rocky hill, 10 miles northwest from Badajos. It is one of the most important strongholds in Europe. The arsenal and bomb-proof barracks are capable of containing 6000 or 7000 men. In 1808 it was taken and held for five months by the French.

=Emaum Ghaur.= In Scinde, was a strong fortress in the Thur or Great Sandy Desert, separating that province from the rajpoot state of Jessulmere. It was captured by Sir Charles Napier in January, 1843.

=Embark.= To put or cause to go on board a vessel or boat; as, to embark troops. To go on board of a ship, boat, or vessel; as, the troops embarked for Egypt.

=Embarkation.= The act of putting or going on board of a vessel.

=Embaterion.= A war-song of the Spartans, accompanied by flutes, which they sung marching in time, and rushing on the enemy. The origin of the embaterion is lost in antiquity.

=Embattle.= To arrange in order of battle; to draw up in array, as troops for battle; also, to prepare or arm for battle.

=Embattle.= To furnish with battlements. “Embattled” house.

=Embattlement.= An indented parapet; battlement.

=Embezzlement.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 60.

=Emblazonry.= See BLAZONRY.

=Emblee= (Fr.). A prompt, sudden, and vigorous attack, which is made against the covert way and outworks of a fortified place.

=Embody.= To form or collect into a body or united mass; as, to embody troops.

=Embrasseur= (Fr.). A piece of iron, which grasps the trunnions of a piece of ordnance, when it is raised upon the boring machine, to widen its caliber.

=Embrasure.= In fortification, is an opening in the parapet, or a hole in the mask wall of a casemate through which the guns are pointed. The sole or bottom of the embrasure is from 2¹⁄₂ to 4 feet (according to the size of the gun) above the platform upon which the gun stands. Parapet embrasures are smallest at the interior opening, which is called the mouth, and is from 1¹⁄₂ to 2 feet wide. The widening of the embrasure is what is called the splay. The sole slopes downward about one in six. Its exterior line, or its intersection with the exterior slope, is usually made half the length of the sole. The line which bisects the sole is called the directrix. The sides are called cheeks. The masses of earth between embrasures are called merlons. When the directrix makes an angle with the direction of the parapet, the embrasure is oblique. The embrasures of casemates have in horizontal section a shape something like an hour-glass. The nearest part is called the throat. This is sometimes closed with iron shutters.

=Embrocher.= A vulgar term used among French soldiers to signify the act of running a man through the body; literally to spit him.

=Emery.= A powder made by grinding a mineral,--corundum,--used by soldiers for cleaning their arms.

=Eminence.= A high or rising ground, which overlooks and commands the low places about it. Such places, within cannon-shot of any fortified place, are a great disadvantage, if the besiegers become masters of them.

=Emir=, or =Emeer=. An Arabic word, equivalent to “ruler,” is a title given to all independent chieftains, and also to all the actual or supposed descendants of Mohammed through his daughter Fatima. In former times, the title of Emir was borne by the leaders in the religious wars of the Mohammedans, and by several ruling families.

=Emissary.= A person sent by any power that is at war with another, for the purpose of creating disaffection among the people of the latter.

=Emousser= (Fr.). To blunt, to dull. In a military sense, it signifies to take off the four corners of a battalion, which has formed a square, and to give it, by those means, an octagon figure; from the different obtuse angles of which it may fire in all directions.

=Emperor= (Imperator). Among the ancient Romans, signified the general of an army, who, for some extraordinary success, had been complimented with this appellation. Subsequently it came to denominate an absolute monarch or supreme commander of an empire. In Europe, the first who bore the title was Charlemagne.

=Empilement= (Fr.). From empiler, to pile up. The act of disposing shot and shell in the most secure and convenient manner. This generally occurs in arsenals and citadels.

=Emprise.= A hazardous attempt upon the enemy.

=Encamp.= To form and occupy a camp; to halt on a march, spread tents, and remain for a night or for a longer time; as, an army or company.

=Encampment.= The pitching of a camp. The act of pitching huts or tents, as by an army, for temporary lodging, or rest; the place where an army or company is encamped. There are intrenched camps, where an army is intended to be kept some time, protected against the enemy; flying camps, for brief occupation; camps of position, bearing relation to the strategy of the commander; and camps of instruction, to habituate the troops to the duties and fatigues of war.

=Enceinte.= In fortification, denotes generally the whole area of a fortified place. Properly, however, it means a cincture or girdle, and in this sense the enceinte signifies the principal wall or rampart encircling the place, comprising the curtain and bastions, and having the main ditch immediately outside it.

=Encircle.= To pass around, as in a circle; to go or come round; as, the army encircled the city.

=Encombrer= (Fr.). In fortification, to fill up any hollow place, such as a stagnant lake, etc., with rubbish.

=Encompass.= To describe a circle about; to go around; to encircle; to inclose; to environ; as, an army encompasses a city; a ship’s voyage encompasses the world.

=Encounter.= A meeting with hostile purpose; hence, a combat; a battle.

=Encounter.= To come against face to face; to engage in conflict with; to oppose; as, two armies encounter each other.

=Encounters.= In military affairs, are combats or fights between two persons only. Figuratively, battles or attacks by small or large armies.

=Encroachments.= The advancement of the troops of one nation on the rights or limits of another.

=Enemy.= In military language, the opposing force; as, “We have met the enemy, and they are ours.”

=Enfans Perdus.= Forlorn hope, in military history, are soldiers detached from several regiments, or otherwise appointed to give the first onset in battle, or in an attack upon the counterscarp, or the breach of a place besieged; so called (by the French) because of the imminent danger to which they are exposed.

=Enfield Rifle-musket.= The service arm of Great Britain prior to the adoption of breech-loaders; manufactured at Enfield, England, at the royal small-arms factories. It was first extensively introduced in 1853, and was used during the Crimean war. It had three grooves, with a twist of about one turn in 6 feet. Before the adoption of the Martini-Henry, large numbers of those guns were utilized by converting them into breech-loaders on the Snider principle. The Enfield rifles, though very serviceable weapons, much better than the Belgian and Austrian arms imported to the United States during the civil war, were in almost every respect inferior to the old Springfield (U. S.) rifle-musket, nearly of the same caliber (.58), the Enfield being .577. All those weapons have now given place to various breech-loading arms.

=Enfilade.= Is to fire in the direction of the length of a line of parapet or troops; to “rake it,” as the sailors say. In the siege of a fortress, the trenches of approach are cut in a zigzag, to prevent the defenders enfilading them from the walls.

=Enfilading Batteries.= In siege operations are one of the classes of batteries employed, the other classes being counter and breaching batteries. Enfilading batteries are located on the prolongation of the faces and flanks of the works besieged, to secure a raking fire along the terre-pleins.

=Engage.= To gain for service; to enlist.

=Engage.= To enter into conflict; to join battle; as, the armies engaged in a general battle.

=Engagement.= A general action or battle, whether by land or sea.

=Engarrison.= To protect any place by a garrison.

=Engen.= In Baden; here Moreau defeated the Austrians, May 3, 1800.

=Enghien=, or =Steenkirk=. In Southwestern Belgium. Here the British under William III. were defeated by the French under Marshal Luxemburg, July 24, 1692.

=Engineer, Military.= An officer in the service of a government, whose duties are principally to construct fortifications, to make surveys for warlike purposes, to facilitate the passage of an army by the construction of roads and bridges; in short, to execute all engineering works of a military nature. He is also called upon to undertake many works which more properly belong to the business of a civil engineer, such as the survey of the country, the inspection of public works, and, in short, all the duties of a government engineer.

=Engineering.= The business of the engineer; the art of designing and superintending the execution of railways, bridges, canals, harbors, docks, the defense of fortresses, etc.

=Engineer Corps.= In modern nations, the necessity for a corps of staff-officers, trained to arrange for and overcome the embarrassments of the movements of an army in the field, has been thoroughly demonstrated, and hence, in European armies, a trained staff of officers is organized for this purpose. In the United States a force of about 300 officers and enlisted men are engaged in these duties. See SAPPERS AND MINERS.

=Engineers, Topographical.= See TOPOGRAPHICAL ENGINEERS.

=England.= The southern and larger division of the island of Great Britain, and the principal member of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It was so named, it is said, by Egbert, first king of the English, in a general council held at Winchester, 829. It was united with Wales, 1283; with Scotland in 1603; and Ireland was incorporated with them, January 1, 1801. For previous history, see BRITAIN; and for further details of battles, etc., see separate articles.

=Enlargement.= The act of going or being allowed to go beyond the prescribed limits; as the extending the boundaries of an arrest, when the officer is said to be enlarged, or under arrest at large.

=Enlargement.= Enlargements of the bore and vent are injuries suffered by all cannon that are much used. The term is technically applied to certain injuries to brass cannon. See INJURIES TO CANNON.

=Enlistment.= The voluntary enrollment of men in the military or naval service.

=Enniscorthy.= A town of Ireland, in the county of Wexford, on the river Slaney. It arose in the Norman castle, still entire, founded by Raymond le Gros, one of the early Anglo-Norman invaders. Cromwell took this place in 1649; and the Irish rebels stormed and burned it in 1798.

=Enniskillen.= A town of Ireland, in the county of Fermanagh. This place is famous for the victory, in 1689, won by the troops of William III., under Lord Hamilton, over a superior force of James II., under Lord Gilmoy. The banners taken in the battle of the Boyne hang in the town-hall of Enniskillen.

=Enniskillen Dragoons.= A British regiment of horse; it was first instituted from the brave defenders of Enniskillen, in 1689.

=Enrank.= To place in ranks or in order.

=Enroll.= To place a man’s name on the roll or nominal list of a body of soldiers.

=Ensconce.= To cover as with a fort.

=Enseigne= (Fr.). The colors. The French designate all warlike symbols under the term enseigne; but they again distinguish that word by the appellations of drapeaux, colors, and etendards, standards. Drapeaux or colors are particularly characteristic of the infantry; etendards or standards belong to the cavalry.

=Ensemble.= Together; the exact execution of the same movements, performed in the same manner, and by the same motions. It is the union of all the men who compose a battalion, or several battalions or companies of infantry and cavalry, who are to act as if put in motion by the same spring.

=Enshield.= To cover from the enemy.

=Ensiform.= Having the shape of a sword.

=Ensign-bearer.= One who carries a flag; an ensign.

=Ensigncy.= The rank or office of an ensign.

=Ensisheim.= In Eastern France; here Turenne defeated the imperial army, and expelled it from Alsace, October 4, 1674.

=Entanglement.= Abatis, so called, when made by cutting only partly through the trunks, and pulling the upper parts to the ground, where they are picketed.

=Entanglement, Wire.= Formed by twisting wire round stout stakes or trees 7 feet apart. The wires are placed about a foot or 18 inches above the ground. The trees-pickets or trees are in two or three rows, arranged checkerwise, the wires crossing diagonally.

=Enter, To.= To engage in; to enlist in; as, to enter an army.

=Enterprise.= An undertaking attended with some hazard and danger.

=Enterpriser.= An officer who undertakes or engages in any important and hazardous design.

=Entire=, or =Rank Entire=. A line of men in one continued row by the side of each other. When behind each other, they are said to be in file.

=Entonnoir= (Fr.). The cavity or hole which remains after the explosion of a mine. It likewise meant the tin case or port-feu which is used to convey the priming powder into the vent of a cannon.

=Entrench, To.= Is to construct hastily thrown-up field-works for the purpose of strengthening a force in position. See INTRENCH.

=Entrepôts.= Magazines and places appropriated in garrison towns for the reception of stores, etc.

=Envelope.= In fortification, a work of earth, sometimes in the form of a single parapet, and at others like a small rampart; it is raised sometimes in the ditch, and sometimes beyond it. Envelopes are occasionally en zigzag, to inclose a weak ground, where that is practicable, with single lines. Envelopes, in a ditch, are sometimes called sillons, contregardes, conserves, lunettes, etc.

=Environ, To.= To surround in a hostile manner; to hem in; to besiege.

=Enzersdorf.= A fortified town of Austria, 8 miles east from Vienna.

=Epaule.= In fortification, denotes the shoulder of a bastion, or the place where its face and flank meet and form the angle, called the angle of the shoulder.

=Epaulement= (Fr. epaule). In siege works, is a portion of a battery or earthwork. The siege batteries are generally shielded at one end at least by epaulements, forming an obtuse angle with the main line of the battery. The name is often given erroneously to the parapet of the battery itself, but it applies properly to the flanking return only. Sometimes the whole of a small or secondary earthwork, including the battery and its flanks, is called an epaulement; and sometimes the same name is given to an isolated breastwork intended to shield the cavalry employed in defending a body of besiegers.

=Epaulette.= A shoulder-knot worn by commissioned officers of the army and navy, as a mark of distinction. The insignia of their rank are usually marked on officers’ epaulettes.

=Epauletted.= Furnished with epaulettes.

=Ephebi.= In Grecian antiquity, the name given to the Attic youth from the age of 18, till they entered upon their 20th year. During this period they served a sort of apprenticeship in arms, and were frequently sent, under the name of peripoli, to some of the frontier towns of Attica to keep watch against foreign invasion.

=Epibatæ.= In Grecian antiquity, the name given to soldiers whose duty it was to fight on board ship. They corresponded almost exactly to the marines of modern naval warfare. The term is sometimes found in Roman authors to denote the same class of soldiers, but the general phrase adopted by them is milites classiarii, or socii navales.

=Epignare= (Fr.). A small piece of ordnance which does not exceed one pound in caliber.

=Epigoni.= A term which signifies “heirs” or “descendants.” It was applied to the sons of the seven chiefs who conducted an expedition against Thebes to restore Polynices, and who were all killed except Adrastus. Ten years later the Epigoni--namely, Alcmæon, Thersander, Diomedes, Ægialeus, Promachus, Sthenelus, and Euryalus--renewed the enterprise and took Thebes. The war of the Epigoni was celebrated by several ancient epic and dramatic poets.

=Epinglette= (Fr.). An iron needle with which the cartridge of any large piece of ordnance is pierced before it is primed.

=Epinikian.= Pertaining to, or celebrating, victory; as an epinikian ode.

=Epirus.= A celebrated country of ancient Greece, lying between the Ionian Sea and the chain of Pindus.

=E Pluribus Unum.= “One out of many.” A motto adopted by the United States since their declaration of independence, in 1776.

=Epouvante= (Fr.). A sudden panic with which troops are seized, and under which they retreat without any actual necessity for so doing.

=Eprouvette= (Fr.). A small mortar to prove the strength of gunpowder. There are different sorts of eprouvettes, according to the fancy of different nations who use them. Some raise a weight, and others throw a shot, to certain heights and distances. As a test of gunpowder the eprouvette is comparatively worthless, and it has been generally superseded by instruments for measuring the initial velocity obtained by firing the powder in the particular gun for which it is intended. A short mortar is, however, still used, to a certain extent, for testing the power of modern blasting powders, such as the mixtures of nitro-glycerine. A very small charge and a heavy shot of chilled iron which enters two or three inches only into the mortar are used. The square roots of the ranges (other things being equal) give the relative powers of the different powders, nearly.

=Equalize.= To render the distribution of any number of men equal as to the component parts. To equalize a battalion, to tell off a certain number of companies in such a manner that the several component parts shall consist of the same number of men.

=Equation of Time.= See TIME, MEAN SOLAR TIME.

=Equerry.= Any person who is appointed to attend the sovereign, or prince of the royal blood, upon out-door excursions, and who has the care and management of their horses.

=Eques Auratus.= A heraldic term for a knight.

=Equestrian.= A man who rides on horseback; a horseman; a rider.

=Equestrian Order.= Among the Romans, signified their knights or equites; as, also, their troopers or horsemen in the field.

=Equip, To.= To furnish an individual, a corps, or an army with everything that is requisite for military service, such as arms, accoutrements, uniforms, etc.

=Equipage.= In military matters, is the name given to the necessaries of the soldier. The equipment of a private is often used as a name for the whole of his clothes, arms, and accoutrements, collectively. The equipage of the camp is of two kinds, camp and field equipage.

=Equipments, Cannoneers’.= Include the hausse pouch, cartridge pouches, primer pouches, and thumb-stall, used in the field service. The equipments for a field-piece are the tampion and strap, vent cover and tarpaulin. Other things used in service of cannon are called implements, which see.

=Equipments, Horse.= In the mounted service, comprise the bridle, halter, watering bridle, saddle, saddle-bags, saddle blanket, nose-bag, lariat, curry-comb, brush, etc.

=Equipments, Infantry.= Comprise the personal outfit of the soldier, excluding arms proper and clothing. A set of equipments is called a kit (which see). The standard equipments for infantry include the knapsack, belts, and plates, cartridge-box, bayonet-scabbard, haversack, and canteen. The knapsack, haversack, and canteen are only used in marching. In the United States there is a strong tendency towards discarding the knapsack; a roll made of the blanket, piece of shelter-tent, or overcoat, being frequently used instead. A clothing-bag is also sometimes used to take its place. The best manner of arranging and slinging the various articles carried, for the comfort and health of the soldier, is still an open question. In future wars it is probable that an intrenching tool will be added to the soldier’s equipment. The equipments for a cavalry soldier in the United States are very much the same as for infantry.

=Equipments, Signal.= The flags, staffs, flying torches, fort torches, flame shades, haversacks, telescopes, etc., used in signaling. A set of equipments for one man is called a signal kit.

=Equites.= An order of equestrian knights introduced among the Romans by Romulus.

=Eretria.= One of the most celebrated of ancient cities, and, next to Chalcis, one of the most powerful in Eubœa. After the Peloponnesian war, the city was governed by tyrants.

=Erfurt.= A town of Prussian Saxony, on the river Gera; it was founded in 476. Erfurt was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitulated to Murat, when 14,000 troops surrendered, October 16, 1806. In this city Napoleon and Alexander met, and offered peace to England, September 27, 1808. The French retreated from Leipsic to Erfurt, October 18, 1813. This place was restored to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna.

=Ericius.= In Roman antiquity, a military engine, so named from its resemblance to a hedge-hog. It was a kind of chevaux-de-frise, placed as a defense at the gate of the camp.

=Erie, Fort.= A strong fortification in Upper Canada, on the northern shore of Lake Erie. Here the British were defeated by the Americans, August 15, 1814.

=Erlau.= A fortified town of Hungary, the old castle of which was frequently besieged during the Turkish wars, both by Moslem and Christian.

=Eryx.= A city and mountain in the west of Sicily, 6 miles from Drepana, and a short distance from the sea-shore. The possession of the town of Eryx was contested by the Syracusans and Carthaginians. A great battle was fought off the town between the fleets of the two nations, in which the Syracusans were victorious. The town subsequently changed hands more than once, but it seems to have owned the Carthaginian supremacy at the time of the expedition of Pyrrhus, 278 B.C. Though taken by that monarch, it once more fell into the hands of its original conquerors, who retained it till the close of the first Punic war.

=Erzroom=, =Erzroum=, or =Erzrum=. A fortified town of Armenia (Asiatic Turkey), on the river Kara-Soo, a branch of the Euphrates. Its position renders it an important military post. In 1210 it was taken by the Seljooks, who are said to have destroyed here 100 churches; taken by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. It was taken by the Russians in 1829, but was restored to Turkey in the following year.

=Escadron= (Fr.). Squadron. Froissart was the first French writer who made use of the word escadron to signify a troop of horse drawn out in order of battle. The term escadron is more ancient than the word battalion.

=Escalade.= From the Latin scala, a ladder. In siege operations, a mode of gaining admission within the enemy’s works. It consists in advancing over the glacis and the covert way, descending, if necessary, into the ditch by means of ladders, and ascending to the parapet of the curtain and bastions, and are either procured on the spot, or are sent out with the siege army. The leaders constitute a forlorn hope.

=Escale= (Fr.). A machine used to ply the petard.

=Escape of Gas.= See GAS-CHECK and BREECH MECHANISM.

=Escarp.= In fortification, the surface of the ditch next the rampart, the surface next the enemy being termed the counterscarp. Called also scarp.

=Escarp Galleries.= Galleries constructed in the escarp for the purpose of flanking the ditch caponnière.

=Escarpment.= Ground cut away nearly vertically about a position, in order to render it inaccessible to the enemy.

=Escort.= A body of troops attending an individual as a guard. The term is also applied to a guard placed over prisoners on a march, to prevent their escape, and to the guard of a convoy of stores.

=Escort, Funeral.= See FUNERAL ESCORT.

=Escort of Honor.= A body of troops attending a personage of rank by way of military compliment.

=Escort of the Color.= The military ceremony of sending for and receiving the colors of a battalion.

=Escouade= (Fr.). In the old French service generally meant the third part of a company of foot or a detachment. Companies were divided in this manner for the purpose of more conveniently keeping the tour of duty among the men. We have corrupted the term, and called it squad.

=Escuage.= An ancient feudal tenure by which the tenant was bound to follow his lord to war or to defend his castle.

=Espadon.= In old military works, a kind of two-handed sword, having two edges, of a great length and breadth; formerly used by the Spanish.

=Espauliere= (Fr.). A defense for the shoulder, composed of flexible, overlapping plates of metal, used in the 15th century; the origin of the modern epaulette.

=Espiere.= A town of Belgium, 8 miles from Courtrai, where the allied Austrian and English army defeated the French, May 22, 1794.

=Espingard=, or =Epingare= (Fr.). An ancient name for a small gun under a 1-pounder. They were used as early as the 14th century.

=Espingole=, or =Spingole= (Fr.). A blunderbuss; a kind of blunderbuss which, in early times, was loaded with several balls; the charges were separated from each other by tampions in which a hole was made, and thus the balls were fired in succession.

=Espinosa de la Monteros.= A town of Spain, on the Trueba, 50 miles from Burgos. The French defeated the Spaniards here in 1808.

=Esplanade.= In fortification, is the open space intentionally left between the houses of a city and the glacis of its citadel, so that the enemy may not be able to erect breaching batteries under cover of the houses. In old works on fortification, the term is often applied to the glacis of the counterscarp, or the slope of the parapet of the covered way towards the country.

=Espontoon= (Fr.). A sort of half pike, about 3 feet in length, used in the 17th century. The colonels of corps as well as the captains of companies always used them in action. This weapon was also used by officers in the British army.

=Espringal.= In the ancient art of war, a machine for throwing large darts, generally called muchettæ.

=Esprit de Corps= (Fr.). This term is generally used among all military men in Europe. It may not improperly be defined a laudable spirit of ambition which produces a peculiar attachment to any particular corps, company, or service. Officers without descending to mean and pitiful sensations of selfish envy, under the influence of a true esprit de corps rise into an emulous thirst after military glory. The good are excited to peculiar feats of valor by the sentiments it engenders, and the bad are deterred from ever hazarding a disgraceful action by a secret consciousness of the duties it prescribes.

=Esquimaux.= The tribes inhabiting Greenland and Arctic America. Those inhabiting the continent are found in sparse settlements from Behring Strait to Labrador. They are generally peaceable. Some of these in Greenland have been civilized by the influence of the Danes.

=Esquire.= In chivalry, was the shield-bearer or armor-bearer to the knight. He was a candidate for the honor of knighthood, and thus stood to the knight in the relation of a novice or apprentice. When fully equipped each knight was attended by two esquires.

=Essedarii.= In Roman antiquity, gladiators who fought in a heavy kind of chariot called esseda or essedum. The esseda (which derived its name from the Celtic word ess, signifying a carriage) was a ponderous kind of chariot much used in war by the Gauls, the Belgæ, and the Britons. It differed from the currus in being open before instead of behind; and in this way the owner was enabled to run along the pole, from the extremity of which, or even from the top of the yoke, he discharged his missiles with surprising dexterity.

=Essek=, or =Eszek=. A town and fortress of the Austrian empire, in Sclavonia, on the Drave. It contains an arsenal, barracks, and other military buildings. There were several battles fought here between the Turks and Germans. It was finally taken from the Turks in 1687, since which time it has continued in the hands of the house of Austria.

=Essling.= A village of Lower Austria, on the left bank of the Danube, 6 miles east of Vienna. Between this village and that of Aspern the French were repulsed by the Austrians in a severe engagement in 1809. See ASPERN.

=Establish.= A technical phrase to express the quartering of any considerable body of troops in a country. Thus it is common to say, the army took up a position in the neighborhood of ----, and established the headquarters at ----.

=Establishment.= The quota of officers and men in an army, regiment, troop, or company.

=Establishment, Peace.= Is the reduced condition of an army suited to a time of peace.

=Establishment, War.= Is the augmentation of regiments to a certain number, by which the whole army of a country is considerably increased, to meet war exigencies.

=Estacade= (Fr.). A dike constructed of piles in the sea, a river, or a morass, to check the approach of an enemy.

=Estafette= (Fr.). A military courier, sent express from one part of an army to another.

=Esthonia=, or =Revel=. A Russian province, said to have been conquered by the Teutonic knights in the 12th century; after various changes it was ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Oliva in 1660, and finally to Russia by the peace of Nystadt in 1721, having been conquered by Peter in 1710.

=Estimates.= Army estimates are the computation of expenses to be incurred in the support of an army for a given time.

=Estimating Distances.= See POINTING.

=Estoc= (Ital.). A small dagger worn at the girdle, called in Elizabethan times a tucke.

=Estoile.= See ETOILES.

=Estradiots=, or =Stradiots=. Grecian and Albanian horsemen, some of whom were employed in the Italian wars by Charles VIII.; their favorite weapon was the zagaye; besides this they had a broadsword, and club slung on the bow of the saddle, with sleeves and gauntlets of mail.

=Estramacon= (Fr.). A sort of two-edged sword formerly used. A blow with the edge of a sword.

=Etat Major= (Fr.). The staff of an army, including all officers above the rank of colonel; also, all adjutants, inspectors, quartermasters, commissaries, engineers, ordnance officers, paymasters, physicians, signal-officers, judge-advocates; also, the non-commissioned assistants of the above officers.

=Etoiles= (Fr.). Small redoubts which are constructed by means of angles rentrant and angles sortant, and have from 5 to 8 salient points. This species of fortification has fallen into disuse, and are superseded by square redoubts, which are sooner built and are applicable to the same purpose of defense.

=Etoupille= (Fr.). An inflammable match, composed of three threads of very fine cotton, which is well steeped in brandy mixed with the best priming gunpowder.

=Etruria=, or =Tuscia= (hence the modern name Tuscany). A province of Italy, whence the Romans, in a great measure, derived their laws, customs, and superstitions. The subjugation of this country forms an important part of early Roman history. A truce between the Romans and Etrurians for forty years was concluded in 351 B.C. The latter and their allies were defeated at the Vadimonian Lake, 310 B.C.; with the Boii their allies, 823 B.C., and totally lost their independence about 265 B.C.

=Eubœa.= The largest island in the Ægean Sea. Two of its cities, Chalcis and Eretria, were very important, till the former was subdued by Athens, 506 B.C., and the latter by the Persians, 490. After the Persian war Eubœa became wholly subject to Athens. It revolted in 445, but was soon subdued by Pericles. After the battle of Chæronea, 338, it became subject to Macedon. It was made independent by the Romans in 194, but was afterwards incorporated in the province of Achaia. It now forms part of the kingdom of Greece.

=Eupatoria=, or =Koslov=. A town of Russia, on the west coast of the Crimea. In September, 1854, the allied English and French armies landed near here, and the town soon after was occupied by a small detachment. The Turks subsequently occupied it, and in 1855 it was attacked by the Russians, who, however, were repulsed by the Turks, and the Anglo-French ships of war, lying in the neighboring roadstead.

=Eureka Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Europe.= The least extensive, but most civilized of the five great divisions of the globe. It is bounded by the sea in all directions, except the east, where it is separated from Asia by a boundary-line, formed by the river Kara, the Ural Mountains and River, and the Caspian Sea. For military and naval events which occurred in Europe, see separate articles.

=Eurymedon= (now Kapri-Su). A small river in Pamphylia, celebrated for the victory which Cimon gained over the Persians on its banks, 469 B.C.

=Eustace, St.= In Lower Canada; the rebels were defeated here, December 14, 1837, and compelled to surrender their arms. Their chiefs fled.

=Eustatius, St.= A West India island, which was settled by the Dutch in 1632; taken by the French in 1689; by the English in 1690; again by the British forces under Rodney and Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It was recovered by the French, November 26, same year. It was again captured by the British in 1801 and 1810, and restored to the Dutch in 1814.

=Eutaw Springs.= A small affluent of the Santee River, in South Carolina. On its banks was fought, September 8, 1781, the battle of this name. Gen. Greene, determining to dispossess the British of their remaining posts, with about 2000 men attacked their forces under Col. Stuart. The British were routed and fled; but finding in their flight some objects affording shelter, rallied and repulsed their assailants, and Gen. Greene finding it impossible to dislodge them, retreated to his camp with 500 prisoners. The British loss was about 1000; the American about 600.

=Euxine Sea.= See BLACK SEA.

=Evacuate.= To withdraw from a town or fortress, in consequence either of a treaty or a capitulation, or of superior orders.

=Evagination.= An unsheathing or drawing out of a sheath or scabbard.

=Evesham.= A borough and market town of England, in Worcestershire, on the Avon. Near this place a battle was fought between Prince Edward, son of Henry III., and Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, August 4, 1265.

=Evidence.= Is that which makes clear, demonstrates, or ascertains the truth of the very fact or point in issue. Hearsay evidence, the declaration of what one has heard from others. This species of evidence is not admissible in courts-martial.

=Evocati.= Were a class of soldiers among the Romans, who, after having served their full time in the army, entered as volunteers to accompany some favorite general. Hence they were likewise called emereti and beneficiarii.

=Evocation.= A religious ceremony which was observed among the Romans at the commencement of a siege, wherein they solemnly called upon the gods and goddesses of the place to forsake it and come over to them. When any place surrendered they always took it for granted that their prayer had been heard.

=Evolutions.= Are the movements of troops in order to change position. The object may be to maintain or sustain a post, to occupy a new post, to improve an attack, or to improve a defense. All such movements as marching, countermarching, changing front, forming line, facing, wheeling, making column or line, defiling, deploying, etc., come under the general heading of evolutions.

=Evreux= (anc. Mediolanum). A city of France, capital of the department of Eure. It has sustained several sieges, and was burned by Henry I. of England in 1119.

=Examination, Boards of.= See BOARDS OF EXAMINATION.

=Exarchs.= Were appointed by the Byzantine emperors of the East, to govern Central Italy after its conquest by Belisarius and Narses, 548. They ruled from 568 to 752, when Eutychus, the last, was overcome by Astolphus the Lombard.

=Exauctoratio.= In the Roman military discipline, differed from the missio, which was a full discharge, and took place after soldiers had served in the army twenty years; whereas the exauctoratio was only a partial discharge; they lost their pay, indeed, but still kept under their colors or vexilla, though not under the aquila or eagle, which was the standard of the legion; whence instead of legionarii, they were called subsignani, and were retained till they had either served their full time, or had lands assigned them. The exauctoratio took place after they had served seventeen years.

=Excavation.= The art of cutting or otherwise making hollows in the earth; also the cavity formed.

=Exchange.= The act of two officers changing regiments, battalions, or batteries. The mutual giving up of an equal number of prisoners by hostile states or armies. In this sort of exchange an officer, according to his rank, is reckoned as equal to a certain number of men or of officers of a lower grade than his own.

=Excubiæ.= In ancient warfare, the watches and guards kept in the day by the Roman soldiers. They differed from the vigiliæ, which were kept in the night.

=Execution, Military.= Is the pillaging or plundering of a country by the enemy’s army. Military execution also means every kind of punishment inflicted in the army by the sentence of a court-martial; which is of various kinds, including putting a soldier to death by shooting him, which is the ordinary punishment of deserters to the enemy, mutineers, etc. This form of death is considered less disgraceful than hanging by the neck.

=Exempt.= Not subject, not liable to. Men of certain age are exempt from serving in the militia. An aide-de-camp and brigade-major are exempt from all regimental duties while serving in those capacities. Officers on courts-martial are sometimes exempt from all other duties until the court is dissolved.

=Exercise.= The practice of all those motions and actions, together with the whole management of arms, which are essential to the perfection of a soldier, and the rendering him fit for service.

=Exercise, Artillery.= Is the method of teaching the regiments of artillery the use and practice of all the various machines of war belonging to that particular arm of the service.

=Exon.= In England, an officer of the Yeomen of the Royal Guard; an exempt.

=Exostre= (Fr.). Bridge of the Helepole or movable tower of the ancients, by which they passed upon a wall during a siege.

=Expanding System of Projectiles.= See PROJECTILES, RIFLE.

=Expedient.= A stratagem in warfare.

=Expedition.= Is an enterprise taken by sea or by land against an enemy, the fortunate termination of which depends on the rapidity and unexpected nature of its movements. It is usually intrusted to a commander of acknowledged talents and experience.

=Expense Magazines.= Are small powder-magazines containing ammunition, etc., made up for present use. There is usually one in each bastion.

=Experiments.= The trials or applications of any kind of military machines in order to ascertain their practical qualities and uses.

=Expiration of Service.= The termination of a soldier’s contract of enlistment.

=Explode.= To burst with a loud report; to detonate, as gunpowder, or a shell filled with powder or the like material.

=Explosion.= The sudden enlargement of the volume of a body by its conversion into gas or vapor. (See EXPLOSIVES.) The explosion of powder may be divided into three distinct parts, viz.: ignition, inflammation, and combustion, all of which see under their proper headings.

=Explosives.= Substances the elements of which under certain conditions suddenly undergo a chemical rearrangement into gases, giving rise to great pressures on surrounding bodies. Modern writers recognize two different kinds of explosions,--explosions of the 1st order, or detonations, and explosions of the 2d order, or rapid combustions. Detonating explosions are practically instantaneous. The explosion is supposed to be propagated by a vibration throughout the mass. Ordinary explosions are propagated by inflammation. Gunpowder, which may be taken as a type of explosives of the 2d order, burns at a certain rate, depending upon the density. When a charge is fired the inflammation spreads from the point of ignition to all parts of the charge,--each grain is successively enveloped and burned from surface to centre. The velocity of inflammation is the greater in proportion to the degree of confinement from the increased tension of the gases. The velocity of combustion is the rate at which the solid grains are burned. It is measured by the distance passed over by the burning surface (the line being taken perpendicular to the surface) in the unit of time. Time thus enters into the explosion of gunpowder and gives it its peculiar value as a ballistic agent.

In the detonating explosives, the case is very different. These bodies may be supposed to be made up of molecules containing so many atoms of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, etc., so placed as to be held in a state of equilibrium by their mutual attractions and repulsions, but this equilibrium is unstable; that is to say, each atom has only a very small arc of vibration in which the molecule is stable. If by any cause an atom is forced beyond this limit the equilibrium of the whole mass is destroyed, and the elements instantly rearrange themselves under the influence of the chemical affinities which obtain under the particular conditions of the explosion. This kind of explosion is brought about in various ways,--by percussion, concussion, heat, etc.,--some bodies being susceptible to one mode of firing more than another. The theory which offers the best explanation of the various phenomena is that the molecular balance is peculiarly susceptible to overturn by certain vibrations. The vibrations given out by the explosion of the fulminates seem to have the widest range in bringing about the detonation of different substances. For this reason the fulminate of mercury is the universal detonating agent. Its own susceptibility to explosion by heat, percussion, and the electric spark especially fits it for this work. Wet gun-cotton requires in addition to the fulminate a “primer” of dry gun-cotton.

=Explosives, Composition of.= Ordinary explosives of which gunpowder is the type are mechanical mixtures of two essential ingredients,--one a combustible, the other an oxidizing agent. The combustible is usually carbon,--sometimes associated with hydrogen. It may be sulphur or any substance having a great affinity for oxygen. Organic substances containing carbon and hydrogen are frequently used. In the chemical reaction the carbon is oxidized to carbonic acid and the hydrogen to water with the evolution of great heat.

The oxidizing substances ordinarily used are the nitrates and chlorates. Mixtures containing nitrates are the most stable, since the nitrate is comparatively slow to give up its oxygen. The chlorate mixtures are sensitive to friction and percussion, and explode with great quickness. Many of them are unsafe to handle. A new mode of preparing chlorate mixtures has been suggested which avoids this danger. A combustible liquid is used, being absorbed in cakes or lumps of potassium or other chlorate.

Detonating explosives are chemical compounds. Among them are chloride and iodide of nitrogen. Both are dangerous, violent explosives of which no practical use has been made.

The fulminates are salts of fulminic acid. The fulminate of mercury is the one in common use. See FULMINATES.

The nitro-substitution compounds form a large class, comprising the most important of the higher explosives. They are all formed by the action of nitric acid on organic substances containing oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. This action is to replace hydrogen (H) in the organic substance by hyponitric acid (NO₂) (in the acid), equivalent for equivalent. Sulphuric acid is generally mixed with the nitric, though it plays no direct part in the reaction, being used to absorb the water formed and prevent the dilution of the nitric acid.

Nitro-glycerine, the most powerful explosive in common use, is formed by the action of the acids on glycerine. See NITRO-GLYCERINE.

Nitro-starch and nitro-mannite are analogous substances, formed by the action of the acids on starch and sugar.

Gun-cotton is produced by the action of the acids on cotton-wool--a form of cellulose. See GUN-COTTON.

There are varieties of all these compounds produced, by the substitution of different numbers of equivalents of hyponitric acid, but the names are specially given to the most highly nitrated forms.

Picric acid, the salts of which form the well-known picrates, is made by the action of the acids on carbolic acid.

To heighten the effect of the lower forms of nitro-substitution compounds they are usually mixed with an oxidizing agent, such as nitrate or chlorate, which supplies the deficient oxygen. This is exemplified in Schultz’s wood powder (which see), and Reeve’s gun felt.

The picrates are similarly treated. Ammonium picrate mixed with nitre forms Abel’s picric powder (Burgess’s powder). This has been used as a bursting charge for shells.

Mixtures of two high explosives have also been used, as in glyoxiline, invented by Prof. Abel, which is gun-cotton saturated with nitro-glycerine.

Explosive effect depends upon three elements,--1st, the volume of the gases produced taken at a standard temperature; 2d, the heat evolved in the chemical reaction; 3d, the time consumed in the development of the gases. Explosive effect is directly proportional to the first two of these elements, and inversely proportional to the third. According to Bertholet, nitro-glycerine gives out twice as much heat and three and a half times as much gas as an equal weight of gunpowder, but this gives no idea of their relative explosive effects, as the element of time in the detonating explosives is so short that it cannot be calculated. So nearly is this element absent that we may consider these explosions as almost perfect Impulsive Forces. To secure ballistic effect requires the gradual application of force. When motion is imparted to a body the inertia developed is inversely proportional to the time consumed in imparting it. This resistance to motion becomes enormously great when the detonating explosives are used. For this reason their ballistic effect is small. The force which should give the projectile motion is expended in producing molecular changes in both projectile and gun. The same quality, however, fits them especially for blasting and torpedoes, where shattering effect is desirable.

=Express Rifle.= A modern sporting rifle of great killing power, used in hunting large or dangerous animals. They were first introduced in England, and have become celebrated in the hands of African travelers and explorers. The principle consists in using large charges of powder and a light bullet, which gives a very high initial velocity and a trajectory practically a right line for 150 or 200 yards, hence the term “Express.” To increase the killing power of the bullet it is made of pure lead and has a hollow point. Upon striking game the bullet spreads outwardly, giving a fearful death-wound. Moreover, for specially ugly game a small explosive cartridge can be dropped into the cavity in the point, making it an explosive bullet. (See BULLETS, EXPRESS.) In England a caliber as large as .57 is used for some Express rifles. In the United States a caliber of .45 or .50 is considered sufficient.

=Expugn.= To conquer; to take by assault.

=Expugnable.= Capable of being expugned, forced or conquered.

=Expugnation.= The act of taking by assault; conquest.

=Expugner.= One who expugns or conquers.

=Extend.= A term peculiarly applicable to light infantry movements, when the files are frequently loosened, and the front of the line extended for the purpose of skirmishing. When the divisions of a column are made to occupy a greater space of ground, they are said to extend their front.

=Exterior Crest.= The crest of the exterior slope of a parapet.

=Exterior Form of Cannon.= See ORDNANCE, EXTERIOR FORM.

=Exterior Side.= In fortification, is the side of the polygon, upon which a front of fortification is formed.

=Exterior Slope.= In fortification, is the slope given to the outside of a parapet. It is found by experience that earth of common quality will naturally acquire a slope of 45°, even when battered by cannon. This inclination is therefore given to the slope.

=External Injuries to Cannon.= See INJURIES TO CANNON.

=Extortion.= Under the modern laws of war, honorable men no longer permit the use of any violence against prisoners in order to extort information or to punish them for having given false information.

=Extrados= (Fr.). The exterior surface of a regular arch, used in the construction of powder-magazines.

=Extraordinaries of the Army.= In the English service, the allowances to troops beyond the gross pay in the pay office, come under this head. Such are the expenses for barracks, marches, encampments, staff, etc.

=Extraordinarii.= In the ancient Roman army, a select body of men consisting of the third part of the foreign cavalry and a fifth of the infantry. These were carefully separated from the other forces borrowed from the confederate states, in order to prevent any treacherous coalition between them. From among the extraordinarii a more choice body of men were drawn, under the name of ablecti. See ABLECTI.

=Eylau=, or =Eilau=. Usually called Prussian Eylau, a town in the government of Königsberg, celebrated for the battle fought here between Napoleon and the allies--Russians and Prussians--under Bennigsen, February 8, 1807. The French force amounted to about 80,000, and the allies numbered 58,000, but were superior in artillery. The French claimed the victory, chiefly because the allied forces, unable to recruit their strength, were ordered to retreat from the field on the night of the battle, and to retire upon Königsberg. The loss of the allies is estimated at about 20,000, while that of the French must have been considerably greater.

F.

=Face.= A term of varied application. In fortification, it is an appellation given to several parts of a fortress, as the face of the bastion, which is the two sides, reaching from the flanks to the salient angles. The prolonged or extended face is that part of the line of defense which is terminated by the curtain and the angle of the shoulder. Strictly taken, it is the line of defense rayant, diminished by the face of the bastion.

=Face.= In tactics, is the turning of a soldier on his heels as a “right face”; also the word of command for the movement. To face is to turn on the heels.

=Face of a Piece.= In gunnery, is the terminating plane perpendicular to the axis of the bore.

=Face of a Place.= In fortification, is the front comprehended between the flanked angles of two neighboring bastions, composed of a curtain, two flanks, and two faces; and is sometimes called the tenaille of the place.

=Faces of a Square.= The sides of a battalion when formed in square.

=Fachon.= An Anglo-Norman term for a sword or falchion.

=Facing.= A covering, a plating.

=Facings.= The movements of soldiers by turning on their heels to the right, left, right-about, left-about, etc. To put one through one’s facings, is to examine into his elementary knowledge, to test his pretensions.

=Facings.= Are also the cuffs and collars of a military coat, and are generally of a different color from that of the coat.

=Faction.= In ancient history, one of the troops or bodies of combatants in the games of the circus, especially of the horse-races.

=Faction.= A term applied in an ill sense to any party in a state that offers uncompromising opposition to the measures of the government, or that endeavors to excite public discontent upon unreasonable grounds.

=Faction= (Fr.). The duty done by a private soldier when he patrols, goes the round, etc., but most especially when he does duty as a sentinel. The French usually say, entrer en faction, to come upon duty; etre en faction, to be upon duty; sortir de faction, to come off duty.

=Factionnaire= (Fr.). Soldat factionnaire, a soldier that does every species of detail duty. The term factionnaire was likewise applicable to the duty done by officers in the old French service.

=Faenza= (anc. Faventia). A town in Central Italy, 19 miles southwest of Ravenna. Faventia is noted in history as the place where Carbo and Norbanus were defeated with great loss by Metillus, the general of Sulla, in 82 B.C.

=Fæsulæ.= See FIESOLE.

=Fag-end.= Is the end of any rope. This term is also applied to the end of a rope when it has become untwisted. To fag out, to wear out the end of a rope or a piece of canvas.

=Fagnano.= A village of Italy, 12 miles from Verona. In 1799 a battle was fought here between the Austrians and French.

=Fagots.= See FASCINES.

=Fagots.= In military history, were men hired to muster by officers whose companies were not complete; by which means they cheated the public of the men’s pay, and deprived the country of its regular establishment.

=Failure.= An unsuccessful attempt; as, the failure of an expedition.

=Faint.= To lose courage or spirit; to become depressed or despondent.

=Faint-hearted.= Wanting in courage; depressed by fear, easily discouraged or frightened; cowardly, timorous.

=Fairfax=, or =Culpeper Court-house=. A village, the capital of Culpeper Co., Va., on the Orange and Alexandria Railroad. This place was an important strategic point during the civil war (1861-65).

=Fairfield.= A village of Fairfield Co., Conn., situated on Long Island Sound. It was settled in 1659; it was burned in 1779 by order of Gov. Tryon.

=Fair Haven.= A village of Bristol Co., Mass., on Buzzard’s Bay. The town was attacked by the British on September 7, 1788, but they were repulsed without loss.

=Fair Oaks.= A locality in Henrico Co., Va., on the Richmond and York River Railroad, about 7 miles east of Richmond. Here a severe battle took place between the Federals under Gen. McClellan and the Confederate army under Gen. Johnston, May 31-June 1, 1862, in which the latter were defeated, although the former obtained no decisive results from their success. The Union loss was estimated at 5500; the Confederate was somewhat greater.

=Fakir.= A word derived from the Arabic fakhar, and designating a member of an order of mendicants or penitents, chiefly in India and the neighboring countries. They live either separately as hermits or solitary mendicants, or unite in large gangs, carrying arms and a banner, beating drums, and sounding horns, whenever they approach a town or village.

=Falarique= (Fr.) Falarica; combustible darts or arrows of various thicknesses, generally about 3 feet long; close behind the head was lodged the combustible matter by which shipping, etc., was set on fire; it was projected from a bow or catapult.

=Falcair= (Fr.). A soldier who was armed with a falcarius or short crooked sword.

=Falchion.= A curved sword, or small cimeter.

=Falcon.= An ancient form of cannon, 7 feet in length, carrying a ball of 4 pounds in weight.

=Falconet.= A small cannon anciently used, a little exceeding 6 feet in length, and carrying a ball of 2 pounds in weight.

=Falczi, Peace of.= Concluded between Russia and Turkey, July 2, 1711, the Russians giving up Azof and all their possessions on the Black Sea to the Turks. The Russians were saved from imminent destruction by the address of Catharine, the empress. In 1712 the war was renewed, and terminated by the peace of Constantinople, April 16, 1712.

=Falerii.= A city of ancient Etruria, which was situated west of the Tiber. The inhabitants, who were called Falisci, joined with those of Veii in assisting the Fidenates against the Romans, and were among the most dangerous enemies of Rome. In 241 B.C. the city was destroyed, and a Roman colony was settled in the time of the triumvirs.

=Falkirk.= A town of Scotland, in Stirlingshire. Sir William Wallace was defeated in a battle near Falkirk by Edward I., and here, also, the royal army was defeated by the adherents of the house of Stuart in 1746.

=Falkoping.= A town of Sweden, near which, in 1338, Margaret, queen of Denmark, defeated Albert, king of Sweden, and took him prisoner.

=Fall.= The surrender or capture of a place after it has been besieged.

=Fall.= The rope rove through blocks, used with gins and shears for raising weights, and with the crab for moving them.

=Fall.= The descent of a body by the attraction of the earth.

=Fall Foul, To.= To attack; to make an assault.

=Fall In.= A word of command for men to form in ranks, as in parade, line, or division, etc.

=Falling Bodies, Laws of.= When a body falls freely in vacuo it is actuated by a force which may be taken as constant, consequently its velocity will be uniformly accelerated. The constant increment to the velocity in one second is called the acceleration, and is a measure of the force. (See FORCE OF GRAVITY.) The velocity acquired at the end of a certain time will be found by multiplying the force of gravity by the number of seconds. The laws of falling bodies are given by the following equations:

v = gt

v = √(2_gh_)

_v_² h = ----- 2_g_

In which v is the velocity acquired, h the height fallen through, g the force of gravity, and t the time in seconds. These laws are approximately true for dense or heavy bodies falling for a few seconds in the atmosphere. For longer periods, v is less than that due to h under the above laws. For full discussion, see FINAL VELOCITY.

=Falling Branch.= That part of the trajectory of a projectile in which it approaches the earth.

=Fall Out, To.= To quit the rank or file in which you were first posted. Dirty soldiers on a parade are frequently ordered to fall out, and remain in the rear of their companies. The phrase is applicable in a variety of other instances.

=Fall Upon, To.= To attack abruptly.

=Falots= (Fr.). Small lanterns fixed upon the end of a stick or pole. Small lamps likewise used, attached in the same manner, for the purpose of carrying them readily about to light a camp, or besieged towns, as occasion may require.

=False Alarm.= An alarm or apprehension which is either designedly or unintentionally created by noise, report, or signals, without being dangerous.

=False Attack.= An approach which is made as a feint for the purpose of diverting an enemy from the real object of attack.

=False Fires.= Lights or fires employed for the purpose of deceiving an enemy. When an army is about to retire from a position during the night false fires are lighted in different parts of the encampment to impose upon the enemy’s vigilance.

=False Lights.= In debarkations under cover of the night, may likewise be used as signals of deception, when it is found expedient to attract the attention of the invaded country towards one part of the coast or territory, whilst a real attack is meditated against another.

=False Muster.= An incorrect statement of the number of effective soldiers and horses. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 14.

=False Return.= A willful report of the actual state of a brigade, regiment, troop, or company, by which the commander-in-chief of the war department is deceived as to the effective force of such regiment or company. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 8.

=Famagosta=, or =Famagusta=. A seaport town of the island of Cyprus, on the east coast, built on the ruins of the ancient Arsinoe. In 1571 Famagosta was taken by the Turks, and the town was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 1735.

=Fanfare=. The French name of a short and lively military air or call, executed on brass instruments.

=Fang, To.= To pour water into a pump in order to fetch it, when otherwise the boxes do not hold the water left on them.

=Fanion= (Fr.). A small flag which was sometimes carried at the head of the baggage of a brigade. It was made of serge, and resembled in color the uniform livery of the brigadier, or of the commandant of any particular corps.

=Fantassin= (Fr.). A foot-soldier. This term is derived from the Italian fante, a boy, the light troops in the 14th and 15th centuries being formed of boys who followed the armies and were formed into corps with light arms, hence the origin of the word infantry.

=Fantee=, or =Fanti=. A maritime country of Guinea, inhabited by a tribe of the same name, who are now under English protection.

=Farcy.= A horse disease of the absorbents, affecting the skin and its blood-vessels; is of the nature of mange, and allied to glanders.

=Farrier.= In a general acceptation of the term, any person who shoes horses, or professes to cure their diseases. In a practical military sense, a man appointed to do the duty of farriery in a troop of cavalry. Troop farriers should be under the immediate superintendence and control of a veterinary surgeon. There is one farrier allowed to each troop of cavalry in the U. S. army.

=Farrier-Major.= A person who was formerly appointed by the colonel of a dragoon regiment to superintend the farriers of troops. He has since been superseded or replaced by a veterinary surgeon.

=Fasces.= Bundles of rods usually made of birch, but sometimes of elm, with an axe projecting from the middle of them, which were carried before the chief magistrates of ancient Rome, as symbols of their power over life and limb. They were borne by the lictors, at first before the kings; in the time of the republic, before consuls and prætors; and afterwards before the emperors.

=Fascine.= A long cylindrical fagot of brushwood, used to revet the interior of batteries and embrasures, and for many other purposes of military engineering.

=Fascines, Covering.= See COVERING-FASCINES.

=Fastness.= A fast place; a stronghold; a fortress or fort; a place fortified; a castle, etc.

=Fatigue.= The cause of weariness; labor; toil; as, the fatigues of war.

=Fatigue.= The labors of military men, distinct from the use of arms.

=Fatigue Call.= A particular military call, sounded on the bugle or drum, by which soldiers are called upon to perform fatigue duties.

=Fatigue Dress.= The working dress of soldiers.

=Fatigue Party.= A party of soldiers on fatigue.

=Faulcon.= A small cannon.

=Faulx= (Fr.). An instrument nearly resembling a scythe. It was often used to defend a breach, or to prevent an enemy from scaling the walls of a fortified place. This weapon was first resorted to with some success, when Louis XIV. besieged Mons. On the surrender of that town, large quantities of faulx, or scythes, were found in the garrison.

=Fausse Braye.= In fortification, was a parapet constructed at a lower elevation than the main parapet, and between the foot of the parapet and the edge of the ditch. It was used only in permanent fortification, and has long been obsolete.

=Fayetteville.= A small town, capital of Washington Co., Ark. On April 18, 1863, this place, which was garrisoned by two regiments of Federal troops under Col. Harrison, was attacked by the Confederate general Cabell, with about 2000 men; and after six hours’ severe fighting the Confederates were repulsed.

=Fayetteville.= A town of Cumberland Co., N. C., on the left bank of the Cape Fear River. On April 22, 1861, the arsenal at this place surrendered to the Confederates, and about 35,000 stand of arms, besides some cannon and a considerable quantity of ammunition, fell into their hands. The town was taken by Gen. Sherman in March, 1865.

=Fecial.= Pertaining to heralds, and the denunciation of war to an enemy; as, fecial war.

=Federal States.= Are those united by treaty as one state, without giving up self-government,--as in Switzerland or the United States of North America. The Federals were the people of the Northern of the United States of America during the great conflict in 1861-65; their opponents were styled the Confederates.

=Fehrbellin.= A town of Prussia, 22 miles northwest from Potsdam. The elector of Brandenburg defeated the Swedish army near this town in 1675.

=Feint.= In military or naval matters, a mock attack or assault, usually made to throw an enemy off his guard against some real design upon his position.

=Feint.= In fencing, a seeming aim at one part when another is intended to be struck.

=Felloes.= In artillery, the parts of the wheel which form its circumference. There are generally seven in each wheel.

=Feltre= (Fr.). A Roman cuirass made of strong woolen cloth.

=Fence.= Self-defense by the use of the sword; fencing; the art and practice of fencing or sword-play.

=Fencer.= One who fences; one who teaches or practices the art of fencing with sword or foil.

=Fence-roof.= A covering of defense.

=Fencible.= Capable of being defended, or of making or affording defense.

=Fencible.= A soldier enlisted for the defense of the country, and not liable to be sent abroad.

=Fencible Light Dragoons.= A body of cavalry raised voluntarily in various counties of England and Scotland in 1794, to serve during the war in any part of Great Britain. This force was disbanded in 1800.

=Fencibles.= In England, regiments raised for a limited service, and for a definite period. The officers rank with the militia.

=Fencing.= The art of using skillfully a sword or foil in attack or defense; the art or practice of self-defense with the sword.

=Fenian.= A name formerly applied among the Celts to bodies of troops somewhat similar to our modern militia. They derived their name from Finn McCumhail, a famous Celtic chief. In modern times the name was assumed by an association formed for the liberation of Ireland, whose principal headquarters was in the United States, but ramifications of which extended through Great Britain, Ireland, and the colonies. In 1866 the Fenians attempted to invade Canada, and succeeded in crossing the frontier; but they were soon dispersed, and their leaders arrested by the U. S. authorities for violation of the neutrality laws. In 1867 there were several demonstrations made by them in England and Ireland, but their leaders were promptly arrested, and after some were executed, and others sentenced to long terms of imprisonment, the movement was crushed.

=Fer= (Fr.). Iron. Figuratively, this word is used for a sword or dagger; as, manier le fer, to wear the sword, to follow the profession of arms.

=Fer à Cheval= (Fr.). In fortification, a horseshoe, a small round or oval work, with a parapet, generally made in a ditch or in a marsh. It further means, according to the French acceptation of the term, a work constructed for the purpose of covering a gate, by having within it a guard-house, to prevent the town from being taken by surprise.

=Ferdwit.= In ancient military history, a term formerly used to denote a freedom from serving upon any military expedition; or, according to some, the being acquitted of manslaughter committed in the army.

=Fere Champenoise, La.= A town of France, in the department of the Marne, 20 miles from Epernay. In 1814 the French were defeated here by the allies.

=Fere, La.= A fortified town of France, in the department of the Aisne, on an island in the Oise. It has an arsenal and a school of artillery. This town was taken by the Spaniards in 1530; and by the allies in 1814.

=Ferentarii.= Among the Romans, were auxiliary troops lightly armed; their weapons being a sword, arrows, and a sling. We have also mention of another sort of Ferentarii, whose business was to carry arms after the army, and to be ready to supply the soldiers therewith in battle.

=Ferozeshah.= A village in Hindostan, situated a few miles from the left bank of the river Sutlej. Here the British, commanded by Sir Hugh Gough, attacked the intrenchments of the Sikhs, and carried their first line of works, December 21, 1845; but night coming on, the operations were suspended till daybreak next day, when their second line was stormed by Gen. Gilbert, and 74 guns captured. The Sikhs advanced to retake their guns, but were repulsed with great loss, and retreated toward the Sutlej, December 22; and recrossed that river unmolested, December 27. The loss of the British was reckoned at 2415.

=Ferrara.= A city of Italy, and the capital of one of the Æmilian provinces of the same name. It was subdued by the Lombards in the 8th century, and taken from them by Pepin, about 752, who gave it to Pope Stephen II. About 1208 it fell into the hands of the house of Este, and in 1598 Pope Clement VIII. obtained the sovereignty. The French under Masséna took Ferrara in 1796; but it was restored to the pope in 1814. An Austrian garrison held it from 1849; it retired in June, 1859, and the people rose and declared for annexation to Sardinia, which was accomplished in March, 1860.

=Ferrara.= A sword of excellent temper, made of steel from Ferrara, Italy. The kind most prized was manufactured by Andrea di Ferrara; hence such a sword was often called an Andrea-Ferrara.

=Ferries, Rope.= See PONTONS.

=Ferrol.= A seaport town of Spain, province of Corunna, and an important naval station. This place was unsuccessfully attacked by the British in August, 1800. Marshal Soult captured Ferrol, January 27, 1809.

=Ferry.= A water conveyance made use of to cross a river, or branch of the sea.

=Fetter.= To put fetters upon; to shackle or confine the feet with a chain; to bind; to enchain. Deserters are sometimes fettered while undergoing punishment for the crime of desertion.

=Feu-de-joie.= A salute fired by musketry on occasions of public rejoicing, so that it should pass from man to man rapidly and steadily, down one rank and up the other, giving one long continuous sound.

=Feu Rasant= (Fr.). A grazing fire, or a discharge of musketry or cannon, so directed that the balls shall run parallel with the ground they fly over, within 3 or 4 feet of the surface.

=Feud.= A contention or quarrel; especially an inveterate strife between families, clans, or parties in a state; deadly hatred; contention satisfied only by bloodshed.

=Feudal.= Consisting of, or founded upon, feuds or fiefs; embracing tenures by military system; as, the feudal system.

=Fez.= A red cap without a brim, worn by Turkish soldiers and others.

=Fez.= A city of Morocco, Africa; it was founded by Edris, a descendant of Mohammed, about 787; was long capital of the kingdom of Fez. After long-continued struggles it was annexed to Morocco about 1550.

=Fichant.= In fortification, said of flanking fire which impinges on the face it defends; that is, of a line of defense where the angle of defense is less than a right angle.

=Fidenæ.= An ancient city of Latium, on the left bank of the Tiber, 5 miles from Rome. The proximity of the two cities brought them early into collision, and we find that Fidenæ was engaged in successive wars with the early Roman kings. After the expulsion of the Tarquins Fidenæ entered into a league with the Sabines and Latins to effect their restoration, but the attempt proved abortive, and, deserted by their allies, the Fidenates were compelled to surrender to the Roman arms. The city afterwards continued its struggles against Rome, but without success, and, though there is no record of its destruction, it had dwindled into an insignificant village before the close of the Roman republic.

=Fidentia= (now Bargo S. Domingo). A town in Cisalpine Gaul, on the Via Æmilia, between Parma and Placentia, memorable for the victory which Sulla’s generals gained over Carbo, 82 B.C.

=Fief.= An estate held of a superior on condition of military service; a fee; a feud.

=Field.= A cleared space or plain where a battle is fought; also, the battle itself. To take the field means to commence active operations against an enemy.

=Field.= In heraldry, the surface of a shield; hence, any blank space or ground on which figures are drawn or projected.

=Field Allowance.= In the British service, is an allowance granted to officers in camp at home, or on a campaign, to enable them to repay themselves the expense of purchasing camp equipage, bat-horses, etc. It is divided into ordinary and extraordinary field allowance, the former being granted in time of peace, the latter in that of war.

=Field Artillery.= That portion of the artillery which is used in the field. In the U. S. army the 3-and 3¹⁄₂-inch rifle guns, Gatling, and 12-pounder smooth-bore, constitute the field artillery. See ARTILLERY.

=Field-battery.= Is a certain number of pieces of artillery so equipped as to be available for attack or defense, and capable of accompanying cavalry or infantry in all their movements in the field. There are allotted to a field-battery 4 pieces in time of peace and 6 in time of war, and it is divided into mounted artillery, which usually serves with infantry, and horse artillery, which ordinarily serves with cavalry. The main difference between the two consists in the cannoneers of the latter being mounted; in rapid evolutions of the former they are conveyed on the gun-carriages. See ARTILLERY.

=Field-bed.= A folding bed used by officers while on campaigns or in the field.

=Field-carriage.= Field-gun carriages consist of two short cheeks of wood, bolted upon a stock and wooden axle-body, in a recess which fits the iron axle on which the wheels are placed. The stock terminates in a trail and trail-plate which rests on the ground, and has on the end a strong ring called the lunette, which is placed on the pintle-hook when the piece is limbered. In the stock is placed an elevating screw-box of bronze in which the elevating screw fits. They have also limbers (which see).

=Field-colors.= Small flags of about a foot and a half square, carried along with troops for marking out the ground for the squadrons and battalions; camp-colors.

=Field-day.= A term used when a regiment is taken out to the field, for the purpose of being instructed in the field exercise and evolutions.

=Fielded.= Being in the field of battle; encamped. This term is now obsolete.

=Field-equipage.= Military apparatus for field service.

=Field Forge.= See FORGE.

=Field-glass.= A binocular telescope, used by officers in field service.

=Field-gun.= A small kind of gun, or cannon, used on the battle-field; a field-piece.

=Field-Marshal= (Mareschal, Feldmarschall, Feldzeugmeister). The commander of an army; a military officer of high rank in France, Germany, and other nations, and the highest military officer in England. Formerly a captain-general was occasionally appointed, who had rank higher even than a field-marshal.

=Field-officer.= Is a colonel, lieutenant-colonel, or major of a battalion or regiment, as distinguished from general officers, who are superior to field-officers in rank; from line-officers, who are inferior; and from staff-officers, general or regimental, who may be of rank superior, equivalent, or inferior to that of field-officers.

=Field-officer’s Court.= In the U. S. service, a court-martial consisting of one field-officer empowered to try cases, subject to jurisdiction of garrison and regimental courts, takes the place of the latter courts in time of war, but cannot be held in time of peace.

=Field of the Cloth of Gold.= A name given to an open plain between Ardres and Guisnes, where Henry VIII. of England had an interview in 1520 with Francis I. of France. The nobility of both kingdoms embraced the opportunity to display their magnificence with the utmost emulation and profusion of expense.

=Field-park.= The spare carriages, reserved supplies of ammunition, tools, and materials for extensive repairs and for making up ammunition, for the service of an army in the field, form the field-park, to which should be attached also the batteries of reserve.

=Field-piece.= A small cannon which is carried along with armies, and used in the field of battle.

=Field Service.= Service performed by troops in the field.

=Field-staff.= A staff formerly carried by gunners in the field, and holding lighted matches for discharging cannon. It is no longer used.

=Field Telegraph.= See TELEGRAPH, FIELD.

=Field-train.= In the British service, a department of the Royal Artillery, consisting of commissaries and conductors of stores, responsible for the safe custody of the ammunition, for the formation of proper depots of shot, etc., between the front and the base of operations, and that a due proportion shall be constantly at the service of each gun during an engagement.

=Field-works.= Are intrenchments and other temporary fortifications thrown up by an army in the field, either as a protection from the onslaught of a hostile force, or to cover an attack upon some stronghold. All works which do not come under the head of permanent fortification are called field-works.

=Fiesole= (anc. Faesulæ). One of the most ancient Etruscan cities, situated about 3 miles from Florence. This city was first mentioned in 225 B.C. during the great Gaulish war. Hannibal encamped here after crossing the Apennines. The city was next destroyed by Sulla in the Social war (90-89 B.C.), who afterwards dispatched thither a military colony. About the beginning of the 11th century, it was destroyed by the Florentines, and many of its inhabitants compelled to remove to the city of Florence.

=Fife.= A wooden wind instrument, which is used with the snare-drum for playing military music. The music is produced by blowing through a hole in a reed or tube, while the escape of air is regulated by the fingers stopping or opening a number of other holes in different parts of the pipe.

=Fife-Major.= The chief or superintendent of the fifers of a regiment.

=Fifer.= One who plays a fife; there is one fifer allowed to each company of infantry in the U. S. army. Fifers are also employed aboard men-of-war, and in the marine corps.

=Fight.= To strive or contend for victory, in battle or in single combat; to defeat, subdue, or destroy an enemy, either by blows or weapons; to contend in arms;--followed by with or against.

=Fight.= To carry on, or wage, as a conflict, or battle; to win or gain by struggle, as one’s way; to sustain by fighting, as a cause. To contend with in battle; to war against, as, they fought the enemy in two pitched battles. To cause to fight; manage or manœuvre in a fight.

=Fight.= A battle; an engagement; a contest in arms; a struggle for victory, either between individuals or between armies, ships, or navies. A duel is called a single fight or combat.

=Fighter.= One who fights; a combatant; a warrior.

=Fighting.= Qualified for war; fit for battle; as, “A host of fighting men.” Also, occupied in war; being the scene of war; as, a fighting field.

=Fight, Running.= That in which the enemy is continually chased.

=Figueras.= A town in the northeast of Spain, province of Gerona. On a height near the town is the citadel of San Fernando, the strongest fortress of Spain, and the key of the Pyrenees on their south side. It has accommodation for 2000 men.

=Figure.= In fortification, the plan of any fortified place, or the interior polygon. Of this there are two sorts, regular and irregular; a regular figure is that where the sides and angles are equal; an irregular one where they are unequal.

=File.= A line of soldiers drawn up behind each other, in contradistinction to rank, which refers to men standing beside one another. The general term means two soldiers, consisting of the front and rear rank men. To file is to advance to or from any given points by files; as, to file to the front, etc. To file off, or to defile, is to wheel off by files from moving in a spacious front, and march in length. Flank file, is the extreme file on the right or left of a squadron or troop, battalion or company, etc. Indian files, a line of men advancing or retreating from either of the flanks, from the centre or from any proportion of a line in succession to one another.

=File Firing.= Firing by files.

=File-leader.= Is the soldier placed in front of any file, or the man who is to cover all those who stand directly in the rear of him, and by whom they are to be guided in all their movements.

=Filibuster.= A lawless military adventurer, especially one in quest of plunder; a freebooter; a pirate; applied especially to the followers of Lopez in his expedition to Cuba in 1851.

=Filings.= Are movements to the front, rear, or flanks by files.

=Fillet.= A molding used on cannon of old pattern.

=Fillibeg=, or =Filibeg=. A little plaid; a kilt or dress reaching nearly to the knees, worn in the Highlands of Scotland, and by the soldiers of Highland regiments in the British service.

=Fillibuster.= See FILIBUSTER.

=Final Velocity.= In gunnery, is the technical term for the uniform velocity which a projectile would acquire in falling through an indefinite height in the air. A body falling in vacuo is uniformly accelerated, its velocity being continually increased. In the atmosphere the case is different. Since the resistance of the air increases with some power of the velocity greater than the square, it follows that at some point in the descent the retardation becomes equal to the acceleration, and the body will move with uniform velocity. This is called “final velocity,” and is one of the most important elements in the theory of projectiles. Every projectile has its own “final velocity.” Other things being equal, that projectile is best which has the greatest “final velocity.” The “final velocity” of a given projectile will depend upon its weight on the one hand, and the extent of surface and the way it is presented to the air on the other. The extent and form of the surface directly opposed to the action of the air will largely determine the resistance. The best form, as determined by the experiments of Borda, is the ogival. The resistance, other things being the same, may be taken as proportional to the area of greatest cross-section. The weight in spherical projectiles is proportional to the cube of this dimension. It follows from these general principles that large projectiles are better than small, dense better than light, solid better than hollow, in regard to their final velocities; moreover, that oblong projectiles are better than spherical, ogival-headed oblong better than flat-headed, and long rifle projectiles better than short, in the same regard.

=Finding.= Before a court-martial deliberates upon the judgment, the judge-advocate reads over the whole proceedings of the court; he then collects the votes of each member, beginning with the youngest. The best mode of doing so is by slips of paper. The Articles of War require a majority in all cases, and in cases of sentence of death two-thirds. It is not necessary to find a general verdict of guilt or acquittal upon the whole of every charge. The court may find the prisoner guilty of part of a charge, and acquit him of the remainder, and render sentence according to their finding. This is a special verdict.

=Finland.= A Russian grand duchy; in the middle of the 12th century was conquered by the Swedes, who introduced Christianity. It was several times conquered by the Russians (1714, 1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743); but in 1809 they retained it by treaty.

=Fire.= In the art of war, a word of command to soldiers of all denominations to discharge their fire-arms, cannon, etc. It likewise expresses a general discharge against an enemy. To be “under fire” means to be exposed to the attack of an enemy by cannonade or fusilade. The fire in artillery may be either direct, ricochet, rolling, plunging, horizontal, or vertical, according to the nature of the projectile and the angle of elevation. A fire is said to be direct, when the projectile hits the object without striking any intermediate one; ricochet, when the projectile strikes the ground or water under a small angle of fall, penetrates obliquely to a certain distance, and is then reflected at an angle greater than the angle of fall. This action may recur frequently, depending, as it does, on the nature of the surface struck, the initial velocity, shape, size, and density of the projectile, and on the angle of fall. It is employed in siege-works to attain the face of a work in flank, or in reverse; and in the field, or on water, when the object is large, and the distance is not accurately known. The character of ricochet fire is determined by the angle of fall. It is flattened when this angle does not exceed 4°, and curvated when the angle is between 6° and 15°. Against troops the angle of fall should not exceed 3°. A particular kind of ricochet fire called rolling is produced by placing the axis of the piece parallel, or nearly so, with the ground. It was formerly much used when the conditions were favorable in the field service, where it was very effective, as the projectile never passes at a greater distance above the ground than the muzzle of the piece. The projectile was solid round shot; rifled projectiles are unsuited to this kind of fire. When the object is situated below the piece, the fire is said to be plunging. This kind of fire is particularly effective against the decks of vessels. Under low angles of elevation the fire of guns and howitzers is said to be horizontal. The fire of mortars under high angles of elevation is called vertical.

=Fire-alarm.= An alarm given of a fire or conflagration. In military barracks or camp, it is sounded on drum or bugle, or the discharge of fire-arms by the guard.

=Fire, Angle of.= See POINTING.

=Fire-arms.= Every description of arms charged with powder and ball. See special headings.

=Fire-arrow.= A small iron dart, furnished with a match impregnated with powder and sulphur, used to fire the sails of ships.

=Fire-ball.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Fire-bavin.= A bundle of brushwood used in fire-ships.

=Fire-bucket.= A bucket to convey water for extinguishing fires. To each set of quarters in a garrison there are allotted a certain number of fire-buckets.

=Fire-cross.= An ancient token in Scotland for the nation to take up arms.

=Fire, Curved=, or =Curvated=. See FIRE.

=Fire, Direct.= See FIRE.

=Fire-eater.= One notoriously fond of being in action.

=Fire, Effects of.= See PROJECTILES, EFFECTS OF.

=Fire, Enfilade.= Fire in the direction of the length of a parapet or a line of troops.

=Fire-engine.= A hydraulic or forcing pump for throwing water to extinguish fires.

=Fire, Greek.= See GREEK FIRE.

=Fire-hoops.= A combustible invented by the Knights of Malta to throw among their besiegers, and afterwards used in boarding Turkish galleys.

=Fire, Line of.= See POINTING.

=Firelocks.= Were fire-arms formerly used by foot-soldiers; they were so called from their producing fire of themselves, by the action of the flint and steel. They were first made use of in 1690, but it is not ascertained when they were first invented. About the middle of the last century a firelock was called, by military writers, asnapbaan, which being a low Dutch word, seems to indicate its being a Dutch invention.

=Fire-master.= In the artillery, was a commissioned officer who gave the directions and proportions of all ingredients for each composition required in fireworks, whether for the service of war, or for rejoicings and recreation.

=Fire-master’s-mate.= In the artillery, a commissioned officer whose duty was to aid and assist the chief fire-master; and he was required to be skilled in every kind of laboratory works.

=Fire, Oblique.= That which strikes a parapet or a body of troops in a slanting direction.

=Fire-pan.= A pan for holding or conveying fire; especially, the receptacle for the priming in a gun.

=Fire, Plane of.= See POINTING.

=Fire, Plunging.= See FIRE.

=Fire-pot.= A small earthen pot, into which is put a charged grenade, and over that, powder enough to cover the grenade; the whole covered with a piece of parchment, and two pieces of quick-match across lighted; it breaks and fires the powder, as also the powder in the grenade, which has no fuze, that its operations may be quicker; it burns all that is near it. These are no longer used.

=Fire Rasant.= Is produced by firing the artillery and small-arms in a line parallel with those parts of the works you are defending.

=Fire, Reverse.= Is that which strikes the rear of a parapet or body of troops.

=Fire, Ricochet.= See FIRE.

=Fire, Slant.= Is when the shot strikes the interior slope of the parapet, forming with it a horizontal angle, not greater than 30°.

=Fire Stone.= A composition placed in a shell with the bursting charge, to set fire to ships, buildings, etc. It is made by stirring nitre, sulphur, antimony, and rosin in a mixture of melted tallow and turpentine. It is cast in molds made of rocket-paper. A priming of fuze composition is driven in a hole to insure its ignition.

=Fire-swab.= The bunch of rope-yarns sometimes secured to the tampion, saturated with water to cool the gun in action, and to swab up any grains of powder.

=Fire, Tables of.= In artillery, are tabulated statements for each piece, showing the range and time of flight for each elevation, charge of powder, and kind of projectile. Their purpose is to assist the artillerist in attaining his object without waste of time and ammunition, and also to regulate his aim when the effect of shot cannot be seen on account of the dust and smoke of the battle-field. The first few shots generally produce a great effect on the enemy, and it is very important that they should be directed with some knowledge of their results, which, in the field, can only be attained by experience, or from the data afforded by a table of fire. Tables of fire for different kinds of cannon may be found in the Ordnance and Artillery Manuals.

=Fire, Vertical.= See FIRE.

=Fire-workers.= In the British service, were formerly subordinate to the fire-master and his mate; had afterwards the rank of youngest lieutenants in the regiment of artillery, but now that rank is abolished, and they are all second lieutenants. They were supposed to be well skilled in every kind of laboratory-work, which knowledge is an essential qualification in every officer of that branch of the service.

=Fireworks.= Are various combustible preparations used in war. See PYROTECHNY.

=Firing.= The act of discharging fire-arms.

=First Sergeant.= The ranking non-commissioned officer in a company. He has immediate charge of all enlisted men of the company and company property; has command of it during formations, and calls the roll. He also makes all details, keeps the roster, etc. See ORDERLY SERGEANT.

=Fishguard.= A seaport town of South Wales, county of Pembroke. About 2¹⁄₂ miles south of this town a French force of 1400 men, under Gen. Tate, landed on February 22, 1797, and next day surrendered to a few militia and volunteers not half their number.

=Fishtail Wind.= A term in target practice with small-arms for a rear wind which is variable in direction.

=Fish Torpedoes.= See TORPEDOES.

=Fissure.= A narrow chasm where a small breach has been made, as in a fort, citadel, etc.

=Five Forks.= A name given to a locality in Dinwiddie Co., Va., the junction of the White Oak and Ford’s road with the one leading to Dinwiddie Court-house. An important battle was fought here April 1, 1865. The possession of this radiating centre was one of great strategic importance, inasmuch as by Ford’s road the Southside Railroad could be reached, and, indeed, the whole country which the intrenched Confederate lines were intended to cover. The attempt to gain possession of this position had been made (March 30-31) by Gen. Sheridan, with momentary success (March 31), during the absence of most of the Confederate force, engaged in fighting Warren on the White Oak road, but which now being recalled, regained possession, driving Sheridan back towards Dinwiddie Court-house. On the morning of April 1 Sheridan renewed the attempt, and after a day of very severe fighting compelled the surrender of nearly all the Confederate force, pursuing such as escaped till after dark. Over 5000 prisoners were captured with 5 guns. The Union loss was not above 1900 all told. The effect of this decisive battle was to determine Lee to abandon Petersburg, which he did undercover of night (April 2), but not before his entire outer line of works had been carried during the day. One week later Lee surrendered his army at Appomattox Court-house.

=Fix Bayonets.= A word of command in the manual exercise, whereby the bayonets are fixed on the rifles.

=Fixed Ammunition.= Consists of a projectile and its cartridge which are attached to the same block of wood called a sabot. See ORDNANCE, AMMUNITION FOR.

=Flag, Black.= A flag of a black color, displayed as a sign that no mercy will be shown to the vanquished, or that no quarter will be given.

=Flag, Garrison.= In the U. S. army the garrison flag is the national flag, and is 36 feet fly and 20 feet hoist. It is furnished only to very important posts, or those having large garrisons, and is hoisted only on gala days and great occasions.

=Flag of the Prophet= (Sanjak-Sheriff). Is the sacred banner of the Mohammedans. It was originally of a white color, and was composed of the turban of the Koreish, captured by Mohammed. A black flag was, however, soon substituted in its place, consisting of the curtain that hung before the door of Ayeshah, one of the prophet’s wives. This flag is regarded by the Mohammedans as their most sacred relic; it was brought into Europe by Amurath III. It was covered with forty wrappings of silk, deposited in a costly casket, and preserved in a chapel in the interior of the seraglio, where it is guarded by several emirs, with constant prayers. The banner unfolded at the commencement of a war, and likewise carefully preserved, is not the same, although it is believed by the people to be so.

=Flag of Truce.= A white flag carried by an officer sent to communicate with the enemy. The flag signifies his errand, but the enemy are not bound to receive him, though it would be a violation of the rules of war to injure the messenger, unless he persisted in his endeavor to communicate after due warning given. The term is often extended to the party which accompanies the flag, which consists generally of an officer, a trumpeter or bugler, who sounds to attract attention, and sometimes of an additional soldier who carries the flag.

=Flag, Post.= In the U. S. army, is the national flag, and is 20 feet fly and 10 feet hoist; it is furnished to all posts garrisoned by troops, and is hoisted only in pleasant weather.

=Flag, Red.= Is frequently used by revolutionists as an emblem of defiance. It is used in the U. S. service as a danger-signal at target practice, and on a man-of-war as a signal that the ship is receiving or discharging her powder.

=Flags.= See COLORS, STANDARDS, etc.

=Flags.= The national flag of the United States consists of 13 horizontal stripes, alternately red and white; the union to consist of 20 stars, white, in a blue field; one star to be added to the union on the admission of every new State; the addition to be made on the 4th day of July succeeding such admission. There are flags which are symbols of individual authority. Among such are royal standards, flag-officers’ flags, etc. An admiral’s flag is usually the flag of the country which such admiral serves, with the exception of the union. The flag of the admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admirals of the United States is rectangular and consists of 13 alternate red and white stripes. The admiral hoists this at the main; the vice-admiral at the fore; the rear-admiral at the mizzen. Should there be two rear-admirals present, the junior hoists a flag at the mizzen similar to the one described, with the addition of two stars in the upper left-hand corner. The commodore’s flag differs from that of the admiral’s in form alone, it being a swallow-tail instead of a rectangular. Should the President go afloat, the American flag is carried in the bows of his barge or hoisted at the main of the vessel on board of which he may be. In foreign countries the royal standard is worn at ceremonies in honor of the sovereign or at which the sovereign may be present. The highest flag in the British navy is the anchor and cable, the next is the union, and the lowest the blue. Flags are said to be at half-mast when they are hoisted but half the height at which they are ordinarily worn, and in this position designate mourning. To strike or lower the flag, to pull it down upon the cap, in token of respect, submission, or, in an engagement, of surrender. Dipping the flag is a salute to a fort or passing vessel by lowering it slightly and hoisting it again.

=Flag-staff.= The staff on which a flag is fixed.

=Flag, Storm.= In the U. S. army, is the national flag, and is 8 feet fly and 4 feet 2 inches hoist; it is furnished to all occupied military posts and national cemeteries, and will be hoisted in stormy or windy weather. It is also to be used as a recruiting flag.

=Flam.= A peculiar tap upon a drum. This word was formerly made use of in the British service, signifying a particular tap or beat upon the drum, according to which each battalion went through its firings or evolutions.

=Flambeau.= A kind of torch made of thick wicks, covered with wax, and used in the streets at night, at illuminations and in processions.

=Flanchière= (Fr.). A part of horse armor which covered the flanks and croup as far as the houghs.

=Flanconade.= In fencing, a thrust in the side.

=Flanders.= The principal part of the ancient Belgium, which was conquered by Julius Cæsar, 51 B.C. It became part of the kingdom of France in 843, and was governed by counts subject to the king, from 862 till 1369. Flanders was subjected successively to Burgundy (1384), Austria (1477), and Spain (1555). In 1580 it declared its independence, but afterwards returned to its allegiance to the house of Austria. In 1792 the French invaded imperial Flanders, and occupied it till 1814. In 1814 a portion of Flanders was given to the king of the Netherlands. Since the revolution of 1831, it has belonged to Belgium.

=Flank.= A word of very extensive application in military matters. It literally means sides or ends of any fortification, or encampment, or body of troops. Thus a writer has described flanks as “certain proportions of offensive or defensive forces extended to the right and left of a main body.” In fortification the term means any part of the work defending another by a fire along the outside of its parapet.

=Flank Casemate Carriage.= Is a gun-carriage which is especially adapted to the mounting of the 24-pound iron howitzer in the flanks of casemate-batteries, for defending the ditch.

=Flank Company.= A certain number of men drawn up on the right or left of a battalion. Thus when there are grenadiers they compose the right, and the light infantry the left flank company. Grenadiers and light infantry are generally called flank companies, whether attached or not to their battalions; rifle corps are always flankers.

=Flank, Concave.= Is that which is made in the arc of a semicircle bending outwards.

=Flank, Covered.= The platform of the casemate, which lies hid in the bastion. These retired flanks were a great defense to the opposite bastion and passage of the ditch; because the besiegers could not see nor easily dismount their guns.

=Flank Defense Carriage.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST CARRIAGES.

=Flank, Directing.= In drill, that by which companies march,--i.e., that at which is placed the guide, who directs and regulates the march.

=Flank En Potence.= Is any part of the right or left wing formed at a projecting angle with the line. See POTENCE.

=Flank Files.= Are the two first men on the right and the two last men on the left of a battalion, company, etc. When a battalion is drawn up three deep, its flank files consist of three men, or, as the French call it, file and demi-file. When four deep, the flank files are termed double files; so that a column formed from any of these alignments will have all its relative flank files, be the depth of formation what it may.

=Flank, Inner.= That which is nearest the point on which a line rests, or which is farthest from the enemy. In drill, it is that nearest the point from which the line is dressed.

=Flank, Leading.= When the line breaks into column in order to attack an enemy, it is the flank which must always preserve the line of appui in all movements in front. The first battalion, or company of every column which conducts, is called the head or leading flank of that column.

=Flank, Oblique.= Or second flank, in fortification; that part of the curtain from whence the face of the opposite bastion may be discovered, and is the distance between the lines rasant and fichant, which are rejected by some engineers, as being liable to be ruined at the beginning of a siege, especially when made of sandy earth. This second flank defends very obliquely the opposite face, and is to be used only in a place attacked by an army without artillery.

=Flank of a Bastion.= In fortification, that part which joins the face to the curtain, comprehended between the angle of the curtain and that of the shoulder, and is the principal defense of a place. Its use is to defend the curtain, the flank, and the face of the opposite bastion, as well as the passage of the ditch; and to batter the salient angles of the counterscarp and glacis, from whence the besiegers generally ruin the flanks with their artillery.

=Flank, Outward.= Of a line or battalion, the extreme file on the right or left of a division, subdivision, or section, according to the given front, when the battalion is at close or open column, and which is the farthest wheeling point from line into column, or from column into line. It is likewise called the reverse flank.

=Flank, Prolonged.= In fortification, is the extending of the flank from the angle of the epaule to the exterior side, when the angle of the flank is a right one.

=Flank, Second.= See FLANK, OBLIQUE.

=Flank, To.= In fortification, is to erect a battery which may play upon an enemy’s works on the right or left without being exposed to his line of fire. In evolutions, to take such a position in action as either to assist your own troops, or to annoy those of your enemy by attacking either of his flanks, without exposing yourself to all of his fire. To outflank, a manœuvre by which an army, battalion, troop, or company outstretches another, and gets upon both or either of his flanks. In an extensive acceptation of the term, when applied to locality, it means to possess any range or opposite parts, or territory, whence you might invade your neighbors.

=Flanker.= A fortification jutting out so as to command the side or flank of an enemy marching to the assault or attack. Riflemen and all light troops are also called flankers, from the fact of their acting on the flanks.

=Flanker, To= (Fr. flanquer). In fortification, to fortify the walls of a city with bulwarks or countermines.

=Flanking.= Is the same in fortification as defending.

=Flanking Angle.= In fortification, that composed of the two lines of defense, and pointing toward the curtain. See TENAILLE.

=Flanking Party.= Any body of men detached from the main army to act upon the flanks of an enemy. See FLANKER.

=Flanks of a Frontier.= Are certain salient points in a national boundary, strong by nature and art, and ordinarily projecting somewhat beyond the general line. The effect of these flanks is to protect the whole frontier against an enemy, as he dare not penetrate between, with the risk of their garrisons, reinforced from their own territories, attacking his rear, and cutting off communication between him and his base.

=Flash.= The flame which issues from any fire-arm or piece of ordnance on its being fired.

=Flash in the Pan.= An explosion of gunpowder without any communication beyond the vent. When a piece is loaded, and, upon the trigger being drawn, nothing but the priming takes fire, that piece is said to flash in the pan.

=Flask, Powder-.= A measure formerly made of horn, used to carry powder in, with the measure of the charge of the piece on the top of it.

=Flathead Indians.= A tribe of aborigines, so called from the practice which prevailed among them of binding some solid substance on the foreheads of their children so as to cause a depression of the skull. They are located on an agency in Montana. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Flaw.= A crack or small opening in a gun or its carriage is so called.

=Fleau d’Armes= (Fr.). An ancient offensive weapon; the part used for striking was armed with sharp iron spikes.

=Flèche.= Literally an arrow; but applied in fortification to a work resembling a redan, except that it is raised upon the terre-plein without a ditch. It is in short a field-work, having faces and small flanks hastily run up to shelter a small number of men, and form an outwork to some more powerful fortification.

=Fleece, Order of the Golden.= One of the most eminent orders of knighthood in Europe, was founded in 1430 by Philip III., duke of Burgundy. By its foundation his successors were declared hereditary grand-masters; and thus the title passed to the imperial house of Austria with the Burgundian inheritance, and thence to the Spanish line of the same house after the death of the emperor Charles V. When the Spanish Netherlands, however, became Austrian, and the Bourbons became monarchs of Spain, the grand-mastership was claimed by the archdukes of Austria. Hence at present the Spanish and Austrian sovereigns alike confer the order, and at both courts it gives the highest rank.

=Fletch, To.= To feather an arrow.

=Fletcher.= The man who made or repaired the military bows was so called. Also called bowyer.

=Fleur-de-lis= (Fr.). This celebrated emblem is derived from the white lily of the garden, or from the flag or iris. The Franks of old had a custom at the proclamation of their king, to elevate him upon a shield or target, and place in his hand a reed or flag in blossom, instead of a sceptre; and from that time the kings of the first and second race in France are represented with sceptres in their hands like the flag with its flowers, these flowers subsequently becoming the armorial bearings of France. In later times their arms were azure, three fleur-de-lis or. Many English and Scotch families bear the fleur-de-lis in some portion of their arms, and generally with some reference to France.

=Fleurus.= A small town in Belgium, in the province of Hainault. It has been the scene of several conflicts, the last and most important being the battle fought June 26, 1794, between the army of the French republic under Jourdan and the allies under the Prince of Saxe-Coburg. The allied forces were compelled for a time to evacuate Flanders.

=Flight.= Is used figuratively for the swift retreat of an army or any party from a victorious enemy. It is likewise applicable to missile weapons or shot; as, a flight of arrows, a flight of bombs, etc.

=Flight, Time of.= In gunnery, the flight of a shot or shell is the time during which it is passing through the air from the piece to the first graze.

=Flight, To Put to.= To force your enemy to quit the field.

=Flint.= In the flint-lock musket, the stone which was fixed to the cock or gun-lock by which the sparks were elicited that discharged the piece.

=Flint-lock.= A musket lock with a flint fixed in the hammer for striking on the cap of the pan; also the musket itself.

=Flint Weapons.= Believed to have been used by the primitive inhabitants, have from time to time, in more or less number, been turned up with the plow and the spade, and dug out from ancient graves, fortifications, and dwelling-places. They do not differ in any material respect from the flint weapons still in use among uncivilized tribes in Asia, Africa, America, etc. The weapons of most frequent occurrence are arrow-heads, spear-points, dagger-blades, and axe-heads, or celts.

=Flo.= An arrow was formerly so called.

=Floating Batteries.= These are used in defending harbors, or in attacks on marine fortresses. The most remarkable instance of their employment was by the French and Spaniards against Gibraltar, in the memorable siege which lasted from July, 1779, to February, 1783. During the Russian war, 1854-55, they rendered good service before Kinburn. Now they are only used for defensive purposes.

=Floating-bridge.= A kind of double bridge, the upper one projecting beyond the lower one, and capable of being moved forward by pulleys, used for carrying troops over narrow moats in attacking the outworks of a fort. See BRIDGE, FLYING.

=Flodden Field.= The last point of the Cheviots, the place where King James IV. of Scotland, after crossing the border on August 22, 1513, with an army of over 30,000 men, took up his position, and where, on September 9, the bloody battle was fought in which the king was killed, and the Scottish army destroyed.

=Flogging.= A barbarous punishment formerly inflicted in the British army and navy. It was generally administered with a whip, or “cat-of-nine-tails,” on the bare back. This mode of punishment formerly existed in the American army and navy.

=Flood-gate.= In fortified towns, is composed of 2 or 4 gates, so that the besieged by opening the gates may inundate the environs so as to keep the enemy out of gunshot.

=Florent, St.= A fortified seaport town of Corsica, on the gulf of the same name, 6 miles west from Bastia. This town was taken by the British in 1793.

=Florida.= One of the United States of America, which was discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in the year 1497. Its conquest was accomplished by the Spaniards in 1539. It was plundered by Sir Francis Drake in 1585; and by Davis, a buccaneer, in 1665. It was invaded by the British in 1702; and again by Gen. Oglethorpe in 1740. In 1763 it was ceded to Britain, but in 1781 was recovered by Spain, and confirmed to her by the peace of 1783. In 1821 it was purchased from Spain by the United States. A war with the Seminole Indians commenced in 1835. After great trouble and expense they were subdued and emigrated to the Indian Territory in 1842. In 1839 its constitution was formed, and in 1845 it was admitted into the Union. Florida seceded from the Union on January 10, 1861, and was one of the first to return to the Union, October 25, 1865.

=Flourish.= The waving of a weapon or other thing; a brandishing; as, the flourish of a sword.

=Flourish.= To execute an irregular or fanciful strain of music, by way of ornament or prelude, as, a flourish of trumpets.

=Flugelman.= The leader of a file; one who stands in front of a body of soldiers, and whose motions in the manual exercise they all simultaneously follow; a fugelman.

=Flushed.= A term frequently applied when men have been successful; as, flushed with victory, etc.

=Flushing.= An important seaport of the Netherlands, in the island of Walcheren, on the north side of the Scheldt, where that river enters the North Sea. It was the first town which declared against the Spaniards in 1572. In 1585 the Prince of Orange pledged it to Queen Elizabeth as security for a loan which she made to the people of the Netherlands in their struggle against Philip II. of Spain. The English held it till 1616. At the commencement of the 19th century it came into the possession of the French, and in 1809 was bombarded by the British composing the Walcheren expedition, under Lord Chatham, when it suffered severely. Admiral Ruyter was born here in 1607.

=Flute.= A wind instrument which is sometimes used in military bands, but never in service.

=Fly.= The length of a flag. The dimension at right angles to the staff. The other dimension is called the hoist.

=Flying Army.= A strong body of cavalry and infantry which is always in motion, both to cover its own garrisons and to keep the enemy in continual alarm.

=Flying Artillery.= Artillery trained to very rapid evolutions. In passing from one part of the field to another, the men spring upon their horses in horse artillery, or on the ammunition-chests in light artillery.

=Flying Bridges.= See PONTONS.

=Flying Camp.= A camp or body of troops formed for rapid motion from one place to another.

=Flying Colors.= Colors unfurled and left to wave in the air. Hence to return or come off with flying colors is to be victorious, to get the better.

=Flying Party.= A detachment of men employed to hover about an enemy.

=Flying Sap.= See SAP.

=Flying Shot.= A shot fired at something in motion, as a bird on the wing, a ship under sail, etc.; also, one who fires thus.

=Flying Torch.= The torch used on a staff in signaling.

=Fodder.= See FORAGE.

=Foe.= An enemy in war; a national enemy; a hostile army; an adversary.

=Foeman.= An enemy in war.

=Fogey.= An old-fashioned or singular person; an invalid soldier or sailor.

=Foil.= A long piece of steel of an elastic temper, mounted somewhat like a sword, which is used to learn to fence with; it is without a point, or any sharpness, having a button at the extremity covered with leather.

=Foil.= To render vain or nugatory as an effort or attempt; to frustrate; to defeat; to baffle; to balk; as, the enemy attempted to pass the river, but was foiled; he foiled his adversaries.

=Foin.= A thrust with a pike or sword.

=Foissonnement.= A term used in fortification to signify the increase in bulk of earth after its excavation. This increase varies from one-eighth to one-twelfth generally.

=Folding Boat.= A boat of a jointed framework covered with canvas, used in campaigning and by voyageurs.

=Followers, Camp-.= See CAMP-FOLLOWERS.

=Follow Up.= To pursue with additional vigor some advantage which has already been gained; as, to follow up a victory.

=Fone.= Formerly the plural of Foe. Now obsolete.

=Fontainebleau.= A town and parish of France, in the department of the Seine and Marne, 37 miles southeast from Paris. There is a celebrated royal palace here encompassed by parks and gardens, mentioned in history, ever since the 13th century, as the residence of the monarchs of France. This place was entered by the Austrians, February 17, 1814. Here Napoleon resigned his dignity, April 4, and bade farewell to his army, April 20, 1814.

=Fontenoy.= A village in Belgium, in the province of Hainaut, 5 miles southwest of Tournay. Here was fought the most famous contest in the War of the Austrian Succession, on May 11, 1745, between the French under Marshal Saxe and the allies (English, Dutch, and Austrians) under the Duke of Cumberland. After a hard-fought battle the allies were forced to retreat. The loss on both sides was stated at about 7000 men.

=Food.= Food has two functions, building up the body, and supplying it with force. Substances used as food may be divided into elements which are oxidizable and those conducive to chemical changes. Milk contains all the necessary elements in the best form. The nourishing elements of foods are usually classed under the heads of albuminates, fats, carbo-hydrates, and salts. In regard to the part played by the condiments used in flavoring and seasoning, and such things as tea, coffee, chocolate, alcohol, etc., little is positively known beyond the fact that some of them are useful in exciting the salivary and alimentary secretions. The amount of food necessary to health and vigor varies with the kind and amount of occupation, the character of the climate, and specifically with the individual. Playfair and Parkes give the following as the average daily allowance of anhydrous food for an adult, in avoirdupois ounces:

In quietude.

Albuminates 2.5 Fats 1. Carbo-hydrates 12. Salts .5 ---- Total 16.

Hard labor or campaigning.

Albuminates 6. to 7. Fats 3.5 to 4.5 Carbo-hydrates 16. to 18. Salts 1.2 to 1.5 ------------ Total 26.7 to 31.0

European standard, for moderate work.

Albuminates 4.587 Fats 2.964 Carbo-hydrates 14.257 Salts 1.058 ------ Total 22.866

From 70 to 90 ounces of water in addition to this are usually consumed per day.

The ration of the U. S. army resolved into anhydrous elements gives the following:

Soft bread, with ²⁄₃ fresh beef, ¹⁄₃ salt pork and beans.

Albuminates 3.93 Fats 4.15 Carbo-hydrates 12.37 Salts 1.19 ----- Total 21.64 and .26 coffee.

Same with rice instead of beans.

Albuminates 3.47 Fats 4.11 Carbo-hydrates 12.50 Salts 1.14 ----- Total 21.22 and .26 coffee.

Hard bread, ²⁄₃ fresh beef, ¹⁄₃ salt pork and beans.

Albuminates 4.99 Fats 4.09 Carbo-hydrates 15.26 Salts 1.23 ----- Total 25.57 and .26 coffee.

Hard bread, bacon and beans.

Albuminates 4.10 Fats 9.06 Carbo-hydrates 15.26 Salts 1.29 ----- Total 29.71 and .26 coffee.

The following table, compiled from standard authorities, gives an alimentary analysis of 100 parts of various substances used as food, by means of which the nutritive value of all ordinary diets may be calculated:

--------------------------------+------+-------+-----+-------+------ |Water.|Albumi-|Fats.|Carbo- |Salts. | | nates.| | Hy- | | | | |drates.| --------------------------------+------+-------+-----+-------+------ Meat (best quality), beefsteak | 74.4 | 20.5 | 3.5 | ... | 1.6 Meat (average like soldiers), | | | | | less ¹⁄₅ for bone | 75. | 15. | 8.4 | ... | 1.6 Meat (very fat, stall fed) | 63. | 14. |19. | ... | 3.7 Salt beef (Girardin) | 49.1 | 29.6 | 0.2 | ... | 21.1 Salt pork (Girardin) | 44.1 | 26.1 | 7. | ... | 22.8 Fat pork (Letheby) | 39. | 9.8 |48.9 | ... | 2.3 Bacon (salted and smoked) | | | | | (Letheby) | 15. | 8.8 |73.3 | ... | 2.9 Fish (Letheby) | 78. | 18.1 | 2.9 | ... | 1. Poultry, less bone ¹⁄₆ (Letheby)| 74. | 21. | 3.8 | ... | 1.2 Butter | 6. | .3 |91. | ... | 2.5 Eggs (less ¹⁄₁₀ for shell) | 73.5 | 13.5 |11.6 | ... | 1. Cheese | 36.8 | 33.5 |24.3 | ... | 5.4 Bread (wheat, average quality) | 40. | 8. | 1.5 | 49.2 | 1.3 Biscuit, hard | 8. | 15.6 | 1.3 | 73.4 | 1.7 Wheat flour (average) | 15. | 11. | 2. | 70.3 | 1.7 Rice | 10. | 5. | 0.8 | 83.2 | .5 Oatmeal | 15. | 12.6 | 5.6 | 63. | 3. Cornmeal | 13.5 | 10. | 6.7 | 64.5 | 1.4 Peas (dry) | 15. | 22. | 2. | 53. | 2.4 Beans (dry) | 16. | 22.5 | 2.2 | 49.9 | 4.7 Potatoes, Irish | 74. | 1.5 | 0.1 | 23.4 | 1. Potatoes, sweet | 70.2 | 1.5 | 0.3 | 23.5 | 2.9 Yams | 74. | 2. | 0.5 | 16.2 | 1.3 Carrots | 85. | .6 | 0.25| 8.4 | .7 Parsnips | 82.4 | 1.125| 0.54| 6.39 | 1. Turnips | 90.5 | 1.1 | ... | 4. | .5 Cabbage | 91. | .2 | 0.5 | 5.8 | .7 Milk (average) | 88.3 | 3.5 | 3.1 | 4.5 | .5 Cream | 66. | 2.7 |26.7 | 2.8 | 1.8 Sugar | 3. | ... | ... | 96.5 | .5 --------------------------------+------+-------+-----+-------+------

=Foot.= The foot-soldiers; the infantry, usually designated as the foot, in distinction from the cavalry.

=Foot.= To gain or lose ground foot by foot, is to do it regularly and resolutely; defending everything to the utmost extremity, or forcing it by dint of art or labor.

=Foot Artillery.= Artillery troops serving on foot. Heavy artillery.

=Foot-band.= A band of infantry.

=Foot-bank.= See BANQUETTE.

=Foot-boards.= The transverse boards on the front of a limber, on which the cannoneers rest their feet when mounted.

=Foot-fight.= A conflict by persons on foot; in opposition to a fight on horseback.

=Foot Guards.= Guards of infantry. The flower of the British infantry, and the garrison ordinarily of the metropolis, comprise 3 regiments, the Grenadier, Coldstream, and Scots Fusilier Guards, in all 7 battalions, and 6307 officers and men of all ranks.

=Footing.= To be on the same footing with another, is to be under the same circumstances in point of service; to have the same number of men, and the same pay, etc.

=Footman.= A soldier who marches and fights on foot.

=Foot-pound.= In mechanics, is the unit of work. It is simply a contraction for “one pound raised through a height of one foot.” See WORK.

=Foot-soldier.= A soldier that serves on foot.

=Foot-ton.= In England the power of modern ordnance is estimated by the energy of the shot in foot-tons, divided by the number of inches in the shot’s circumference. The formula for calculating it is

_WV_² E = ------- 2π_r.g_

in which W is the weight of the shot in tons (English), V is the velocity, 2π_r_, the circumference of the shot in inches, and g the force of gravity;

_WV_² ----- g

is the living force of the shot, and is equal to twice the quantity of work it is capable of doing. This divided by the circumference gives a very fair estimate of its power in penetrating armor, as the resistance to penetration increases with the size of the projectile. This unit is also used to estimate the resisting power of armor-plating against shots of various sizes.

=Forage.= The hay, corn, fodder, and oats required for the subsistence of the animals in the army. The allowance of forage in the U. S. army is fixed by regulations at 14 pounds of hay and 12 of grain to each horse, and 14 pounds of hay and 9 of grain to each mule in the public service. Generals, field-officers, staff-officers, and cavalry officers receive forage for a certain number of private horses while actually kept in service.

=Forage.= To collect supplies both for man and beast, from an enemy by force, from friends by impressment, but giving to friends receipts, to be paid ultimately.

=Forage Cap.= A small low cap worn by soldiers when not in full dress.

=Forage-master.= See WAGON-MASTER.

=Foragers.= A detachment of soldiers who forage or collect stores for an army.

=Foraging.= Is properly the collection of forage or other supplies systematically in towns or villages, or going with an escort to cut nourishment for horses in fields. Such operations frequently lead to engagements with the enemy. Foraging parties are furnished with reaping-hooks and cords. The men promptly dismount, make bundles with which they load their horses, and are prepared for anything that may follow. The word foraging is sometimes inaccurately used for marauding.

=Forbach.= A small town of France, in the department of the Moselle, now a part of German Lorraine. It was occupied by the Prussians, January 10, 1814. During the Franco-Prussian war it was taken by the German generals Von Goeben and Von Steinmetz, after a fierce contest, in which the French were defeated and compelled to retreat, August 6, 1870.

=Forcat.= A rest for a musket in ancient times.

=Force.= In its military application, signifies an army of all branches,--artillery, cavalry, and infantry. It is sometimes used in the plural number, but with the same signification; as, “commander of the forces;” and occasionally we find the word used in another sense, thus, “He is in great force.” To force, in broadsword exercise, is to break an adversary’s sword-guard, and either wound him or expose him to a wound.

=Force.= To obtain or win by strength; to take by violence or struggle; specifically, to capture by assault; to storm, as a fortress. Also to impel, drive, wrest, extort, get, etc., by main strength or violence; with a following adverb, as along, away, from, into, through, out, etc.

=Force.= To provide with forces; to reinforce; to strengthen by soldiers; to garrison.

=Force of Gravity.= The force by virtue of which all terrestrial bodies fall to the earth when unsupported. As a terrestrial force it may be considered constant for the same place, but as it is practically the resultant of the earth’s attraction and the centrifugal force arising from its rotation, and as the earth is neither homogeneous nor a perfect sphere, it will vary slightly with the latitude, being greatest at the poles and least on the equator, and it will also vary in an insignificant degree from place to place in the same latitude. Gravity is distinguished in dynamics as the only constant force with which we have to do. It differs also from all others in this, that its measure is independent of mass. Other forces are measured by the product of the mass moved into the velocity imparted in the unit of time; but as gravity impresses the same velocity upon all masses, great or small, mass is properly omitted in its measure. The velocity impressed by it during each second of its action, or the acceleration, is about 32.1808 feet in latitude 45°, about 32.0977 at the equator, and 32.2629 at the poles. This number in gunnery is indicated by the algebraic symbol g. Its exact value at any place is best determined by the length of the simple second’s pendulum at that place. The value for g for bodies falling in the air is very nearly true for dense substances presenting small surfaces, when the fall is limited by a few seconds. For the ordinary time of flight of projectiles it can be used without material error.

=Force, To.= To force an enemy to give battle, is to render the situation of an enemy so hazardous, that whether he attempts to quit his position, or endeavors to keep it, his capture or destruction must be equally inevitable. In either of such desperate cases, a bold and determined general will not wait to be attacked, but resolutely advance and give battle, especially if circumstances should combine to deprive him of the means of honorable capitulation. To force a passage, is to oblige your enemy to retire from his fastnesses, and to open a way into the country which he had occupied. This may be done either by coup de main, or renewal of assaults. In either case, the advancing body should be well supported and its flanks be secured with the most jealous attention.

=Forced.= Exerted to the utmost; urged; hence, strained, urged to excessive or unnatural action; as, a forced march.

=Forces, Effective.= All the efficient parts of an army that may be brought into action are called effective, and generally consist of artillery, cavalry, and infantry, with their necessary appendages, such as hospital staff, wagon-train, etc. Effective forces of a country; all the disposable strength, vigor, and activity of any armed proportion of native or territorial population. The navy of a country must be looked upon as part of the effective force of the country, to which is added the marines.

=Forcing.= The operation of making a bullet take the grooves of a rifle. This was formerly effected in various ways, by flattening the bullet in its seat with the ramrod, by using a patch, etc. (See PROJECTILES, BULLETS.) The term is not much used at the present day.

=Ford.= A place in a river or other water where it may be passed by man or beast on foot, or by wading. A ford should not be deeper than 3 feet for infantry, 4 feet for cavalry, and 2¹⁄₂ feet for artillery. These limits must be lessened if the stream be swift. A bottom of large stones is bad for cavalry and impracticable for carriages; gravel is the best bottom; a sandy bottom, though good at first, is apt to deepen when many troops pass.

=Ford.= To pass or cross, as a river or other water, by treading or walking on the bottom; to pass through by wading; to wade through.

=Fordable.= Capable of being waded or passed through on foot, as water.

=Fording.= The act of passing over a ford.

=Fore.= In advance; at the front; in the part that precedes or goes first.

=Fore-arm.= To arm or prepare for attack or resistance before the time of need.

=Fore-fence.= Defense in front. The term is now obsolete.

=Forefront.= The foremost part or place; as, the forefront of the battle.

=Foreign.= Not of one’s country; not native; alien; from abroad.

=Foreign Enlistment Act.= 59 Geo. III. c. 69 (1819), forbids British subjects to enter the service of a foreign state, without license from the king or privy council, and also the fitting out or equipping ships for any foreign power to be employed against any power with which the British government is at peace. In 1606 Englishmen were forbidden to enter foreign service without taking an oath not to be reconciled to the pope. The act was suspended in 1835 on behalf of the British Legion.

=Foreign Legion.= Foreigners have frequently been employed as auxiliaries in the pay of the British government. An act (18 & 19 Vict. c. 2) for the formation of a Foreign Legion as a contingent in the Russian war (1855) was passed December 23, 1854. On the peace, in 1856, many of the Foreign Legion were sent to the Cape of Good Hope.

=Foreign Service.= In a general sense, means every service but home. In a more confined and native acceptation of the term, it signifies any service done out of the United States or the depending territories.

=Foreland.= In fortification, a piece of ground between the wall of a place and the moat.

=Fore Rank.= The first rank; the front.

=Fore-spurrer.= One who rode before. This term is now obsolete.

=Foreward.= The van; the front.

=Forfeit.= To render oneself by misdeeds liable to be deprived of; as, a soldier forfeits pay by sentence of court-martial for offenses committed.

=Forge.= Every field-battery is provided with a forge. It consists, besides the limber, of a frame-work, on which are fixed the bellows, fire-place, etc. Behind the bellows is placed the coal-box, which has to be removed before the bellows can be put in position. In the limber-box are placed the smith’s tools, horseshoes, nails, and spare parts (iron) of carriages, harness, etc. The weight of the forge equipped for field-service is 3383 pounds for the battery, and 3370 pounds for the reserve. A forge for red-hot shot is a place where the balls are made red-hot before they are fired off. It is built about 5 or 6 feet below the surface of the ground, of strong brick-work, and an iron grate, upon which the balls are laid, with a very large fire under them.

=Forlorn Hope.= Officers and soldiers who generally volunteer for enterprises of great danger, such as leading the attack when storming a fortress, etc. Formerly it was applied to the advanced guard before the enemy, even on a march. See ENFANS PERDUS.

=Form.= To form, in a general acceptation of the term, is to assume or produce any shape or figure, extent or depth of line or column, by means of prescribed rules in military movements or dispositions. To form on is to advance forward, so as to connect yourself with any given object of formation, and to lengthen the line.

=Formation of Troops.= The term formation is applied to that particular arrangement of the troops composing any unit, when this latter is ready for battle, or is prepared to execute a movement.

That portion of the formation on the side towards the enemy is called the front; the side opposite to the front is termed the rear; the lateral extremities are called flanks.

Any row of soldiers placed parallel to the front is called a rank; a row perpendicular to the front is called a file; the number of ranks measures the depth of the formation.

Troops drawn up so as to show an extended front, with slight depth, are said to be deployed; when the depth is considerable and the front comparatively small, they are said to be in ployed formation. See ORDER, ORDER OF BATTLE, CONCAVE, ORDER OF BATTLE, CONVEX.

=Formers.= Are round pieces of wood that are fitted to the diameter of the bore of a gun, round which the cartridge-paper, parchment, lead, or cotton is rolled before it is served.

=Formigny.= A village of France, in the department of Calvados, 10 miles northwest from Bayeux, where a battle was fought in 1450, between the French and English, the latter being defeated, and thereby forced to abandon Normandy.

=Formosa.= An island in the China Sea belonging to China. The Dutch became masters of it in 1632, but they were expelled by the pirate Coxinga, whose successors ruled it till 1683. It was invaded by the Japanese in 1874, to avenge the murder of some of their people.

=Fornova= (Parma, Italy). Near here Charles VIII. of France defeated the Italians, July 6, 1495.

=Fort.= Technically applied to an inclosed work of the higher class of field fortification; but the word is often used in military works much more loosely.

=Fort Adams.= A fortification situated on Brenton’s Point, 1 mile west of the town of Newport, R. I., and commanding the entrance to the harbor. It was first garrisoned in 1841, and is established on the old fort which formerly occupied the position.

=Fort Adjutant.= In the British service, is an officer holding an appointment in a fortress,--where the garrison is often composed of drafts from different corps,--analogous to that of adjutant in a regiment. He is responsible to the commandant for the internal discipline, and the assignment of the necessary duties to particular corps. Fort adjutants are staff-officers, and receive additional pay.

=Fort Ann.= A village of Washington Co., N. Y., on the Champlain Canal. A fortification, from which the place derives its name, was erected here during the wars with the French, in 1756. It was captured from the Americans about 1779.

=Fort Barrancas.= Situated on the north side of the entrance to Pensacola harbor, and has been occupied since October 24, 1820, when it was ceded by Spain to the United States. During the civil war it was captured by the Confederates (1861), and held by them until the following year.

=Fort Caswell.= An old brick work situated on Oak Island, at the mouth of Cape Fear River, North Carolina. On the outbreak of civil war it fell into the hands of the Confederates, who held it until the fall of Fort Fisher, in 1865.

=Fort Columbus.= See GOVERNOR’S ISLAND.

=Fort Constitution.= Is situated in Portsmouth harbor, N. H. It was established in 1808, and garrisoned by U. S. troops; but as early as 1806 the post was occupied. It consisted of an earthwork, built by the English government, and named William and Mary. A new work was commenced in 1863, having its foundation outside the old one.

=Fort Covington.= A village of Franklin Co., N. Y., on Salmon River, about 18 miles northwest of Malone. Here the American army suffered greatly during the winter of 1813-14.

=Fort Delaware.= A casemated fort on Pea Patch Island, in the Delaware River. It was a military prison during the civil war.

=Fort Donelson.= See DONELSON, FORT.

=Fort Duquesne.= See PITTSBURG.

=Fort Erie.= In Upper Canada; this fort was taken by the American general Browne, June 3, 1814. After several conflicts it was evacuated by the Americans, November 5, 1814.

=Fort Fairfield.= A village of Aroostook Co., Me. It contains a barrack, and is chiefly interesting from its having been a military post during our trouble with England in 1839.

=Fort Fisher.= A strong earthwork on the east side of Cape Fear River, about 20 miles south of Wilmington, N. C., and one of the principal defenses of that port. On December 24-25, 1864, the forces of Gen. Butler attempted to take it, but unsuccessfully; but on January 15, 1865, it was taken by storm by the Union army and navy, and over 2000 Confederate prisoners and 169 pieces of artillery were captured.

=Fort George.= A fortification in Inverness, Scotland, on the extremity of a low peninsula, projecting upwards of a mile into the Moray Firth. It has barracks for about 3000 men, and is the most complete fortification in Great Britain.

=Fort George.= See FORT WILLIAM HENRY.

=Fort Griswold.= An old Revolutionary fort near New London, Conn. The traitor Arnold massacred the garrison and burned the town in 1781.

=Fort Hamilton.= A strong fortification on the Narrows, defending the entrance of New York harbor.

=Fort Independence.= A fortification on Castle Island, in Boston harbor, Mass., which forms one of the defenses of the harbor. It was commenced in 1833, and completed in 1851.

=Fort Jackson.= A fort on the right bank of the Mississippi River, about 80 miles below New Orleans. On April 18, 1802, Admiral Farragut, then captain, commenced the bombardment of this fort and Fort St. Philip on the opposite bank of the river, and after six days’ and nights’ continuous firing, succeeded in passing with his fleet; and destroying the Confederate flotilla, the forts surrendered.

=Fort La Fayette.= A fort surrounded by water in the Narrows, at the entrance of New York harbor, immediately in front of Fort Hamilton. It was used during the civil war as a prison. This fort was recently destroyed by fire.

=Fort Lee.= A village of Bergen Co., N. J., on the Hudson River, at the foot of the Palisades. It was once a noted military post, and was captured by the British in 1776.

=Fort McAllister.= See MCALLISTER, FORT.

=Fort McHenry.= Is situated on Whetstone Point, a peninsula formed by the junction of the northwest branch of the Patapsco with the main river, about 3 miles from Baltimore, Md. The site was first occupied as a military post by the erection of a water-battery in 1775 for the defense of the town. In 1794 the fort was repaired, and a star or pentagon fort of brick-work added, when it was ceded to the United States and called by its present name.

=Fort Mackinaw.= See MACKINAW.

=Fort Macon.= Situated on the eastern extremity of Bogue Banks, near Beaufort harbor, N. C. It was surrendered to Gen. Burnside after a siege of about two weeks, in which he was aided by the blockading gunboats, April 25, 1862.

=Fort-Major.= A commandant of a fort in the absence of the governor. Officers employed as fort-majors, if under the rank of captains, take rank and precedence as the junior captains in the garrisons in which they are serving. He is a staff-officer.

=Fort Marion.= At St. Augustine, Fla.; was erected by the Spaniards more than 100 years ago, and formerly called the Castle of St. Mark.

=Fort Mifflin.= Is one of the old Revolutionary fortresses, situated near the junction of the Schuylkill and Delaware Rivers. It is one of the defenses of the city of Philadelphia.

=Fort Monroe.= A massive work of granite surrounded by a moat, situated at Old Point Comfort, Elizabeth City Co., Va. It was established in 1818, in which year a reservation of about 250 acres for defensive purposes was here ceded to the United States by the State of Virginia. It is the largest military work in the United States, and during the civil war was an important naval rendezvous. The artillery school of the army is established at this post.

=Fort Morgan.= Situated at the entrance to anchorage in Mobile Bay, on the site of the old Fort Bowyer, which bore such an important part in the war of 1812-15, the Americans under Maj. Lawrence having here repulsed with great loss a combined land and sea attack of the British and their Indian allies, September 15, 1814.

=Fort Moultrie.= One of the defenses of Charleston harbor, S. C., on the west shore of Sullivan’s Island, about 5 miles east-southeast of Charleston. It received its name in honor of Col. Moultrie, an officer of the Revolution, who here successfully resisted an attack from 9 British vessels in 1776. It was abandoned by the Federal troops in December, 1860, and was seized by the Confederates, who fired from it some of the first shots of the civil war. It has been garrisoned by U. S. troops since the close of the war.

=Fort Niagara.= On the right bank of the Niagara River, in the county of the same name, in the State of New York. It was established by La Salle in 1678; captured by the British under Sir William Johnson in 1759; surrendered to and occupied by the United States in 1796. In the war of 1812-15 it was but feebly garrisoned, and on December 19, 1813, a force of 1200 British crossed the river, and took it by surprise, killing 65 of the garrison.

=Fort Ninety-Six.= A stockaded fort which was situated in Abbeville District, 6 miles from the Saluda River. It received its name from being 96 miles from the frontier fort Prince George, on the Keowee River. This fort was the scene of many exciting events during the Revolutionary war. With a garrison of about 350 Tories under Lieut.-Col. John Cruger, it was besieged by the Americans under Gen. Greene for twenty-seven days, May-June, 1781; but just as his efforts were about to be crowned with success, Gen. Greene was obliged to retreat, to avoid falling into the hands of a vastly superior British force, which was coming to relieve the beleaguered garrison.

=Fort Ontario.= An inclosed work on the west bank of Oswego River, built in 1755, on the site of Fort Oswego. Here were the scenes of many stirring events in the wars between France and England, and of a skirmish in 1814.

=Fort Pickens.= A fort on Santa Rosa Island, Pensacola harbor, Fla. Lieut. A. J. Slemmer in January, 1861, after evacuating Fort Barrancas, held this post against the Confederates until reinforced.

=Fort Pillow.= In Lauderdale Co., Tenn., by land about 40 miles north of Memphis. It was erected by the Confederates during the civil war. It was bombarded by Federal gunboats, and evacuated by the Confederates, June 4, 1862. On April 12, 1864, it was captured by the Confederates, when took place an indiscriminate slaughter of the negro troops garrisoned there.

=Fort Plain.= A Revolutionary fortress, which was situated near the junction of Osquaga Creek and the Mohawk, in Montgomery Co., N. Y. For a while it was an important fortress, affording protection to the people in the neighborhood, and forming a key to the communication with the Schoharie, Cherry Valley, and Unadilla settlements. On August 21, 1780, a party of 500 Tories and Indians marched up within cannon-shot of this fort, burned 53 dwellings and as many barns, destroyed the crops, and carried off everything of value. Sixteen of the inhabitants were slain, and between 50 and 60 persons, chiefly women and children, were taken prisoners.

=Fort Pulaski.= Located on Cockspur Island, at the head of Tybee Roads, commanding both channels of the Savannah River. It was named after a Polish patriot who fought in the American war of the Revolution, and died in consequence of wounds received in the attack on Savannah, October, 1779. During the civil war, being in possession of the Confederates, it surrendered to the Federals under Gen. Hunter, April 10, 1862.

=Fort Schuyler.= An old Revolutionary fort, which occupied the site of old Fort Stanwix, and was built on the present site of Rome, N. Y. It is celebrated in early American history as among the strongest forts on the then northern frontier.

=Fort St. David.= A town of Hindostan, on the sea-coast of the Carnatic, situated on the river Tripapalore. After the capture of Madras by the French in 1746, the English were besieged here without success; and from this period it continued the head of the English settlements till 1758, when it was taken by Lally, after a short siege, and the fortifications were destroyed.

=Fort St. Philip.= Situated on the left or north bank of the Mississippi River, nearly opposite Fort Jackson (which see).

=Fort Sumter.= A fort celebrated in the annals of the civil war. It is situated on a small island in Charleston harbor, S. C., between 3 and 4 miles from the city. April 12-13, 1861, it was bombarded and captured by the Confederates, who thus inaugurated the civil war. It was reduced to a ruinous condition during the siege of Charleston, in the summer of 1863, but was held by the Confederates until February 18, 1865.

=Fort Taylor.= An inclosed casemated pentagonal brick-work in Key West harbor, Fla., commenced 1845.

=Fort Trumbull.= Situated in the harbor of New London, Conn., on the west side of the Thames River. It is an inclosed work, and was commenced in 1839.

=Fort Wadsworth.= A permanent fortification on Staten Island, west of the Narrows, commanding the entrance on that side of New York harbor, distant from Fort Hamilton 1 mile.

=Fort Wagner.= See MORRIS ISLAND.

=Fort Washington.= A strong earthwork erected during the Revolutionary war upon the highest eminence on Manhattan Island, at a point now between 181st and 186th Streets, New York City. During the Revolutionary war it fell into the hands of the English, and nearly 3000 Americans were captured.

=Fort Wayne.= A U. S. fortification in Wayne Co., Mich., just below Detroit. It is intended to command the navigation of the Detroit River.

=Fort William Henry.= A Revolutionary fort near the head of Lake George, N. Y. During the wars of the colonies it was captured by the French and Indians in 1757.

=Fort Winthrop.= One of the defenses of Boston harbor, Mass., on Governor’s Island, the former site of old Fort Warren. It is a small inclosed quadrangular work, with exterior open barbette batteries; commenced 1844.

=Fort Wood.= On Bedloe’s Island, New York harbor, and in the city of New York, 1¹⁄₂ miles southwest of the Battery. It was erected in 1841, and mounted 71 guns.

=Fort Wool.= A large unfinished inclosed casemated work or “rip-rap” foundation, formerly called Fort Calhoun, designed for the defense of Hampton Roads, Va.

=Fortalice.= A small outwork of a fortification; a fortilage;--called also fortelace.

=Forted.= Furnished with or guarded by forts; strengthened or defended, as by forts.

=Forth.= The ancient name for ford.

=Forth Mountains.= A range in the county of Wexford, Ireland, celebrated for being the rendezvous of 15,000 insurgents, who, in 1798, met here previous to the attack and capture of the town of Wexford.

=Fortifiable.= Capable of being fortified.

=Fortification.= Is the art of fortifying a town, or other place; or of putting it in such a posture of defense that every one of its parts defends, and is defended by some other parts, by means of ramparts, parapets, ditches, and other outworks; to the end that a small number of men within may be able to defend themselves for a considerable time against the assaults of a numerous army without; so that the enemy in attacking them must of necessity suffer great loss. There are various kinds of fortification, as defensive and offensive, natural, artificial, and permanent. Defensive fortification is the art of surrounding a place by works so disposed as to render it capable of a lasting defense against a besieging army. Offensive fortification comprehends the various works employed in conducting a siege. Natural fortification consists of those obstacles which nature affords to retard the progress of an enemy; such as woods, deep ravines, rocks, marshes, etc. Artificial fortification is that which is raised by human ingenuity to aid the natural advantages of the ground, or supply its deficiencies. It is divided into permanent and field fortification. Permanent fortification is intended for the defense of towns, frontiers, and seaports, and is constructed of durable materials in time of peace; while field fortification being raised only for the temporary purpose of protecting troops in the field, its materials are those afforded by local circumstances and a limited time. For the principal parts of a regular fortress, see BANQUETTE, BASTION, BATARDEAU, BERM, CAPONNIERE, CAVALIER, CITADEL, CORDON, COUNTERSCARP, COVERED WAY, CROWN-WORK, CUNETTE, CURTAIN, DITCH, EMBRASURES, ENCEINTE, ENVELOPE, EPAULEMENT, ESCARP, ESPLANADE, FACES, FLANK, FLÈCHE, or ARROW, FRAISES, GLACIS, HORNWORK, LINES, LOOP-HOLES, LUNETTES and TENAILLONS, OUTWORKS, PALISADES, PARALLELS, or PLACES OF ARMS, PARAPET, RAMPS, RAMPART, RAVELIN, REDAN, REDOUBT, REVETMENT, SALLYPORTS, SLOPE INTERIOR, STAR FORT, TENAILLE, TERRE-PLEIN, TÊTES DE PONT, TRAVERSES, ZIGZAGS, or BOYAUX OF COMMUNICATION.

=Fortification, Elementary.= By some likewise called the theory of fortification, consists in tracing the plans and profiles of a fortification on paper, with scales and compasses; and examining the systems proposed by different authors, in order to discover their advantages and disadvantages.

=Fortification, Front of.= Consists of all the works constructed upon any one side of a regular polygon, whether placed within or without the exterior side. Some authors give a more limited sense to the term “front of fortification,” by confining it to two half bastions joined by a curtain.

=Fortification, Irregular.= Is that in which, from the nature of the ground or other causes, the several works have not their due proportions according to rule; irregularity, however, does not necessarily imply weakness.

=Fortification, Practical.= Consists in forming a project of a fortification, according to the nature of the ground, and other necessary circumstances, to trace it on the ground, and to execute the project, together with all the military buildings, such as magazines, storehouses, barracks, bridges, etc.

=Fortification, Regular.= Is that in which the works are constructed on a regular polygon, and which has its corresponding parts equal to each other.

=Fortification, Semi-permanent.= During the civil war in America, 1861-65, it became necessary to construct strong fortifications for large cities in a short time. These circumstances gave rise to a new kind of fortification combining certain of the arrangements of both permanent and field works, which were called semi-permanent works.

=Fortified.= Strengthened and secured by forts.

=Fortify.= To strengthen and secure by forts, batteries, and other works of art; to render defensible against an attack by hostile forces, or capable of standing a siege.

=Fortilage.= A little fort; a block-house. Now obsolete.

=Fortin.= A little fort; a field fort; a sconce; a fortlet. Now obsolete.

=Fortlet.= A little fort.

=Fortress.= Is a fortified city or town, or any piece of ground so strongly fortified as to be capable of resisting an attack carried on against it, according to rule. Also, as a verb, to furnish with fortresses; to guard; to fortify.

=Forward.= A word of command given when troops are to resume their march after a temporary interruption.

=Fosseway.= One of the military Roman roads in England, so called from the ditches on both sides.

=Fotheringay.= A village of England, in Northamptonshire. Richard III. was born in the castle of this place, and Mary, queen of Scots, was imprisoned and executed here. James I. razed it to the ground after his accession to the throne.

=Foucade=, or =Fougade=. A small mine.

=Fougasses.= A description of small mines, constructed in front of the weakest parts of a fortification, as the salient angles and faces not defended by a cross-fire.

=Fougass Shell.= A row of loaded shells in a box divided into two compartments. The lower compartment is filled with powder. The box is only just covered by the earth. The fougass is fired by a fuze, electricity, or a tube which explodes when trodden upon.

=Fougass, Stone.= A sort of natural mortar formed by an excavation in the ground. At the bottom of the excavation is placed the charge in a box, over this comes a shield of wood, and over that again is placed about 5 cubic yards of stones, each of which should weigh not less than 1 pound. The excavation is in the shape of a frustrum of a cone, and makes an angle of about 40° with the horizon. The charge is about 80 pounds of powder, and the stones will fall over a parallelogram about 110 yards by 120 yards.

=Fougeres.= A town and parish of France, 28 miles northeast from Rennes. This town was the scene of many engagements between the English and the French, from the 11th to the 15th centuries.

=Fougette= (Fr.). An Indian sky-rocket, a species of firework which is frequently used by the Asiatics. It is made of the hollow tube of the bamboo, of a very large size, filled with the usual composition of rockets. The rod is only a part of the same bamboo, the greater part of which is cut away.

=Foughard.= Near Armagh, Northern Ireland. Here Edward, brother of Robert Bruce, after invading Ireland in 1315, was defeated by Sir John Bermingham in 1318. Bruce was killed by Roger de Maupis, a burgess of Dundalk.

=Fouiller= (Fr.). To search. In a military sense, it signifies to detach small bodies of infantry round the flanks of a column that is marching through a wood, for the purpose of discovering an ambuscade, and of giving timely notice that it may be avoided. The same precaution is necessary when a body of men advance towards or enter a village.

=Fouling.= The action of gunpowder in dirtying the bore of a gun. Cannon for this and other reasons are sponged after each round.

=Foundation.= In military architecture, is that part of a building which is underground, or the mass of stone, brick, etc., which supports a building, or upon which the walls of a superstructure are raised; or it is the coffer or bed dug below the level of the ground to raise a building upon.

=Founder.= A person who casts cannon, etc.

=Foundery.= In military matters, the art of casting all kinds of ordnance, such as cannon, mortars, etc.

=Foundry.= A place for casting all kinds of ordnance; a foundery.

=Four.= A place of confinement in Paris to which vagabonds and persons who could not give any satisfactory account of themselves were committed; and when once shut up had their names registered, and were enlisted for the old French government. These Fours added annually 2000 men at least to the king’s regular army; by which means the capital was relieved of a multitude of thieves, pickpockets, etc.

=Fourage= (Fr.). Forage; in the artillery, it is used figuratively to signify hay, straw, or anything else of vegetable growth, which is used to ram into the bore of a cannon for the purpose of cleansing it.

=Fourager= (Fr.). To forage, or look about for provender and provisions. It likewise means among the French to ravage, desolate, pillage, and waste a country for the purpose of throwing the inhabitants into disorder. The word is derived from foras agere, or to seek for forage in the field.

=Fourier= (Fr.). A quartermaster belonging to a cavalry or infantry regiment. In France there were fouriers-majors who composed a part of the cavalry stall. Sergeant-fourier and corporal-fourier answer to our quartermaster-sergeant.

=Fourniment= (Fr.). A horn formerly used, which held about 1 pound of gunpowder to prime cannon. It was likewise used by cavalry and infantry soldiers, who slung it across their shoulders. The artillerists kept it in a belt.

=Fowley.= A decayed seaport town of England, in the county of Cornwall, at the mouth of a small river of the same name. It became famous in the old French wars, and in 1347 sent 37 tall ships to the siege of Calais. It was burned by the French in 1457.

=Fowling-piece.= A term sometimes applied to shot-guns of large caliber and great power, for shooting ducks, geese, and other large birds.

=Fox.= The old English broadsword.

=Fox Indians.= A tribe of American aborigines of the Algonkin stock, associated with the Sacs. They formerly dwelt in the southern part of Iowa, but now occupy lands in Indian Territory. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Fraisers= (Fr.). To plait, knead, or drill. In a military sense to fraise or fence; as, fraiser un battalion, is to fraise or fence all the infantrymen with pikes, to oppose the irruption of cavalry, should it charge them in a plain. At present it means to secure a battalion by opposing bayonets obliquely forward, or crossways in such a manner as to render it impossible for horsemen to act against it.

=Fraises.= Rows of palisades planted horizontally, or nearly so, as at the edge of a ditch, or on the steep exterior of a parapet. Fraises are generally 7 or 8 feet long, and about 5 inches thick. When an army intrenches itself, the parapets of the retrenchment are often fraised in the parts exposed to an attack. To fraise a battalion is to line or cover it every way with bayonets, that it may withstand the shock of a body of horse.

=France.= A country of Western Europe, which was known to the Romans by the name of Gaul (which see). In the decline of their power it was conquered by the Franks, a people of Germany, then inhabiting Franconia, where they became known about 240. These invaders gave the name to the kingdom (Franken-ric, Frank’s Kingdom); but the Gauls, being by far the more numerous, are the real ancestors of the modern French. For details of important events in France, see separate articles.

=Franches= (Fr.). Les compagnies franches, free companies, were bodies of men detached and separated from the rest of the army, having each a chief, or commandant. They consisted chiefly of dragoons, hussars, etc., and their peculiar duty was to make irruptions into an enemy’s country. They may not improperly be called land-pirates, as their chief occupation was to harass and plunder the enemy and his adherents, in whatever manner they could, without paying any regard to military forms. The persons who composed these corps were termed partisans. They always accompanied the main army in time of war, and were distributed among the different garrison towns in France during peace. They were common to every power in Europe; the Pandours and Hulans were of this description. They were the worst afflictions of war; and generally as fatal to their friends as to their enemies.

=Francisque= (Fr.). A battle-axe; an ancient weapon formed like an axe, used principally by the Franks.

=Franco-Prussian War.= The origin of this dreadful series of sanguinary conflicts is ascribed to the jealousy of the emperor of the French of the greatly increased power of Prussia, in consequence of the successful issue of the war with Denmark in 1864, and more especially of that with Austria in 1866. By these events the German Confederation was annulled, and the North German Confederation established under the supremacy of the king of Prussia, whose territories were also enlarged by the annexation of Hanover, Hesse-Casel, Nassau, Frankfort, and other provinces. This great augmentation of the power of Prussia was mainly due to the policy of Count Bismarck-Schönhausen, prime minister. In March, 1857, a dispute arose through the emperor’s proposals for the purchase of Luxemburg of the king of Holland, which was strongly opposed by Prussia, but the affair was eventually settled, by a conference of the representatives of the great powers declaring Luxemburg neutral. Both governments, however, had prepared for the impending struggle, and the crisis came when Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen consented to become a candidate for the throne of Spain, about July 3, 1870. This was violently denounced by the French government, and eventually, after some negotiation and the intervention of Great Britain, the prince, with the consent of his sovereign, declined the proffered crown. This submission did not satisfy the French government and nation, and the demand for a guarantee against the repetition of such an acceptance irritated the Prussian government, and led to the termination of the negotiations. War was declared by the emperor July 15, 1870, and actually commenced about July 23. It did not end until January 27, 1871, and France was overrun by the victorious Prussians and their auxiliaries. On May 10, 1871, a definitive treaty of peace was concluded at Frankfort-on-the-Main, and on account of the rapid payment of the war expenses the last German soldier left French soil in July, 1873. For important battles and engagements during the war, see separate articles.

=Franconia= (Ger. Franken). An old duchy, afterwards a circle of the Germanic empire, between Upper Saxony, the Upper and Lower Rhine, Swabia, Bavaria, and Bohemia. Since 1806, it has been divided between the grand duchies of Baden and Hesse, and the kingdoms of Bavaria and Saxony.

=Franc-Tireurs.= Literally free-shooters, a name given to French soldiers during the Crimean war, who were stationed as sharpshooters. In the republican wars the name was also given to certain corps of light infantry. During the Franco-German war the name was also applied to a class of combatants among the French, who carried on a partisan warfare.

=Frankfort-on-the-Main.= A city of Prussia, province of Hesse-Nassau, to which it was annexed in 1866. It is situated on the right bank of the Main. Said to have been a free city in 1174, and suffered much by the wars of France. It was entered by the Prussians, who exacted heavy supplies, July 16, 1866.

=Frankfort-on-the-Oder.= A well-built town of Prussia, capital of the province of Brandenburg, 48 miles southeast from Berlin. It suffered much from marauders in the Middle Ages, and in the Thirty Years’ War. Near Frankfort, on August 12, 1759, Frederick of Prussia was defeated by the Russians and Austrians. See CUNNERSDORF.

=Franklin.= In the southern part of Tennessee, near the boundary-line of Alabama. A severe engagement took place here between the Union and Confederate forces under Gens. Schofield and Hood respectively, November 30, 1864.

=Franks.= A name given to a combination of the Northwestern German tribes about 240, which invaded Gaul and other parts of the empire with various success.

=Fraser Gun.= See ORDNANCE, WOOLWICH GUN.

=Fraud.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 60.

=Fray.= Affray; combat; duel; broil; contest.

=Frazier’s Farm, Battle of.= See GLENDALE.

=Fredericia.= A fortified town of Denmark, in Jutland, on the Little Belt. It was besieged and taken by Prussia in 1864.

=Fredericksburg.= A city of Spottsylvania Co., Va., on the south bank of the Rappahannock River. On December 10, 1862, Gen. Burnside and the Federal army of the Potomac crossed the small deep river of the Rappahannock. On December 11, Fredericksburg was bombarded by the Federals and destroyed. On the 13th commenced a series of most desperate yet unsuccessful attacks on the Confederate works, defended by Gens. Lee, Jackson, Longstreet, and others. Gen. Hooker crossed the river with reserves, and joined in the conflict in vain. The Federal army recrossed the Rappahannock December 15 and 16. This battle was one of the severest of the war. Fredericksburg was the scene of several bloody battles during the civil war.

=Frederickshald.= A town of Norway, at the influx of the Tistedals-elf into the Idefiord, 55 miles southeast from Christiania. Charles XII. of Sweden was killed here in the trenches before the fortress of Fredericksteen, on December 11, 1718.

=Frederickshamm=, or =Hamina=. A fortified town of Finland. The treaty which ceded Finland to Russia was signed here in 1809.

=Freebooter.= One who wanders about for plunder; a robber; a pillager; a plunderer.

=Freebootery.= The act, practice, or gains of a freebooter; freebooting.

=Freebooting.= Robbery; plunder; a pillaging. Also acting the freebooter; practicing the freebooter; robbing.

=Freehold.= A village, the capital of Monmouth Co., N. J. Near here was fought the battle of Monmouth, June 28, 1778.

=Free-lances.= Were roving companies of knights and men-at-arms, who, after the Crusades had ceased to give them employment, wandered from state to state, selling their services to any lord who was willing to purchase their aid in the perpetual feuds of the Middle Ages. They played their most prominent part in Italy, where they were known as Condottieri (which see).

=Fregellæ= (Fregellanus; now Ceprano). An ancient and important town of the Volsci, on the Liris, in Latium, conquered by the Romans, and colonized 328 B.C. It took part with the allies in the Social war, and was destroyed by Opimius.

=Fregosa=, or =Fregose= (in the plural Fregosi). A Genoese family, which in the 14th century gained distinction among the popular party, and by their rivalry with the Adorni occasioned frequent civil wars. Fregoso (Domenico), became doge of Genoa in 1370. He conquered the isle of Cyprus and was deposed in 1378. Pietro was a brother of the preceding; he commanded the armament which conquered Cyprus in 1373, and in 1393 was elected doge. Thomas was elected doge in 1415; being attacked by Alfonso of Aragon and the Duke of Milan, he made a brave resistance, and was forced to retire from Genoa in 1421. Pietro was elected in 1450, and for eight years maintained his power against Alfonso of Aragon and the Adorni; he was killed in an attempt to expel the French from Genoa in 1459. There were several other doges of this family in Genoa.

=Fréjus.= A town of France, in the department of the Var, 45 miles northeast from Toulon. It was here that Bonaparte landed on his return from Egypt in the autumn of 1799; and here also he disembarked after his escape from Elba in 1814.

=French Fury, The.= A name given, in history, to the attempt made by the Duke of Anjou to carry Antwerp by storm, January 17, 1583. The whole of his force was either killed or taken captive in less than an hour.

=Frenchtown.= In Canada; it was taken from the British by the American general Winchester, January 22, 1813, during the second war with the United States. It was retaken by the British forces under Gen. Proctor January 24, and the American commander and troops were made prisoners.

=French Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Fréteval.= A town of France, in the department of Loir-et-Cher, 9 miles northeast from Vendôme. In 1194 the army of Philip Augustus was defeated here by the English.

=Friction Plates.= Plates used to check the recoil of guns. See RECOIL and ELSWICK COMPRESSOR.

=Friction Primer.= In gunnery, consists of a short tube of metal inserted into a hole near the top of a larger tube, and soldered in that position. The short tube is lined with a composition made by mixing together one part of chlorate of potassa and two of sulphuret of antimony, formed into a paste with gum-water. A serrated wire passes through the short tube and hole opposite to it in the side of the long one, the open end of the short tube being compressed with nippers, and the wire at the end of the serrated part doubled under to prevent displacement. The other end of the wire is doubled and twisted by machinery. The long tube is filled with rifle-powder, its upper end being covered with shellac-varnish blackened with lamp-black, and its lower end closed with shoemaker’s wax and dipped into varnish. One great advantage of the friction tube is that it gives an enemy at night no clue to the position of a piece as does the lighted port-fire or slow-match.

=Friedland.= A town of East Prussia, in the circle of Königsberg, on the Alle. This place is famous for being the scene of the battle gained by Napoleon I. over the Russians and Prussians on June 14, 1807, and which led to the peace of Tilsit.

=Frill.= Was an ornamental appendage to the shirt which officers and soldiers generally wore with regimentals. A small aperture was usually made at the top to admit the hook and eye of the uniform coat. Enlisted men generally wore frills detached from the coat.

=Frisians.= Were an ancient Teutonic race, dwelling together with the Batavi, the Bructeri, and the Chauci, in the extreme northwest of Germany, between the mouths of the Rhine and Ems. They became tributaries of Rome under Drusus, and for a time remained faithful to the Roman alliance; but, in 28, they were driven to hostilities by the oppression of their protectors, and although partially subdued, they again rose against the Romans under Civilis. They were defeated and compelled to embrace Christianity in 689 and 785.

=Frisrutter.= An instrument made of iron, and used for the purpose of blocking up a haven or a river. The beams through which the upright bars pass must be 12 feet in length, and the upright bars that go through the beam must be of that length so that when one of these iron frisrutters is let down into a haven or river, the perpendicular bars of this iron instrument shall be deep enough to reach at high water within 5 feet of the surface.

=Friuli.= An old province of Italy, belonging to Venice; made a duchy by Alboin the Lombard, when he established his kingdom about 570. It was conquered by Charlemagne; and Henri, a Frenchman, made duke, who was assassinated in 799. It was conquered by Venice in 1420.

=Frock.= In the British service, the undress regimental coat of the guards, artillery, and royal marines.

=Frogged.= A term used in regard to uniforms, and applied to stripes or workings of braid or lace, as ornaments, mostly on the breast, on the plain cloth of which a coat is made.

=Fronde= (Fr.). A sling. This weapon was used in France by the Huguenots at Sancerre, as late as the year 1572, in order to save their powder. There were two kinds: one which was used in throwing a stone from the arm, and the other that was fixed to a lever, and was so contrived that a large quantity of stones might be thrown out of a machine, either from a camp into a besieged town, or from a town into the enemy’s camp. This machine has been used since the invention of cannon. The fronde or sling was used by the Romans on three different occasions, viz.: when they sent their light-armed men, called velites, forward to skirmish before a general engagement; when they wished to drive the enemy from under the walls of a town which they were preparing to storm, and finally to harass and wound the men in the enemy’s works. This weapon, in fact, together with the bow and arrow, may be numbered among the primitive arms of mankind.

=Fronde, Civil Wars of the.= These occurred in France in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-53), during the government of the queen, Anne of Austria, and Cardinal Mazarin, between the followers of the court and the nobility, and the Parliament and the citizens. The latter were called Frondeurs (slingers), it is said, from an incident in a street quarrel.

=Front.= A word of command signifying that the men are to face to their proper front; also to cast their eyes to the front after dressing.

=Front.= The foremost rank of a battalion, squadron, or any other body of men. The front of a gun is the direction in which the muzzle points; but when a field-piece is limbered, its front is the direction in which the pole points. The front of a work or fortification is the side it presents to the enemy. The front of an army, except in retreating, is the side towards the enemy. A column is said to be right in front when it is formed by facing or wheeling to the right.

=Front, Bastioned.= A curtain connecting two half bastions.

=Front of Operations.= See STRATEGY.

=Frontal.= A front piece; something worn on the forehead or face; or the metal face-guard of a soldier.

=Fronted.= Formed with a front; as, fronted brigades.

=Frontier.= That part of a country which fronts or faces another country; the marches; the border, confines, or extreme part of a country, bordering on another country; hence, a fortified or guarded position. Also, lying on the exterior part; as, a frontier town. Acquired on a frontier; as, frontier experience.

=Frontiera.= A town of Portugal, in the province of Alemtejo, 15 miles from Estremos. The Spaniards were defeated here in 1663 by the Portuguese under Schomberg.

=Froschweiler.= See WORTH.

=Frumentarius.= A Roman soldier, whose duty was to bring supplies of provisions to the army, and the earliest notice of all hostile movements. They were also, under the Roman empire, officers who acted as spies in the provinces, and reported to the emperor whatever seemed worthy of note. They appear to have derived this appellation from their gathering news in the same way that the Frumentarii or purveyors collected corn.

=Fuel.= The matter or aliment of fire; anything capable of ignition. There is a certain allowance of fuel made by government to regiments and companies. Officers in the U. S. army, at the present time, buy their fuel; in other countries it is furnished.

=Fuente-la-Higuera.= A city of Spain, in the province of Valencia. At this place Jourdan, Soult, and Suchet, after the rout of Salamanca, met with their retreating forces, and held a council how best to get back into France, when Ballesteros, by refusing to obey Wellington’s order, opened the way for them to Madrid, in October, 1812.

=Fuenterabia.= A very ancient city of Spain, in the province of Guipuzcoa. The Prince of Condé was repulsed here by the admiral of Castile, 1638. In 1794 the French completely dismantled the place.

=Fuentes de Onore.= A small town of Spain, 16 miles from Ciudad Rodrigo. It was the scene of some sharp fighting in May, 1811, between the French and the British.

=Fugitive.= One who flees from his station or duty; a deserter; one who flees from danger. One who has fled or deserted and taken refuge under another power, or one who has fled from punishment.

=Fugleman= (an incorrect method of pronouncing flugelman). A well-drilled intelligent soldier advanced in front of the line, to give the time in the manual and platoon exercises. The word flugel is derived from the Germans, and signifies a wing; the man having been originally posted on the right wing.

=Fulcrum.= A cast-iron post at the breech of large cannon used as a support for an iron bar in giving elevations; called also ratchet post.

=Full Charges.= The charges of powder required in actual service.

=Full Pay.= The full amount of an officer’s regimental pay. When an officer receives that he is said to be on full pay.

=Full Pay, Retired.= In the British service, an officer of 30 years’ full pay is permitted to retire on the full pay of his regimental rank, with a rank one step higher than that which he holds by brevet or otherwise.

=Full Sap.= See SAP.

=Full Uniform.= See DRESS UNIFORM.

=Fulminate.= A salt of fulminic acid. Fulminate of mercury is the most useful. It explodes readily by percussion, by a heat of 367° Fahr., when touched with strong sulphuric or nitric acid, by sparks from flint and steel and by the electric spark. It is used for percussion-caps, primers, fuzes, etc. From its peculiar power to produce detonations it is the detonating agent for modern blasting powders, containing nitro-glycerine, also, for gun-cotton. Detonating caps, or exploders, are copper caps containing from 3 to 25 grains of the fulminate. In ordinary blasting, where the tube fuze is used, the cap is placed on the end of the fuze and crimped around it. The cap is then buried a short distance in the blasting charge, or cartridge. See EXPLOSIVES.

=Fumigation.= To correct and purify an infectious or confined atmosphere, such as is often found in transports, fumigations are necessary. The materials recommended for the purpose are brimstone with saw-dust; or nitre with vitriolic acid; or common salt with the same acid.

=Fund.= There are several kinds of funds in the U. S. service, viz.: post fund, which is constituted by the troops baking their own bread and thereby saving 33¹⁄₃ per cent., the difference between bread and flour; the post trader also pays an assessment of 10 cents a month for every officer and soldier in the garrison, which is carried to the credit of the fund. This fund is used to defray expenses of the post bakery, garden, school, library and reading-room, chapel, printing-press, etc. Fifty per cent. of the post fund, after deducting expenses of the bakery, is set aside and transferred to the regimental treasurer; this constitutes a regimental fund, which is appropriated exclusively for the maintenance of a band, and, when a regiment does not have access to a post library, for the purchase of books and papers. The savings arising from an economical use of rations of the company (excepting the savings of flour) constitute the company fund, which is kept in the hands of the company commander, and disbursed by him exclusively for the benefit of the enlisted men of the company, as follows: For enlisted men’s mess, for garden seeds and utensils, for purchase of books, papers, etc., when the company does not have access to a post library or reading-room, and for such exercise and amusements as may be, in the judgment of the commanding officer, for the benefit or comfort of the enlisted men of the company.

=Funeral Honors.= If an officer dies when on duty with his regiment, or engaged on staff employ, he is buried with military honors. His hat, epaulettes, and sword are placed upon the coffin, soldiers support it, and officers bear the pall; the troops march at a slow and solemn pace, with arms reversed; the drums are muffled; the band plays the dead march; and after the body has been lowered into the grave, a party of infantry, cavalry, or artillery, fire three volleys over it, and then retire. The strength of the funeral party, as it is called, depends upon the rank of the deceased. Artillery officers are sometimes honored by discharges of cannon. When a cavalry officer is buried his horse follows the cortege. When the funeral of an officer entitled, when living, to a salute, takes place at or near a military post, minute-guns are fired while the remains are being borne to the place of interment; but the number of such guns is not to exceed that which the officer was entitled to as a salute when living. After the remains are deposited in the grave, a salute corresponding to the rank of the deceased officer will be fired,--three salvos of artillery, or three volleys of musketry.

In the event of a flag-officer of the navy, whether of the United States or of a foreign country, dying afloat, and the remains are brought ashore, minute-guns are fired from the ship while the body is being conveyed to the shore. If it be in the vicinity of a military post, the flag of the latter is displayed at half-staff, and minute-guns are fired from the post while the procession is moving from the landing-place. These minute-guns are not to exceed in number that which the officer was entitled to, as a salute, when living. During the funeral of a civil functionary entitled, when living, to a salute, the flag is displayed at half-staff, and minute-guns fired as before; but neither salutes nor salvos are fired after the remains are deposited in the grave. On the death of an officer at a military post, the flag is displayed at half-staff, and kept so, between the hours of reveille and retreat, until the last salvo or volley is fired over the grave, or if the remains are not interred at the post, until they are removed therefrom. Funeral honors are likewise accorded to enlisted men. During the funeral of an enlisted man, the flag is displayed at half-staff, and is hoisted to the top after the final volley or gun is fired. All military posts in sight, or within 6 miles of each other, display their flags at half-staff upon the occasion of either one doing so. The same rule is observed toward a vessel-of-war.

On all occasions where the flag is displayed at half-staff, it is lowered to that position from the top of the staff. It is afterwards hoisted to the top before being finally lowered.

=Furl, To.= In regard to military colors, is opposed to their exposure; and is used to express the act of folding them so as to be cased.

=Furlough.= The term is usually applied to the absence with leave of non-commissioned officers and other enlisted men, and may be granted at the discretion of the commanding officer.

=Furlough.= To furnish with a furlough; to grant leave of absence.

=Furnace.= In mining, signifies a hollow or excavation which is made in the earth and is charged with gunpowder, for the purpose of blowing up a rock, wall, or any part of a fortification.

=Furnish.= To provide; to equip; as, to furnish one with arms for defense.

=Furniture.= In a military sense, applies to certain articles which are allowed in barracks, to which are added household utensils, etc. Horse furniture, are ornaments and embellishments which are adopted by military men when they are mounted for service or parade, consisting chiefly of housings, saddle-cloth, etc.

=Furruckabad.= A fortified town, and capital of a district of the same name, in the province of Agra, Hindustan, about a mile from the Ganges. Lord Lake defeated Holkar at this place in 1804.

=Fürth.= A town of Franconia, situated at the confluence of the Rezat and Pegnitz, 4 miles northwest from Nuremberg. In 1632 a battle was fought here between Gustavus Adolphus and Wallenstein, in which the latter had the advantage.

=Fuse.= See FUZE.

=Fusil.= A light musket; a steel which strikes fire out of a flint; a tinder-box; the piece of steel which covers the pan of a fire-arm.

=Fusil à Chevalets.= A species of fusils upon rests, which was recommended by Marshal Vauban, to be used at the commencement of a siege, about 50 or 100 toises in front of the glacis, at the entrances of narrow passages, etc.

=Fusiliers.= In the British service, were formerly soldiers armed with a lighter fusil or musket than the rest of the army; but at present all regiments of foot carry the same rifle. Fusilier is therefore simply a historical title borne by a few regiments. The royal regiment of Scotch Fusiliers was raised in 1678; the royal regiment of Welsh Fusiliers was raised in 1685, and another royal regiment of Welsh Fusiliers was raised in 1688-89. It is always presumed that these corps like the guards possess an esprit de corps, which is peculiar to themselves. The Fusilier regiments never had any ensigns, their junior officers ranked as second lieutenants, taking precedence of all ensigns, and the 7th or Royal Fusiliers have no second lieutenants, so that their junior officers rank with the rest of the army according to the date of their several commissions, as lieutenants. Fusilier regiments wear a bear-skin head-dress. Among the French when pikes were in use, each regiment had only 4 fusiliers, exclusive of 10 grenadiers, who carried the fusil or musket. Among the French there was a distinct regiment of fusiliers under the immediate command of the master of the ordnance.

=Fusillade.= A simultaneous discharge of fire-arms in a military exercise; as, a grand fusillade. To shoot down by a simultaneous discharge of fire-arms. “Fusillade them all.”

=Fusils à l’Eppe= (Fr.). Fusils with long bayonets, shaped like a cut-and-thrust sword. These weapons were recommended as extremely useful in the rear rank of a battalion, or in detached bodies that are stationed for the defense of baggage, etc.

=Fusils, Mousquets= (Fr.). A sort of fusil which was invented by Marshal Vauban, and which was so contrived that in case the flint did not strike fire, the powder might be inflamed by means of a small match which was fixed to the breech.

=Fustuarium.= In Roman antiquity, a method of inflicting capital punishment upon any soldier guilty of theft, desertion, or similar crimes. When the accused had been found guilty he was made to stand in front of the legion to which he belonged. One of the tribunes then touched him lightly with a stick, and all the soldiers immediately rushed upon the criminal and beat him to death with clubs (fustes). If he escaped--as he was allowed to do if he could, but which was rarely if ever possible--he was forbidden ever to return to his native country, and his nearest relatives were not allowed to receive him into their houses. This method of capital punishment continued to be enforced even under the empire.

=Futtehghur.= A town of Hindostan, British district of Furruckabad, on the western bank of the Ganges. In the vicinity is the British military cantonment. Holkar, the Mahratta chief, appeared before the place in 1804, and was preparing for the assault of the fort, when the arrival of the British army under Lord Lake drove him into precipitate flight.

=Fuyard= (Fr.). A runaway; a coward. Un corps fuyard, a regiment that has been in the habit of running away.

=Fuze.= In gunnery, is a contrivance for igniting the bursting charge in a hollow projectile at any point of its flight. The simplest classification of fuzes is the time fuze, the percussion fuze, and the concussion fuze, which are usually defined as follows:

FUZE, CONCUSSION. Is a fuze that is operated by the shock of discharge, or the shock of impact, excluding direct percussion effects. It is especially applicable to hollow spherical projectiles. The usual difference between the concussion and percussion fuze is, that the former explodes no matter what point of the projectile strikes, whereas the latter requires the projectile to strike at or near the front end; but these are exceptions to the rule.

FUZE, PERCUSSION. As shown below, is a fuze that receives no flame from the charge in the gun, but at the moment of impact a flame is generated by means of fulminates, which produces the explosion of the charge in the shell. Most varieties of this fuze consist essentially of a brass or pewter fuze-plug, or case which contains an iron or steel plunger terminating in a nipple which carries a common percussion-cap; the plunger is held in its place at the lower end of the fuze-plug by a collar-screw, wire, or other device; when the projectile strikes the plunger breaks loose, and by its inertia is driven forward with such force as to explode the cap and ignite the charge. This form of fuze is used for rifle-shells.

FUZE, TIME. This fuze is composed of a case of paper, wood, or metal, inclosing a column of burning composition ignited by the charge in the gun; it burns for a certain time, at the end of which the flame is communicated to the bursting charge of the projectile. This fuze is used for both shells and case-shot.

=Fuze, Blasting.= A fuze used to fire charges in mines and quarries. It consists usually of a flexible tube filled with a slow-burning composition. The tube is made of various materials, and is usually waterproof. In Beckford’s fuze the composition is encased in flax, which is covered with gutta-percha, and wound with varnished tape. This fuze is used extensively in England.

=Fuze-Composition.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Fuze, Electric.= A fuze ignited by the passage of an electric current. It is used for firing torpedoes, for the simultaneous discharge of guns and charges in mining. The principle used is the heating of the wire by the current at a point of resistance. The point of resistance is called the bridge. Being surrounded by a priming of powder or other explosive, its sudden heating causes ignition in the fuze. The bridge is made in various ways,--by connecting the current wires by a fine platinum wire; by passing the current through a chemical mixture rendered conducting by containing a salt of copper; also by filing the main wire nearly in two, and rubbing the cut with a lead-pencil.

=Fuze-implements.= Are the fuze-cutter, fuze-setter, fuze-mallet, fuze-saw, etc. See IMPLEMENTS.

=Fuze, Safety.= A name given to a blasting fuze filled with quick-burning composition, but sufficiently long to be ignited at a safe distance from the charge.

=Fuze, Tape.= So called from its shape. May be quick or slow burning.

=Fuzes, Combination.= Are fuzes combining the principles of the simple fuzes. The term is specially applied to time-percussion fuzes, which are so arranged as to burst either at the end of a certain time or upon striking the object. No very exact classification of fuzes has ever been made. If we consider all the operations necessary to the action of the fuze, only certain time fuzes can be considered simple. Concussion fuzes usually depend for their action upon some operation which takes place between the discharge and the time of impact, which bestows a character of sensitiveness which would, if existing at the time of loading, make them too dangerous to handle. Percussion fuzes, also, must have a similar supplementary operation, but this usually takes place at the time of discharge, or upon impact. It is by this means that the safety-pin, screw, or wire holding the plunger is removed or broken. For these reasons these fuzes are ordinarily time-concussion and concussion-percussion, respectively. A fuze, however, usually takes its name from the immediate cause of the explosion. If this is due to the explosion of a fulminate by a direct blow, it is a percussion fuze. If the shock acts in a different way, it is called concussion. If the explosion takes place at the end of a given time, we have a time fuze. There are also fuzes which may be called centrifugal-percussion, concussion-chemical, concussion-friction, etc., examples of which will be given. It is readily seen that it is difficult to make a classification which will cover all the ingenious devices which have been invented.

The simplest time fuze is one which is ignited by the flame of discharge. In the U. S. field and siege service the paper fuze is used for rifle projectiles, both shells and case-shot, and in the field service the Bormann for spherical. For larger spherical projectiles, the paper case is inclosed in a hollow plug of wood, as in mortar-shells, and in a brass plug in the sea-coast service. In the latter the outer end of the plug is closed with a brass cap having a crooked chaume, to prevent the burning composition from being extinguished in striking water. In the U. S. service percussion fuzes are used only for rifle-shells. The fuze ordinarily employed is, strictly speaking, a concussion-percussion, since the safety wire must be ruptured by the shock of impact before the cap can be exploded.

The time fuze already described can be used in smooth-bore guns and in muzzle-loading rifles; but in breech-loading guns or guns without windage, the fuze composition cannot be ignited directly by the flame of discharge,--one of the strongest arguments in favor of muzzle-loaders. The time fuze for breech-loading guns is ignited by an interior contrivance, usually a plunger and cap; it is, consequently, a percussion-time fuze. Such is the nature of the Armstrong time fuze and the time fuzes used in Germany and Russia. Time fuzes are absolutely necessary to the successful use of case-shot or shrapnel, which must be burst in the air. The latest invention in time fuzes is the substitution of clock-work for the column of burning composition as a time-keeper,--a Yankee idea which has not yet received any official recognition, or been subjected to public test.

The Boxer fuze, used extensively in England, is a time fuze consisting of a column of composition driven in a wooden plug, which is closed at the lower end. In some forms of the fuze small longitudinal channels filled with rifle-powder communicate with the bursting charge. The time-scale is a row of holes in the side of the plug, one of which is bored through to the composition in setting the fuze. The flame communicates with the charge either through the side hole directly, or by the side channels downwards through the end of the plug. Two kinds of fuzes are used,--the simple time fuze for muzzle-loaders, and the percussion-time for breech-loaders.

The Splingard fuze, invented by Captain Splingard, of the Belgian service, is a good example of a time-concussion fuze. It consists of a column of pure composition surrounding a hollow spindle of plaster of Paris. The composition is ignited by the flame of discharge, and burns away, leaving the spindle unsupported. When the projectile strikes, the part of the spindle above the unburned composition breaks off, and the flame fires the bursting charge through the hole in the stump. If the spindle fails to break, the charge is fired when the entire column has been consumed. This fuze is specially applicable to spherical projectiles.

The concussion fuze formerly used in Prussia was a time-concussion-chemical fuze. The burning of a column of composition left a glass tube containing sulphuric acid to be broken, by a lead ball, by the shock of impact. The acid coming in contact with a mixture of chlorate potash, sulphur, and white sugar, produced a flame which fired the bursting charge.

The Beebe concussion fuze for spherical projectiles, invented by Captain Beebe, U. S. Ordnance Corps, was a concussion-friction fuze. A contrivance equivalent to a friction-primer buried in the bursting-charge, and offering great resistance to motion in the powder, was fired by the sudden movement of an attached weight upon impact. The shock of discharge also played a part in detaching the fuze from the fuze-plug.

The German percussion fuze, now commonly used in Krupp guns, may be called centrifugal-percussion. The safety-pin passes through a hole from the outside of the shell. This pin is thrown out by the rotation of the shot, leaving but slight resistances to the motion of the plunger.

In the English cap-percussion fuze the corresponding safety-pin is pulled out by a tape by hand just before loading.

The Pettman general service fuze, used in England, is a percussion fuze of unusual form, equally applicable to spherical or oblong projectiles. It consists, essentially, of a hollow screw-plug containing a ball covered with detonating composition, which is freed from its bearings by the shock of discharge, and explodes the shell upon impact by striking the walls surrounding it. The detonating ball sometimes fails in breech-loading guns, the motion of the projectiles being too steady to shake it out of its seat. For this reason a plain ball, as it is called, is placed in the upper part of the fuze, and held between two disks. These separate upon discharge, and the ball is thrown outwards by the rotation opposite an annular groove in the lower plug or disk filled with fulminate, which is exploded upon impact, the lower plug being driven against the ball by its inertia. This fuze is, properly, a concussion-percussion fuze.

=Fyroz=, or =Feroze= (written also Ferose, Firoz, Firouz, Feyrouz, and Firuz). A Persian word signifying “victorious,” and forming the name of several ruling kings in Persia and Hindostan.

G.

=Gabion.= A kind of basket made of osier twigs, of a cylindrical form, having different dimensions, according to the purpose for which it is used. Filled with earth, these gabions serve in sieges to carry on the approaches under cover, when the assailants come near the fortification. Batteries are often made of gabions, which likewise serve for revetments in constructing parapets of loose earth.

=Gabionage.= Gabions when used for fortification.

=Gabionnade.= A work hastily thrown up; especially, one formed chiefly of gabions. A parapet en gabionnade is a parapet constructed of gabions.

=Gabions, Corrugated Iron.= Are gabions made of corrugated iron. For this purpose, the corrugated sheet should be 6 feet long, 33 inches wide, and of iron weighing three-quarters of a pound to the square foot.

The corrugations running transversely, the sheet is easily bent into a cylindrical form, in which it is retained by two clamps, the holes for which are punched near the corners of the sheet. The chief advantage claimed for the corrugated over the hoop gabion is, the readiness with which it can be put together in the field. It is also rather more portable, and stakes are dispensed with; but it is inferior to the hoop gabion in stiffness.

=Gad.= The point of a spear, or an arrowhead; a steel spike on the knuckle of a gauntlet.

=Gadaru= (Fr.). A very broad Turkish sabre.

=Gadling.= A spike or sharp-pointed boss on the knuckle of a gauntlet; a gad.

=Gaeta.= A strongly fortified maritime town of the Neapolitan province of Terra di Lavoro, 40 miles northwest from Naples. It is one of the strongest places in the kingdom, and its harbor is the same as it was in the time of the Romans. In 1799 and in 1806 it was taken by the French, and in 1849 Pope Pius IX. sought an asylum here. When Garibaldi took possession of Naples for Victor Emmanuel in September, 1860, Francis II., the last Bourbon king of Naples, took refuge in Gaeta, and remained until the town was taken by Gen. Cialdini, in February, 1861, after a siege of several weeks’ duration.

=Gætulia.= An ancient country of Africa, situated south of Mauritania and Numidia, and embracing the western part of the desert of Sahara. Its inhabitants belonged to the great aboriginal Berber family of North and Northwestern Africa. They were a savage and warlike race, and their first collision with the Romans was during the Jugurthine war, when they served as light horse in the army of the Numidian king. Cornelius Cossus Lentulus led a force against them, and for his success obtained a triumph and the surname of Gætulicus. The ancient Gætulians are believed to be represented in modern times by the Tuaricks.

=Gaffles.= The steel lever with which the ancients bent their cross-bows.

=Gage.= A challenge to combat; that is, a gauntlet, glove, cap, or the like, cast on the ground by the challenger, and taken up by the acceptor of the challenge.

=Gages= (Fr.). Wages. Among the French this term signified the fruits or compensations which were derived by individuals from appointments given by the crown, whether of a military, civil, or judicial nature, or for service done at sea or by land.

=Gain.= To conquer; to get the better; as, we gained the day, etc. To gain ground, implies to take up the ground which a retiring enemy vacates.

=Gaine de Flamme= (Fr.). A sort of linen sheath or cover, into which the staff of a flag or pendant is put.

=Gaine de Pavillon= (Fr.). A cloth or linen band, which is sewed across the flag, and through which the different ribbons are interlaced.

=Gaines’s Mill.= In Hanover Co., Va., about 20 miles northeast of Richmond. Here, on June 27, 1862, was fought one of the “seven days’ contests” between the Confederate forces under Gen. Lee and the Federals under Gen. McClellan, in which the latter were victorious.

=Gain-pain.= Bread-gainer; a term applied in the Middle Ages to the sword of a hired soldier.

=Gaiters.= A sort of cover for the leg, usually made of cloth, and are either long, as reaching to the knee, or short, as only reaching just above the ankle; the latter are termed half-gaiters, and are worn by infantry soldiers in Europe.

=Galatia.= An ancient province of Asia Minor; in the 3d century B.C., the Gauls under Brennus invaded Greece, crossed the Hellespont, and conquered Troas, 278; were checked by Attalus in a battle about 239; and then settled in what was called afterwards Gallogræcia and Galatia. The country was ravaged by Cn. Manlius, 189 B.C., and was finally annexed to the Roman empire, 25 B.C.

=Galatone.= A very ancient town in the south of Italy, in the province of Otranto, about 9 miles northeast of Gallipoli. In the struggle between Joanna, queen of Naples, and Alfonso, Galatone having declared for the former, was besieged by Alfonso, and its ramparts destroyed.

=Galea.= Among the Romans, a light casque, head-piece, or morion, coming down to the shoulders, and commonly of brass; though Camillus, according to Plutarch, ordered those of his army to be of iron, as being the stronger metal.

=Galeated.= Covered, as with a helmet.

=Galet= (Fr.). A round stone thrown from a sling or bow.

=Galicia.= A province of Northwest Spain, was conquered by D. Junius Brutus, 136 B.C., and by the Vandals, 419, and was subdued by successive invaders.

=Galicia.= A kingdom or province of the Austrian empire, which formerly constituted a part of Poland. East Galicia was acquired by the emperor of Germany at the partition in 1772; and West Galicia at that of 1795. The latter was ceded to the grand duchy of Warsaw in 1809; but recovered by Austria in 1815.

=Gall.= To injure; to harass; to annoy; as, the troops were galled by the shot of an enemy.

=Gallant.= Noble in bearing or spirit; brave; high-spirited; courageous; heroic; magnanimous; as, a gallant youth; a gallant officer.

=Gallantly.= In a gallant manner, spirit or bearing; nobly; bravely; as, to fight gallantly; to defend a place gallantly.

=Gallantry.= Bravery; courageousness; heroism; intrepidity; as, the troops attacked the fort with great gallantry.

=Gallas.= A warlike race occupying the south and east of Abyssinia. They first appear in history in the 16th century, when they extended their conquests from the interior of Africa, laying waste by constant incursions the countries of Eastern Africa to the mountains of Abyssinia. Politically they do not form a single nation, but are divided into numerous tribes, forming separate kingdoms and states, which are frequently at war with each other.

=Gallery.= An underground passage, whether cut in the soil or built in masonry; it forms the communication between the inner and exterior works of a fortified place. When prepared for defense, it is a defensive gallery. In military mines, galleries are the underground passages leading to and connecting the mine chambers. Scarp and counterscarp galleries are covered passages built in the scarp and counterscarp to give a flanking fire in the ditch.

=Gallery Descent of a Ditch.= Is the term applied when the besiegers cross the ditch by an underground passage.

=Gallet= (Fr.). See JALET.

=Galling Fire.= A sustained discharge of cannon or small-arms, which by its execution greatly annoys the enemy.

=Gallipoli.= An important town and seaport of Turkey in Europe, in the province of Rumili, is situated on the peninsula of the same name at the northeast extremity of the Dardanelles, and about 130 miles west-southwest of Constantinople. It was once fortified, but its only defense now is a sorry square castle with an old tower. In 1357 the town was taken by the Turks, and formed the earliest Turkish possessions in Europe. In 1854 the allied armies of England and France occupied it.

=Gallipoli.= An important commercial seaport of Italy, in the Neapolitan province of Terra di Otranto. It has a good harbor, and in time of war is an important position, being strongly protected by fortifications and a castle. In 450 the town was sacked by the Vandals; in 1284 it was destroyed and almost depopulated by Charles of Anjou; and during subsequent centuries suffered severely from the Venetians, French, Spaniards, and Turks. In 1809 it repulsed an attack from the English flotilla.

=Gallop.= A mode of running by a quadruped, particularly by a horse, by lifting alternately the fore feet and the hind feet together, in successive leaps or bounds. A word of command in the cavalry service.

=Galloper.= A carriage on which very small guns are conveyed, having shafts on which the gun may be conveyed without a limber. This carriage is no longer used.

=Gallowglass.= In ancient times, a heavy-armed foot-soldier of Ireland and the Western Isles.

=Galway.= A seaport town of Ireland, and capital of Galway County. It was originally surrounded with walls. It was conquered by Richard de Burgo in 1232; in 1690 the city declared for King James, but was taken by Gen. Ginckel immediately after the battle of Aughrim, July 12, 1691.

=Gamala.= A town and strong fortress in Palestine, frequently mentioned by Josephus. Its site, though so remarkable and minutely described, had been forgotten for nearly 18 centuries; but it has latterly been identified with El-Hossn, which lies to the east of the Sea of Tiberias, nearly opposite the town. In the Jewish rebellion it revolted against Agrippa, who besieged it for seven months, but without success. It was afterwards, however, taken by Vespasian after a spirited resistance, and an indiscriminate slaughter of the inhabitants took place, 4000 being put to the sword, and 5000 being said to have thrown themselves from the walls, and to have been dashed to pieces on the rocks below.

=Gambado.= A case of leather, formerly used to defend the leg from mud, and in riding on horseback.

=Gambeson= (Fr.). A term which the French formerly applied to a coat of mail that was worn under the cuirass. It was likewise called cotte gamboisée. It was made of two strong cloths interwoven with pointed worsted.

=Gamelle= (Fr.). A wooden or earthen bowl formerly used among the French soldiers for their messes. It generally contained the quantity of food which was allotted for 3, 5, or 7 men belonging to the same room. The porridge-pots of the navy were made of wood, and held a certain allowance. During the monarchy of France, subaltern officers and volunteers were frequently punished for slight offenses by being sent to the gamelle, and excluded from their regular mess; they were put upon short allowance according to the nature of their transgression.

=Gantlope= (Fr.). Corruptly gauntlet, from the French gant, a glove. A military punishment, which consisted in passing along the whole line, and receiving a blow from every man’s iron glove or gauntlet (gantelet). Whips and canes were subsequently used; this mode of punishment is now obsolete.

=Gaol.= A withe used for binding fascines or securing gabions.

=Gap.= An opening for a passage or entrance; an opening which implies a breach. To stand in the gap, to expose one’s self for the protection of something; to make defense against any assailing danger. To stop a gap, to secure a weak point; to repair a defect.

=Gap.= A small town of France, capital of the department Hautes Alps. It was sacked and almost wholly reduced to ashes by Victor Amadeus of Savoy in 1692.

=Gar.= The general term used by the Saxons for a weapon of war.

=Garamantes.= A Libyan people of the old race called Amazergh, who in ancient times inhabited the largest oasis of the desert of Sahara. When the Romans became masters of North Africa, they found it necessary to repress the barbarian tribes, and accordingly Cornelius Balbus Gaditanus the younger, as pro-consul, was sent against this people. He succeeded in defeating them, and obtained the honors of a triumph; but, owing to their nomadic character, he was unable thoroughly to subdue them.

=Garçon-Major= (Fr.). An officer, so called in the old French service. He was selected from among the lieutenants of a regiment to assist the aid-majors in the general details of duty.

=Garda, Lake of.= A lake of Northern Italy, lying between the provinces of Lombardy and Venice. In 1796 the battle of Rivoli was fought near its eastern shore, in which Bonaparte defeated Wurmser.

=Gardant.= In heraldry, is said of an animal which is represented full-faced, and looking forward.

=Garde= (Fr.). Guard. Garde de l’armée, the grand guard of an army. Guards in the old French service were usually divided into three sorts: guards of honor, fatigue guard, and the general’s guard. That was called a guard of honor in which the officers and men were exposed to danger. A fatigue guard belonging to a garrison or camp. A general’s guard was mounted before the door or gate of a house in which the commanding officer resided.

=Garde-General d’Artillerie= (Fr.). An officer was so called under the old government of France, who had charge of all the ordnance and stores belonging to his majesty for the land service. He gave receipts for all ammunition, etc., and his bills were paid by the treasurer-general of the army.

=Garde, Imperiale= (Fr.). See GUARDS, IMPERIAL.

=Garde, Nationale= (Fr.). See NATIONAL GUARDS.

=Garde Pluie= (Fr.). Literally means a fence, or cover against rain. This machine was originally invented by a Frenchman, and submitted to the Prussians, who adopted it for the use of their infantry. Under the cover of them, the besieged, or the troops stationed in the posts attacked, would be able to keep up a brisk and effective discharge of musketry during the heaviest fall of rain, and thereby silence or considerably damp the fire of the enemy.

=Gardelegen.= A small town of Prussian Saxony, situated about 30 miles north-northwest of Magdeburg, on the Milde. It was destroyed by Duke Dervan in 633, and rebuilt about 924. It remained a free town until 1478.

=Gardens.= In ancient military history, places of resort to practice military exercises.

=Gardes Blancs= (Fr.). Were Roman militia, composed of picked men.

=Gardes Costes=, or =Côtes= (Capitaineries), Fr. The maritime divisions, into which France was formerly divided, were so called. Each division was under the immediate superintendence of a captain, named capitaine gardes-costes, who was assisted by a lieutenant and an ensign. Their duty was to watch the coast, and to attend minutely to everything that might affect the safety of the division they had in charge.

=Gardes de la Porte= (Fr.). A company so called during the monarchy of France, and of so ancient a date, indeed, with respect to original institution, that it appears to have been coeval with it. Mention is made of the gardes de la porte in the oldest archives or records belonging to the king’s household, in which service they were employed, without being responsible to any particular treasurer as other companies were. This company consisted of 1 captain, 4 lieutenants, and 50 guards. The captain and officers received their commissions from the king. The first took an oath of fidelity to the king in person, and received the bâton from his hands. The duty he did was purely discretionary, and depended on his own will. The lieutenants served by detachment, and took their tour of duty every quarter. Their specific service consisted in guarding the principal gate belonging to the king’s apartments. They were relieved at night by the body-guards, and delivered the keys to a brigadier belonging to the Scotch garrison.

=Gardes du Corps= (Fr.). The body-guards. Under the old French government, they consisted of a certain number of gentlemen or cavaliers whose immediate duty was to attend the king’s person. They were divided into four companies, under as many captains, whose tour of duty came every quarter. They took rank above the gens d’armes and the king’s light cavalry. The first and most ancient of the four companies was called the Scotch company, which was established by Charles VII. of France in 1423.

=Gardes Françaises= (Fr.). The French guards. In 1563 Charles IX., king of France, raised a regiment for the immediate protection of the palace. The colonel of the gardes Française was on duty throughout the year, and was entitled to the bâton de commandement in common with the four captains of the body-guards. Peculiar privileges were attached to every officer belonging to this body. No stranger, not even a native of Strasburg, Savoy, Alsace, or Piedmont, could hold a commission in the French guards. In the revolution of 1789 they took a very active and leading part.

=Gardes-magazins= (Fr.). In the old French service there were two sorts of magazine guards,--one for the military stores and the other for the artillery. The first was subject to the grand master, and the second was appointed by the secretary at war. Gardes particuliers des magazins d’artillerie, officers appointed by the grand master of ordnance for the specific purpose of attending to the ammunition, etc. Their pay was in proportion to the quantity of stores with which they were intrusted.

=Gardes Suisses= (Fr.). A celebrated Swiss corps in the French army, constituted “Gardes” by royal decree in 1616. They comprised upwards of 2000 men, were always unswerving in their fidelity to the Bourbon kings, and are chiefly remarkable for their heroic end. On August 10, 1792, they withstood the Parisian revolutionary mob, and defended the palace of the Louvre till almost every man was cut down. During the resistance they offered, the royal family was enabled to escape to such shelter as the National Assembly afforded. Gardes Suisses du corps du Roi, one hundred Swiss guards who were immediately attached to the king’s person. They were a select body of men who took an oath of fidelity to the king, and were formed into a regular troop. But in the last period of the monarchy of France, the principal duties of the one hundred Swiss guards consisted in domestic and menial attendance.

=Garigliano.= A river in Southwestern Italy. After long waiting and refusing to recede a step, the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova made a bridge over this river December 27, 1503, and surprised and totally defeated the French army. Gaeta surrendered a few days after.

=Garland.= A sort of chaplet made of flowers, feathers, and sometimes of precious stones, worn on the head in the manner of a crown. Both in ancient and modern times it has been customary to present garlands of flowers to warriors who have distinguished themselves. A beautiful young woman was generally selected for that purpose.

=Garlasco.= A market-town of Northern Italy, 24 miles from Novara. The Austrians, when they invaded Italy in 1849, crossed the Po near this place.

=Garnished.= In heraldry, any charge is said to be garnished with the ornaments set on it.

=Garnish-nails.= Diamond-headed nails, formerly used to ornament artillery carriages.

=Garret.= A turret or battlement. Now obsolete.

=Garreted.= Protected by turrets. Now obsolete.

=Garrison.= A body of troops stationed in a fort or fortified town to defend it against an enemy, or to keep its inhabitants in subjection. A strong place, in which troops are quartered for its security. In garrison, in the condition of a garrison; doing duty in a fort or as one of a garrison. Garrison town, is a strong place, in which troops are quartered and do duty for the security thereof, keeping strong guards at each post, and a main-guard in or near the market-place. As a verb it means to place troops in, as in a fortress, for its defense; to furnish with soldiers; as, to garrison a fort or town. To secure or defend by fortresses manned with troops; as, to garrison a conquered territory.

=Garrison Court-martial.= Is a legal tribunal for the examination and punishment of offenders against martial law, or against good order and military discipline. It is composed of three members and a judge-advocate. See COURT-MARTIAL, and TRIAL; also JUDGE-ADVOCATE.

=Garrison Gin.= The largest size gin. See GIN.

=Garrison Guns.= Guns used in fortifications. Fortress guns.

=Garrison des Janissaries= (Fr.). The élite or flower of the Janissaries of Constantinople was frequently sent into garrison on the frontiers of Turkey, or to places where the loyalty of the inhabitants was doubted. The Janissaries did not indeed assist in the immediate defense of a besieged town or fortress, but they watched the motions of all suspected persons, and were subject to the orders of their officers, who usually commanded the garrison.

=Garter, Order of the.= One of the most ancient and illustrious of the military orders of knighthood. It was instituted by Edward III. of England, and dates from about the year 1350, though some writers say 1344. Its origin is variously related. In Rastel’s “Chronicles” it is stated that this order was devised by Richard I. at the siege of Acre, when he is said to have caused 26 knights to wear thongs of blue leather about their legs. But the common account is, that the Countess of Salisbury happened at a ball to drop her garter, and that the king took it up and presented it to her, at the same time exclaiming, Honi soit qui mal y pense,--“Evil be to him who evil thinks,” in reference to the smiles which he observed the action had excited among some of the bystanders; adding “that shortly they should see that garter advanced to so high an honor and renown, as to account themselves happy to wear it.” It is founded in honor of the Holy Trinity, the Virgin Mary, St. Edward the Confessor, and St. George; but the last, who had become the tutelary saint of England, was considered its special patron; and for this reason it has always borne the title of “The Order of St. George,” as well as of “The Garter,” and those who wore it were called “Knights of St. George.” The number of knights companions was originally 26, including the sovereign, who is chief of the order; but in 1786 a statute was passed to the effect that this number should be irrespective of princes of the royal family, and illustrious foreigners on whom the honor might be conferred. The well-known emblem of the order is a dark-blue ribbon edged with gold, bearing the motto Honi soit qui mal y pense in golden letters, with a buckle and pendant of gold richly chased, and is worn on the left leg below the knee. The mantle is of blue velvet, and on the left breast a star is embroidered. The hood and surcoat are of crimson velvet, and lined with white taffeta. The hat is of black velvet, with a plume of white ostrich feathers, in the centre of which there is a tuft of black herons’ feathers, all fastened to the hat by a band of diamonds. The collar is of gold, and consists of 26 pieces, each in the form of a garter. The “George” is the figure of St. George on horseback encountering the dragon; it is worn to the collar, and there is a lesser “George” pendent to a broad, dark-blue ribbon over the left shoulder.

=Garter King-of-Arms.= Is the principal king-of-arms in England. Though held by the same person, they are distinct offices. The first was instituted for the service of the order of the Garter (which see), not on its first foundation, but afterwards by Henry V. as sovereign, with the advice and consent of the knights-companions. The peculiar duty of Garter king-of-arms is to attend upon the knights at their solemnities, to intimate their election to those who are chosen by the order, to call them to be installed at Windsor, to cause their arms to be hung up over their stalls, and to marshal their funeral processions, and those of royal personages, and of members of higher nobility. In the capacity of principal king-of-arms, he grants and confirms arms, under the authority of the earl marshal, to whom he is not subject as Garter king-of-arms. All new grants or patents of arms in England are first signed and sealed by him, and then by the king (of arms) of the province to which the applicant belongs.

=Gas-check.= The device used in breech-loading cannon to prevent the gas from escaping at the breech. (See BROADWELL RING and BREECH-LOADING.) Also a term applied by the English to the soft metal sabot in the rear of rifled projectiles.

=Gasconade.= To boast; to brag; to vaunt; to bluster. The term was originally derived from the Gascons, or people of Gascony, in France, who it seems have been particularly distinguished for extravagant stories.

=Gasconader.= A great boaster; a blusterer.

=Gascony.= Formerly a district in the southwest of France, situated between the Bay of Biscay, the river Garonne, and the Western Pyrenees. It derived its name from the Basques, or Vasques (Lat. Vascones), who, driven by the Visigoths from their own territory on the southern slope of the Western Pyrenees, crossed to the northern side, and settled here. In 602, after an obstinate resistance, the Vasques were forced to submit to the Franks. They now passed under the sovereignty of the dukes of Aquitania, who for a time were independent of the crown, but were afterwards conquered by King Pepin, and later by Charlemagne. Subsequently it became incorporated with Aquitania, and for a time became part of the English possessions, but was afterwards reconquered by the French.

=Gastein=, =Badgastein=, or =Wilbad-Gastein=. A village of Austria, 49 miles south of Salzburg. On August 14, 1865, a convention was concluded here between Austria and Prussia, to make arrangements relative to the government of the duchies of Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg, which their combined forces had wrested from Denmark.

=Gate.= A door of strong planks with iron bars to oppose an enemy. Gates are generally fixed in the middle of the curtain, from whence they are seen and defended by the two flanks of the bastions. They should be covered with a good ravelin, that they may not be seen or enfiladed by the enemy. The palisades and barriers before the gates within the town are often of great use.

=Gateshead.= A borough in Durham, on the Tyne, opposite Newcastle. At Gatesheadfell, William I. defeated Edgar Atheling in 1068.

=Gateway.= The passage or opening in which a gate or large door is hung. The gateway being a most important point in all fortified places, is usually protected by various devices. It is flanked by towers with loop-holes, from which assailants may be attacked, and is frequently overhung by a machicolated battlement, from which missiles of every description were poured upon the besiegers.

=Gath.= One of the five chief cities of the Philistines, was situated on the frontiers of Judah, and was in consequence a place of much importance in the wars between the Philistines and the Israelites. It formed in fact the key of both countries, and was strongly fortified.

=Gatling Gun.= Is a machine gun, the 1 inch composed of six and the ¹⁄₂ inch of ten rifled barrels of steel, made to revolve around a central axis parallel to their bores, by means of a hand crank. As each barrel comes opposite to the hopper on the left side of the cylinder, a self-primed metal case cartridge falls into a groove of the cartridge-carrier, is pressed into the breech by a plunger, and held there until exploded by the firing-pin. The empty case is withdrawn from the barrel by an extractor attached to the cylinder containing the firing-pin. With each revolution of the crank the 1-inch gun fires once, and the ¹⁄₂-inch gun three times. The ¹⁄₂-inch gun is reduced to caliber .45 inch, in order to use with it the projectile of the breech-loading musket.

=Gaucho.= One of the native inhabitants of the pampas of La Plata, of Spanish-American descent, celebrated for independence, horsemanship, and rude, uncivilized mode of life.

=Gaugamela= (now Karmelis). A village in the district of Aturia, in Assyria, the scene of the last and decisive battle between Alexander and Darius Codomannus, 331 B.C., commonly called the battle of Arbela. See ARBELA.

=Gauges.= In gunnery, are brass rings with handles, to find the diameter of all kinds of shot with expedition. Also instruments of various kind for verifying the dimensions of cannon and projectiles and the various parts of small-arms. Modern small-arms are made on the interchangeable principle, each part being accurately made to gauges. This principle has revolutionized the manufacture of small-arms. It was first introduced at the U. S. armory, at Harper’s Ferry, by Maj. Wade, of the Ordnance Corps.

=Gaul=, or =Gallia=. The ancient name of France and Belgium. The natives, termed by the Greeks Galatæ, by the Romans Galli or Celtæ, came originally from Asia, and invading Eastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled in Spain, North Italy, France and Belgium, and the British Isles.

=Gauntlet= (Fr. gantelet). A large glove of mail; a covering for the hand with plates of metal on the back, worn as a part of the defensive armor in ancient times. A long glove, covering the wrist; as, a riding-gauntlet. To take up the gauntlet, to accept a challenge. To throw down the gauntlet, to offer or send a challenge; to defy.

=Gauntlet.= A kind of military punishment; the gantelet used in the expression to run the gauntlet. See GANTLOPE.

=Gauntleted.= Wearing a gauntlet.

=Gawelgur.= A strong fortress of Hindostan, in the dominions of the Nizam or ruler of Hyderabad. It was taken by Gen. Wellesley, December 14, 1803, after a siege of two days, but was restored to the rajah on the conclusion of peace.

=Gaza.= A city of the Philistines, of which Samson carried off the gates, about 1120 B.C. It was taken by Alexander after a long siege, 332, and near it Ptolemy defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes, 312 B.C. It was taken by Saladin, 1170; by Bonaparte, March, 1799; and by the Egyptians in 1831.

=Gaze.= In heraldry, when a beast of the chase is represented as affronté, or full-faced, it is said to be at gaze.

=Gazette.= To announce or publish in a gazette; to announce officially; as an appointment either civil or military. All commissions in the British army, militia, fencible, and volunteer corps must be gazetted.

=Gazons.= In fortification, pieces of fresh earth, or sods, covered with grass, and cut in the form of a wedge, about a foot long and half a foot thick, to line the outsides of a work made of earth, as ramparts, parapets, banquettes, etc. The first bed of gazons is fixed with pegs of wood, and the second bed is so laid as to bind the former, by being placed over its joints, and so continued till the works are finished. Between those it is usual to sow all sorts of binding weeds or herbs, in order to strengthen the rampart.

=Gear.= Warlike accoutrements; military harness; equipage.

=Geat.= The hole through which the metal is conveyed to the mold in casting ordnance.

=Gebegis.= Armorers among the Turks were so called.

=Gebelis.= A Turkish corps of picked men.

=Gebelus.= Every Timariot in Turkey, during a campaign, is obliged to take a certain number of horsemen, who are called gebelus, and to support them at his own expense. He is directed to take as many as would annually cost 3000 aspres for subsistence.

=Gela.= In ancient times, a very important city on the southern coast of Sicily. It was founded by a Rhodian and Cretan colony, in 690 B.C. In 505 B.C., Cleander made himself tyrant, and the colony reached its highest pitch of power under his brother Hippocrates, who subdued almost the whole of Sicily, with the exception of Syracuse. Gelon, the successor of Hippocrates, pursued the same career of conquest, and Syracuse itself fell into his hands, and was even made his principal residence, Gela being committed to the government of his brother Hiero. After many vicissitudes during the Carthaginian war in Sicily, it ultimately fell into decay. Its ruin was completed by Phintias, tyrant of Agrigentum, who, a little before 280 B.C., removed the inhabitants to a town in the neighborhood which he had founded, and to which he gave his own name. It occupied what is now the site of Terra Nova.

=Gelibach.= A sort of superintendent or chief of the gebegis, or armorers, among the Turks. He is only subordinate to the toppi bachi, or the grand master of the Turkish artillery.

=Gellia Gens.= A plebeian family; was of Samnite origin and afterwards settled at Rome. There were two generals of this family in the Samnite wars, Gellius Status in the second Samnite war, who was defeated and taken prisoner 305 B.C., and Gellius Egnatius in the third Samnite war.

=Gembloux.= A town of Belgium, on an affluent of the Sambre, 11 miles northwest from Namur. The French gained a victory over the Austrians near this town in 1794.

=Genappe.= A village of Belgium, in Southern Brabant, on the banks of the Dyle, 18 miles southeast from Brussels. Several military actions took place here in 1815, both before and after Waterloo, between the French and the allied forces.

=Gendarmes=, or =Gens d’Armes= (men-at-arms). Originally, and up to the time of the first French revolution, the most distinguished cavalry corps in the service of the Bourbon kings, to whom they formed a sort of body-guard. Under existing arrangements the gendarmes constitute a military police, and comprise both cavalry and infantry. The force consists principally of soldiers taken from the army, generally on account of intelligence and good conduct. The men receive much higher pay than the rest of the army, of which, however, the corps is a part, and they are liable in cases of emergency to be sent on active service.

=Gendarmery= (Fr. gendarmerie). The body of gendarmes or gens d’armes.

=General.= A term for the roll of the drum which calls the troops together. To “beat the general” is a phrase drawn from the French drum instructors, “Battre la Generale.”

=General.= The highest military title in the U. S. army, and the highest military title below that of field-marshal in European armies. A general ordinarily commands no body of men less than an army or corps d’armée.

=General, Adjutant-.= See ADJUTANT-GENERAL.

=General, Brigadier-.= See BRIGADIER-GENERAL.

=General, Colonel.= An honorary title, or military rank, which is bestowed in foreign services. Thus the Prince of the Peace in Spain was colonel general of the Swiss guards.

=General Court-Martial.= See COURT-MARTIAL.

=General de Battaile=, or =General Major=. A particular rank or appointment, whose functions correspond with those of a cidevant marshal of France. This situation is intrusted to a general officer, and is only known among the armies of Russia, and some other Northern powers. He takes precedence in the same manner that our major-generals do of all brigadier-generals and colonels, and is subordinate to lieutenant-generals.

=General des Galères= (Fr.). Commander of the galleys, an officer of high rank and extensive jurisdiction in France.

=General des Vivres= (Fr.). Commissary of stores; a sort of chief commissary or superintendent-general of stores, whose functions were to provide ammunition, bread, and biscuit, for the army.

=Generalissimo.= The chief officer in command of an army. This word is used in most foreign languages. It was first used to designate the absolute authority of Cardinal Richelieu, when he went to command the French army in Italy.

=General, Lieutenant-.= The second rank among general officers, and next below that of general. The normal command of a lieutenant-general is that of a division, but he is sometimes intrusted with the command of an entire army.

=General, Major-.= The rank next below that of lieutenant-general, and above brigadier-general. He usually commands a division; a general of division.

=General Officers.= Are all officers whose authority extends beyond the immediate command of a regiment, and who have either separate districts or departments at home, or commands on foreign service. A brigade is the smallest body of men constituting the command of a general officer. In an army of very large proportions, the normal sequence of command would be the following: The general commanding-in-chief, generalissimo, captain-general, or field-marshal would command the whole force; the generals would have separate corps d’armée; the lieutenant-generals, wings of those corps d’armée; the major-generals, divisions in the wings; and brigadier-generals, brigades in the divisions. In practice, however, an army is rarely large enough to allow of this exact scheme of military hierarchy being carried out; and general officers are also frequently assigned to high commands without regard to seniority. In the U. S. service there are one general, one lieutenant-general (whose offices expire with the present incumbents), three major-generals, and six brigadier-generals. The President is ex officio commander-in-chief of the army. In the English service the sovereign is captain-general, and under the sovereign is the commander-in-chief, who takes rank as field-marshal. In the staff corps the word general is also used, as surgeon-, quartermaster-, adjutant-general, etc., to denote that the holder of the office has charge of his special department, and does not necessarily imply that he is a general officer. The chiefs of staff departments, however, in the U. S. service are usually of the rank of brigadier-general. In the German armies, and among the sovereigns of the North, there are certain generals of cavalry, and others of infantry, who take rank of all lieutenant-generals. In these armies it is usual for generals, lieutenant-generals, and major-generals to take their routine of duty, and rise progressively in the infantry or cavalry corps to which they were originally appointed, until they arrived at a chief command: whereas in France and other countries a major-general might be employed to take charge of either infantry or cavalry, without any regard being paid to the particular line of service in which he was bred.

=General Orders.= See ORDERS.

=General’s Guard.= See GARDE.

=Generalship.= The office of general; the exercise of the functions of a general; the skill and conduct of a general officer; military skill in a commander.

=Geneva.= A walled town of Switzerland, and the capital of a small canton, at the western extremity of the lake of the same name. In 1784 and 1794 revolutions took place in the city and state of Geneva; in 1798 it was taken by the French, and, till 1813, it was the capital of the department Leman, in the French empire, under Napoleon I. In 1814 it joined the Helvetic Confederation.

=Geneva, Convention of.= In October, 1863, an international convention was held at Geneva, Switzerland, comprising 14 governments, including Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Prussia and Italy, who were represented by delegates, and propositions were drawn up forming the “Red Cross Society,” for the succor of the wounded in time of warfare. It gave aid to the sick and wounded during the Franco-German war, and its flag is recognized by all powers as neutral.

=Genius.= In a military sense, natural talent or disposition to every kind of warlike employment, more than any other; or, the aptitude a man has received from nature to perform well and easily that which others can do but indifferently and with a great deal of pains.

=Genoa.= A fortified maritime city in Northwestern Italy, once a celebrated republic, now the capital of a province of Northwestern Italy. From the 11th to the 18th century Genoa was the capital of a flourishing republic; it was bombarded by the French in 1684, and submitted to the Austrians in 1746; but, in consequence of a citizen having been abused by an Austrian officer, the inhabitants rose and massacred most of the soldiery, and drove away the remainder. The republic in 1798 assumed the French form of government, with the title of Ligurian republic, and in 1805 it was annexed to the French empire. In 1815 it was ceded to the king of Sardinia, and in 1859 the French troops landed here on their route to oppose the Austrian army, which had invaded Sardinia.

=Genouillère.= That part of the parapet of a battery which remains above the platform and under the gun, after the opening of the embrasure has been made. The name is derived from the French genou, the knee. The height of the genouillère is regulated by that of the gun-carriage, generally from 2 to 3 feet.

=Gens.= In Roman antiquity, a clan, embracing several families, whose bond of alliance was a common name and certain religious rites performed in common. Persons of the same gens were called gentiles, while those of the same family were designated agnati.

=Gens= (Fr.). A word in much desultory use among the French, signifying, in the general acceptation of it, people, servants, soldiers, etc. This word is likewise used to distinguish bodies of men that are in opposition to each other.

=Gens d’Armes.= See GENDARMES.

=Gentilhommes de la Garde= (Fr.). Gentlemen of the guard. Commonly called Au bec de corbin, or the battle-axe, from the weapon which they carried. This company went through many alterations during the monarchy of France. During the last years of that government it consisted of 200 guards, under the command of a captain, a lieutenant, and an ensign. The captain had the power of giving away the subaltern commissions, and had, moreover, the entire management of the rest; every vacancy being in his gift. They marched in file, each holding his battle-axe, before the king on days of public ceremony. When the company was first raised, its particular duty was to attend the king’s person, and to be constantly near him on the day of battle.

=Gentlemen-at-arms= (formerly called the Gentlemen-Pensioners). The body-guard of the British sovereign, and, with the exception of the yeomen of the guard, the oldest corps in the British service. It was instituted in 1509 by Henry VIII., and now consists of 1 captain, 1 lieutenant, 1 standard-bearer, 1 clerk of the cheque, and 40 gentlemen, who must all be retired military officers of service and distinction. The attendance of gentlemen-at-arms is now rarely required, except on the occasion of coronations and important state ceremonies.

=Geographical Department, Commander of.= Is assimilated to the commander of a separate army, with the same powers and duties in similar cases over all the troops within the limits of the department. In all countries he derives his authority to command from the highest power of the government. In the United States he is assigned by order of the President, who alone can relieve him, and who also fixes the limits or boundaries of the department. His duties are mainly derived from customs of service. The only duties defined by statute relate to general courts-martial, which he can convene, and his action is final on all cases tried by such courts, except in the case of a general officer, or where the sentence of the court extends to the loss of life or the dismissal of a commissioned officer. In time of war he is authorized by existing laws to execute the death penalty in cases of persons convicted as spies, mutineers, deserters, or murderers, and in cases of guerrilla marauders convicted in time of war of robbery, burglary, arson, rape, assault with intent to commit rape, or violation of the laws of war. See DEPARTMENT, MILITARY.

=Geographical Division, Military.= In the United States a geographical military division consists of a number of geographical military departments, usually under the command of a general officer.

=Geometry.= That branch of mathematics which investigates the relations, properties and measurements of solids, surfaces, lines, and angles; the science which treats of the properties and relations of magnitudes. Its usefulness extends to almost every art and science. It is by the assistance of geometry that engineers conduct all their works, take the situation and plans of towers, the distances of places, and the measure of such things as are only accessible to the sight. It is not only an introduction to fortification, but highly necessary to mechanics. On geometry, likewise, depends the theory of gunnery, mining, mechanics, hydraulics, pneumatics, etc.

=George, Lake.= A beautiful sheet of water in the State of New York. Its length is 36 miles; its breadth from 1 to 3 miles. Lake George was the scene of important military operations during the French and Indian war of 1755-59. Here stood Fort George, Fort William Henry, and other works.

=George, St.= Patron of England and Russia, is reputed to have been born in Palestine in the 3d century. According to the legend, he became a prince in Cappadocia, and was distinguished for his exploit of rescuing a king’s daughter from a dragon. He was a Christian, and suffered martyrdom at Nicomedia, April 23, 303, for having torn down the edict of Diocletian against Christians, the emperor himself being then in the city.

=George, St., Banner of.= Is white with red cross. According to Sir N. H. Nicolas, the cross of St. George was worn as a badge over the armor of every English soldier “in the 14th and subsequent centuries, even if the custom did not prevail at a much earlier period,” to indicate that he was in the service of the crown. On the invasion of Scotland by Richard II. in 1386, it was ordained that every man of the English party should wear a sign of the arms of St. George both before and behind. A similar ordinance was adopted by Henry V. for the government of his army in France. The cross of St. George forms a part of the British standard.

=George, St., Knights of.= See GARTER, ORDER OF THE.

=George, The.= The badge of the order of the Garter exhibiting the figure of St. George on horseback piercing the falling dragon, which lies on a mount. See GARTER.

=Georges Conspiracy.= Took place in France; Gens. Moreau and Pichegru, and Georges Cadoudal, who was commonly known by the name of Georges, and others were arrested at Paris, charged with a conspiracy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIII., February, 1804. Pichegru was found strangled in prison, April 6, and 12 of the conspirators, including Georges, were executed, and others imprisoned, June 22. Moreau was exiled and went to America; in 1813 he was killed before Dresden.

=Georgia.= Called by the Russians Grusia, a considerable country of Asia, situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian, to the north of Armenia, and forming a government of Russia. The Georgians are skilled in the bow, and are thought to be the best soldiers in Asia. Georgia was formerly one kingdom, the inhabitants of which were Christians; but, in 1639, when it was conquered by the Persians, the country was divided between two native princes, by themselves called kings, but by the Sophia styled governors. Each of these had a guard of Mohammedan horse in their pay. In 1802 it was annexed to Russia.

=Georgia.= One of the original States of the United States, bounded on the north by Tennessee and North Carolina, on the east by South Carolina and the Atlantic Ocean, south by Florida, and west by Florida and Alabama. It was named in honor of King George II., who granted a charter for establishing a colony there in 1732; but a permanent settlement was not made till the following year, when Oglethorpe established himself at what is now Savannah. The colony soon became involved in several contests with the Spaniards of Florida, who claimed the territory. In 1739 Oglethorpe invaded Florida, but without much success. In 1742 the Spaniards retaliated by invading Georgia; but they also effected nothing. The next noteworthy event in the history of the colony was a war with the Cherokees in 1761, which was terminated by their suing for peace, after their country had been laid waste. They were afterwards peaceable, and were removed to the Indian Territory in 1838. In the war of the Revolution Georgia warmly sided with the colonies, and, in consequence, suffered severely at the hands of the British, who overran the country, and captured Savannah, December 29, 1778. In the following year (October, 1779) the Americans and French attempted to retake it, but were repulsed with severe loss. In the civil war (1861-65), Georgia took an active part against the Union, and suffered severely in consequence. Atlanta was captured September 2, 1864, after which Gen. Sherman marched with his army through the State to the sea over an area extending from 20 to 60 miles in width, destroying railroad communication, etc., and ending with the capture of Savannah, December 20, 1864. This magnificent military movement effectually humbled the State, and in 1866 the President issued a proclamation declaring it no longer in a state of insurrection.

=Gerasa=, or =Jerash=. An ancient city of Syria, whose site is now marked by very extensive and magnificent ruins, situated about 35 miles east of the Jordan, at the eastern extremity of the land of Bashan, and on the borders of the great desert of Hauran. But little of its early history is known. In the time of the Antonines it had arrived at the height of its splendor and prosperity. It was taken by Alexander Jannæus in 85 B.C.; the Jews burned it at the commencement of their last war with the Romans; it was taken and plundered by Annius, the general of Vespasian, and in 1122 its castle was destroyed by Baldwin II. of Jerusalem.

=Gerbe.= An ornamental firework. See PYROTECHNY.

=Gerberoi.= In Normandy, north of France. Here William the Conqueror was wounded in battle by his son Robert, who had joined the French king, Philip I., 1078.

=Gerit= (Fr.). A Turkish dart 2¹⁄₂ feet long.

=Germany= (Lat. Germania). The name given to a large portion of Central Europe, composed of a number of independent states united together, and forming the German empire. In the time of Julius Cæsar the Germans were the most formidable and warlike of all the European barbarians. They long withstood the attempts of the Romans to subdue them; and, although that people conquered some parts of the country, they were expelled before the close of the 3d century. In the 5th century the Huns and other tribes prevailed over the greater portion of Germany. In the latter part of the 8th century Charlemagne subdued the Saxons and other tribes, and was crowned emperor at Rome, December 25, 800. At the extinction of his family the empire became elective, 911, and was generally obtained by a member of the house of Hapsburg from 1437 to 1806, when the emperor Francis Joseph II. formally renounced the title of emperor of Germany, having assumed that of emperor of Austria two years previously. The Confederation of the Rhine was formed July 12, 1806; the Germanic Confederation, June 8, 1815; and the North German Confederation, August 18, 1866. In consequence of the success of the Prussian arms in the war with France (1870-71) the new empire of Germany was founded, and the king of Prussia declared emperor, January 18, 1871.

=Germinal Insurrection.= That of the faubourgs of Paris, suppressed on 12th Germinal, year III. (April 1, 1795).

=Gerona.= A strong town of Spain, in Catalonia, at the confluence of the Oña and Ter, the latter of which flows through the town. It is built in the form of a triangle, at the foot of a steep mountain, and is surrounded by walls flanked with fortifications, and covered by a fort erected on a hill to the north of the town. It was besieged 28 times, and taken 5 times. In June, 1808, it successfully resisted the French, but after suffering much famine surrendered December 12, 1809.

=Gesate=, or =Gessate= (Fr.). Formerly a Gallic mercenary soldier, who volunteered his services beyond his native country. These adventurers, or knights-errant, were called gesates, either on account of the gese, or large dart, which they carried, or, as Polybius imagines, on account of the subsistence they received, which was called by that name.

=Geserne.= The Anglo-Norman term for battle-axe.

=Geses and Materes.= Were weapons adopted by the Allobroges (a body of ancient Gauls so called), independently of the broad cut-and-thrust sword which the Swiss still wear. These instruments were only one cubit long; half the blade was nearly square; but it terminated in a round point that was exceedingly sharp. Not only the Romans, but the Greeks received it into their armies. The former retained the full appellation and called it gese, but the latter corrupted it into ysse. This is the only weapon with which those soldiers were armed that escorted malefactors, who were condemned to death, to the place of execution. The term gese was also applied to a sort of a javelin.

=Gestic.= Pertaining to deeds or feats of arms; legendary.

=Gettysburg.= Capital of Adams Co., Pa., situated near the southern border of the State, 8 miles from “Mason and Dixon’s line.” Here three days’ severe fighting took place on July 1-3, 1863, between the invading Confederate army under Gens. Lee, Longstreet, and Ewell, and the Federals under Gen. George G. Meade.

On the morning of July 1, Maj-Gen. Reynolds, in command of the 1st Corps, advanced on the Emmittsburg road from Marsh Creek to Gettysburg, arriving about 10 o’clock A.M., and marched directly through the town, and soon after encountered a body of the enemy, which were driven back by Gen. Buford’s cavalry, which allowed the 1st Corps to form up in order of battle on a ridge northwest of the town, which sloped to the west into a little open valley. Beyond this valley was a ridge of higher land thickly wooded. Across this valley the line of Gen. Reynolds advanced somewhat hastily, almost before it was well formed, and soon encountered a heavy force of the enemy’s infantry, and was compelled to fall back, which it did in good order, and by a movement of its left centre against the enemy while falling back secured a large number of prisoners. The Confederate line being broken soon after, Gen. Reynolds again prepared to go forward. His line advanced as before, and drove the enemy from the valley and over the ridge at the farthest side, with a severe loss by the heavy fire of the foe. While reconnoitring on this ridge Gen. Reynolds was killed by a shot from the enemy. The 11th Corps now arrived and Gen. Howard took command of the whole field, Gen. Schurz commanding the 11th Corps. At about half-past 2 P.M. the enemy again advanced in force against the 1st Corps, which slowly fell back to its original position northwest of the town. The Confederate force advanced across the open space in line of battle, whilst their batteries shelled the position of the 1st Corps to cover the advance, but it met a fire so sharp and well served that it caused it to reel and fall back; the line was again formed and reinforced and once more advanced, but with no better success. By this time the line was increased by three more of the enemy’s divisions, and another charge was made by the whole force of the enemy. Their superior numbers enabled them to threaten both flanks of the Federal force, and notwithstanding a brave resistance the 1st Corps was compelled to fall back to the town. By this movement the 11th Corps was uncovered, and a heavy advance completely on its right flank compelled it to retire. The enemy advanced and took possession of the town, while the two corps of the Union troops fell back and occupied the west slope of the hill south of the town, held by Gen. Steinwehr. At dusk the 3d and 12th Corps arrived and next morning the 5th, making in all six corps, which were placed in position by Gen. Meade, the line stretching in a semicircle, having its convex centre toward Gettysburg, with the extreme toward the south and west. The heights on which they were posted sloped gently down from their front. The key of Gen. Meade’s position was Cemetery Hill, a little distance south of the town, and on the northern slope of which the town itself is situated. The enemy having been largely reinforced during the night were prepared to give battle on the morning of the 2d, having formed line on a ridge which ran nearly parallel to the extreme of that on which the Federal forces were formed, and separated from them by a valley varying in width from 1 to 2 miles.

On the ridge occupied by Gen. Meade 100 guns were in position facing the enemy, with reserve artillery in the rear about equidistant from the flanks. The enemy had nearly 150 guns in position. During the forenoon of the 2d no movement of importance took place, but about noon Gen. Lee ordered a general attack on the Federal centre and left. His movement being discovered by the Union commanders they were prepared, and the 3d Corps, commanded by Gen. Sickles, was advanced more to the left and front in order to be in a more commanding position to repel the Confederate attack. He had hardly got into position when the enemy attacked. Having bravely resisted their furious onslaught for about two hours, and not receiving the expected reinforcements, the 3d Corps was compelled to fall back to its previous position, when a most desperate assault was made upon it by Longstreet’s troops; but this part of the line being promptly strengthened it repulsed all the efforts of Longstreet, with great loss, however, on both sides. With the advance of Longstreet a part of the enemy advanced on the centre of the Union line, and meeting with stubborn resistance the battle grew fearful. The enemy pressed forward unrestrained. Gens. Sickles, Hancock, and Gibbon were wounded. The 1st and 2d Corps wavered and the enemy pressed up to the very guns of the batteries, which were exposed to capture; but the 6th Corps, although wearied with marching, hurried up with shouts to the support, and the enemy staggered and drifted slowly back, and being pushed on their left flank by a strong force of the Federals, they retired. At this time a desperate dash was made by the Confederates on the extreme right, which had been weakened to support the centre and left. For a short time the attack was furious, but the Federals being speedily supported the enemy were kept in check, and finally retired about 9 o’clock P.M., having lost the day in every quarter.

The battle commenced again on the morning of the 3d by an artillery fire from the Confederate lines, and an aggressive movement of the right of the Federal forces under Gen. Slocum to drive Gen. Ewell farther back. This attack met with a prompt response from the latter, but Gen. Slocum having been reinforced by part of the 3d and 5th Corps, the struggle was evenly contested for some time, when additional reinforcements having arrived, the tide of battle was turned in favor of the Union troops, causing the enemy to retire, and at 11 o’clock A.M. a general quiet prevailed. The movements of the morning against Gen. Meade thus far had been made to cover up the designs of the Confederates. The battle of the previous day had demonstrated that the issue of the struggle turned on the occupation of Cemetery Hill, the key of Gen. Meade’s position. To get possession of this spot was therefore the object of the enemy. Therefore Lee massed about 115 guns so as to subject the artillery on Cemetery Hill to more than a half circle of cross-fires. At about 1 o’clock P.M. the signal-gun was fired and the cannonading commenced. The fire of the enemy was concentrated on the position held by the 2d and 11th Corps. It drew a most terrific response from the Federal batteries, and as has been described by a spectator in the Confederate army, the almost simultaneous discharge of over 200 guns “made the air hideous with most discordant noise. The very earth shook, and the hills and rocks seemed to reel like a drunken man. For one hour and a half this most terrific fire was continued, during which time the shrieking of shell, the crash of fallen timbers, the fragments of rocks flying through the air, shattered from the cliffs by solid shot, the heavy muttering from the valley between the opposing armies, the splash of bursting shrapnel, and the fierce neighing of wounded artillery horses, made a picture terribly grand and sublime.” At the termination of the firing, the left of the Union line was assaulted twice, which were handsomely repulsed with severe loss to the Confederates. And thus ended the memorable battle of Gettysburg. The forenoon of the 4th was devoted to the burial of the dead, and in the afternoon the Confederate forces commenced to retreat, leaving the Federal forces in possession of the hard-fought field, which covered the Union troops with the highest honor and glory, but at a terrible sacrifice. During the three days the Confederate losses were 18,000 killed and wounded, and 13,000 missing, a large part of the latter prisoners; making a total of 31,000. The Union losses were 16,500 killed and wounded, and 6600 missing, chiefly prisoners captured on the first and second days, making a total loss of not less than 23,000--Extracts from D. Appleton’s “History of the Rebellion,” by Tenney, “Lippincott’s Gazetteer,” and “Haydn’s Dates.”

=Ghaut=, or =Ghât=. A term in India signifying a pass through a range of hills; also a flight of stairs descending to the rivers for the accommodation of bathers, and as landing-places for boats.

=Ghent= (Fr. Gand). An ancient fortified city of Belgium, capital of East Flanders, situated at the confluence of the Lys and Scheldt. It commenced to acquire importance in the 12th century, when its fortifications were completed. In the 14th century, having revolted against the Duke of Burgundy, it was subdued after seven defeats, in some of which it suffered a fearful slaughter of its citizens. It again revolted against Charles V. in the 16th century, was again subdued, made to pay a heavy fine, and forced to pay for the erection of a citadel to keep it in subjection. The French became masters of Ghent in 1678, 1708, 1745, 1792, and again in 1795. The city was united to the kingdom of the Netherlands after the peace of Paris (1814), and is now a rich and populous city of Belgium. In this city on December 24, 1814, the terms of the treaty were agreed on, between the United States and British envoys, which put an end to the war of 1812-15.

=Gheriah.= A town of British India, in the presidency of Bombay. It was the principal post of Angria, a famous piratical prince, whose fort here was taken, and his whole fleet destroyed, by Admiral Watson and Col. Clive, in conjunction with the Mahrattas in 1756.

=Ghizni=, or =Ghuznee=. A fortified city of Afghanistan, built on a hill 7720 feet above the level of the sea, 90 miles from Cabul. It was the capital of a powerful empire of the same name, and is sometimes called the second Medina, from the great number of illustrious persons who have been interred there. The old town of Ghuznee was destroyed in the 12th century, and the modern one stands on a site about 3 miles from the ruins of the other. It was stormed and taken by Lord Keane in 1839. In 1842 the garrison surrendered to the Afghans, from whom, however, it was again taken in the same year by the British forces under Gen. Nott.

=Ghoor=, =Ghore=, or =Ghour=. A large district of Afghanistan. This was formerly one of the Persian governments; but in the 12th century its chiefs became independent, overturned the Ghiznian empire, and carried their arms as far as Benares. One of their slaves founded the Mohammedan kingdom of Delhi about 1206. This country was overrun in the 13th and 14th centuries by the armies of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane. Its capital is Ghoor, which was taken by the king of Kharezim, and was subsequently sacked by the armies of Genghis and Tamerlane, from which it has never recovered, and is now scarcely known.

=Ghorchana.= The irregular Sikh yeomanry who served in the wars in the Punjab between the Sikhs and the English.

=Ghyretty.= Cantonments 14 miles from Calcutta. It is a palace built by Mr. Dupleix, which the British took by force in 1797, and imprisoned the principal French colonists of Chandernagore there.

=Giambeux.= Greaves; armor for the legs, in ancient times. See JAMBEUX.

=Giant Powder=, or =Dynamite=. See DYNAMITE.

=Giants, Battle of the.= See BATTLE OF THE GIANTS.

=Giberne= (Fr.). A sort of bag in which the grenadiers held their hand-grenades. It was worn like a powder-flask.

=Gibraltar.= A fortified seaport town and garrison, occupying a promontory in the south of Spain, at the entrance from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean, 60 miles southeast from Cadiz. It consists of a high and rocky mountain running from north to south, about 3 miles in length, and three-fourths in width, its highest point being 1439 feet above the level of the sea. The “rock” was first fortified in the modern style in the reign of Charles V. It was surprised by the English under Sir George Booke in 1704, soon after the commencement of the War of the Spanish Succession, and it has been a British dependency ever since. It has been repeatedly besieged, and always without success,--first in 1720, next in 1727, and lastly in 1779, when it stood a siege of upwards of three years and a half, the French and Spaniards using their utmost endeavors to capture it; but every effort was bravely repulsed by the governor, Gen. Elliott.

=Gibraltar of America.= See QUEBEC.

=Gib-staff.= In England, a staff to gauge water, or to push a boat.

=Gin.= In military mechanics, is a machine for raising great weights: it is composed of three long legs, one of them being longer than the rest, and called the pry-pole. The other two are kept at a proper distance by means of two iron bars fixed on one of the legs by a staple passing through a hole at one end; the other end has a hook which enters into a staple fixed into the other leg so as to be taken off or put on at pleasure. At about 3 feet from the bottom is a windlass, upon which the cable is wound; and the three legs are joined together at the top by an iron bolt, about which they move; to this bolt is also fixed an iron clevis to which is hooked the blocks and fall. When the gin stands upright with legs at a proper distance, one end of the cable is fastened to a gun, mortar, or other weight; and the other passes through the pulleys and about the roller, which is turned round by means of hand-spikes passing through the holes in the end of the roller; whilst a man holds the cable tight, the gun is raised to the height required, so that the carriage may be put under it. The modern gin has a windlass with pawl and ratchet attachments. There are three different kinds of gins,--the field and siege, the garrison, and the casemate gins; and they only differ in their size and weight.

=Gindi.= Turkish horsemen, who perform extraordinary feats.

=Gingals=, =Ginjauls=, or =Gingauls=. Large muskets used in India by the natives, with a rest, somewhat similar to those invented by Marshal Vauban for the defense of forts.

=Gingee.= A strong town on the coast of Coromandel, once the capital of a kingdom of the same name, 85 miles from Madras. Towards the end of the 18th century, the Great Mogul unsuccessfully besieged this place for a period of three years. In 1750 it was taken by the French, who, in 1761, ceded it to the British.

=Gionules= (Fr.). Turkish volunteer cavalry, renowned for their bravery.

=Girandole= (Fr.). Any firework turning upon a wheel; a wheel whose circumference is studded with rockets.

=Girandole= (Fr.). In fortification, several chambers in mines connected for the defense of the place of arms of the covered way.

=Girondists.= An important party during the French revolution, principally composed of deputies from the Gironde. At first they were ardent republicans, but after the cruelties of August and September, 1792, they labored to restrain the cruelties of the Mountain party, to which they succumbed. Their leaders, Brissot, Vergniaud, and many others were guillotined October 31, 1793, at the instigation of Robespierre.

=Gironné=, or =Gyronné=. A term used in heraldry to indicate that the field is divided into six, eight, or more triangular portions of different trenches, the points of the triangles all meeting in the centre of the shield.

=Gisarm.= A scythe-shaped weapon, with a pike projecting from one side, formerly borne by foot-soldiers on the end of a long staff. It was used as late as the battle of Flodden. See GUISARME.

=Gisors.= A town of France, in the department of the Eure, 23 miles from Rouen. Here a battle took place October 10, 1198, between the French and English, in which the former were completely defeated. Richard I., who commanded the English, gave as the “parole,” or watch-word of the day, Dieu et mon droit (God and my right), and ever since the expression has been the motto to the royal arms of England.

=Gistes.= Pieces of wood which are made use of in the construction of platforms to batteries, and upon which the madriers or broad planks are placed.

=Gitschin.= A walled town of Bohemia, about 50 miles northeast of Prague. It was captured by the Prussians after a severe conflict with the Austrians, June 29, 1866. Near Gitschin, the same evening, the crown-prince of Prussia was victor in another engagement.

=Giurgevo.= A town and river-port of Wallachia, opposite Rustchuk, and about 40 miles southwest from Bucharest, of which it is the port. In 1773 the Turks were defeated here by the Russians, who took it in 1811, and again in 1829, when its defenses were leveled with the ground. In 1854 the Russians were defeated in its neighborhood by the Turks.

=Givet.= A fortified town of France, in the department of Ardennes, on the Belgian frontier. This place was fortified by Vauban; the chief defensive works are Charlemont, the citadel, and the forts Notre Dame and St. Hilaire.

=Glabrio.= A family name of the Acilia gens at Rome. The Acilii Glabriones were plebeian, and first appear on the consular annals in 191 B.C., from which time the name frequently occurs to a late period of the empire. M. Acilius Glabrio, the most distinguished of the family, became consul in 191 B.C. In that year Rome declared war against Antiochus the Great, king of Syria. Glabrio was sent against him, and with the aid of his ally, Philip II., king of Macedonia, he speedily reduced to obedience the whole district between the Cambunian mountain-chain and Mount Œta. Antiochus, alarmed at Glabrio’s progress, intrenched himself strongly at Thermopylæ; but, although his Ætolian allies occupied the passes of Mount Œta, the Romans broke through his outposts, and cut to pieces or dispersed his army. Glabrio was engaged in the siege of Amphissa, when his successor, L. Cornelius Scipio, arrived from Rome and relieved him from command. He was unanimously granted a triumph on his return to Rome.

=Glacis.= A slope of earth, usually turfed, which inclines from the covered way towards the country. Its object is to bring assailants, as they approach, into a conspicuous line of fire from the parapet of the fortress, and also to mask the general works of the place.

=Gladiators.= Were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre and other places for the amusement of the Roman people. They are said to have been first exhibited by the Etruscans, and to have had their origin from the custom of killing slaves and captives at the funeral pyres of the deceased. The first exhibition of gladiators at Rome occurred in 264 B.C. They were at first confined to public funerals, but afterwards fought at the funerals of most persons of consequence. Combats of gladiators were also exhibited at entertainments. They consisted either of captives, slaves, and condemned malefactors, or of free-born citizens who fought voluntarily. But it was in the amphitheatre that the combats of gladiators most frequently took place. Notice of the exhibition being given beforehand, thousands flocked to witness the spectacle. When a gladiator was vanquished by his antagonist, his fate depended upon the people, who by a sign indicated whether they wished him to be put to death or saved. Shows of gladiators were abolished by Constantine, but appear, notwithstanding, to have been generally exhibited till the time of Honorius, by whom they were finally suppressed.

=Gladsmuir.= A parish in Scotland, in the county of Haddington, in which the battle of Gladsmuir, or Prestonpans, was fought.

=Glaire.= A broadsword or a falchion fixed on a pike.

=Glais, Militaire= (Fr.). A military compliment which was paid to the remains of a deceased general. It consisted in a discharge of ordnance. It also signifies the funeral procession of a sovereign.

=Glaive.= Sword; a large blade fixed on the end of a pole, whose edge was on the outside curve; a light lance with a long sharp-pointed head. Also a knight, fully armed, with his squire. A kind of sword worn by peers in France in full dress.

=Glaize.= A kind of halbert, so called by the Saxons.

=Glanders.= A contagious and very destructive disease of the mucous membrane in horses, characterized by a constant discharge of sticky matter from the nose and an enlargement and induration of the glands beneath and within the lower jaw.

=Glarus.= A canton in the northeast of Switzerland. In the earliest times Glarus was reckoned sometimes as a part of Rhœtia, sometimes as a part of Swabia, and was peopled by German settlers. After various changes it passed into the possession of the dukes of Austria, but ultimately secured its independence by the victories of Nafels in 1352 and 1388, when it joined the Swiss Confederation.

=Glastonbury.= A town of England, in Somersetshire, 25 miles from the city of Bath. It was anciently called Avalonia, or the Isle of Avalon, and no person whatever, not even a bishop or prince, was allowed to enter without leave from the abbot, to whom this power was granted by Canute the Dane. There were 61 abbots of Glastonbury, who sat among the barons in Parliament, and governed it successively for nearly 600 years. Richard Withing, the last, was condemned at Wells for refusing to surrender his abbey to King Henry VIII., and acknowledge his supremacy, and carried, with two of his monks, on a hurdle, to Tor Hill, a bleak hill close to the town, where he was hanged in his robes.

=Glatz.= A town of Prussia, capital of Glatz district; built on both sides of the Neisse, and is strongly fortified. This place surrendered to the Prussians in 1742, and was taken by the Austrians in 1759, but restored at the peace of 1763. It was taken by Würtemberg and Bavarian troops in 1807. The celebrated Baron Trenek was confined in its fortress, but made his escape by leaping from the walls.

=Glave.= See GLAIVE.

=Glazing Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Glencoe.= A valley of Scotland, in Argyleshire, noted for the military execution of its unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, by a party of English soldiers, in 1692, in consequence of an order signed by William III. in council for that purpose, and issued contrary to the faith of a royal proclamation. Many of the inhabitants had been in arms for James II. during his attempts to recover the crown of England.

=Glendale, Battle of.= Also known as the battle of Frazier’s Farm, and White Oak Swamp, and Charles City Cross-roads, Virginia, one of the “seven days’ contests,” was fought June 30, 1862, between the Army of the Potomac under Gen. McClellan, on its retreat towards the James River, and the Confederate forces under Gen. Longstreet. The battle commenced in the afternoon, and continued with fury well into the night, the Confederate loss being about 2000 men, and the Union loss about 1500. By next morning McClellan had his whole army in position on Malvern Hill, and communication with the James River was secured.

=Glissade= (Fr.). A term formerly applied to the forward or backward movement of the pike.

=Globe Sight.= A form of front sight used specially on target rifles. It consists of a pin with a small ball on the end of it, or a disk with a hole in it. For protection it is set in a tube open at both ends.

=Gloire= (Fr.). An artificial firework which resembles a large sun.

=Glorious Virgin=, or =St. Mary the Glorious, Order of the=. An order of knighthood in Venice, founded by Bartholomew of Vicenza in 1262. This institution was ecclesiastical as well as military; its objects were the protection of widows and orphans, and the furtherance of the peace of Italy. The badge was a purple cross between certain stars, and the costume a white surcoat on a russet cloak. An order of knighthood of St. Mary the Glorious also existed in Rome in the 17th century, whose purpose was the suppression of the Barbary corsairs who infested the Mediterranean.

=Glory, Military.= Honor, reputation, and fame acquired by military achievements. That precarious splendor which plays around the brows of a warrior, and has been collected by hard service, extraordinary genius, and unblemished integrity; but which may desert the greatest hero through one unfortunate failure, occasioned by the fatality of human imperfection.

=Gloucester.= A city and the capital of a county of the same name in England. It became a Roman station under the name of Colonia Glevium, and an important town in Mercia under the Saxons, by whom it was called Glean-Ceaster,--whence its present name. Here the celebrated single combat between Edmund Ironsides and Canute is said to have taken place. It was repeatedly visited by William I.; afforded a refuge and support to Queen Matilda in her contest with Stephen; saw Henry III. crowned, and Parliaments held under Richard II. and Henry IV., and sided successfully with the Parliament in the civil war against Charles I.

=Gloucestershire.= A county of England, which, previous to the Roman invasion, was inhabited by a tribe called the Dobuni; and after that event, the county, or the greater part of it, was included in the province named Flavia Cæsarienes. From the earliest of the Danish invasions down to the battle of Tewkesbury, in 1471, and to the civil wars between the crown and Parliament, Gloucestershire has been the scene of many and disastrous encounters. There are traces of British, Saxon, and Danish works in the county.

=Glove.= A cover for the hand, or for the hand and wrist, with a separate sheath for each finger. To throw the glove, an old expression which formerly meant to challenge to single combat.

=Glückstadt.= A town of the German empire, capital of the duchy of Holstein, on the Elbe, 32 miles below Hamburg. It was founded in 1620 by Christian IV. of Denmark, and fortified. During the Thirty Years’ War, it successfully withstood three sieges; its fortifications were demolished in 1815.

=Glycerine, Nitro-.= See EXPLOSIVES.

=Glyoxiline.= See EXPLOSIVES.

=Go.= The verb “to go” is variously used in a military sense; as, to march in a hostile or warlike manner. To go off implies to depart from any post. To go on is to make an attack. To go over is to revolt. To go out, to go upon any expedition, etc. It was likewise frequently used to signify the act of fighting a duel; as, he went out with so and so.

=Goa.= A town of Hindostan, on the Malabar coast. It was formerly the capital of the Portuguese dominions in India. This place was taken by the Portuguese under Albuquerque in 1510; and by the English April 2, 1756.

=Gobille= (Fr.). A small copper ball, a quarter of an inch in diameter, several of which are put into a revolving cask for the purpose of more intimately incorporating the ingredients of powder, carcass, and rocket composition.

=Gobisson=, or =Gambasson= (Fr.). A quilted and padded dress worn under the habergeon.

=Godesberg.= A village of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank of the Rhine, 4 miles south of Bonn. In 1582, Gebhard, the deposed archbishop, took refuge here, and intrusted the castle to a Dutch garrison. It was, however, soon after taken possession of by his successor, on which occasion it sustained much injury. During the Thirty Years’ War it was alternately in the possession of the Swedes and the Imperialists, and was finally almost demolished by the French.

=Godolo.= A market-town in Hungary. It was near here that the combined armies of Austria under Prince Windischgrätz and Count Jellachich were defeated in two bloody battles by the Hungarians under Görgei. On the eve of victory, Governor Kossuth held a conference with the generals Görgei, Klapka, and Damjanich for laying down the principles of the famous declaration of independence, issued April 14, 1849. It was this declaration which served the emperor of Russia as a pretext for the invasion of Hungary.

=Gohud.= A fortified town of Hindostan, in the territory of Gwalior, or possessions of the Scindia family. This place was taken from Bheem Singh by the Mahrattas about 1761. When this nation lost the battle of Paniput, the rannah of Gohud attempted to shake off their yoke, but was conquered by Ragoonauth Row in 1766, and compelled to continue tributary. On a subsequent rupture Gohud was taken by Scindia in 1784. Relinquished to Scindia by a treaty with Great Britain subsequent to 1804.

=Goito.= A small town in Lombardy, 15 miles northwest from Mantua. In 1630 this place was carried by assault by the Imperialists, who entered Mantua on the same night, and took it by surprise. During the War of the Spanish Succession in 1701, it was alternately captured by the allies and the Imperialists; and in 1796 the French took it, but were expelled, after a brief tenure, by the Austrians. In 1814, a severe engagement took place here between the Austrian and Italian troops; and during the war of independence in 1848, it became the theatre of two other battles between the same powers, to which it owes its modern celebrity.

=Goladar=, or =Goldar=. An East Indian term signifying a store-keeper, or store-house keeper.

=Golandaazee=, or =Golandauzee=. The Indian term of an artilleryman.

=Golconda.= A town of Hindostan, strongly fortified by nature and art, standing on a hill 5 miles northwest from Hyderabad. It was once noted for its diamonds. Golconda was once the capital of an extensive kingdom which arose on the dissolution of the Bhamenee dynasty, and was governed by native Hindoo princes; but being taken by Aurungzebe by treachery in 1687, after a siege of seven months, the whole territory became incorporated with the empire of Delhi.

=Goldberg.= A town in Prussian Silesia, on an affluent of the Oder, 12 miles southwest from Liegnitz. The French were defeated by the Prussians near this place in 1813.

=Gold Coast Corps.= A corps in the British service formed of drilled Africans, and officered from the West India regiments. It is kept up for the purpose of protecting the possessions of Sierra Leone and Gambia.

=Gold Stick.= A title given to the captain of the gentlemen-at-arms, or body-guard of the British sovereign, and to colonels of the Life Guards. When either of the regiments of Life Guards is given to an officer, he is presented by the sovereign with the gold stick. The colonels of the two regiments are in attendance on the sovereign alternately month and month. The one thus on duty is called gold stick in waiting; and all orders relating to the Life Guards are transmitted through him. See SILVER STICK.

=Golden Fleece.= A celebrated order of knighthood in Austria and Spain, founded by Philip III., duke of Burgundy and the Netherlands, at Bruges, January 10, 1429. The order was instituted for the protection of the Roman Catholic Church, and ranks next after the order of the Garter. The insignia of the Austrian order are a golden fleece hanging from a gold and blue enameled flint-stone emitting flame, and borne in its turn by a ray of fire. On the enameled obverse is inscribed Pretium laborum non vile. The Spanish decoration differs slightly from the Austrian.

=Golden Horde.= A name given to the Mongolian Tartars, who established an empire in what is now Southeast Russia about 1224, their ruler being Batou, grandson of Genghis Khan. They invaded Russia, and made Alexander Newski grand duke in 1252. At the battle of Bielawisch, in 1481, they were crushed by Ivan III. and the Nogay Tartars.

=Gollette= (Fr.). A shirt of mail formerly worn by foot-soldiers.

=Gonfalon=, or =Gonfanon=. An ensign or standard; colors.

=Gonfalonier.= A Turkish general and standard-keeper who always precedes the grand seignor during war.

=Gong.= An Indian and Chinese instrument of percussion, made of a mixture of metals, which produces a very loud, piercing sound on being struck by a wooden mallet. It is used by the Chinese as an instrument of martial music.

=Gong Wallas.= Militia in India; so called from gong, a village, and wallas, a man.

=Goniometer.= A general name for angle-measuring instruments.

=Good-conduct Pay.= Given in the British service as a stimulus to soldiers to conduct themselves with propriety. Soldiers who have not figured in the defaulters’ book are entitled to extra pay, which goes on increasing at intervals upon the same condition of “good conduct.” To mark the soldiers so distinguished, badges are given them in the form of rings of white lace, worn on the right arm. The receipt of good-conduct pay uninterruptedly for some years influences the amount of pension.

=Goojerat.= A village in the Punjab, India, the scene of the last stand made by the Sikh army against the British under Lord Gough, in 1849. In this action the Sikhs lost 53 guns, and their army of 60,000 men was entirely broken up and dispersed. The whole of the Punjab then fell under the British yoke.

=Gordian Knot.= It is said to have been made of the thongs that served as harness to the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, afterwards king of Phrygia. Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the oracle declared should be ruler of Persia. Alexander the Great cut away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a military sense at least, interpreted the oracle, 330 B.C.

=Goree.= A town and small island, or rather rock, off the coast of Africa, a little more than a mile from Cape Verd. This island was first occupied by the Dutch, and afterwards taken by the French, to whom it was finally ceded by the treaty of Nimeguen, 1678. It is now the bulwark of the possessions of the French in Africa. Goree was taken by the British in 1758, 1779, 1800, and 1804.

=Gorey.= A town in the southeast of Ireland. Near here the king’s troops under Col. Walpole were defeated, and their leader slain by the Irish rebels, June 4, 1798.

=Gorge.= The entrance into any piece of a fortification, which consists of the distance or space between the inner extremities of the two faces; as, between the faces of a half-moon, redoubt, bastion, redan, lunette, etc.

=Gorge, Demi-.= See DEMI-GORGE.

=Gorge of a Bastion.= In fortification, is usually an open space between the extremities of the flanks of the bastion. The larger this gorge is, the better is the defense; for when the ruined bastion is about to fall by siege into the hands of the enemy, the defenders can construct defensive works or dig small ditches in the gorge of the abandoned bastion. Such resistance sometimes drives the besiegers to the necessity of battering in breach the curtain.

=Gorge of Mountains.= Is the passage, more or less compressed, between two mountains, which is used as a passage-way into valleys. Gorges are important military points. If they lead to an intrenched camp, it is necessary to fortify them, and there post grand guards; these positions are the principal theatres for affairs of posts.

=Gorged.= In heraldry, when an animal is represented with a crown round its neck, it is said to be gorged.

=Gorgerin= (Fr.). In ancient times, that part of the armor which covered the neck of a man. Hence our word gorget.

=Gorget= (Ital. gorgietta, from gorga, a throat). That part of ancient armor which defended the neck. Also a crescent-shaped ornament formerly worn by military officers on the breast.

=Gorgons.= In military antiquity, a warlike female nation of Lybia, in Africa, who had frequent quarrels with another nation of the same sex, called Amazons.

=Gothard, St.= The pass of St. Gothard is one of the best and most frequented routes across the Alps. On the northern slope is the celebrated Devil’s Bridge across the Ruess. The French and Russians had several combats here in 1799.

=Gothland.= An island in the Baltic Sea. It was conquered by the Teutonic knights, 1397-98; given up to the Danes, 1524; to Sweden, 1645; conquered by the Danes, 1677, and restored to Sweden, 1679.

=Goths.= A warlike nation that inhabited the country between the Caspian, Pontus, Euxine, and Baltic Seas. They entered Mœsia, took Philippopolis, massacring thousands of its inhabitants; defeated and killed the emperor Decius, 251; but were defeated by Claudius, 320,000 being slain. Aurelian ceded Dacia to them in 272; but they long troubled the empire. After the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained their dominion till 553, when they were finally conquered by Narses, Justinian’s general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a kingdom, which continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens.

=Gotthard, St.= Near the river Raab, Hungary. Here the Turks under the grand vizier Kupriuli were totally defeated by the Imperialists and their allies, commanded by Montecuculli, August 1, 1664. Peace followed this great victory.

=Goudrons= (Fr.). Small fascines, or fagots, which are well steeped in wax, pitch, and glue, and then are lighted for the purpose of setting fire to beams, planks, traverses, galleries, pontons, etc. They are likewise used in various shapes and ways, to convey light into the ditches, or upon the ramparts.

=Goujat= (Fr.). A soldier’s boy. It likewise signifies an ignorant, good-for-nothing fellow.

=Gourdin= (Fr.). A flat stick, two fingers in breadth, which was used by the French to punish galley-slaves.

=Government.= The Constitution of the United States provides that Congress shall make rules for the government and regulation of armies. By government is understood not only the body of fundamental laws of a state, but also the body of persons charged with the management of the executive power of a country; direction, power or authority which rules a community; administration; rule; management. Government of the military is that branch of the code which embraces the creation and regulation of the military hierarchy, or the gradual distribution of inferior authority. The power of making rules of government is that of supreme command, and from this living principle proceed the localization of troops, their organization and distribution; rules for rewards and punishments; and generally, all rules of government and regulation whatsoever, which the legislature may judge necessary to maintain an efficient and well-disciplined army. All authority over the land forces of the United States must, therefore, be derived from Congress. For, although the President is the commander-in-chief, yet his functions, as such, must be regulated by Congress, under the 17th clause of Sec. 8 of the Constitution, as well as under the general authority of Congress to make rules for the government and regulation of the land forces. The President cannot be divested of power which Congress may assign to any inferior military commander, because the authority of the greater includes that of the less. But all the authority over the land and naval forces, save the appointment of the commander-in-chief, rests with Congress, and no authority can be exercised not delegated by Congress, except such as may be fairly deduced from powers given for the effective discharge of the duties annexed to his office.

=Government’s Island.= See ROCK ISLAND.

=Governor.= An officer placed by royal commission in the military command of a fortress, not only over the garrison but over the inhabitants. In time of war it is an office of great responsibility, and at all times requires considerable experience and military information. Also, in the United States, one who is invested with supreme authority in a State.

=Governor’s Island.= An island in New York harbor, about a mile and a half south of the City Hall. It belongs to the United States, and is strongly fortified by Fort Columbus, Castle Williams, and a battery commanding the entrance to Buttermilk Channel, the channel which separates the island from Brooklyn. The ordnance department has a depot here. It is now the headquarters of the military division of the Atlantic.

=Gowrie Conspiracy.= One of the most singular events in the history of Scotland took place in August, 1600. John Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, and others entered into a conspiracy to possess themselves of the king’s (James VI.) person, to convey him to England and to administer the government in the interest of the Presbyterian leaders at home. They succeeded in enticing the king to the Gowrie House at Perth, and after they had held him as a prisoner were almost successful in dismissing his attendants without exciting suspicion; but the king crying out for assistance his voice was instantly recognized; his attendants hastened to the rescue, and quickly dispatched the earl and his brother Alexander.

=Grade.= Synonymous with rank; peculiarly applicable to the different ranks among officers, beginning from an ensign to the commander-in-chief of an army.

=Gradivus.= A surname of Mars (which see).

=Grain.= See FORAGE.

=Grainoir=, or =Grénoir= (Fr.). A term used in the French artillery to signify a sort of sieve, in which there are small round holes for moist powder to be passed through, in order to make the grains perfectly round.

=Gran.= A town of Hungary, on the right bank of the Danube, 25 miles northwest of Pesth. It is one of the oldest towns of Hungary, was formerly fortified, and has undergone assaults and sieges almost without number.

=Granada.= A city of Southern Spain, founded by the Moors in the 8th century. It formed at first part of the kingdom of Cordova. In 1236, Mohammed-al-Hamar made it the capital of his new kingdom of Granada, which was subjugated by the “great captain,” Gonsalvo de Cordova, in 1492. Granada was taken by Marshal Soult in 1810, and held till 1812.

=Granada, New.= The name formerly given to the republic now known as the United States of Colombia (which see).

=Grand.= This word is frequently used, both in French and English, to indicate superiority of position, force, or display; as grand master, grand army, grand march, grand parade, etc.

=Grand Division.= A battalion or regiment being told off by two companies to each division, is said to be told off in grand divisions; hence, grand-division firing is when the battalion fires by two companies at the same time, and is commanded by one officer only.

=Grand Guard.= The main guard of an army; the guard covering the army or camp from an attack by the enemy; other guards are called interior guards.

=Grand Master.= The title of the head of the military orders, the Hospitallers, the Templars, and the Teutonic knights.

=Grand Master of Cross-bows.= The personnel of the French artillery was for a long time prior to 1420 retained, together with the engineers, under the general direction of an officer who was titled “grand master of cross-bows.” In 1420 the master-general of artillery was made independent of this officer.

=Grand Rounds.= See ROUNDS.

=Grand Tactics.= See TACTICS.

=Granicus.= A river in Northwestern Asia Minor, near which, on May 22, 334 B.C., Alexander the Great signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian troops (30,000 foot and 5000 horse) crossed the Granicus in the face of the Persian army (600,000 foot and 20,000 horse). Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken by storm, and other great towns submitted to the conqueror.

=Granson=, or =Grandson=. A town of Switzerland, canton of Valid, on the southwest shore of the Lake of Neufchâtel, 20 miles north of Lausanne. Near it the Burgundians under Charles the Rash were defeated by the Swiss with great loss, March 8, 1476.

=Granville.= A fortified seaport of France, in the department of La Manche, on a rocky peninsula 12 miles northwest from Avranches. In 1695 this place was burned by the English, and in 1793 it was besieged by the Vendeans.

=Grape-shot.= A certain number of iron balls, usually nine, put together by means of two cast-iron plates, two rings, and one pin and nut. Each plate has on the inside three beds for the shot, of a depth equal to half the thickness of the plate and of the form of a spherical segment, the curvature of which is the same as that of the shot. An iron pin riveted to the bottom iron plate passes through the centre and also through the top plate, where the whole is secured by a nut and screw. In the United States the use of these shot for field-pieces has been discontinued, canister answering the purpose. (See CANISTER-SHOT.) In the old pattern, the balls were placed in tiers around an iron pin attached to an iron tampion at the bottom, put into a canvas bag, and then quilted around with a strong cord.

=Grapple.= To seize; to contend in close fight; to attach one’s self as if by a grapple, as in wrestling; hence to grapple with, to enter into contest with, resolutely and courageously.

=Grappling.= A laying fast hold of; also, that by which anything is seized and held.

=Grasp.= The handle of a sword, and of an oar. Also, the small part of the stock of a musket.

=Grass-cutters.= Followers of cavalry regiments in India, whose duty it is to go forth and collect green forage for the horses.

=Grassin= (Fr.). An ancient name for militia composed of light troops.

=Gratification.= In a general acceptation of the term, this word meant, among the French, certain rewards which generals gave to the troops, after a severe engagement, in testimony of their valor and good conduct. These rewards were distributed according to rank. This custom was prevalent in the most ancient times. By gratification was likewise meant the accumulation of a certain sum, which was deposited for the specific purpose of burying a deceased soldier. This term also meant a certain allowance in money allotted to prisoners of war.

=Gratuity.= An allowance to officers of the British service in the Indian army, varying with their rank. This and other allowances, such as batta, tentage, etc., had been granted for the purpose of augmenting an officer’s emoluments in India, without giving him a claim to a higher rate of net paper when on furlough in England. Gratuities are allowed to officers in the French service at the beginning of a campaign.

=Gravelines.= A small fortified town and seaport of France, in the department of Nord, 12 miles southwest of Dunkirk. Here Count d’Egmont obtained a victory over the French army commanded by Marshal de Thermes in 1558. Ten years later, it was taken by Louis XIV., who had it fortified by Vauban.

=Gravelotte, Battle of.= Also called the battle of Rézonville, the bloodiest battle of the Franco-German war, took place August 18, 1870. It was gained by the German armies, commanded by the king in person, after twelve hours’ hard fighting. The most desperate struggle took place on the slopes over Gravelotte, which the Germans gained by nightfall, after repeated charges, the fortune of the day being long in suspense. But the right of the French had been outflanked, they fell back fighting to the last, and retired under cover of Metz. The French are said to have lost 19,000, including officers and men, besides a large number of prisoners; and the Germans, 25,000.

=Graveurs= (Fr.). Persons employed and paid by the founders of cannon for repairing damaged pieces of artillery. Some individual, however, was distinguished by the name of graveur de l’artillerie (engraver to the artillery), and was permitted by the grand master of the ordnance to exhibit over his shop door the arms of the royal artillery.

=Gravimetric Density of Gunpowder.= Is the weight of a measured quantity.

=Gravity.= Is the tendency of all bodies towards the centre of the earth. The force of gravity is in the inverse proportion to the square of the body’s distance from the centre of the earth. The specific gravity of a body is the ratio of the weight of a body to that of an equal volume of some other body assumed as a standard, usually pure distilled water at a certain temperature for solids and liquids, and air for gases.

=Graze.= The point at which a shot strikes and rebounds from earth or water. Grazing-fire, that which sweeps close to the surface it defends.

=Great Britain.= See BRITAIN, GREAT.

=Great-coat.= A soldier’s overcoat is so called.

=Great Fortification.= One of the divisions of the first systems of Vauban. It consists in a fortification whose exterior side is from 185 to 260 toises, or from 370 to 520 yards, and is seldom adopted but towards a river or a marsh.

=Great Radius.= In fortification, the whole oblique radius.

=Greaves.= Were a kind of armor for the legs, worn both by the Greek and Roman soldiers; the latter having adopted them from the former. They were made of brass, copper, tin, or other metals. The sides were closed about the ankles with buttons of gold, silver, etc. This kind of defensive armor was at first peculiar to the Grecians. The Etruscans had them, apparently of rough hides, fastened behind by a single ligature near the middle of the calf; these subsequently gave way to buskins. Servius Tullius introduced the Etruscan greaves among the Romans; but from the time of the republic the word ochrea applied to the laced-up boots, which succeeded them.

=Greece=, or =Hellas, Kingdom of=. The ancient Græcia, a maritime country in the southeast of Europe. In the early ages the Greeks were governed by monarchs; but the monarchical power gradually decreased, and the love of liberty led to the establishment of the republican form of government. No part of Greece, except Macedonia, remained in the hands of an absolute sovereign. The expedition of the Argonauts first, and, in the succeeding age, the wars of Thebes and Troy, gave opportunity to their warriors, who afterwards ranked as heroes and demigods, to display their valor in the field of battle. The spirit of Greece, however, was crushed by the Romans; and in 1718 she became a Turkish province. In 1821 the ancient spirit seemed to have revived in the modern Greeks, and they determined to be free. The struggle was severe and protracted; but, by the interference of the great European powers, the Turks were forced to acknowledge Greece an independent state in 1829.

=Greek Fire.= A combustible composition (now unknown, but thought to have been principally naphtha), thrown from engines said to have been invented by Callinicus, an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the 7th century, in order to destroy the Saracens’ ships, which was effected by the general of the fleet of Constantine, Pogonatus, and 30,000 men were killed. A so-called “Greek fire,” probably a solution of phosphorus in bisulphide of carbon, was employed at the siege of Charleston, U. S., in September, 1863. Greek fire, as now understood, is simply a solid, highly combustible composition, consisting of sulphur and phosphorus dissolved in the bisulphide of carbon, to which occasionally some mineral oil is added, with the view of increasing its incendiary powers. When the liquid is thrown on any surface exposed to the air the solvent evaporates, leaving a film of the phosphorus or sulphide of phosphorus, which then inflames spontaneously. The proper mode of extinguishing such a fire is to throw damp sand, ashes, sawdust, or lime, wet sacking or carpeting; in short, any material which will exclude the air from the fire. No attempt should be made to remove the covering for some time after the flame has been extinguished. The place should afterwards be thoroughly washed by a powerful jet of water forced upon it.

=Greener’s Bullet.= One of the first attempts to make a bullet take the grooves by the expanding action of the powder was by Mr. Greener, an English gunsmith, in 1836. He used a conical pewter wedge, which was driven into a cavity in the base of the bullet by the powder and forced the outer walls of the bullet into the grooves.

=Grenada.= An island in the West Indies belonging to the Windward group. It was discovered by Columbus in the year 1498. It was originally settled by the French, but was taken by the British in 1762, to whom it was confirmed by the peace of Paris in 1763.

=Grenade.= In gunnery, is a shell thrown from the hand, or in barrels from mortars of large caliber, and ignited as other shells by means of a fuze. There are hand-grenades and rampart-grenades; old 6-pounder spherical-case may be used for the former, and shells of any caliber for the latter. Grenades are useful in the defense of works, the smaller, thrown by hand into the head of a sap, trenches, covered way, or upon the besiegers mounting a breach; the larger kinds are rolled over the parapet in a trough. Hand-grenades are intended to be used against the enemy when he has reached such parts of the defenses (the bottom of the ditch for example) as are not covered by the guns, or the muskets of the infantry posted on the banquettes. After the enemy has passed the abatis and jumped into the ditch, hand-grenades will be used; and then if he mounts the parapet, he must be met there with the bayonet. Ketchum’s hand-grenade is a small oblong percussion shell which explodes on striking the object.

=Grenadier.= Originally a soldier who was employed in throwing hand-grenades, but in some modern armies a member of the first company of every battalion of foot, in which the tallest and finest men of the regiment are placed.

=Grenadier Guards.= The first regiment of foot guards in the British Household Brigade of Guards, and generally considered the finest corps in the army. It comprises 2697 officers and men, divided into three battalions. The officers of this fashionable corps are usually from the families of the nobility, or more distinguished landed gentry. The 1st Foot Guards, under which name the regiment was originally known, was first raised in 1660. The Grenadier Guards distinguished themselves in the Peninsula, at Waterloo, and in the Crimea.

=Grenadiers Auxiliaries= (Fr.). Auxiliary grenadiers. During a siege, and when a place was closely invested, a certain number of grenadiers were chosen out of the battalions belonging to the trenches, for the purpose of making head against the besieged, whenever they might risk a sally, or assault the works. It was the peculiar duty of these men to stand forward on every occasion, to set fire to the gabions attached to the batteries, and to crush every attempt which might be made by the garrison to annoy the men that were posted in the trenches, etc.

=Grenadiers, Horse.= Called by the French grenadiers volans, or flying grenadiers, are such as are mounted on horseback, but fight both on foot and on horseback. They were first established in France by Louis XIV. in 1676, and formed in squadrons.

=Grenado.= The ancient term for a live shell.

=Grenoble.= A fortified town of France, in the department of the Isère. The town is surrounded with fortifications, and the heights which command the town are also fortified. This was the first place which openly received Napoleon I. on his escape from Elba, in 1815.

=Gribeauval’s System of Artillery.= About 1765 various improvements were introduced into European artillery by Gen. Gribeauval. He separated field from siege artillery, lightened and shortened field-guns and diminished the charges. He adopted elevating screws and tangent scales, strengthened the carriages, and introduced neater uniformity in the dimensions, enabling spare parts to be carried for repairs.

=Grices.= In heraldry, are young wild boars.

=Griffe= (Fr.). Means literally a claw; but in a military sense, as accepted by the French, it signifies an iron instrument which is made like a hook, and is used by miners to pick out the small stones that are incorporated with cement, etc.

=Griffin.= A fabulous animal, usually represented in heraldry with the body and hind legs of a lion, and the beak, wings, and claws of an eagle.

=Griffin Gun.= A name sometimes given to the 3-inch rifle used in the U. S. field service from its inventor, Mr. Griffin, of the Phœnixville Iron-Works, Pa., where the gun was made.

=Grip.= The handle of a sword.

=Grisons.= The largest of all the cantons of Switzerland. The country was anciently inhabited by the Rhætii; it was conquered by the Roman emperor Constantius in the 4th century, and his camp (Curia, Chur, or Coire, the name of the present capital) was planted on the Rhine. In the 10th century the country of the Grisons was added to the German empire, and remained till 1268 subject to the Swabian dukes. With the decay of the imperial authority it came to be oppressed by a numerous nobility, the ruins of whose castles still crown the heights. Against them the people began, in the end of the 14th century, to form leagues in the different valleys. In 1472, these separate unions entered into a general confederation, which then formed an alliance with the Swiss cantons, but it was not till 1803 that it was admitted into the Swiss Confederation as the fifteenth canton. Grisons was overrun by the French in 1798 and 1799.

=Grochow.= Near Prague, a suburb of Warsaw. Here took place a desperate conflict between the Poles and Russians, February 19-20, 1831, the former remaining masters of the field of battle. The Russians shortly after retreated, having been foiled in their attempt to take Warsaw. They are said to have lost 7000 men, and the Poles 2000.

=Grognard= (Fr.). Grumbler; an old soldier of the French empire was so called.

=Groma= (Fr.). A Roman measuring-rod, 20 feet long, used for setting off distances in a camp.

=Grommet.= Consists of a ring of rope-yarn, with two pieces of strong twine tied across at right angles to each other. Grommets are used as wads for cannon. The size of the ring is the full diameter of the bore of the piece, in order that it may fit tight, and stop the windage. They increase the accuracy of fire, and are to be preferred when the object of the wad is merely to retain the projectile in its place, as in firing at a depression. They stop the windage best when placed behind the projectile.

=Groom.= One of several officers of the English royal household, chiefly in the lord chamberlain’s department; as the groom of the chamber; groom of the stole, or robes.

=Groom-porter.= An officer in the household of the king of England, who succeeded the master of revels, and gave directions as to sports.

=Grooved Ball.= See PROJECTILE.

=Grooved Bullet.= See BULLET.

=Grooves.= Spiral grooves or “rifles” cut into the surface of the bore of fire-arms, have the effect of communicating a rotary motion to a projectile around an axis coincident with its flight. This motion increases the range of the projectile, and also corrects one of the causes of deviation by distributing it uniformly around the line of flight. There are two kinds of twist used,--uniform and increasing. Increasing twists are supposed to give greater accuracy, and are well adapted to expanding projectiles which have but short bearing in the grooves. They are also used for stud projectiles. The uniform twist is generally applicable and has many advantages. In small-arms at the present time the bullet used has such a long bearing in the grooves that an increasing twist is not desirable. The ordinary twist is right-handed, giving a drift to the right. The gras, the official arm of France, has a left-handed twist. In regard to number and form of grooves authorities differ. The polygroove (or many small grooves) system has given very accurate results, especially in breech-loading cannon. It is in great favor on the continent of Europe. The French system, also used in a modified form in Woolwich and Elswick guns, consists of a few deep grooves in which the studs of the projectile move. The objection to this system is the weakening of the gun and the great strain when fired. For expanding projectiles, experiment shows that broad and shallow grooves with a moderate twist give range, endurance, accuracy of fire, and facility in loading and cleaning the bores. The proper twist to be given to the grooves depends on the length, diameter, and initial velocity of the projectile used; the most suitable twist is best determined by experiment. Other things being equal, the longer the projectile the more rapid the rotation necessary to steady it; the greater the diameter the less rapid the rotation. As the initial velocity is increased, the rotation must be increased. The farther forward the centre of inertia of the projectile, the less the tendency to tumble. The tendency in modern small-arms is to shorten the twist on account of large charges and long bullets. Grooved bullets are best suited to broad shallow grooves; patched bullets to a greater number of sharp-edged grooves.

=Gros= (Fr.). A body of soldiers; a detachment. The French frequently say, Un gros de cavalerie, a body of cavalry; un gros d’infanterie, a body of infantry.

=Gros Ventres Indians.= A tribe of aborigines living in Dakota and Montana. They received their name Gros Ventres, “Big Bellies,” from the Canadian voyageurs of the Hudson Bay Company. They are peaceably disposed, and are mostly located at Fort Berthold agency, Dakota, and at Fort Peck, Montana. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Groton.= A village of New London Co., Conn., on the east side of Thames River, opposite New London. It is famous as being the scene of the massacre perpetrated by British troops under Arnold. Old Fort Griswold, commanded by the brave Ledyard, who was barbarously slain with his own sword after he had surrendered, is still standing on Groton Heights; and a granite obelisk has been erected to commemorate the patriotism of those who perished.

=Ground.= In a military sense, the field or place of action. To take ground; a battalion or company is said to take ground when it extends in any given direction. This term is likewise used in dueling; as, they took their ground at eight or ten paces from each other.

=Ground Arms.= An old word of command, on which the soldiers laid down their arms upon the ground.

=Ground-work.= See FOUNDATION.

=Grynia=, or =Grynium=. A very ancient fortified city on the coast of the Sinus Elaiticus, in the south of Mysia. Parmenio, the general of Alexander, destroyed the city and sold the inhabitants as slaves, after which the place seems to have decayed.

=Guadaloupe.= An island in the West Indies, and one of the largest and most valuable of the Leeward group. This island was first discovered by Columbus. It was taken possession of by the French in 1635, who drove the natives into the mountains. In 1759 it was taken by a British squadron, and was restored to France at the peace of 1763. It was again taken by the British in 1794; but was retaken by the French in 1795. In 1810 the British once more took possession of it, and in 1814 restored it to the French, to whom it now belongs.

=Guad-el-ras.= In Northwestern Africa. Here the Spaniards signally defeated the Moors, March 23, 1860, after a severe conflict, in which Gen. Prim manifested great bravery, for which he was ennobled.

=Guanches.= The original inhabitants of the Canary Islands, who were supposed to have come from the adjoining coast of Africa. In the 15th century many of these people fell in opposing the Spanish invasion; many were sold by the conquerors as slaves, and many conformed to the Roman Catholic faith, and intermarried with the Spaniards; so that all trace of them as a distinct race is lost. They were celebrated for their tall stature, and were styled by Humboldt the Patagonians of the Old World.

=Guarantee Association, The British.= An association which, for a small percentage, undertakes to vouch for the prudence and fidelity of such public officers (military) as paymasters, ordnance store-keepers, commissaries, staff-officers of pensions, barrack-masters, etc. The government accepts the guarantee of this particular office in preference to that offered by private individuals.

=Guard.= A body of men whose duty it is to secure an army or place from being surprised by an enemy. In garrison the guards are relieved every day. On guard is being engaged on guard duty.

=Guard, Advanced.= See ADVANCED GUARD.

=Guard, Baggage.= A guard who has the care of the baggage on a march.

=Guard-chamber.= A guard-room.

=Guard, Counter-.= See COUNTER-GUARDS.

=Guard, Detail.= The men from a company, regiment, or other organization detailed for guard duty.

=Guard, Dismounting.= The act of coming off guard.

=Guard, Forage.= A detachment sent out to secure foragers. They are posted at all places where either the enemy’s party may come to disturb the foragers, or where they may be spread too near the enemy, so as to be in danger of being taken. This guard consists both of horse and foot, who must remain on their posts till the foragers are all come off the ground.

=Guard, Grand.= The main guard of a camp or army. See GRAND GUARD.

=Guard-house.= A building occupied by the guard. The prisoners being kept in the building, it is frequently used as a synonym for prison-room or lock-up. To take one to the guard-house, is to confine him.

=Guard, Magazine-.= See GARDES-MAGAZINE.

=Guard, Main.= Is that from which all other guards are detached, and constitutes the chief guard of a garrison.

=Guard Mess.= Is the table which is kept for the officers of the Life and Foot Guards in St. James’ Palace. The sum of £4000 per annum is allowed for the mess.

=Guard Mounting.= The act of going on guard. The military ceremony of marching on guard.

=Guard of Honor.= A guard drawn up to receive eminent personages, as a mark of respect, or to accompany them.

=Guard, Picket.= An outpost guard for the purpose of preventing a surprise.

=Guard, Police.= The interior guard of a camp or army in charge of arms, property, tents, etc. Also a guard in charge of prisoners engaged in policing a camp or garrison.

=Guard, Provost-.= See PROVOST-GUARD.

=Guard, Quarter.= The guard which is posted in front of a camp.

=Guard, Rear-.= The guard posted in rear of a camp. It also means the body of troops which, when troops are on the march, bring up the rear, and hold a pursuing enemy in check.

=Guard Report.= The report which the non-commissioned officer or officer in charge of the guard sends in on dismounting. It contains a statement of duties performed, of hours at which the guard was visited by the officer of the day or field-officer, a list of government property and its condition, and also of the prisoners handed over to the guard, with the charge against each, together with the name of the officer by whom the prisoner was confined.

=Guard Tent.= Tent occupied by the guard.

=Guardable.= Capable of being guarded or protected.

=Guardiagrele.= An old town of Southern Italy, in the province of Chieti. Belisarius surrounded it with a turreted wall as a defense against the Goths. It was often besieged during the Middle Ages, and in 1799 was mercilessly sacked and burned by the French.

=Guards.= In the British service constitute in time of peace the garrison of London, and the guard of the sovereign at Windsor. The Guards compose what is called the Household Brigade, and include in cavalry the 1st and 2d Life Guards, and the Royal Horse Guards; and in infantry the Grenadier Guards, the Coldstream Guards, and the Scots Fusilier Guards. The officers of the regiments of Foot Guards hold higher army rank than that they bear regimentally,--that is, ensigns rank with lieutenants of other regiments, lieutenants with captains, and so on.

=Guards, Imperial.= The name of a body of select troops organized by the French emperor, Napoleon I., which greatly distinguished themselves at Austerlitz.

=Guards’ Institute.= An establishment in London; it consists of reading-, lecture-rooms, etc., for all officers and soldiers in the metropolis. It was inaugurated by the Duke of Cambridge, July 11, 1867.

=Guards, The Horse Grenadier.= Formerly a body of horse guards in the British service; the first troop was raised in 1693, and the second in 1702. This corps was reduced in 1783, the officers retiring on full pay.

=Guastadours= (Fr.). Turkish pioneers. Armenians and Greeks are generally employed in the Turkish armies to do the fatigue-work that is necessary for the formation of a camp, or for conducting a siege.

=Guastalla.= A city in Northern Italy, near which the imperial army, commanded by the king of Sardinia, was defeated by the French, September 19, 1734. The ancient district of that name, long held by the dukes of Mantua, was seized by the emperor of Germany, 1746, and ceded to Parma, 1748. After having been comprised in the Italian republic, 1796, and subjected to other changes, it was annexed to Parma, 1815, and to Modena, 1847.

=Guatemala.= A republic in Central America, declared independent March 21, 1847. A war between Guatemala and San Salvador broke out in January, 1863, and on June 16 the troops of the latter were totally defeated.

=Guatuso Indians.= A tribe of aborigines living on the Rio Frio, in Central America. They are said to be a brave and warlike race.

=Gubbio= (anc. Iguvium). A city of Central Italy, 27 miles south of Urbino, on the southern declivity of the Apennines. It bore a conspicuous part in the beginning of the civil war between Cæsar and Pompey, when it was occupied by the prætor Minucius Thermus with five cohorts; but on the approach of Curio with three cohorts, Thermus, who was apprehensive of a revolt of the citizens, abandoned the town without resistance.

=Gudda.= An Indian term for a fool; also a small fort erected upon a hill or eminence.

=Guelphs and Ghibellines.= Names given to the papal and imperial factions who destroyed the peace of Italy from the 12th to the end of the 15th century (the invasion of Charles VIII. of France in 1495). The origin of the names is ascribed to the contest for the imperial crown between Conrad of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, lord of Wiblingen (hence Ghibelin), and Henry, nephew of Wolf, or Guelf, duke of Bavaria, in 1138. The former was successful; but the popes and several Italian cities took the side of his rival. Hie Guelf and Hie Ghibelin are said to have been used as war-cries in 1140, at the battle before Weinsberg, in Würtemberg, when Guelf of Bavaria was defeated by the emperor Conrad IV., who came to help the rival duke, Leopold. The Ghibellines were almost totally expelled from Italy in 1267, when Conrad, the last of the Hohenstaufens, was beheaded by Charles of Anjou. Guelph is the name of the present royal family of England.

=Guelphs, Order of.= An order of knighthood for Hanover, instituted by George IV., when regent, on August 12, 1815. It is both a military and civil order, unlimited in number, and consisted originally of three classes,--Knights Grand Cross, Commanders, and Knights; but in 1841 another class of simple members was added to the order.

=Guerite= (Fr.). A sentry-box, small turret. In fortified towns there are several small turrets of this denomination, which are sometimes made of wood, and sometimes built with stones. They are generally fixed to the acute points of bastions, and sentinels are posted within them for the purpose of watching the ditch, and of preventing any surprise in that quarter.

=Guerre= (Fr.). War; warfare; art of war; dissension; strife. En guerre, at war; in action; ready for action; a piece of ordnance unlimbered, trunnions shifted, and everything made ready for firing.

=Guerrillas= (Sp. guérra, “war”). The name given to armed bands, who on occasion of foreign invasion or civil wars, carry on an irregular warfare on their own account. The name was first applied in Spain to irregular soldiery. From 1808 to 1814 they were regularly organized against the French, and being favored by the character of the country which they fought in, were successful on many occasions. In our late civil war many bands were organized in the Border States, and were a great annoyance to both armies. If guerrillas are taken captive in open warfare, they should be treated according to the usual customs of war, unless they are known to have been guilty of acts not tolerated in civilized warfare. In the Franco-German war, however, we find that the Germans refused to recognize as soldiers, or extend the privileges of war, to the francs-tireurs, a body of French volunteer sharpshooters, who, to a great extent, adopted this system of guerrilla warfare.

=Guerrillero= (Sp.). An irregular soldier; a member of a guerrilla band or party; a partisan.

=Guet= (Fr.). This term was particularly attached to those persons belonging to the French body-guard, who did duty during the night. It also signified rounds, or those duties of a soldier, or patroling party, which are prescribed for the security of a town, etc., and to prevent surprises. It is also used in a military sense in conjunction with other words; as guet à pied, foot patrol; guet à cheval, horse patrol, etc.

=Gueux= (Fr.). “Beggars.” A name applied by the Count of Barlaimont in 1566 to the confederated nobles and others of the Low Countries who opposed the tyrannies of Philip II. The malcontents at once adopted the title, and calling themselves gueux, for many years opposed the Spanish king by sea and land with varying success.

=Guichet= (Fr.). A small door or outlet, which is made in the gates of fortified towns. It is generally 4 feet high, and 2 broad, so that a man must stoop to get through. In garrison towns the guichet was left open for the space of one-quarter of an hour after the retreat, in order to give the inhabitants time to enter.

=Guides.= Generally the country people in the neighborhood where an army encamps. They give intelligence concerning the country, and the roads by which the enemy may approach. In time of war, particularly in the seat of it, the guides invariably accompany headquarters. Of late years it has been customary to form them into regular corps with proper officers at their head.

=Guides.= The name given to the non-commissioned officers, or other enlisted men, who take positions to mark the pivots, marches, formations, and alignments in modern discipline; the French call them jaloneurs, from jalon, a post.

=Guides, Corps des= (Fr.). The corps of guides. This body was originally formed in France in 1756, and consisted of 1 captain, 1 first lieutenant, 2 second lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 2 corporals, 1 anspessade, and 20 privates, called fusiliers-guides. Another corps of guides was also formed in 1796. This corps now forms part of the imperial guard.

=Guidon.= A small flag or streamer, as that carried by cavalry, which is broad at one end, nearly pointed at the other, and usually of silk; or that used to direct the movements of infantry, or to make signals at sea. In the U. S. service, each company of cavalry has a guidon.

=Guidon.= One who carries a flag. Also, one of a community of guides established at Rome by Charlemagne to accompany pilgrims to the Holy Land.

=Guienne=, or =Guyenne=. An old province in the southwest of France, lying to the north of Gascony. It was part of the dominions of Henry II. Philip of France seized it in 1293, which led to war. It was alternately held by England and France till 1453, when John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, in vain attempted to take it from the latter.

=Guilford Court-house= was situated about 5 miles northwest of Greensboro’, N. C. Here an engagement took place between the British troops under Cornwallis, and the American forces, chiefly composed of inexperienced militia, under Gen. Greene, on March 15, 1781. The fight resulted in a partial victory for the royal troops, owing principally to the disorganization and flight of the North Carolina militia. Gen. Greene, not wishing to risk the annihilation of his army, retreated to Speedwell’s iron-works, 10 miles distant. Cornwallis, however, did not attempt to pursue him, but fell back himself to Cross Creek (Fayetteville).

=Guillotine.= The instrument of decapitation introduced during the French revolution by the Convention, and named after its supposed inventor, J. I. Guillotin. It is composed of two upright posts, grooved on the inside, and connected on the top by a cross-beam. In these grooves a sharp iron blade, placed obliquely, descends by its own weight on the neck of the victim, who is bound to a board laid below. The invention of machines of this kind is ascribed to the Persians. In Italy, from the 13th century, it was the privilege of the nobles to be put to death by a machine of this kind, which was called mannaia. Machines of similar kind were used in Scotland and Holland for the purpose of decapitation.

=Guinegate, Battle of.= Or more familiarly, the “Battle of the Spurs,” was fought at Guinegate, not far from Tournai, in the province of Hainault, August 16, 1513, between the English under Henry VIII., assisted by a considerable body of troops headed by the emperor Maximilian, and the French under the Duc de Longueville. The latter were defeated. The battle received its familiar designation from the circumstance of the French knights having made better use of their spurs than of their swords.

=Guisarme=, or =Gisarme= (Fr.). An offensive weapon formerly used in France; it was a two-edged axe mounted upon a long handle, and sometimes called voulque. There were three kinds; the glaive gisarme had a sabre-blade with a spike, the bill gisarme a blade like a hedging-bill, and the hand gisarme was a kind of bill with a serrated back.

=Guisarmiers= (Fr.). Were French foot-soldiers (piétons) of the free archers, armed with the guisarme.

=Gujerat=, or =Guzerat=. A walled town of the Punjab, on the right side of the Chenab, about 8 miles from the stream. It is a place of some military importance, being on the great route between Attock and Lahore. Here on February 21, 1849, a Sikh army of 60,000 men was utterly defeated by a British force decidedly inferior in point of numbers.

=Gules.= The term by which the color red is known in heraldry. In engraving it is marked by perpendicular lines traced from the top of the shield to the bottom. It is supposed to indicate valor, magnanimity, and the like, and is regarded as the most honorable heraldic color.

=Gun.= In its most general sense, a gun is a machine, having the general shape of a hollow cylinder closed at one end, and used for the purpose of projecting heavy bodies to great distances by means of gunpowder. Technically, it is a heavy cannon, distinguished by its great weight, length, and absence of a chamber. It is used for throwing projectiles with large charges of powder to long distances, with great accuracy and penetration. Guns came into use in the 14th century, and were first fired from supports, and in reality were artillery. Shortly after, they took the form of a clumsy hand-gun, called an arquebuse, which was portable, but discharged from a forked rest. The next modification, which came into use about the end of the 14th century, was called the matchlock. The piece was discharged by a lighted match brought down on the powder-pan by the action of a trigger. This was superseded in 1517 by the wheel-lock, the fire being produced by the action of a toothed wheel upon flint or iron pyrites. Almost contemporary with this was the snaphance gun, in which sparks were generated by the concussion of flint on the ribbed top of the powder-pan. About the middle of the 17th century the flint-lock began to be employed. This was a combination of the two latter weapons, but much superior to either. It continued universally in use until the early part of the present century, when the percussion-lock was invented, which by 1840 (the time of its adoption by the British government), had completely superseded it. As the lock improved, and the rapidity of firing increased, the weight of the piece diminished; the old tripod first used as a rest gave way to one stake, and finally, in the 18th century, was abandoned altogether. The weapon was then the smooth-bore musket, which continued in use with various modifications until the middle of the 19th century, when it was partially superseded by the rifle. (See SMALL-ARMS.) In their earlier stages cannon went by various names, as bombards, culverins, petronels, and later on were reduced to the three denominations, technically, of guns, howitzers, and mortars. For the two latter, see HOWITZER and MORTAR. Guns are subdivided in the U. S. service according to their use, into field, siege, and sea-coast guns. The field-guns consist of two rifle pieces; the 3-inch rifle, adopted in 1861, and the 3¹⁄₂-inch rifle, adopted in 1870 (see ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF), and the Napoleon gun, a 12-pounder smooth-bore, adopted in 1857. (See NAPOLEON GUN.) The only siege gun adopted by the United States is a 4¹⁄₂-inch rifle. The 30-pounder Parrott, so extensively employed in our service for siege purposes, is not a regulation gun. The sea-coast guns consist of 13-, 15-, and 20-inch smooth-bores, and 10- and 12-inch rifles. An 8-inch rifle has been constructed by converting the 10-inch smooth-bore according to the Palliser or Parsons method. The 13-inch smooth-bore and the 10- and 12-inch rifles are regarded as experimental guns. The guns principally in use for the land and sea forces of the United States are those known as the Columbiad, or Rodman, Dahlgren, Gatling, Hotchkiss, Napoleon, Parrott. (For particular descriptions, see appropriate headings.) In the British service they are the Armstrong, Palliser, Woolwich, or Fraser, and the Lancaster, Mackay, and Whitworth; the three latter being now very little used. (See appropriate headings.) The only breech-loader in general use in Europe is the Krupp, which is largely employed for all purposes by Germany and Russia. See KRUPP GUN.

=Gun, Curricle.= Is a small piece of ordnance, mounted upon a carriage of two wheels, and drawn by two horses. The artilleryman is seated on a box, and the whole can be moved forward into action with astonishing rapidity. The tumbrils belonging to curricle guns carry 60 rounds of ball cartridges. This gun is no longer in general use.

=Gun Factories, Royal.= Are government establishments in England, at Woolwich, and Elswick, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, for the construction of great guns for the use of the British army and navy.

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