Part Second: [decoration] SENTENCES (part 1 of 2)

Part Second: [decoration] SENTENCES (part 1 of 2)

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS.

1023. A SENTENCE is a thought expressed by means of a verb. The SUBJECT is that which is spoken of. The PREDICATE is that which is said of the subject.

1024. A SIMPLE SENTENCE is one which has only one subject and one predicate.

Thus, #Rhodanus fluit#, the Rhone flows, is a simple sentence: the subject is #Rhodanus# and the predicate is #fluit#.

1025. The sentence may be declarative, stating a fact, exclamatory, crying out about something, interrogative, asking a question, or imperative, giving a command.

THE SUBJECT.

1026. The subject is a substantive, or any word or words having the value of a substantive.

1027. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case.

1028. The subject may be expressed, or may be merely indicated by the person ending.

1029. (1.) With the first or the second person, the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun (#ego# #tū#, #nōs# #vōs#) only when somewhat emphatic, or in an indignant question. Otherwise the verb of the first or second person is not attended by a personal pronoun: as, #eram#, I was, #erās#, thou wert.

1030. The subject is regularly omitted when it is general and indefinite, in the first person plural; as, #intellegimus#, we understand; and second person singular, as: #putārēs#, you, or anybody would have thought.

1031. The subject of the first or second person is sometimes a substantive, contrary to the English idiom: as, #Hannibal petō pācem#, I Hannibal am suing for peace. #pars spectātōrum scīs#, a part of you spectators knows. #exoriāre aliquis nostrīs ex ossibus ultor#, from out our bones mayst some avenger spring. #trecentī coniūrāvimus#, three hundred of us have sworn an oath together.

1032. (2.) With the third person the subject is regularly expressed, unless the general ‘he she it,’ or ‘they’ implied in the person ending is definite enough.

1033. The third person plural often refers to people in general, particularly of verbs meaning say, name or call, think, and, with #volgō# added, of other verbs also: as, #ferunt#, they say, people say, or the world says. The singular verb #inquit#, is rarely used in the sense of says somebody, it will be said, or quotha.

1034. Some verbs have no subject at all in the third person singular; these are called Impersonal. Such are: a few verbs expressing ‘operations of nature,’ five verbs of ‘mental distress,’ and any verb used to denote merely the occurrence of action, without reference to any doer: as,

(a.) #lūcet#, it is light, #lūcēscit#, it is getting light; #pluit#, it rains, #fulget#, it lightens, #tonat#, it thunders. (b.) #miseret#, it moves to pity, #paenitet#, it repents, #piget#, it grieves, #pudet#, it puts to shame, #taedet#, it bores. (c.) #bene erat#, it went well; #pugnātur#, there is fighting, #pugnātum est#, there was fighting. See also 816.

THE PREDICATE.

1035. The predicate is either a verb alone, or a verb of indeterminate meaning with a predicate nominative added to complete the sense.

Verbs of indeterminate meaning are such as mean am (something), become, remain, seem, am thought, am called or named, am chosen.

1036. The verb is sometimes omitted, when it is easily understood. So particularly such everyday verbs as mean am, do, say, come, and go, in proverbs and maxims, in short questions, and in emphatic or lively assertion or description: as,

#quot hominēs, tot sententiae#, sc. #sunt#, as many men, so many minds. #omnia praeclāra rāra#, sc. #sunt#, all that’s very fair is rare. #mortuus Cūmīs#, sc. #est#, he died at Cumae. #bene mihī̆#, sc. #sit#, be it well with me, i.e. a health to me. #haec hāctenus#, sc. #dīcam#, thus much only, or no more of this.

ENLARGEMENT OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.

1037. The parts of the simple sentence may be enlarged by additions. The commonest enlargements of the subject and of the predicate are the following.

1038. I. The subject may be enlarged by the addition of attributes, appositives, or objects.

1039. (1.) An ATTRIBUTE is an essential addition to a substantive, uniting with it as one idea. The attribute may be:

1040. (a.) Genitive of a substantive of different meaning, denoting the agent, possessor, or the like: as, #metus hostium#, fear of the enemy, i.e. which they feel. #hostium castra#, camp of the enemy.

1041. (b.) Genitive or ablative of a substantive with an adjective in agreement: as, #puer sēdecim annōrum#, a boy of sixteen years; #bovēs mīrā speciē#, kine of wondrous beauty.

1042. (c.) A noun in the same case, either an adjective or participle, or else a substantive used adjectively: as, #pugna Cannēnsis#, the battle of Cannae; #cīvitātēs victae#, the conquered communities; #victor Rōmulus rēx#, victorious king Romulus.

1043. (d.) A substantive in the accusative or ablative with a preposition: as, #pugna ad Cannās#, the battle near Cannae. #vir sine metū#, a man without fear (1427).

1044. An attribute is rarely attached immediately to a proper name: as, #fortem Gyān#, Gyas the brave. #Q. Lūcānius, eiusdem ōrdinis#, Lucanius, of the same rank. It is much oftener attached to a general word in apposition with the proper name: as, #vir clārissimus, M. Crassus#, the illustrious Crassus.

1045. (2.) An APPOSITIVE is a separate substantive added as an explanation to another substantive, and in the same case, but not like the attribute uniting with it as one idea: as,

#avītum malum, rēgnī cupīdō#, the ancestral curse, ambition for a crown. #Hamilcar, Mārs alter#, Hamilcar, a second Mars. #Cornēlia, māter Gracchōrum#, Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi. #Teutomatus, Ollivicōnis fīlius, rēx Nitiobrogum#, Teutomatus, the son of Ollivico, the king of the Nitiobroges.

1046. (3.) The OBJECT of a substantive is another substantive of different meaning in the genitive, denoting that on which action is exerted: as,

#metus hostium#, fear of the enemy, i.e. which is felt towards them. #vēnditiō bonōrum#, sale of the goods.

1047. A substantive in any case may be modified like the subject.

1048. II. The predicate may be enlarged by the addition of accusatives, datives, predicate nouns, or adverbial adjuncts.

1049. (1.) The ACCUSATIVE denotes the object of the verb; also extent, duration, and aim of motion. See 1124.

1050. (2.) The DATIVE denotes that for or to which something is or is done. See 1175.

1051. (3.) A predicate noun, either substantive or adjective, denoting ‘office, time, age, order, condition,’ or the like, is often added to other verbs besides those of indeterminate meaning (1035): as,

#Iūnius aedem dictātor dēdicāvit#, Junius dedicated a temple in his capacity as dictator, not Junius the dictator. #litterās Graecās senex didicī#, I learned Greek when I was an old man. #prīnceps in proelium ībat, ultimus excēdēbat#, he was always the first to go into battle, the last to come out. For the predicative dative of the substantive, see 1219.

1052. In like manner a noun may be added as a predicate in agreement with a substantive in any oblique case: as,

#sē incolumēs recipiunt#, they come back safe. #ante mē cōnsulem#, before my consulship. #Dolābellā hoste dēcrētō#, Dolabella having been voted an enemy. #nātūrā duce#, with nature as a guide.

1053. (4.) An ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT is either an oblique case of a noun, often with a preposition, or an adverb denoting ‘place, time, extent, degree, manner, cause,’ or ‘circumstances’ generally: as,

#silentiō proficīscitur#, he marches in silence. #in eō flūmine pōns erat#, over that river there was a bridge.

1054. A predicate substantive may be modified like the subject. An adjective either of the subject or of the predicate, may be modified by an oblique case or by an adverb.

[Erratum: 1040a ... #hostium castra#, camp of the enemy. . missing]

COMBINATION OF SENTENCES.

1055. Simple sentences may be combined in two different ways. The added sentence may be I. Coordinate; or II. Subordinate.

Thus, in he died and we lived, the two sentences are coordinate, that is, of equal rank. But in he died that we might live, the sentence beginning with that is subordinate. In either combination the separate sentences are often called Clauses or Members, in contradistinction to the more comprehensive sentence of which they are parts.

I. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.

1056. A COMPOUND SENTENCE is one which consists of two or more coordinate simple sentences: as,

#tū mē amās, ego tē amō#, Pl. Most. 305, thou art in love with me, I’m in love with thee. #nox erat et caelō fulgēbat lūna serēnō inter minōra sīdera#, H. Epod. 15, 1, ’twas night, and in a cloudless sky, bright rode the moon amid the lesser lights. #ā tē petō, mē dēfendās#, Fam. 15, 8, I ask it of you, protect me.

1057. A compound sentence is usually abridged when the members have parts in common: as,

#valēbant precēs et lacrimae#, Mil. 34, prayers and tears had weight, compound subject, for #valēbant precēs et valēbant lacrimae#. #rogat ōratque tē#, RA. 144, he begs and entreats you, compound predicate, for #rogat tē ōratque tē#. #arma virumque canō#, V. 1, 1, arms and the man I sing, compound object, for #arma canō virumque canō#. #diū atque ācriter pugnātum est#, 1, 26, 1, there was long and sharp fighting, for #diū pugnātum est atque ācriter pugnātum est#.

[Errata: 1057 ... he begs and entreats you, . for , #arma virumque canō#, V. 1, 1 V 1, 1]

II. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.

1058. A COMPLEX SENTENCE is one which consists of a main and a subordinate sentence: as,

#centuriōnēs praemittit# (main sentence), #quī locum idōneum castrīs dēligant# (subordinate sentence), 2, 17, 1, he sends some officers ahead to select a suitable spot for the camp, #nunc scio# (main sentence), #quid sit Amor# (subordinate sentence), V. E. 8, 43, now, now I know what Eros is. #ā tē petō# (main sentence), ut mē dēfendās (subordinate sentence), Fam. 15, 7, I ask it of you that you protect me.

1059. Several sentences are often subordinate to one and the same main sentence, and subordinate sentences may in their turn be main sentences to other subordinate sentences.

Thus, in the following sentence b is subordinate to A, and c to Ab: (c.) #quālis esset nātūra montis#, (b.) #quī cōgnōscerent#, (A.) #mīsit#, 1, 21, 1, he sent some people to see what the character of the hill was.

1060. Subordinate sentences may be coordinated with each other, as well as main sentences.

Thus, in the following sentence, b and b are both subordinate to A, but coordinate with each other: (A.) #hīs rēbus fiēbat#, (b.) #ut et minus lātē vagārentur# (b.) #et minus facile fīnitimīs bellum īnferre possent#, 1, 2, 4, so it came to pass that, in the first place, they did not roam round much, and secondly, they could not so easily make aggressive war on their neighbours.

1061. A subordinate sentence introductory in thought to the main sentence, though not necessarily first in the order of the words, is called a Protasis; the main sentence which completes the thought is called an Apodosis: as,

#quom vidēbis# (protasis), #tum sciēs# (apodosis), Pl. #B.# 145, when thou see’st, then thou’lt know. #ut sēmentem fēceris# (protasis), #ita metēs# (apodosis), DO. 2, 261, as a man soweth, so shall he reap. #sī sunt dī# (protasis), #beneficī in hominēs sunt# (apodosis), Div. 2, 104, if there are gods, they are kind to men.

AGREEMENT.

(A.) OF THE VERB.

1062. A verb agrees with its subject in number and person: as,

#praedia mea tū possidēs, ego aliēnā misericordiā vīvō#, RA. 145, you, sir, hold my estates, it is by the compassion of other people that I am supported. #Rhodanus fluit#, 1, 6, 2, the Rhone flows. #nōs, nōs, dīcō apertē, cōnsulēs dēsumus#, C. 1, 3, it is ourselves, yes, ourselves, I will speak without reserve, the consuls, who fail in our duty. #vōs vōbīs cōnsulite#, 7, 50, 4, do you look out for yourselves. #diffūgēre nivēs#, H. 4, 7, 1, scattered and gone are snows.

1063. With a compound subject, two constructions are admissible, as follows.

1064. (1.) With two or more singular subjects, the verb is often in the plural: as,

(a.) Without connectives: persons: #iīsdem ferē temporibus fuērunt C. Cotta, P. Sulpicius, Q. Varius, Cn. Pompōnius#, Br. 182, in about the same times lived Cotta, Sulpicius, Varius, and Pomponius. Things: #fidēs Rōmāna, iūstitia imperātōris in forō et cūriā celebrantur#, L. 5, 27, 11, the chivalrous principle of Rome and the square dealing of her captain are trumpeted in market place and council hall. (b.) With #atque#, #et#, or #-que#: persons: #ex hīs Cotta et Sulpicius facile prīmās tulērunt#, Br. 182, of these Cotta and Sulpicius indisputably bore the palm. Things: #nox et amor vīnumque nihil moderābile suādent#, O. Am. 1, 6, 59, darkness and love and wine to nothing governable tempt. #cum senātus populusque Rōmānus pācem comprobāverint#, L. 37, 45, 14, when the senate and the people of Rome sanction peace. (c.) With #et . . . et#: persons: #et Q. Maximus et L. Paullus iīs temporibus fuērunt#, Fam. 4, 6, 1, both Maximus and Paullus lived in such times. Things: #utrōsque et laudis cupiditās et timor īgnōminiae excitābant#, 7, 80, 5, both of these eagerness for glory in the first place and secondly fear of disgrace spurred on.

1065. The plural is sometimes demanded by the meaning of the verb: as, #iūs et iniūria nātūrā dīiūdicantur#, Leg. 1, 44, right and wrong are naturally distinguished from each other.

1066. (2.) Often, however, with two or more singular subjects, the verb is put in the singular: as,

(a.) Without connectives: persons: #tum Gorgiās, Thrasymachus, Prodicus, Hippiās in magnō honōre fuit#, Br. 30, at that time Gorgias, Thrasymachus, Prodicus, and Hippias were in high renown. Things: #persuāsit nox, amor, vīnum, adulēscentia#, T. Ad. 470, the witchery was night, flirtation, wine, and youth. (b.) With #atque#, #et#, or #-que#: persons: #cūr Lȳsiās et Hyperīdēs amātur?# Br. 68, why is a Lysias and a Hyperides idolized? Things: #Gallōs ā Belgīs Matrona et Sēquana dīvidit#, 1, 2, 1, the Matrona and Sequana cut off the Gauls from the Belgians. #senātus populusque Rōmānus voluit#, L. 21, 40, 3, senate and people of Rome ordained. (c.) With #et . . . et#: persons: #illam ratiōnem et Pompēius et Flaccus secūtus est#, Flacc. 32, that rule both Pompey and Flaccus followed. Things: #tālis senātōrum et dignitās et multitūdō fuit#, Ph. 13, 13, both the position and number of the senators was such.

1067. With two or more singular subjects denoting things, and making a compound idea, a singular verb is very common, agreeing either with the subjects taken as a unit, or with the nearest: as,

(a.) #cum tempus necessitāsque postulat, dēcertandum manū est#, Off. 1, 81, when the emergency requires, we must fight it out by hand. #tanta laetitia ac grātulātiō fuit#, L. 10, 26, 4, so great was the demonstration of joy. (b.) #Cingetorīgī prīncipātus atque imperium est trāditum#, 6, 8, 9, the headship and command was assigned to Cingetorix.

1068. (3.) With mixed subjects, singular and plural, the verb may likewise be either plural or singular: as,

(a.) #vīta mors, dīvitiae paupertās omnīs hominēs permovent#, Off. 2, 37, life and death, riches and poverty, tell much on everybody. (b.) #quantō in perīculō et castra et legiōnēs et imperātor versārētur#, 2, 26, 5, in what imminent peril camp and legions and commander were involved. #hōc mihī̆ et Peripatēticī et Acadēmīa concēdit#, Ac. 2, 113, this point both Peripatetics and Academy grant me.

1069. The plural is sometimes used with a singular subject limited by an ablative with #cum#, with: as, #Syrus cum illō vostrō cōnsusurrant#, T. Hau. 473, Syrus and yon man of yours are whispering together. #Bocchus cum peditibus postrēmam Rōmānōrum aciem invādunt#, S. I. 101, 5, Bocchus with the infantry falls on the rereward line of the Romans. Cicero commonly uses a singular verb in this combination, Caesar has the plural once only.

1070. (4.) When the subjects are connected by #nec . . . nec#, #aut#, or #aut . . . aut#, the verb is likewise either plural or singular: as,

(a.) #neque multitūdō hostium neque tēlōrum vīs arcēre impetum eius virī potuērunt#, L. 26, 5, 17, neither the numbers of the enemy nor the shower of missiles could arrest the onslaught of that intrepid soul. #sī quid Sōcratēs aut Aristippus fēcerint#, Off. 1, 148, if a Socrates or an Aristippus had done anything. (b.) #neque pēs neque mēns satis suom officium facit#, T. Eu. 729, nor foot nor mind its duty doth aright. #sī Sōcratēs aut Antisthenēs dīceret#, TD. 5, 26, if a Socrates or an Antisthenes should say it.

1071. Collectives have usually a singular verb. But the plural is sometimes used, especially when the subject is separated from its verb, or is to be supplied from a preceding clause: as,

#cum tanta multitūdō lapidēs conicerent#, 2, 6, 3, when such a throng were throwing stones. #is cīvitātī persuāsit, ut dē fīnibus suīs exīrent#, 1, 2, 1, this person succeeded in inducing the community to leave their territory.

1072. The verb sometimes agrees with an appositive explaining the subject, or with a substantive in the predicate: as,

(a.) #flammae lātē fūsae, certiōris clādis indicium, prōgredī longius prohibuit#, L. 10, 43, 11, wide-spread flames, sign of a surer disaster, prevented a further advance. When #urbs#, #oppidum#, #cīvitās#, or the like, is added to plural names of places, the predicate usually agrees with the appellative: as, #Coriolī oppidum captum#, L. 2, 33, 9, Corioli town was taken. (b.) #amantium īrae amōris integrātiōst#, T. Andr. 555, lovers’ tiffs are love’s renewal. #summa omnium fuērunt ad mīlia CCCLXVIII#, 1, 29, 3, the grand total was about three hundred and sixty-eight thousand. The verb regularly agrees with the predicate substantive when the subject is an infinitive: as, #contentum suīs rēbus esse maximae sunt dīvitiae#, Par. 51, for a man to be content with his own estate is the greatest possible riches.

1073. The verb sometimes agrees with a substantive introduced by such words as #quam#, #quantum#, #nisi#, or #praeterquam#: as, #quis illum cōnsulem nisi latrōnēs putant?# Ph. 4, 9, who but brigands think that man a consul? So also a predicate adjective or participle: as, #mihī̆ nōn tam cōpia quam modus quaerendus est#, IP. 3, I must aim not so much at comprehensiveness as at moderation.

1074. A speaker in referring to himself sometimes uses the first person plural, as a more modest form of expression: as, #Molōnī dedimus operam#, Br. 307, we attended Molo’s instruction, i.e. I. Similarly #nōs# in all its cases for #ego#, &c., and #noster#, &c., for #meus#, &c.

1075. The singular imperative #age# is sometimes used in addressing more than one, particularly in old Latin: as, #age licēminī#, Pl. St. 221, come, people, give a bid. #age igitur intrō abīte#, Pl. MG. 928, come then go in. Similarly, #cave dīrumpātis#, Pl. Poen. 117, mind you don’t break it off. Similarly #ain#.

1076. If the subjects are of different persons, the first person is preferred to the second or the third, and the second to the third: as,

#sī tū et Tullia, lūx nostra, valētis, ego et suāvissimus Cicerō valēmus#, Fam. 14, 5, 1, if you and Tullia, our sunbeam, are well, darling Cicero and I are well. But sometimes in contrasts the verb agrees with the nearest person: as, #quid indicat aut ipse Cornēlius aut vōs?# Sull. 54, what information does Cornelius himself give, or you people?

[Errata: 1066a ... senate and people of Rome ordained. line-end hyphen in or-/dained invisible 1071 ... But the plural is sometimes used, used. 1072a ... plural names of places, places. 1074 ... form of expression: as, #Molōnī dedimus operam# as.]

(B.) OF THE NOUN.

(1.) THE SUBSTANTIVE.

1077. A substantive which explains another substantive referring to the same thing is put in the same case.

This applies to the substantive used as attribute, appositive, or predicate. The two substantives often differ in gender or number, or both. (a.) Attribute: #tīrōne exercitū#, Fam. 7, 3, 2, with a raw army. #ā mīmā uxōre#, Ph. 2, 20, from an actress-wife. #mendīcōs hominēs#, Pl. St. 135, beggar-men. #oculī hominis histriōnis#, DO. 2, 193, the eyes of an actor man. #nēminī hominī#, Pl. As. 466, to no human being. #servom hominem#, T. Ph. 292, a servant man. #hominēs sīcāriōs#, RA. 8, professional bravoes. (b.) Appositive: #quid dīcam dē thēsaurō rērum omnium, memoriā?# DO. 1, 18, what shall I say of that universal storehouse, the memory? #duo fulmina nostrī imperī, Cn. et P. Scīpiōnēs#, Balb. 34, the two thunderbolts of our realm, the Scipios, Gnaeus and Publius. (c.) Predicate: #īra furor brevis est#, H. E. 1, 2, 62, wrath is a madness brief. #Dolābellā hoste dēcrētō#, Ph. 11, 16, Dolabella having been voted a public enemy. Some apparent exceptions will be noticed from time to time hereafter.

1078. Mobile substantives take also the gender and number of the masculines or feminines they explain: as,

#stilus optimus dīcendī magister#, DO. 1, 150, pen is the best professor of rhetoric. #vīta rūstica parsimōniae magistra est#, RA. 75, country life is a teacher of thrift. #fluviōrum rēx Ēridanus#, V. G. 1, 482, Eridanus, of rivers king. #et genus et fōrmam rēgīna pecūnia dōnat#, H. E. 1, 6, 37, both birth and shape the almighty dollar gives. #ut omittam illās omnium doctrīnārum inventrīcēs Athēnās#, DO. 1, 13, to say nothing of the great originator of all intellectual pursuits, Athens.

1079. A substantive explaining two or more substantives, is put in the plural: as,

#foedus inter Rōmam Lāvīniumque urbēs renovātum est#, L. 1, 14, 3, the treaty between the cities of Rome and Lavinium was renewed. #Cn. et P. Scīpiōnēs#, Balb. 34, the Scipios, Gnaeus and Publius.

1080. A plural subject, expressed or implied, is sometimes defined by a singular word, which is generally a collective or distributive: as,

#ut ambō exercitūs suās quisque abīrent domōs#, L. 2, 7, 1, so that both armies went back to their respective homes. #uterque eōrum ex castrīs exercitum ēdūcunt#, Caes. C. 3, 30, 3, they bring their army out of camp, each of them. #heus forās exīte hūc aliquis#, Pl. E. 398, hallo, you boys, come out of doors here, somebody. #alius alium percontāmur#, Pl. St. 370, we ask of one another. #cum accidisset ut alter alterum vidērēmus#, Fin. 3, 8, when it came to pass that we each saw the other. The verb sometimes agrees with the defining singular: as, #quandō duo cōnsulēs, alter morbō, alter ferrō periisset#, L. 41, 18, 16, since the two consuls had died, one a natural death, the other by the sword.

1081. A substantive in the accusative or nominative is sometimes in apposition to a thought or clause: as,

#manūs intentantēs, causam discordiae#, Ta. 1, 27, shaking their fists, a provocation to quarrel. #pars ingentī subiēre feretrō, trīste ministerium#, V. 6, 222, a part put shoulder to the mighty bier, a service sad. #nec Homērum audiō, quī Ganymēdēn ab dīs raptum ait propter fōrmam; nōn iūsta causa cūr Lāomedontī tanta fieret iniūria#, TD. 1, 65, nor will I lend an ear to Homer, who asserts that Ganymede was carried off by the gods for his beauty; no just reason for doing Laomedon such injustice.

[Errata: 1077 ... (a.) ... DO. 1, 18 DO 1 ... (b.) Balb. 34 Balb 34]

(2.) THE ADJECTIVE.

1082. An adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, agrees with its substantive in number, gender, and case: as,

#vir bonus#, H. Ep. 1, 16, 40, a good man, #bona uxor#, Pl. MG. 684, a good wife, #oleum bonum#, Cato, RR. 3, good oil. #Gallia est omnis dīvīsa in partēs trēs#, 1, 1, 1, Gaul, including everything under the name, is divided into three parts. #et variae volucrēs nemora āvia pervolitantēs āera per tenerum liquidīs loca vōcibus opplent#, Lucr. 2, 145, and motley birds, in pathless woods that flit through lither sky, fill space with carols clear.

1083. An adjective or participle, either attributive or predicate, sometimes takes the number and gender of the persons or things implied in the substantive: as,

(a.) #concursus populī mīrantium quid rē̆ī esset#, L. 1, 41, 1, a gathering of the public, wondering what was the matter. (b.) #pars subeuntium obrutī, pars cōnfīxī#, Ta. H. 2, 22, a part of those who came up were crushed, a part were run through. #Samnītium caesī tria mīlia ducentī#, L. 10, 34, 3, of the Samnites were slain three thousand two hundred.

1084. (1.) An attributive adjective referring to several substantives is commonly expressed with one only, generally with the first or the last: as,

#rēs erat multae operae et labōris#, 5, 11, 5, it was a job that required much work and trouble. #semper amāvī ingenium, studia, mōrēs tuōs#, O. 33, I have always admired your ability, your scholarly tastes, and your character. In lively style, the adjective is often used with every substantive.

1085. Two or more attributive adjectives in the singular connected by a conjunction may belong to a plural substantive: as,

#circā portās Collīnam Ēsquilīnamque#, L. 26, 10, 2, about the gates, the Colline and the Esquiline. But the substantive may also be in the singular: as, #inter Ēsquilīnam Collīnamque portam#, L. 26, 10, 1, between the Esquiline and the Colline gate.

1086. The combined idea of a substantive with an attributive adjective may be qualified by one or more adjectives: as,

#nāvīs longās trīgintā veterēs#, L. 27, 22, 12, thirty old men-of-war. #prīvāta nāvis onerāria māxima#, V. 5, 136, a very large private freighting vessel. #āter aliēnus canis#, T. Ph. 706, a strange black dog.

1087. (2.) A predicate adjective or participle referring to two or more substantives is usually in the plural; its gender is determined as follows:

1088. (a.) If the substantives denote persons of the same gender, that gender is used; if they denote persons of different gender, the masculine is used: as,

#venēnō absūmptī Hannibal et Philopoemēn#, L. 39, 52, 8, it was by poison that Hannibal and Philopoemen were taken off. #quam prīdem pater mihī̆ et māter mortuī essent#, T. Eu. 517, how long my father and my mother had been dead.

1089. (b.) If the substantives denote things, and are of different genders, the neuter plural is used; also commonly when they are feminines denoting things: as,

#mūrus et porta dē caelō tācta erant#, L. 32, 29, 1, the wall and town-gate had been struck by lightning. #īra et avāritia imperiō potentiōra erant#, L. 37, 32, 13, hot blood and greed proved stronger than authority.

1090. (c.) If the substantives denote both persons and things, either the gender of the substantives denoting persons is used, or the neuter. The gender of the substantives denoting things is very rarely used: as,

#et rēx rēgiaque classis ūnā profectī#, L. 21, 50, 11, the king too and the king’s fleet set sail in his company. #inimīca inter sē līberam cīvitātem et rēgem#, L. 44, 24, 2, that a free state and a monarch were irreconcilable things. #Dolopas et Athamāniam ēreptās sibī̆ querēns#, L. 38, 10, 3, complaining that the Dolopians and Athamania were wrested from him.

1091. When the verb is attached to the nearest only of two or more subjects, a predicate participle or adjective naturally takes the gender of that substantive: as, #ibī̆ Orgetorīgis fīlia atque ūnus ē fīliīs captus est#, 1, 26, 5, there the daughter of Orgetorix and one of the sons too was made prisoner. #ut brāchia atque umerī līberī esse possent#, 7, 56, 4, so that their arms and shoulders might be unhampered.

1092. The ablative singular #absente# is used once each by Terence and Afranius with a plural substantive: #absente nōbīs#, T. Eu. 649, while we were out.

1093. A neuter adjective or pronoun is sometimes used as a substantive in the predicate (1101): as,

#trīste lupus stabulīs#, V. E. 3, 80, a baleful thing the wolf for folds. #quod ego fuī ad Trāsumennum, id tū hodiē#, L. 30, 30, 12, what I was myself at Trasumene, that you are today.

1094. A demonstrative, determinative, or relative pronoun used substantively takes the number and gender of the substantive it represents; the case depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands: as,

#erant peditēs, quōs dēlēgerant; cum hīs in proeliīs versābantur; ad eōs sē recipiēbant; hī concurrēbant#, 1, 48, 5, there were foot-soldiers whom they had picked out; with these men they kept company in action; upon them they would fall back; these people would always rally. #Hippiās glōriātus est ānulum quem habēret, pallium quō amictus, soccōs quibus indūtus esset, sē suā manū cōnfēcisse#, DO. 3, 127, Hippias bragged he had made with his own hand the ring which he wore, the cloak in which he was wrapped; and the slippers which he had on.

1095. Sometimes, however, the number and gender of these pronouns are determined by the sense, and not by the form of the substantive represented: as,

#equitātum omnem praemittit, quī videant#, 1, 15, 1, he sends all the horse ahead, for them to see. #hīc sunt quīnque minae. hoc tībī̆ erus mē iussit ferre#, Pl. Ps. 1149, here are five minae; this my master bade me bring for thee. #Domitius Massiliam pervenit atque ab iīs receptus urbī praeficitur#, Caes. C. 1, 36, 1, Domitius arrived at Massilia, and was received by the people and put in charge of the town. #ad hirundinīnum nīdum vīsast sīmia adscēnsiōnem ut faceret admōlīrier; neque eās ēripere quībat inde#, Pl. R. 598, up to a swallow-nest methought an ape did strive to climb; nor could she snatch the nestlings thence; the #eās# refers to #hirundinēs#, implied in #hirundinīnum#.

1096. A pronoun representing two or more substantives sometimes takes the number and gender of the nearest. But usually it is plural, and its gender is determined like that of an adjective (1087).

1097. A demonstrative, determinative, or relative pronoun used substantively is generally attracted to the number and gender of a predicate substantive in its own clause: as,

#haec est nōbilis ad Trāsumennum pūgna#, L. 22, 7, 1, such is the far-famed fight at Trasumene, 217 B.C. #ista quidem vīs est#, Suet. Iul. 82, now that I call an outrage, Caesar’s dying words, 44 B.C. But with a negative, sometimes the neuter: as, #nec sopor illud erat#, V. 3, 173, nor was that sleep.

1098. A demonstrative, determinative, or relative pronoun in agreement with a substantive is often equivalent to a genitive limiting the substantive: as,

#hōc metū vagārī prohibēbat#, 5, 19, 2, by fear of this he stopped the prowling round. #is pavor perculit Rōmānōs#, L. 21, 46, 7, the panic occasioned by this demoralized the Romans. #quā spē adductī#, 4, 6, 4, impelled by the hope of this.

[Erratum: 1097 ... #haec est nōbilis ad Trāsumennum pūgna# text unchanged: word generally spelled “pugna” (see endnote on first edition)]

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.

(A.) USE OF THE NOUN.

NUMBER AND GENDER.

1099. The singular of a word denoting a person is sometimes used in a collective sense.

This singular is generally a military designation: as, #mīles#, #eques#, #pedes#, #hostis#, #Rōmānus#, #Poenus#. But other substantives and adjectives are occasionally thus used.

1100. A substantive or adjective denoting a person is often used in the singular as representative of a class, particularly when two persons are contrasted: as,

#sī tabulam dē naufrāgiō stultus adripuerit, extorquēbitne eam sapiēns?# Off. 3, 89, if a fool has seized a plank from a wreck, will the sage twitch it away?

1101. The neuter singular of certain adjectives is used as an abstract substantive.

These adjectives have commonly stems in #-o-#, and are often used in the partitive genitive (1250). The nominative is rare, also the accusative and ablative, except in prepositional constructions. Such are: #bonum#, #malum#; #rēctum#, #prāvum#; #decōrum#, #indecōrum#; #honestum#; #vērum#, #falsum#; #iūstum#, #iniūstum#; #aequum#; #ambiguum#; #rīdiculum#. #ūtile#, #ināne#, #commūne#, #īnsīgne#, #simile#, &c.

1102. Certain adjectives, which originally agreed with an appellative denoting a thing, have dropped the appellative and become substantives.

Such are: #Āfricus#, sc. #ventus#; #Āfrica#, sc. #terra#; #calda#, sc. #aqua#; #cānī# sc. #capillī#; #circēnsēs#, sc. #lūdī#; #decuma#, sc. #pars#; #fera#, sc. #bēstia#; #hīberna#, sc. #castra#; #merum#, sc. #vīnum#; #nātālis#, sc. #diēs#; #patria#, sc. #terra#; #praetexta#, sc. #toga#; #summa#, sc. #rēs#; #trirēmis#, sc. #nāvis#, and many others.

1103. Certain adjectives denoting relationship, friendship, hostility, connection, or age, may be used in both numbers as substantives.

Such are: (a.) #adfīnis#, #cōgnātus#, #cōnsanguineus#, #gentīlis#, #necessārius#, #propīnquus#; (b.) #adversārius#, #amīcus#, #inimīcus#, #familiāris#, #hostis#, #intimus#, #invidus#, #socius#, #sodālis#; (c.) #contubernālis#, #manipulāris#, #vīcīnus#; (d.) #adulēscēns#, #aequālis#, #iuvenis#, #senex#.

1104. The masculine plural of many adjectives is used substantively to denote a class.

Such are: #bonī#, the good, the well-disposed, conservatives, patriots, our party; #improbī#, the wicked, the dangerous classes, revolutionists, anarchists, the opposite party; #doctī#, #indoctī#; #piī#, #impiī#, and the like.

1105. Proper names of men are used in the plural to denote different persons of the same name, or as appellatives to express character, oftenest good character: as,

#duo Metellī, Celer et Nepōs#, Br. 247, the two Metelluses, Celer and Nepos. #quid Crassōs, quid Pompēiōs ēvertit?# J. 10, 108, what overthrew a Crassus, Pompey what? i.e. men like Crassus and Pompey.

1106. The neuter plural of adjectives of all degrees of comparison is very often used as a substantive.

Such adjectives are usually in the nominative or accusative, and may have a pronoun, a numeral, or an adjective, agreeing with them. In English the singular is often preferred. Such are: #bona#, #mala#; #vēra#, #falsa#; #haec#, this; #omnia#, everything; #haec omnia#, all this, &c., &c.

1107. Names of countries are sometimes used in the plural when the country consists of several parts which are called by the same name as the whole country: as, #Galliae#, the Gauls; #Germāniae#, the Germanies.

1108. Material substantives are often used in the plural to denote different sorts of the substance designated, its constituent parts, or objects made of it: as,

#aera#, lumps of bronze, bronzes, coppers. #aquae#, water in different places, medicinal springs. #cērae#, pieces of wax, tablets, wax masks, waxworks. #marmora#, kinds of marble, blocks of marble, works of marble. #nivēs#, snowflakes, snowdrifts, snowstorms, repeated snows. #spūmae#, masses of foam. #sulpura#, lumps of sulphur. #vīna#, wines, different kinds of wine.

1109. Abstract substantives are often used in the plural to denote different kinds or instances of the abstract idea, or an abstract idea pertaining to several persons or things: as,

#sunt domesticae fortitūdinēs nōn īnferiōrēs mīlitāribus#, Off. 1, 78, there are cases of heroism in civil life fully equal to those in war. #tē cōnscientiae stimulant maleficiōrum tuōrum#, Par. 18, you are tormented by pricks of conscience for your sins. #propter siccitātēs palūdum#, 4, 38, 2, because the swamps were dry everywhere.

1110. The plural is sometimes used in generalizations, and in poetry to magnify a single thing, to give mystery to the statement, or often merely for metrical convenience: as, #advēnisse familiārēs dīcitō#, Pl. Am. 353, say that the people of the house are come, the plural #familiārēs# denoting one person. #Priamī dum rēgna manēbant#, V. 2, 22, while Priam’s realms still stood. #externōs optāte ducēs#, V. 8, 503, choose captains from a foreign strand, i.e. Aeneas.

CASE.

1111. There are two groups of cases, the principal and the secondary.

1112. The principal cases are the nominative and the accusative. The principal cases, which have more complete inflections than the secondary, express the two chief relations of the noun in the sentence, those of the subject and of the object. The secondary cases are used to express subordinate or supplementary relations.

THE NOMINATIVE.

1113. The nominative is principally used as the subject or predicate noun of a verb or of an infinitive. Besides this use, the nominative occurs in titles, exclamations, and addresses (1114-1123).

THE NOMINATIVE OF TITLE.

1114. The nominative is used in inscriptions, notices, titles, or headings: as,

L · CORNELIVS · CN · F · CN · N · SCIPIO, CIL. I, 34, on a tomb, Lucius Cornelius Scipio, son (#fīlius#) of Gnaeus, grandson (#nepōs#) of Gnaeus. LABYRINTHVS HIC HABITAT MINOTAVRVS, CIL. IV, 2331, on a plan of the Labyrinth scratched by a Pompei schoolboy, The Maze. Here lives Minotaur. PRIVATVM PRECARIO ADEITVR, CIL. I, 1215, Private Grounds. No Admittance without leave. #Themistoclēs, Neoclī fīlius, Athēniēnsis#, N. 2, 1, Themistocles, son of Neocles, of Athens.

1115. The title proper of a book is often put in the genitive, dependent on #līber# or #librī#: as, #Cornēlī Tacitī Historiārum Liber Prīmus#, Tacitus’s Histories, Book First. Or prepositional expressions are used: as, #M. Tullī Cicerōnis dē Fātō Liber#, Cicero, Fate, in One Book. #Cornēlī Tacitī ab Excessū dīvī Augustī Liber Prīmus#, Tacitus’s Roman History from the Demise of the sainted Augustus, Book First.

1116. Sometimes the nominative of a title or exclamation is retained in a sentence for some other case: as, #Gabīniō cōgnōmen ‘Cauchius’ ūsurpāre concessit#, Suet. Cl. 24, he allowed Gabinius to take the surname ‘Cauchius;’ (compare #Catō quasi cōgnōmen habēbat Sapientis#, L. 6, Cato had the virtual surname of the Wise). #‘Marsya’ nōmen habet#, O. 6, 400, it has the name of ‘Marsyas;’ (compare #nōmen Dānuvium habet#, S. Fr. 3, 55, it has the name Danube), #resonent mihi ‘Cynthia’ silvae#, Prop. 1, 18, 31, let woods reecho ‘Cynthia’ for me; (compare #tū, Tītyre, fōrmōsam resonāre docēs Amaryllida silvas#, V. E. 1, 4, thou, Tityrus, dost teach the woods to echo Amaryllis Fair).

THE NOMINATIVE OF EXCLAMATION.

1117. The nominative is sometimes used in exclamations: as,

#fortūnae fīlius, omnēs#, H. S. 2, 6, 49, ‘the child of Fortune,’ all exclaim. This nominative is often accompanied by an interjection, such as #ecce#, #ēn#, #heu#, #ō#, #prō#, #vāh#: as, #ēn Priamus#, V. 1, 461, lo, Priam here. #ō fēstus diēs#, T. Eu. 560, oh day of cheer. For #eccilla#, see 667.

THE VOCATIVE NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE PROPER.

1118. The vocative nominative is used when a person or thing is addressed: as,

#quō usque tandem abūtēre, Catilīna, patientiā nostrā?# C. 1, 1, in heaven’s name, how long, Catiline, wilt trifle with our patience? #valēte, dēsīderia mea, valēte#, Fam. 14, 2, 4, good bye, my absent loves, good bye. Instead of a proper name, an emphatic #tū# is often used: as, #advorte animum sīs tū#, Pl. Cap. 110, just pay attention, sirrah, please.

1119. Masculine stems in #-o-# commonly use the special form for the second person singular called the vocative: as,

#urbem, urbem, mī Rūfe, cole#, Fam. 2, 12, 2, stick to town, dear Rufus, yes, to town. But the vocative nominative is sometimes used even of #-o-# stems: as, #audī tū, populus Albānus#, L. 1, 24, 7, hear thou, the people of Alba.

1120. Poets use the vocative nominative or vocative proper very freely, sometimes for liveliness, but often simply in place of other cases not allowed by the metre: as,

#ōra manūsque tuā lavimus, Fērōnia, lymphā#, H. S. 1, 5, 24, our faces and our hands, Feronia, in thy stream we wash. #occiderat Tatius, populīsque aequāta duōbus, Rōmule, iūra dabās#, O. 14, 805, now dead was Tatius, and to peoples twain thou gavest, Romulus, impartial laws. #longum tibi, Daedale, crīmen#, O. 8, 240, a lasting stigma, Daedalus, to thee. In these three examples, #Fērōniae#, #Rōmulus#, and #Daedalō# would be impossible. In poetry, the vocative is particularly common in questions.

1121. Nominative forms and vocative forms are often combined: as, #dulcis amīce#, H. E. 1, 7, 12, sweet friend. #mī vir#, Pl. Am. 716, my husband. #Iāne pater#, J. 6, 394, thou father Janus.

1122. In verse the vocative is occasionally used even in the predicate: as, #quō moritūre ruis?# V. 10, 811, whither, on death intent, fliest thou? #quibus, Hector, ab ōrīs exspectāte venīs?# V. 2, 282, out of what limboes, Hector, dost thou gladly welcomed come?

1123. The vocative nominative or vocative proper is sometimes accompanied by #ō#, but only in impassioned addresses: as, #ō fortūnāte adulēscēns#, Arch. 24, oh thou thrice blest youth; also by #prō# in addresses to gods, by #eho# and #heus# in calls on men. Rarely by #au#, #ehem#, #hem#, #ē̆heu#, #eia# or #heia#, #iō#.

[Erratum: 1120 ... #ōra manūsque tuā lavimus, Fērōnia, lymphā#, final , missing]

THE ACCUSATIVE.

1124. The accusative is used primarily with verbs, or with expressions equivalent to verbs. The relations expressed by the accusative are all of one general kind; but they vary somewhat, according to the nature of the verb.

1125. I. With most verbs, the accusative either (a.) denotes that which is affected or apprehended, or is produced by the action of the verb (1132); or, less frequently (b.) it repeats the meaning of the verb in the form of a substantive (1140).

Such accusatives, called accusatives of the Object, are never attended by a preposition, and become nominative in the passive construction.

1126. II. With some verbs, the accusative denotes (a.) extent or duration (1151); with others it denotes (b.) aim of motion (1157).

Both these accusatives sometimes have their places taken by a prepositional expression, or by an adverb; in the passive construction, they are not convertible into a nominative, but remain accusative.

1127. Two or even three accusatives are sometimes used with one and the same verb: see 1167-1174.

1128. The accusative is sometimes disengaged from the verb, with which it originally stood, and used with a noun or a preposition.

1129. (1.) With substantives, the accusative is rare; it is used (a.) in a few attributive expressions, chiefly old set forms, and rarely to denote (b.) aim of motion.

Thus (a.) the predicative #id aetātis#, in #id aetātis iam sumus#, we are now of that age, becomes attributive in #hominēs id aetātis#, people of that age. And (b.) as #domum#, home, is used with the verb #redeō#, go back, so also rarely with the substantive #reditiō#, a return.

1130. With adjectives, the accusative is commonly that of extent: so with #altus#, high, #lātus#, wide, and #longus#, long, sometimes with #crassus#, thick.

Thus, in #eōs surculōs facitō sint longī pedēs bīnōs#, see that the scions be two feet long, the accusative #pedēs#, which belongs with the predicate #sint longī#, may be used with the attributive adjective #longus# alone, thus: #surculī longī pedēs bīnōs#, scions two feet long.

1131. (2.) The accusative is used with many prepositions: see 1410.

[Erratum: 1130 ... and #longus#, long #longus#.]

I. THE ACCUSATIVE OF THE OBJECT.

1132. The object of a verb is put in the accusative: as,

(a.) #oppida sua omnia incendunt#, 1, 5, 3, they set all their towns afire. #cōnspexit adrāsum quendam#, H. E. 1, 7, 49, he spied a man all shaven and shorn. (b.) #duās fossās perdūxit#, 7, 72, 3, he made two trenches. This accusative, is, as may be seen above, either (a.) receptive, i.e. existing independently of the action of the verb, and only affected or apprehended by it; or (b.) of product, i.e. produced by the action of the verb.

1133. Verbs thus used with an object are said to be used transitively. Such verbs may also be used intransitively, that is without an object, when stress is put on the action merely: thus,

(a.) Transitively: #tū mē amās, ego tē amō#, Pl. Most. 305, thou lovest me, and I love thee. #nova dīruunt, alia aedificant#, S. C. 20, 12, they pull down new structures, and build up others. (b.) Intransitively: #amō#, Pl. B. 511, I’m in love. #dīruit, aedificat#, H. E. 1, 1, 100, it pulleth down, it buildeth up.

1134. Some verbs, in addition to the accusative, often take an infinitive also: thus, #eum vident sedēre#, V. 5, 107, they see him sit, they see that he is sitting. Here the accusative #eum#, originally the object, they see him, becomes at the same time the subject of the new statement appended, #sedēre#, sit, thus giving rise to the construction known as the accusative with the infinitive.

1135. Instead of the proper accusative of the object, another accusative is sometimes substituted, denoting the ultimate result: as,

#rūpēre viam#, L. 2, 50, 10, they broke a path, i.e. they broke through the obstacles, and so made a path. #foedusque ferī#, E. 33, and strike a covenant, i.e. strike a victim, and so make a covenant.

1136. In Plautus, #quid tibī̆# with a substantive of action in #-tiō# and #est#, has an accusative like a verb used transitively: as, #quid tibī̆ hanc cūrātiōst rem?# Pl. Am. 519, what business hast thou with this?

1137. Many verbs ordinarily used intransitively, particularly verbs of motion, have a transitive use when compounded with a preposition.

Such prepositions are, #ad#, #circum#, #ex#, #in#, #ob#, #per#, #prae#, #praeter#, #trāns#, and some others: as, #plūrēs paucōs circumsistēbant#, 4, 26, 2, a good many took their stand round a few. #Caesar omnem agrum Pīcēnum percurrit#, Caes. C. 1, 15, 1, Caesar runs over the whole Picene territory. #praeterīre nēmō pristrīnum potest#, Pl. Cap. 808, no man can pass the mill. #flūmen trānsiērunt#, 4, 4, 7, they crossed the river.

1138. A few verbs with a transitive use, have, when compounded with #circum# and #trāns#, besides the accusative of the object, a second accusative of the thing to which the preposition refers: as, #istum circumdūce hāsce aedīs#, Pl. Most. 843, take that man round this house. #Caesar funditōrēs pontem trādūcit#, 2, 10, 1, Caesar takes the slingers over the bridge. #trānsfer līmen aureolōs pedēs#, Cat. 61, 166, over the threshold put thy little golden foot. In the passive, the accusative connected with the preposition is sometimes retained: as, #Apollōniam praetervehuntur#, Caes. C. 3, 26, 1, they sail by Apollonia.

1139. Verbs of weeping and wailing, and some other verbs of feeling, which commonly have an intransitive use, sometimes have a transitive use with an accusative: as,

(a.) #lūget senātus, maeret equester ōrdō#, Mil. 20, the senate is in mourning, the equestrian order betrays its sadness. (b.) #mātrōnae eum lūxērunt#, L. 2, 7, 4, the married women wore mourning for him. #maereō cāsum eius modī#, Fam. 14, 2, 2, I cannot help showing my grief over a misfortune of such a kind. #quid mortem congemis ac flēs#, Lucr. 3, 934, why dost thou death bewail and weep? Such verbs are #fleō#, weep, #gemō#, wail, #lāmentor#, #queror#, bewail, #doleō#, am distressed, #lūgeō#, mourn, #maereō#, betray sadness. Similarly, #horreō#, shudder, #reformīdō#, am in dread, #fastīdiō#, feel disdain, #rīdeō#, laugh, &c., &c. The object is oftener a thing than a person, and passive constructions are rare, and mostly confined to poetry.

[Errata: 1135 ... they broke a path, i.e. they broke through the obstacles, and so made a path. #foedusque ferī#, E. 33, and strike a covenant, i.e. punctuation as printed: they broke a path_, i.e they broke through the obstacles. and so made a path. #foedusque ferī#, E. 33, and strike a covenant, i.e]

THE EMPHASIZING OR DEFINING ACCUSATIVE.

1140. The meaning of a verb, even of one ordinarily intransitive, may be emphasized or more exactly defined by an accusative of kindred derivation added.

(a.) Seldom without an adjective: as, #dum vītam vīvās#, Pl. Per. 494, as long as life thou liv’st, i.e. as long as you ever live and breathe. #quōrum maiōrum nēmō servitūtem servīvit#, T. 29, of whose ancestors not one has served servitude, i.e. been a regular slave. #vidē nē facinus faciās#, Fin. 2, 95, mind you don’t do a deed, i.e. a misdeed. (b.) Commonly with an adjective: as, #scelestam servitūtem serviunt#, Pl. Cu. 40, a wicked servitude they serve. #facinus memorābile fēcistis#, L. 24, 22, 16, you have done a deed well worth mentioning. #mīrum atque īnscītum somniāvī somnium#, Pl. R. 597, a strange and silly dream dreamed I.

1141. The verb sometimes has an accusative of kindred meaning, but of different derivation: as,

#ut vīvās aetātem miser#, Pl. Am. 1023, that thou mayst live thy days in woe. #nōn pugnāvit ingēns Īdomeneus Sthenelusve sōlus dīcenda Mūsīs proelia#, H. 4, 9, 19, not towering Idomeneus nor Sthenelus alone has battles fought for Muses to rehearse.

1142. The neuter singular accusative of a descriptive adjective is used, particularly by the poets, to denote manner: as,

#magnum clāmat#, Pl. MG. 823, he’s bellowing big. #suāve locus vōcī resonat conclūsus#, H. S. 1, 4, 76, sweet to the voice the pent-up place rings back. #suāve rubēns hyacinthus#, V. E. 3, 63, sweet-blushing hyacinth. #cūr tam cernis acūtum?# H. S. 1, 3, 26, why dost thou see so sharp? The plural is not so common: as, #asper, acerba tuēns#, Lucr. 5, 33, V. 9, 794, rough, staring savageness.

1143. Some verbs of smell and of taste have an accusative defining what the smell or the taste is: as, #pāstillōs Rūfillus olet, Gargōnius hīrcum#, H. S. 1, 2, 27, of lozenges Rufillus smells, Gargonius of the goat. #doctrīnam redolet puerīlem#, DO. 2, 109, it smacks of A B C studies. #nōn omnēs possunt olere unguenta exōtica#, Pl. Most. 42, not every man can of imported ointments reek. #meliōra unguenta sunt quae terram quam quae crocum sapiunt#, Cic. in Plin. NH. 17, 5, 3, 38, essences that smell of earth are better than those that smell of saffron.

1144. Any verb or verbal expression may be defined in a general way by the neuter accusative of a pronoun or of an enumerative word: as,

#id gaudeō#, T. Andr. 362, I’m glad of that. #id maestast#, Pl. R. 397, she’s mournful over this. #id prōdeō#, T. Eu. 1005, I’m coming out for this. #cētera adsentior Crassō#, DO. 1, 35, on all the other points I agree with Crassus. So also #quod#, for which, on account of which, #aliquid#, #quicquam#, #nihil#, &c., &c., and particularly #quid#, why, in what respect, wherein, what, or what ... for: as, #quid vēnistī#, Pl. Am. 377, why art thou come? #quid tibī̆ obstō#, RA. 145, wherein do I stand in your way?

1145. The accusative of an appellative is rarely used adverbially: as, #magnam partem ex iambīs nostra cōnstat ōrātiō#, O. 189, our own speech is made up a great deal of iambs. #maximam partem lacte vīvunt#, 4, 1, 8, they live on milk the most part, i.e. chiefly. Prepositional expressions are commoner: as, #magnā ex parte#, 1, 16, 6, principally. For #vicem#, instead of, for, or like, see the dictionary.

1146. The accusative is sometimes disengaged from a verb, and qualifies a substantive as an attribute, chiefly in a few set expressions (1129): as, #ōrātiōnēs aut aliquid id genus#, Att. 13, 12, 3, speeches or something that kind. #aucupium omne genus#, Cat. 114, 3, fowling of every kind. #nūgās hoc genus#, H. S. 2, 6, 43, small talk--this kind. #hoc genus in rēbus#, Lucr. 6, 917, in matters of this kind. #cum id aetātis fīliō#, Clu. 141, with a son of that age. Similarly #diēs quīndecim supplicātiō#, 2, 35, 4, a fortnight thanksgiving.

[Erratum: 1144 ... So also #quod#, for which, for which.]

THE ACCUSATIVE OF THE PART CONCERNED.

1147. Poets use the accusative to express the part concerned, especially a part of the human body: as,

#tremit artūs#, Lucr. 3, 489, V. G. 3, 84, he shivers in his limbs. #tremis ossa pavōre#, H. S. 2, 7, 57, thou tremblest in thy bones with fear. #viridī membra sub arbutō strātus#, H. 1, 1, 21, stretching--his limbs--beneath an arbute green. #ōs umerōsque deō similis#, V. 1, 589, in face and shoulders like a god.

THE ACCUSATIVE OF THE THING PUT ON.

1148. The accusative is used with reflexive verbs in poetry to denote the thing put on: as,

#comantem Androgeī galeam induitur#, V. 2, 391, Androgeus’ high-haired helm he dons. #exuviās indūtus Achillī#, V. 2, 275, clad in Achilles’ spoils. Rarely to denote the thing taken off: as, #priōrēs exuitur vultūs#, St. Th. 10, 640, she doffs her former looks.

THE ACCUSATIVE OF EXCLAMATION.

1149. The accusative is used in exclamations, sometimes merely to call attention to something, but generally with a predicate to express a judgment with emphasis.

(a.) In calling attention, #ecce# or #em# is used in old Latin: as, #ecce mē#, Pl. MG. 663, behold, your humble servant. #em Dāvom tibī̆#, T. Andr. 842, there, Davos sir. For #ellum#, #eccillum#, &c., see 667 and 673. Also, from Cicero on, #ēn#: as, #ēn quattuor ārās#, V. E. 5, 65, see, altars four. (b.) In emphatic judgments sometimes the accusative alone: as, #fortūnātum Nīcobūlum#, Pl. B. 455, lucky man that Nicobulus. #testīs ēgregiōs#, Cael. 63, mighty fine witnesses; sometimes with an interjection: as, #ō imperātōrem probum#, Pl. B. 759, oh what a good commander; rarely so with #ēcastor#, #edepol#, #eugē#, bravo, #heu#, #īlicet#, all’s up, #ē̆heu#. Interrogatively: #hancine impudentiam?# V. 5, 62, possible, shamelessness like this?

1150. The accusative is used in excited orders, appeals, and questions, without any verb expressed, or even distinctly felt: as, #Tiberium in Tiberim#, Suet. Tib. 75, Tiberius to the Tiber. #dī vostram fidem#, T. Andr. 716, ye gods your help. #prō fidem, Thēbānī cīvēs#, Pl. Am. 376, oh help, or murder, ye citizens of Thebes. So with #unde#, #quō#, and #quandō#, often followed by #mihī̆# or #tibī̆#: as, #quō mihi fortūnam, sī nōn concēditur ūtī?# H. E. 1, 5, 12, why wealth for me, if wealth I may not use?

II. THE ACCUSATIVE OF SPACE AND TIME, AND OF AIM OF MOTION.

THE ACCUSATIVE OF SPACE AND TIME.

1151. Extent of space or duration of time is denoted by the accusative: as,

(a.) #mīlia passuum XX prōcēdit#, 5, 47, 1, he pushes on twenty miles. #trīduī viam prōgressī#, 4, 4, 4, having advanced three days journey. #aggerem lātum pedēs CCCXXX, altum pedēs LXXX exstrūxērunt#, 7, 24, 1, they built up a mound three hundred and thirty feet wide, and eighty feet high (1130). (b.) #mātrōnae annum lūxērunt#, L. 2, 7, 4, the married women wore mourning a year. #ūndēvīgintī annōs nātus erat#, Br. 229, he was nineteen years old. #secūtae sunt continuōs complūrēs diēs tempestātēs#, 4, 34, 4, there followed a good many days a succession of storms. #triennium vagātī#, 4, 4, 2, having led a nomad life three years. #ūnum diem supplicātiō habita est#, L. 10, 47, 7, a thanksgiving was held one day. #diēs quīndecim supplicātiō#, 2, 35, 4, a fortnight thanksgiving (1129). Sometimes #per# is added: as, #lūdī per decem diēs factī sunt#, C. 3, 20, games were celebrated ten days long.

1152. The idea of traversing is sometimes not expressed: as, #mīlia passuum tria ab eōrum castrīs castra pōnit#, 1, 22, 5, he pitches camp three miles away from their camp. #quadringentōs inde passūs cōnstituit sīgna#, L. 34, 20, 4, four hundred paces from there he set up the standards. See 1399.

1153. With #absum# and #distō#, the ablative of amount of difference is sometimes used (1393): as, #certior factus est Ariovistī cōpiās ā nostrīs mīlibus passuum quattuor et XX abesse#, 1, 41, 5, he was informed that Ariovistus’s troops were four and twenty miles away from ours. If the place is not mentioned from which distance is reckoned, #ab# or #ā# is sometimes used before the expression of distance: as, #positīs castrīs ā mīlibus passuum XV#, 6, 7, 3, pitching camp fifteen miles away.

1154. The accusative is used with #abhinc#, ago: as, #quaestor fuistī abhinc annōs quattuordecim#, V. 1, 34, you were a quaestor fourteen years ago. Rarely the ablative (1393): as, #quō tempore? abhinc annīs XV#, RC. 37, when? fifteen years ago; and once or twice with #abhinc#, meaning before (1393): as, #comitiīs abhinc diēbus trīgintā factīs#, V. 2, 130, the election having been held thirty days before.

1155. The accusative singular is used with ordinals, to show the number of days, months, or years since a particular event, including the day, month, or year of the event itself: as, #quod annum iam tertium et vīcēsimum rēgnat#, IP. 7, the circumstance that he has now been on the throne two and twenty years.

1156. The accusative in some pronominal expressions and adverbs passes over from ‘time through which’ to a loose ‘time at which’: as, #id temporis#, RA. 97, at that time. #hoc noctis#, Pl. Am. 163^b, at this time of night. #tum#, then, #num#, #nunc#, now, #nunc ipsum#, Pl. B. 940, Att. 10, 4, 10, this very minute, #commodum#, just in time. For the locative ablative exceptionally used to denote duration, see 1355.

[Errata: 1151a ... 4, 34, 4 4, 34. 4 1154 ... RC. 37 RC,]

THE ACCUSATIVE OF THE AIM OF MOTION.

1157. (1.) Proper names of towns and of little islands or peninsulas are put in the accusative to denote the aim with expressions of motion: as,

#Labiēnus Lutetiam proficīscitur#, 7, 57, 1, Labienus starts for Lutetia. #Leucadem vēnimus#, Fam. 16, 9, 1, we came to Leucas. #nocturnus introitus Zmyrnam#, Ph. 11, 5, the entrance into Smyrna by night (1129). Plautus uses #Accherūns# a few times like a town name: as, #vīvom mē accersunt Accheruntem mortuī#, Most. 509, the dead are taking me to Acheron alive.

1158. With singular names of towns and little islands, Plautus has the accusative alone twenty times, and twenty times with #in#; Terence has, including #Lēmnum#, Ph. 567, and #Cyprum#, Ad. 224, 230, the accusative alone six times, and twice with #in#, #in Lēmnum#, Ph. 66, and #in Cyprum#, Ad. 278. Plural town names never have #in#.

1159. An appellative #urbem# or #oppidum# accompanying the accusative of a town name is usually preceded by #in# or #ad#: as, #ad urbem Fī̆dēnās tendunt#, L. 4, 33, 10, they make for the city of Fidenae. #Iugurtha Thalam pervēnit, in oppidum magnum#, S. I. 75, 1, Jugurtha arrived at Thala, a large town.

1160. When merely ‘motion towards’ or ‘nearness’ is meant, #ad# is used: as, #trēs viae sunt ad Mutinam#, Ph. 12, 22, there are three roads to Mutina. #mīles ad Capuam profectus sum#, CM. 10, I went to the war as a private, to the region round about Capua.

1161. Proper names of countries are also sometimes put in the accusative in poetry, to denote aim of motion: as, #abiīt Ālidem#, Pl. Cap. 573, he went away to Elis. So in prose also, #Aegyptus# in Cicero, Caesar, Nepos, Livy, and Tacitus: as, #Germānicus Aegyptum proficīscitur#, Ta. 2, 59, Germanicus sets out for Egypt. Rarely and in poetry names of peoples: as, #sitientīs ībimus Āfrōs#, V. E. 1, 64, to thirst-parched Afrians we shall go. In general the accusative of country names is preceded by #in# or #ad#, as are also appellatives regularly in prose; but in poetry, even appellatives without a preposition are common.

1162. (2.) The accusatives #domum#, #rūs#, and #forās#, are used like proper names of towns: as,

(a.) #eō domum#, Pl. Mer. 659, I’m going home. #equitēs domum contendērunt#, 2, 24, 4, the cavalry hurried home. #domum reditiōnis spē sublātā#, 1, 5, 3, the hope of a return home being out of the question (1129). (b.) #rūs ībō#, T. Eu. 216, I shall go out of town. (c.) #effūgī forās#, T. Eu. 945, I ran out of doors.

1163. The singular #domum# is always retained by Caesar, even when two or more separate persons or parties are spoken of. Plautus, Sallust, and Nepos, have the plural #domōs# once each, and Cicero and Livy use it occasionally.

1164. The accusative #domum# or #domōs# sometimes has an attribute, usually a possessive pronoun: as, #domum suam quemque revertī#, 2, 10, 4, for every man to go back to his home. #alius alium domōs suās invītant#, S. I. 66, 3, they invite each other to their homes. #aurum domum rēgiam comportant#, S. I. 76, 6, they bring all the gold to the house royal. #cum domum rēgis dēvertissēs#, D. 17, when you went to stay at the king’s palace. The preposition #in# is sometimes used when the attribute is a genitive or a possessive pronoun, and commonly when it is any adjective but a possessive pronoun.

1165. (3.) In old Latin, #exsequiās# and #īnfitiās# are also used with #eō#, and sometimes #malam crucem# and #malam rem#, though these last more commonly have #in#: as,

#exsequiās Chremētī īre#, T. Ph. 1026, to go to Chremes’s funeral. #ut eās malam crucem#, Pl. Men. 328, that thou mayst get thee to the accursed cross. Later writers, as Nepos, Livy, and Quintilian, use #īnfitiās eō# again, and, from Sallust on, #vēnum eō# and #vēnum dō# sometimes occur for #vēneō# and #vēndō#.

1166. With the accusative in #-tum# (or #-sum#), called the supine, the idea of ‘aim’ passes over into that of ‘purpose:’ as #mīlitātum abiīt#, T. Hau. 117, he’s gone away a soldiering (2270).

[Erratum: 1157 ... the entrance into Smyrna by night (1129). final . missing]

TWO ACCUSATIVES COMBINED.

OBJECT AND PREDICATE.

1167. Many verbs may take two accusatives, an object and a predicate.

Such are verbs signifying make, keep, choose, name or call, have, think, recognize or find, show oneself, &c., &c.: as, #longiōrem mēnsem faciunt#, V. 2, 129, they make the month longer. #eum certiōrem faciunt#, 5, 37, 7, they let him know. #Ancum Mārcium rēgem populus creāvit#, L. 1, 32, 1, the people made Ancus Marcius king. #mē cēpēre arbitrum#, T. Hau. 500, they’ve chosen me as referee. #Duellium ‘Bellium’ nōmināvērunt#, O. 153, Duellius they named ‘Bellius.’ #vīcīnam Capreīs insulam ‘Aprāgopolim’ appellābat#, Suet. Aug. 98, the island next to Capreae he called ‘the Castle of Indolence.’ #conlēgās adiūtōrēs habēbat#, Sest. 87, he had his colleagues as assistants. #tē sapientem exīstimant#, L. 6, they consider you a sage. #quem virum P. Crassum vīdimus#, CM. 61, what a man we saw in Crassus. #sevērum mē praebeō#, C. 4, 12, I show myself stern. In the passive both the object and the predicate become nominatives: as, #Caesar certior factus est#, 3, 19, 5, Caesar was informed.

1168. In the sense of consider as equivalent to, #dūcō# and #habeō#, less frequently #putō#, have the ablative with #prō#. Other constructions with these and the above verbs may be found in the dictionary.

PERSON AND THING.

1169. (1.) Some verbs of teaching and hiding, demanding and questioning, may take two accusatives, one of a person and one of a thing.

The commonest of these verbs are #doceō# and its compounds, and #cēlō#; #flāgitō#, #ōrō#, #poscō#, and #rogō#, #interrogō#. The thing is usually the neuter of a pronoun or enumerative word (1144): as, (a.) #peior magister tē istaec docuit, nōn ego#, Pl. B. 163, a worse instructor taught thee that, not I. #quid tē litterās doceam?# Pis. 73, why should I teach you your A B C’s? (b.) #nōn tē cēlāvī sermōnem T. Ampiī#, Fam. 2, 16, 3, I have not kept you in the dark about the talk with Ampius. (c.) #interim cōtīdiē Caesar Aeduōs frūmentum flāgitāre#, 1, 16, 1, meantime Caesar every day a dunning the Aeduans for the grain. #Mīlēsiōs nāvem poposcit#, V. 1, 86, he called on the Miletus people for a vessel. #quid me istud rogās?# Fin. 5, 83, why do you ask me that? #Racilius mē sententiam rogāvit#, QFr. 2, 1, 3, Racilius asked me my opinion.

1170. With #doceō#, meaning inform, #cēlō#, #rogō#, and #interrogō#, the ablative of the thing with #dē# is also used. And with #flāgitō# and #poscō#, sometimes the ablative of the person with #ab#, with #cēlō# the ablative of the person with #dē#.

1171. In the passive the person becomes the subject, and the accusative of a neuter pronoun or adjective is retained: as,

#nōsne hoc cēlātōs tam diū#, T. Hec. 645, for us not to be told of this so long; rarely with reversed construction: #quōr haec cēlāta mē sunt?# Pl. Ps. 490, why was this hid from me? Accusatives of appellatives are rare: as, #omnīs mīlitiae artīs ēdoctus fuerat#, L. 25, 37, 3, he had been thoroughly taught all the arts of war. #interrogātus sententiam#, L. 36, 7, 1, being asked his opinion. Other constructions of #doctus#, and of the passive of #cēlō#, #flāgitō#, #poscō#, #rogō# and #interrogō#, may be found in the dictionary.

1172. (2.) Verbs of wishing, reminding, inducing, and accusing, and some others, also sometimes take an accusative of the person and one of the thing.

Such are #volō#, #moneō# and its compounds, #hortor# and #cōgō#; #accūsō#, #arguō#, #īnsimulō#, #obiūrgō#. The thing is usually the neuter of a pronoun or enumerative word (1144): as, #quid mē voltis?# Pl. Mer. 868, what do you want of me? #illud tē esse admonitum velim#, Cael. 8, on this point I want you to be reminded (1171). In old Latin, accusatives of appellatives also are thus used, and sometimes also with #dōnō# and #condōnō#.

1173. (3.) The defining accusative is sometimes combined with an accusative of the person: as, #tam tē bāsia multa bāsiāre#, Cat. 7, 9, thee to kiss so many kisses (1140). But usually with an accusative of the person, the ablative takes the place of the defining accusative: as, #ōdissem tē odiō Vatīniānō#, Cat. 14, 3, I should hate thee with a Vatinian hate.

[Erratum: 1169 ... #cōtīdiē Caesar Aeduōs frūmentum flāgitāre#, 1, 16, 1, 1, 16, 1.]

OBJECT AND EXTENT, DURATION, OR AIM.

1174. The accusative of extent or duration, or of aim of motion is often combined with that of the object: as,

(a.) #mīlia passuum decem novem mūrum perdūcit#, 1, 8, 1, he makes a wall nineteen miles (1151). #mātrōnae annum eum lūxērunt#, L. 2, 7, 4. the married women wore mourning for him a year (1151). (b.) #Ancus multitūdinem omnem Rōmam trādūxit#, L. 1, 33, 1, Ancus moved the whole population over to Rome (1157). #eōs domum remittit#, 4, 21, 6, he sends them home again (1162). For other combinations, see 1138, 1198, and 2270.

THE DATIVE.

1175. The dative denotes that for or to which a thing is or is done, and either accompanies single words, such as verbs, adjectives, sometimes adverbs, rarely substantives, or serves to modify the entire sentence. It has two principal uses.

1176. I. The dative is used as a complement. Complements may be roughly distinguished as essential or optional. But these two complements are not always separated by a sharp line, and the same dative may sometimes be referred indifferently to either head.

1177. (1.) The ESSENTIAL COMPLEMENT is a dative of the person or thing added to an idea which is felt as incomplete without the dative (1180).

Thus, #pāret#, he is obedient, is a statement which is felt as incomplete without a dative added to denote what it is he is obedient to, in the sentence #pāret senātuī#, he is obedient to the senate. But when stress is put on the action merely, without reference to its bearing, such a verb may be used without a dative: as, #pāret#, he is obedient, he yields obedience.

1178. (2.) The OPTIONAL COMPLEMENT, that is, the dative of interest, advantage, or disadvantage, adds something to an idea that is already complete in itself (1205).

Thus, #carmina cantō#, I chant verses, is a statement entirely complete in itself; it may be modified or not, at option, by a dative, thus: #carmina virginibus puerīsque cantō#, verses for maids and boys I chant.

1179. II. The dative of certain substantives is used predicatively (1219).

I. THE COMPLEMENTARY DATIVE.

(1.) THE ESSENTIAL COMPLEMENT.

THE DATIVE WITH VERBS.

1180. Many verbs require a dative to complete their meaning.

WITH VERBS OF INTRANSITIVE USE.

1181. (1.) Many verbs of intransitive use, particularly such as denote a state, disposition, feeling, or quality, take the dative: as,

#quodne vōbīs placeat, displiceat mihī?# Pl. MG. 614, shall that which pleases you, displeasing be to me? #sī Asiciō causa plūs prōfuit quam invidia nocuit#, Cael. 23, if his case has been more helpful to Asicius than the hostility has been damaging. #imperat aut servit collēcta pecūnia cuique#, H. E. 1, 10, 47, for every man his garnered hoard or master is or slave. #nōnne huic lēgī resistētis?# Agr. 2, 85, will you not stand out against this law? #gymnasiīs indulgent Graeculī#, Traj. in Plin. Ep. 40 [49], 2, our Greek cousins are partial to gymnasiums. #īgnōscās velim huic festīnātiōnī meae#, in a letter, Fam. 5, 12, 1, please excuse haste. #huic legiōnī Caesar cōnfīdēbat maximē#, 1, 40, 15, Caesar trusted this legion most of all. #an C. Trebōniō ego persuāsī? cui nē suādēre quidem ausus essem#, Ph. 2, 27, or was it I that brought conviction to Trebonius? a man to whom I should not have presumed even to offer advice. In the passive, such verbs are used impersonally, the dative remaining (1034); personal constructions are rare and poetical.

1182. This dative is used with such verbs or verbal expressions as mean am pleasing or displeasing, helpful or injurious, command, yield, or am obedient, am friendly, partial, or opposed; spare, pardon, threaten, trust, advise, persuade, happen, meet. But the English translation is not a safe guide: many of the verbs used with a dative are represented transitively in English; and some verbs of the meanings above are used transitively in Latin: as, #dēlectō#, #iuvō#, #laedō#, &c., &c.

1183. The dative is rarely used with a form of #sum# and a predicate noun corresponding in meaning with the verbs above (1181): as, #quid mihi scelestō tibī̆ erat auscultātiō?# Pl. R. 502, i.e. #quid tibī̆ auscultābam?# why did I, ill-starred wretch, lend ear to thee? #quī studiōsus re͡i nūllī aliaest#, Pl. MG. 802, i.e. #quī studet#, who lends his soul to nothing else. Or immediately with a noun: as, #servitūs opulentō hominī#, Pl. Am. 166, slavery to a millionaire. #optemperātiō lēgibus#, Leg. 1, 42, obedience to the laws. #aemula labra rosīs#, Mart. 4, 42, 10, lips rivalling the rose.

1184. Some verbs have a variable use without any difference of meaning: thus, #cūrō#, #decet#, and #vītō#, have sometimes the dative in old Latin, but usually the accusative. In Cicero, #adūlor# has the accusative; from Nepos on, the dative as well. #medeor#, #medicor#, and #praestōlor# take either the accusative or the dative.

1185. Some verbs have an accusative with one meaning, a dative of the complement, essential or optional, with another: see #aemulor#, #caveō#, #comitor#, #cōnsulō#, #conveniō#, #cupiō#, #dēspērō#, #maneō#, #metuō#, #moderor#, #prōspiciō#, #temperō#, #timeō#, and the different uses of #invideō#, in the dictionary.

1186. In poetry, verbs of union, of contention, and of difference, often take a dative: as, (a.) #haeret laterī lētālis harundō#, V. 4, 73, sticks to her side the deadly shaft. So with #coëō#, #concurrō#, #haereō#, and similarly with #iungō#, #misceō#. (b.) #quid enim contendat hirundō cycnīs?# Lucr. 3, 6, for how can swallow cope with swans? So with #bellō#, #certō#, #contendō#, #pugnō#. (c.) #īnfīdō scurrae distābit amīcus#, H. E. 1, 18, 4, a friend will differ from a faithless hanger-on. So with #differō#, #discrepō#, #dissentiō#, #distō#.

1187. A verb often takes the dative, when combined with #adversum#, #obviam#, or #praestō#, also with #bene#, #male#, or #satis#, and the like: as,

#fit ob viam Clōdiō#, Mil. 29, he runs across Clodius. #cui bene dīxit umquam bonō?# Sest. 110, for what patriot had he ever a good word? #nōs, virī fortēs, satis facere rē̆ī pūblicae vidēmur#, C. 1, 2, we doughty champions flatter ourselves we are doing our whole duty by the state. Similarly with verbs of transitive use.

1188. (2.) Many verbs of intransitive use compounded with a preposition take a dative connected in sense with the preposition: as,

#manus extrēma nōn accessit operibus eius#, Br. 126, the last touch was not put upon his works. #omnibus adfuit hīs pugnīs Dolābella#, Ph. 2, 75, Dolabella was on hand in all these battles. #pontō nox incubat ātra#, V. 1, 89, over the deep, night broodeth black. #cōgnitiōnibus dē Chrīstiānīs interfuī numquam#, Plin. Ep. ad Trai. 96 [97], 1, I have never been to any of the trials of the Christians.

1189. The prepositions are chiefly #ad#, #ante#, #com-#, #in#, #inter#, #ob#, #prae#, #sub#, or #super#. In many compounds of these prepositions, however, the dative is due to the general meaning of the verb, as in #cōnfīdit mihī̆#, he puts all trust in me (1181), as contrasted with #cōnsentit mihī̆#, he feels with me, nearly equivalent to #sentit mēcum# (1188).

1190. Instead of the dative, such verbs often have a prepositional construction, particularly when place, literal or figurative, is distinctly to be expressed: as,

#accēdere in fūnus#, Leg. 2, 66, to go to a funeral. #in morbum incidit#, Clu. 175, he fell ill.

1191. Some verbs of intransitive use take, when compounded, either the dative or the accusative. See #adiaceō#, #antecēdō#, #anteeō#, #praecurrō#, #praestō#, #incēdō#, #inlūdō#, #īnsultō#, #invādō#, in the dictionary. And some compounds acquire a transitive use altogether, as #obeō#, #oppugnō#: see 1137.

[Errata: 1188 ... Ph. 2, 75, Dolabella was on hand in all these battles. Ph 2, 75, #pontō nox incubat ātra#, V. 1, 89 #pontō nox incubat ātra#.]

WITH VERBS OF TRANSITIVE USE.

1192. (1.) Many verbs of transitive use take the dative: as,

#ē̆ī fīliam suam in mātrimōnium dat#, 1, 3, 5, he gives this person his own daughter in marriage. #decima legiō ē̆ī grātiās ēgit#, 1, 41, 1, the tenth legion gave him thanks. #huic fert subsidium Puliō#, 5, 44, 13, to him Pulio brings aid. #multīs idem minātur Antōnius#, Ph. 11, 2, to many Antony threatens the same. #reliquī sēsē fugae mandārunt#, 1, 12, 3, the rest betook themselves to flight. #commendō vōbīs meum parvum fīlium#, C. 4, 23, unto your keeping do I commit the little son of mine. #multī sē aliēnissimīs crēdidērunt#, 6, 31, 4, many people put themselves in the hands of utter strangers. #equitēs imperat cīvitātibus#, 6, 4, 6, he issues orders to the communities for horse.

1193. This dative is used with such verbs as #dō#, #trādō#, #tribuō#, #dīvidō#, #ferō#, #praebeō#, #praestō#, #polliceor#, #prōmittō#, #dēbeō#, #negō#, #mōnstrō#, #dīcō#, #nārrō#, #mandō#, #praecipiō#, &c., &c. In the passive construction, the accusative becomes nominative, the dative remaining.

1194. (2.) Many verbs of transitive use compounded with a preposition take a dative connected in sense with the preposition: as,

#nihil novī vōbīs adferam#, RP. 1, 21, I shall not lay any novelty before you. #lēgēs omnium salūtem singulōrum salūtī antepōnunt#, Fin. 3, 64, the law always puts the general safety before the safety of the individual. #timōrem bonīs iniēcistis#, Agr. 1, 23, you have struck terror into the hearts of patriots. #nōluērunt ferīs corpus obicere#, RA. 71, they would not cast his person before ravenous beasts. #nēminem huic praeferō#, N. 8, 1, 1, there is nobody I put before him. #hībernīs Labiēnum praeposuit#, 1, 54, 2, he put Labienus over the winter-quarters. #anitum ōva gallīnīs saepe suppōnimus#, DN. 2, 124, we often put ducks’ eggs under hens.

1195. The prepositions are #circum#, #dē#, #ex#, #post#, or those named in 1189. In many compounds of transitive use, however, the dative is due to the general meaning of the verb, as with those spoken of in 1189.

1196. With these verbs, a prepositional construction is often used, as with the verbs of intransitive use (1190): as,

#iam diū nihil novī ad nōs adferēbātur#, Fam. 2, 14, no news has got to us this long time. For compounds of #circum# and #trāns# with two accusatives, see 1138.

1197. Verbs of transitive use compounded with #com-# have oftener the ablative with #cum#: as, #cōnferte hanc pācem cum illō bellō#, V. 4, 115, just compare this peace with that war. See also in the dictionary, #coniungō# and #compōnō#; also the indirect compounds #comparō#, compare, from #compār#, and #commūnicō#.

1198. With a few compounds of #ad# or #in#, a second accusative is exceptionally used: as, #arbitrum illum adēgit#, Off. 3, 66, he had the other man up before a daysman. So with #inmittō#, Pl. Cap. 548, #īnsinuō#, Lucr. 1, 116, &c., &c. Regularly with #animum advertō#: as, #animum advertī columellam#, TD. 5, 65, I noticed a modest shaft. #quā rē animum adversā#, Caes. C. 1, 80, 4, this fact being paid heed to: compare 1138.

1199. A few compound verbs admit either the dative of the person or thing and accusative of the thing, or the accusative of the person or thing and ablative of the thing; such are #adspergō# and #īnspergō#, #circumdō#, #circumfundō#, #exuō# and #induō#, #impertiō#, #interclūdō#; also the uncompounded #dōnō#: as, #praedam mīlitibus dōnat#, 7, 11, 9, he presents the booty to the soldiers. #scrībam tuum ānulō dōnāstī#, V. 3, 185, you presented your clerk with a ring. For the different constructions of #interdīcō#, see the dictionary.

THE DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.

1200. The dative with many adjectives and some adverbs denotes that to which the quality is directed.

Such have the meaning of useful, necessary, fit, easy, agreeable, known, near, belonging, friendly, faithful, like, and most of their opposites; the adjective is often predicative: as, #vēr ūtile silvīs# (1036), V. G. 2, 323, the spring is good for woods. #est senātōrī necessārium nōsse rem pūblicam#, Leg. 3, 41, for a senator it is indispensable to be conversant with government. #ōrātiōnis genus pompae quam pugnae aptius#, O. 42, a style better suited to the parade than to the field. #convenienter nātūrae vīvere#, Off. 3, 13, to live in touch with nature.

1201. Some adjectives of this class have the dative of a person, the accusative with #ad# of a thing: so #accommodātus#, #aptus#, #idōneus#, #necessārius#, and #ūtilis#; and some denoting feeling have also the accusative with a preposition: #aequus#, #inīquus#, #fidēlis# with #in#, #benevolus# with #ergā#, and #impius# with #adversus#. #propior# and #proximus# sometimes accompany an accusative, like #prope#, #propius#, and #proximē#.

1202. The adjectives #commūnis#, #proprius# or #aliēnus#, #sacer#, #tōtus#, often accompany the construction of the genitive of the owner: see 1238. For #aliēnus# with the ablative, see 1306. Sometimes #aliēnus# has the ablative with #ab#.

1203. Some adjectives denoting relationship, connection, friendship or hostility, become substantives, and as such, admit the genitive also (1103): such are (a.) #adfīnis#, #cōgnātus#; (b.) #aequālis#, #familiāris#, #fīnitimus#, #pār# and #dispār#, #propīnquus#, #vīcīnus#; (c.) #adversārius#, #amīcus#, #inimīcus#, #necessārius#.

1204. In Plautus and Terence, #similis#, the like, the counterpart, and its compounds, regularly take the genitive. The dative, as well as the genitive, is also used from Ennius on, particularly of a limited or approximate likeness: see the dictionary.

(2.) THE OPTIONAL COMPLEMENT.

1205. The dative of a person or thing interested, benefited, harmed, may be added at option to almost any verb: as,

#cōnservāte parentī fīlium, parentem fīliō#, Cael. 80, save the son for the father, the father for the son. #mea domus tibī̆ patet, mihī̆ clausa est#, RA. 145, the very house I own is open for you, is shut upon me. #cui flāvam religās comam, simplex munditiīs?# H. 1, 5, 4, for whom bind’st thou in wreaths thy golden hair, plain in thy neatness? #nōn audēret facere haec viduae mulierī, quae in mē fēcit#, T. Hau. 953, he durst not to an unprotected female do what he hath done towards me.

1206. The place of a verb with the dative of interest is sometimes filled by an interjection, #ecce#, #ei#, #em#, or #vae#: as, #ei mihi quālis erat#, E. 1, 7, V. 2, 274, ah me, how ghastly he did look. #vae vīctīs#, Pl. Ps. 1317, said by Brennus, 390 B.C., L. 5, 48, 9, woe worth the worsted. #vae capitī atque aetātī tuae#, Pl. R. 375, a murrain on thy head and life.

1207. The dative is often added to the entire sentence, where either a genitive or a possessive pronoun limiting a substantive might be used.

In such cases the dative expresses interest, advantage, or disadvantage, while the genitive would simply indicate the owner or the object: as, #trānsfīgitur scūtum Puliōni#, 5, 44, 7, unfortunately for Pulio, his shield gets pierced through and through. #mīlitantī in Hispāniā pater ē̆ī moritur#, L. 29, 29, 6, while serving in Spain he had the misfortune to lose his father. #huic ego mē bellō ducem profiteor#, C. 2, 11, I here proclaim myself captain for this war. #sēsē Caesarī ad pedēs prōiēcērunt#, 1, 31, 2, they cast themselves at Caesar’s feet. #nostrīs mīlitibus spem minuit#, 5, 33, 5, it dashed the hopes of our soldiers. #extergē tibi manūs#, Pl. Most. 267, wipe off thy hands. #vellunt tibi barbam lascīvī puerī#, H. S. 1, 3, 133, the wanton gamins pull thy beard, poor soul.

1208. This dative is sometimes detached from the verb, and used immediately with a substantive, instead of the genitive: as, #Philocōmasiō custōs#, Pl. MG. 271, the keeper for Philocomasium. #rēctor iuvenī#, Ta. 1, 24, a mentor for the young man. So particularly with a gerundive in official expressions: as, #cūrātor mūrīs reficiendīs#, OG. 19, commissioner for rebuilding the walls.

1209. Verbs of warding off sometimes take a dative, especially in poetry, also those of robbing and ridding: as, (a.) #hunc quoque arcēbis gravidō pecorī#, V. G. 3, 154, him also wilt thou for the pregnant herd keep far. #sōlstitium pecorī dēfendite#. V. E. 7, 47, the summer’s heat keep distant for the flock. (b.) #torquem dētrāxit hostī#, Fin. 1, 35, he pulled a torque away from his enemy. #ēripiēs mihī̆ hunc errōrem#, Att. 10, 4, 6, you will rid me of this mistake.

1210. With verbs of motion the dative of the person interested denotes in poetry the end of motion also: as, #multōs Danaūm dēmittimus Orcō#, V. 2, 398, we send down many a Danaan for the nether king. So also the dative of personified words of place: as, #it clāmor caelō#, V. 5, 451, up goes a shout for heaven, i.e. heaven hears a shout. #sēdibus hunc refer ante suīs#, V. 6, 152, first bear him duly to his place of rest, i.e. let his expectant grave receive him.

THE EMOTIONAL DATIVE.

1211. The dative of the personal pronoun is often used with expressions of emotion, interest, surprise, or derision: as,

#quid mihi Celsus agit?# H. E. 1, 3, 15, how fares me Celsus? #Tongilium mihī̆ ēdūxit#, C. 2, 4, he took out Tongilius, bless my soul. #at tibī̆ repente, cum minimē exspectārem, vēnit ad mē Canīnius māne#, Fam. 9, 2, 1, but bless you, sir, when I least dreamt of it, who should drop in on me all at once but Caninius, bright and early.

THE DATIVE OF THE POSSESSOR.

1212. The dative is used with forms of #sum# to denote the possessor: as,

#est hominī cum deō similitūdō#, Leg. 1, 25, man has a resemblance to god. #an nescīs longās rēgibus esse manūs?# O. E. 16, 166, dost possibly not know kings have long arms? #suos quoique mōs#, T. Ph. 454, to every man his own pet way. So also with the compounds #absum#, #dēsum#, #supersum#: as, #hoc ūnum Caesarī dēfuit#, 4, 26, 5, this was all Caesar lacked.

1213. (1.) With #mihī̆ est nōmen#, the name is put either in the dative or in the nominative: as,

#mihī̆ nomen est Iūliō#, or #mihī̆ nōmen est Iūlius#, Gell. 15, 29, 1, my name is Julius. In old Latin and in Sallust, the dative: as, #nōmen Mercuriōst mihī#, Pl. Am. prol. 19, my name is Mercury; later the nominative: as, #canibus pigrīs nōmen erit Pardus, Tigris, Leo#, J. 8, 34, the craven cur shall sport the name of ‘Lion, Tiger, Pard.’ Cicero uses the nominative or rarely the dative, Livy oftener the dative than the nominative. Tacitus puts adjectives in the dative, substantives in the nominative, rarely in the genitive. Caesar does not use the construction.

1214. (2.) With the actives #nōmen dō#, #indō#, #pōnō#, #tribuō#, &c., the name may be in the dative or in the accusative; with the passive of these expressions, the name may be in the dative or in the nominative: as,

#quī tibi nōmen īnsānō posuēre#, H. S. 2, 3, 47, who’ve put on thee the nickname Crank. #quī fīliīs Philippum atque Alexandrum nōmina inposuerat#, L. 35, 47, 5, who had given his sons the names Philip and Alexander. A genitive dependent on #nōmen# is used once by Tacitus and in very late Latin.

1215. With a gerundive, the dative of the possessor denotes the person who has the action to do: see 2243. For the ablative with #ab#, or for #habeō#, see 2243, 2245.

1216. This dative is sometimes used with the perfect participle, and the tenses formed with it: as, #mihī̆ est ēlabōrātum#, Caecil. 40, I have it all worked out. #carmina nūlla mihī sunt scrīpta#, O. Tr. 5, 12, 35, no poetry have I ready made. Rarely with passives of the present system: as, #nūlla placēre diū nec vīvere carmina possunt, quae scrībuntur aquae pōtōribus#, H. E. 1, 19, 2, no verse can take or be longlived that by teetotallers is writ.

THE DATIVE OF RELATION.

1217. The dative may denote the person viewing or judging: as,

#eris mihi magnus Apollō#, V. E. 3, 104, thou shalt to me the great Apollo be. #Quīntia fōrmōsa est multīs, mihi candida, longa, rēcta est#, Cat. 86, 1, in many eyes is Quintia fair, to me she’s bonny, tall, and straight. From Caesar on, participles are often used to denote the person viewing or judging: as, #est urbe ēgressīs tumulus#, V. 2, 713, there is, as you get out of town, a mound. #in ūniversum aestimantī#, Ta. G. 6, looking at it generally.

1218. In imitation of a Greek idiom, #volēns#, #cupiēns#, or #invītus#, is used by Sallust and Tacitus in agreement with a dative dependent on a form of #sum#, the combination being equivalent to a subject with a form of #volō#, #cupiō#, or #invītus sum#, respectively: as, #cēterīs remanēre volentibus fuit#, Ta. H. 3, 43, i.e. #cēterī remanēre voluērunt#, the rest were minded to bide where they were. Once in Livy.

II. THE PREDICATIVE DATIVE.

THE DATIVE OF TENDENCY OR RESULT.

1219. (1.) Certain datives are used with a form of #sum# to denote what a thing tends to, proves, or is. This dative is generally accompanied by a dative of the person interested: as,

#auxiliō īs fuit#, Pl. Am. prol. 92, he was a help to them. #odiō sum Rōmānīs#, L. 35, 19, 6, I am an abomination in the eyes of Rome. #potestne bonum cuiquam malō esse?# Par. 7, can good prove bad for any human being? #L. Cassius identidem quaerere solēbat, cui bonō fuisset#, RA. 84, Cassius used to ask for ever and ever, who the person benefited was, or who the gainer was. #nēminī meus adventus labōrī aut sūmptuī fuit#, V. 1, 16, my visit did not prove a bother or an expense to a soul. #rēs et fortūnae tuae mihī̆ maximae cūrae sunt#, Fam. 6, 5, 1, your money-matters are an all-absorbing interest to me.

1220. There are many of these datives, mostly abstracts and all singular, some of the commonest are #cūrae#, #ūsuī#, #praesidiō#, #cordī#, #odiō#, #auxiliō#, #impedīmentō#, #salūtī#, #voluptātī#. The adjectives #magnus#, #maior#, #maximus#, or #tantus# and #quantus#, are sometimes used in agreement with them; and the dative #frūgī# sometimes has #bonae#.

1221. Instead of the dative of tendency, a predicative nominative or accusative is rarely used: thus, #possessiōnem līberam Dardaniae sōlāciō fore#, L. 40, 57, 9, that the unrestricted occupancy of Dardania would prove comforting, but, #domestica quiēs sōlācium fuit#, L. 6, 30, 9, the peace that prevailed at home was a solid comfort. Prepositional expressions with #prō# and #in# also occur.

1222. (2.) The dative is also used with a few verbs of considering or accounting to denote what a thing is accounted.

So with such verbs as #dō#, #dūcō#, #habeō#, #tribuō#, and #vertō#: as, #vitiō mihī̆ dant, quod mortem hominis necessāriī graviter ferō#, Matius in Fam. 11, 28, 2, the world scores it against me that I take the murder of a near and dear friend to heart. #postquam paupertās probrō habērī coepit#, S. C. 12, 1, after lack of wealth began to count as a stigma.

THE DATIVE OF PURPOSE OR INTENTION.

1223. A few datives are used to denote what a thing is intended to be. This dative is generally accompanied by a dative of the person interested.

So (a.) #dōnō# and #mūnerī#: as, #ēmit eam dōnō mihī̆#, T. Eu. 135, he bought her as a gift for me. #centum bovēs mīlitibus dōnō dedit#, L. 7, 37, 3, he gave the soldiers a hundred oxen as a present. Also (b.) #auxiliō#, #praesidiō#, and #subsidiō#, used of military operations, chiefly with verbs of motion: as, #iī, quī praesidiō contrā castra erant relictī, subsidiō suīs iērunt#, 7, 62, 8, the men that had been left as a protection against the camp, went as a reinforcement to their own side.

1224. For the datives #dōnō# and #mūnerī#, a predicative nominative or accusative is sometimes used: as, #corōnam Iovī dōnum in capitōlium mittunt#, L. 2, 22, 6, they send a crown to the capitol as a present for Jupiter. Prepositional expressions are also used for #auxiliō#, &c.: as, #ad praesidium#, L. 3, 5, 3, #in praesidium#, L. 31, 16, 7, for protection, #auxiliī causā#, L. 2, 24, 4, to help.

1225. The dative #receptuī# is also used in military language to denote purpose: as, #Caesar receptuī canī iussit#, 7, 47, 1, Caesar ordered the retreat sounded. #Quīnctius receptuī canere iussit#, L. 34, 39, 13. This dative is sometimes attached immediately to a substantive: as, #receptuī sīgnum#, Ph. 13, 15, the trumpet for retreat.

[Erratum: 1224 ... as, #ad praesidium# as.]

THE GENITIVE.

1226. The genitive is principally used with nouns, less frequently with verbs. Sometimes even when it seems to be dependent on a verb, it really depends on a substantive understood, or on a noun virtually contained or implied in the verb. Some verbs require an accusative also, in addition to the genitive.

I. THE GENITIVE WITH SUBSTANTIVES.

1227. A substantive is often limited by another substantive in the genitive.

The things denoted by the two words are usually distinct: as, #metus hostium#, the fear of the enemy, i.e. either (a.) which they feel (1231), or (b.) which is felt towards them (1260); #magnī ponderis saxa#, stones of great weight (1239). Sometimes, however, they are more or less the same: as, #mīlitum pars#, part of the soldiers (1242); #magna multitūdō perditōrum hominum#, a perfect swarm of desperadoes (1255).

1228. Two or even three genitives expressing different relations, sometimes limit one substantive: as, #superiōrum diērum Sabīnī cunctātiō#, 3, 18, 6, Sabinus’s dilatoriness in days preceding. #eōrum diērum cōnsuētūdine itineris nostrī exercitūs perspectā#, 2, 17, 2, studying up the order of march followed by our army in those days.

1229. The limited substantive is often omitted, when it is obvious from the context: as, #ventum erat ad Vestae#, sc. #aedem#, H. S. 1, 9, 35, to Vesta’s were we come, i.e. to her temple. #aberam bīduī#, sc. #iter#, Att. 5, 17, 1, I was two days distant. Usually so, when it is expressed with another genitive, which generally precedes: as, #quis est, quī possit cōnferre vītam Trebōnī cum Dolābellae?# Ph. 11, 9, who is there that can compare the life of Trebonius with Dolabella’s?

1230. Instead of the genitive depending on a substantive, an equivalent adjective or a prepositional expression is often used. Such substitutions will be mentioned below in their appropriate places.

1231. The relations expressed by the limiting genitive vary very much according to the context. These relations may be put in classes, as below (1232-1260). But it must be remembered that as the genitive connects substantives in a loose way, the same construction may sometimes be referred to more than one head.

THE GENITIVE OF THE SUBJECT, CAUSE, ORIGIN, OR OWNER.

1232. (1.) The genitive is used to denote that which does the action, or which causes, originates, or possesses the object designated by the substantive it limits: as,

#metus hostium#, Gell. 9, 12, 13, the fear of the enemy, i.e. which they feel. #adventus Caesaris#, 6, 41, 4, the arrival of Caesar. #bellum Venetōrum#, 3, 16, 1, the war with the Venetans. #illud Solōnis#, CM. 50, Solon’s memorable words. #Canachī sīgna#, Br. 70, statues by Canachus. #Cupīdinis sīgnum#, V. 4, 135, the statue representing Cupid. #huius sīgnīs#, V. 3, 9, with statues belonging to this man. #pācem Ariovistī#, 1, 37, 2, a peaceful policy on Ariovistus’s part. #Cannārum pugna#, L. 23, 43, 4, the battle of Cannae (1427). #abacī vāsa omnia#, V. 4, 35, all the vessels on the sideboard. #prīdiē eius diēī#, 1, 47, 2, the day before that day (1413). #labrōrum tenus#, Lucr. 1, 940, the length of the lips (1420).

1233. Instead of the genitive, an adjective is often used to express such relations; less frequently a prepositional construction: as,

(a.) #odium paternum#, N. 23, 1, 3, the hatred felt by his father. #servīlī tumultū#, 1, 40, 5, in the slave insurrection. #bellō Cassiānō#, 1, 13, 2, in the war with Cassius. #illud Cassiānum, cui bonō fuerit#, Ph. 2, 35, Cassius’s test question, ‘who the gainer was.’ #erīlis patria#, Pl. B. 170, my master’s birthplace. #intrā domesticōs parietēs#, C. 2, 1, within the walls of our houses. So usually with names of countries and of towns: as, #anus Corinthia#, T. Hau. 600, an old woman of Corinth. #pugna Cannēnsis#, L. 22, 50, 1, the battle of Cannae. Often in a generalizing sense: as, #paternus māternusque sanguī̆s#, RA. 66, the blood of a father and of a mother. (b.) #ad Cannās pugnam#, L. 22, 58, 1, the battle of Cannae.

1234. The possessive pronoun is regularly used instead of the possessive genitive of a personal or reflexive pronoun (1230): as,

#mea domus#, RA. 145, my own house. #in tuā quādam epistolā#, Att. 9, 10, 3, in a letter of yours. But sometimes, for emphasis, the genitive of the personal or reflexive is used: as, #magnō suī cum perīculō#, 4, 28, 2, with great personal risk; commonly so with #omnium# or #utriusque#: as, #voluntātī vestrūm omnium pāruī#, DO. 3, 208, I yielded to your joint wish; see however 1235.

1235. A word in apposition with the possessive pronoun is put in the genitive: as, #meā ūnīus operā#, Pis. 6, by my sole instrumentality. #ad vestram omnium caedem#, C. 4, 4, for the murder of you all (1230). So particularly #ipse#, #omnis#, #sōlus#, and #ūnus#.

1236. The genitive is often used predicatively with verbs meaning am, belong, become, make, seem, am accounted, &c., &c.: as,

#litterāriī ista sunt lūdī#, Quint. 1, 4, 27, such questions belong to the infant school. #hīc versus Plautī nōn est, hīc est#, Fam. 9, 16, 4, this line is not Plautus’s, this one is. #omnia, quae mulieris fuērunt, virī fīunt#, Top. 23, everything which was the woman’s becomes the man’s. #neque sē iūdicāre Galliam potius esse Ariovistī quam populī Rōmānī#, 1, 45, 1, and that he did not think Gaul was any more Ariovistus’s than it was the Romans’. #hostiumst potīta#, Pl. E. 562, into the foemen’s hands she fell.

1237. The possessive genitive of a person or of an abstract is particularly common when the subject of the verb is an infinitive or sentence: as,

(a.) #scyphīs pugnāre Thrācum est#, H. 1, 27, 1, to fight with bowls is Vandal work. #erat āmentis, cum aciem vidērēs, pācem cōgitāre#, Lig. 28, it was a madman’s act, dreaming of peace when you saw the troops in battalia. #temporī cēdere semper sapientis est habitum#, Fam. 4, 9, 2, shaping your course to circumstance has always passed as the sign of a wise man. #mentīrī nōn est meum#, T. Hau. 549, telling lies is not my style (1234). (b.) #nōn est pudōris meī, mē prōpugnātōrem P. Scīpiōnis profitērī#, V. 4, 80, it is not in keeping with my delicacy to set up as the champion of Scipio. #hārum rērum esse dēfēnsōrem magnī animī est#, Sest. 99, to be the defender of these interests takes heroism. #hoc sentīre prūdentiae est, facere fortitūdinis#, Sest. 86, to think thus shows wisdom, to act thus, courage. #negāvit mōris esse Graecōrum, ut in convīviō virōrum accumberent mulierēs#, V. 1, 66, he said it was not manners among the Greeks to have women at table at a men’s dinner-party.

1238. With the possessive genitive, the limited substantive is sometimes defined by #commūnis#, #proprius# or #aliēnus#, #sacer#, or #tōtus# added: as, #hoc proprium virtūtis exīstimant#, 6, 23, 2, this they consider a special characteristic of bravery. #omnia quae nostra erant propria#, RA. 150, everything which was our peculiar property (1234). #illa īnsula eōrum deōrum sacra putātur#, V. 1, 48, that island is considered the hallowed property of those gods. #iam mē Pompēī tōtum esse scīs#, Fam. 2, 13, 2, you are aware that I am become Pompey’s, out and out.

THE GENITIVE OF QUALITY.

1239. (2.) The genitive with an adjective in agreement is used to denote quality, either attributively or predicatively: as,

(a.) Attributively: #magnī ponderis saxa#, 2, 29, 3, stones of great weight. #summae speī adulēscentēs#, 7, 63, 9, young men of high promise. #diērum vīgintī supplicātiō#, 4, 38, 5, a twenty day thanksgiving. #bēlua multōrum es capitum#, H. E. 1, 1, 76, a many-headed beast art thou. #eius modī cōnsilium#, 5, 29, 5, such a plan. #dēmittō auriculās ut inīquae mentis asellus#, H. S. 1, 9, 20, I drop my ears like Neddy in the sulks (269). #vāllō pedum IX#, 5, 42, 1, with a nine foot palisade. (b.) Predicatively: #magnae habitus auctōritātis#, 7, 77, 3, passing for a man of great influence. #flūminis erat altitūdō circiter pedum trium#, 2, 18, 3, the depth of the river was about three feet. The genitive of quality resembles the ablative of quality (1375); the two are sometimes combined: as, #hominem maximī corporis terribilīque faciē#, N. 15, 4, 1, a man of gigantic frame and with an awe-inspiring presence. But the genitive is common in designations of size and number.

1240. A substantive expressing quality with #aequus#, #pār#, #similis#, or #dissimilis# in agreement, is put not in the genitive, but in the ablative, by Cicero, Caesar, Nepos, and Livy.

THE PARTITIVE GENITIVE.

1241. (3.) The partitive genitive denotes a whole of which the limited substantive denotes a part. There are two kinds of partitive genitive, the numerical and the quantitative: as,

(a.) #mīlitum pars#, 6, 40, 8, part of the soldiers, numerical partitive (1242). (b.) #multum aestātis#, 5, 22, 4, much of the summer, quantitative partitive (1247).

1242. (a.) The numerical partitive is a plural or a collective, limiting a word expressing part of the number: as,

#mīlitum pars#, 6, 40, 8, part of the soldiers. #pars equitātūs#, 4, 16, 2, part of the cavalry. #alter cōnsulum#, L. 6, 35, 5, one of the two consuls. #uter est īnsānior hōrum?# H. S. 2, 3, 102, which of these two is crazier? #eōrum neuter#, Pis. 62, neither of the two. #multae istārum arborum#, CM. 59, many of the trees you see there. #quis omnium mortālium?# V. 5, 179, who among all the sons of men? #nēmō nostrūm#, RA. 55, not one of us. #nihil hōrum#, RA. 138, none of these things. #Stertinius, sapientum octāvus#, H. S. 2, 3, 296, Stertinius, of sages eighth. #ō maior iuvenum#, H. AP. 366, O elder of the youths. #hōrum omnium fortissimī sunt Belgae#, 1, 1, 3, of all these the stoutest fighters are the Belgians. Also with superlative adverbs: as, #deōrum maximē Mercurium colunt#, Ta. G. 9, of the gods, they revere Mercury most. #minumē gentium#, Pl. Poen. 690, T. Eu. 625, no, never in the world.

1243. #uterque#, each, both, often takes the genitive plural of a pronoun: as, #quōrum uterque#, #uterque eōrum#, #hōrum#, #nostrūm#, &c.; sometimes of a substantive and pronoun combined: as, #utriusque hārum rērum#, TD. 1, 65, of each of these things. #quārum cīvitātum utraque#, V. 5, 56, each of these communities. With a substantive alone, it is oftener attributive: as, #uterque dux#, Marc. 24, each commander; and sometimes with neuter pronouns: as, #quod utrumque#, Brut. in Fam. 11, 1, 1, N. 25, 2, 4. The plural #utrīque# is used both ways: as, #ab utrīsque vestrūm#, Fam. 11, 21, 5, and #ab utrīsque nōbīs#, Brut. in Fam. 11, 20, 3.

1244. The plurals #tot#, #totidem#, and #quot#, are not used partitively, and #omnēs# and #cūnctī# only so by poets and late prose writers. #plērīque# is used either way, in agreement, or with the genitive.

1245. The numerical partitive is exceptionally used in poetry with the positive of a descriptive adjective: as, #sāncte deōrum#, V. 4, 576, thou holy of the gods. And in late prose, particularly with words denoting a class of persons: as, #cum dēlēctīs peditum#, L. 26, 5, 3, with the pick of the infantry. #levīs cohortium#, Ta. 3, 39, the light-armed of the cohorts.

1246. Instead of the numerical partitive, a prepositional expression with #ante#, #inter#, or #in#, or with #ex# or #dē#, is sometimes used: as, #ante aliōs acceptissimus#, L. 1, 15, 8, most welcome before others. So particularly #quīdam# and #ūnus#, #duo#, #trēs#, with #ex# or #dē#: as, #quīdam ex hīs#, 2, 17, 2, one of these. #ūnus dē multīs#, Fin. 2, 66, one of the common herd. But #ūnus# sometimes has the genitive: as, #ūnus multōrum#, H. S. 1, 9, 71. And usually so in a series, when #ūnus# is followed by #alter#, #alius#, #tertius#, &c.

1247. (b.) The quantitative partitive is usually a singular, limiting a neuter singular word denoting amount. The limited word is either a nominative, or an accusative without a preposition. This genitive often borders very closely on the genitive of definition (1255): as,

#multum aestātis#, 5, 22, 4, much of the summer. #amplius obsidum#, 6, 9, 7, something more extensive in the way of hostages. #minus dubitātiōnis#, 1, 14, 1, less of hesitation. #quam minimum spatiī#, 3, 19, 1, as little time as possible. #id aetātis#, DO. 1, 207, at that time of life. #id temporis#, Fin. 5, 1, at that time of day. #quid causae est?# Ac. 1, 10, what earthly reason is there? #hoc litterulārum#, Att. 12, 1, 1, this apology for a letter, or this hasty line. #hoc sibī̆ sōlācī prōpōnēbant#, 7, 15, 2, they laid this flattering unction to their souls.

1248. Such neuters are: #multum#, #plērumque#, #plūrimum#, #amplius#, #plūs#, #paulum#, #minus#, #minimum#, #tantum#, #quantum#, #tantundem#, #nimium#; in poetry and late prose, also many other adjectives singular and plural. Furthermore, #id#, #hoc#, #illud#, #quod#, #quid#, &c., and #nihil#; also #abunde#, #adfatim#, #largiter#, #nimis#, #partim#, #parum#, and #satis#.

1249. A few adjectives of place and time indicating a particular part of an object, are commonly used in immediate agreement with their substantives: as,

#summus mōns#, 1, 22, 1, the highest part of the mountain, or the mountain-top. #extrēmā hieme, mediā aestāte#, IP. 35, at the end of the winter, in midsummer. Such are: #prīmus#, #intimus#, #medius#, #extrēmus#, #postrēmus#, #ūltimus#, #summus#, #īnfimus#, #īmus#, #reliquus#. But the neuter is sometimes used partitively: as, #aestātis extrēmum erat#, S. I. 90, 1, it was the end of summer. #summa pectoris#, Fam. 1, 9, 15, the upper parts of the breast.

1250. The limiting genitive is often the neuter singular of an adjective used substantively: as,

#aliquid bonī#, T. Andr. 398, something good. #aliquid malī#, T. Eu. 999, something bad. #numquid tandem novī?# Br. 10, nothing new, pray? This use is ordinarily confined to stems in #-o-#; rarely otherwise: as, #plūs inānis#, Lucr. 1, 365, more of the void: and usually only when joined with an #-o-# stem: as, #nihil solidī, nihil ēminentis#, DN. 1, 75, no solidity, no projection.

1251. The partitive construction sometimes extends to the predicate: as, #id erit sīgnī mē invītum facere#, RA. 83, this will be something of an indication that I act with reluctance; #sīgnī# is here in the predicate, and yet made dependent on #id#. #quid ergō est tuī cōnsulī?# Brut. in Fam. 11, 1, 3, what then is your advice? #quid suī cōnsilī sit ostendit#, 1, 21, 2, he explains what his plan is. #quid est enim huic reliquī?# Sull. 89, for what is there left for my client? #hī mīlitēs nihil reliquī victīs fēcēre#, S. C. 11, 7, these soldiers left nothing over to the conquered. #nihil ad celeritātem sibī̆ reliquī fēcērunt#, 2, 26, 5, as for speed, they left no effort unspared.

1252. The accusative with a preposition also sometimes has the genitive, as, #in id redāctus sum locī#, T. Ph. 979, I am reduced to such a strait. #ad id locī#, S. C. 45, 3, to that spot. #ad id locōrum#, S. I. 63, 6, up to that time. #in multum diēī#, L. 9, 44, 11, till late in the day. In Cicero, also the ablatives #eō#, #eōdem#, and #quō#, with #locī#: as, #eō locī#, Sest. 68, in that position. And in later writers, other ablatives, with or without a preposition, also have a genitive.

1253. Some appellatives of place are put in the genitive with adverbs of place: as, #ubinam gentium?# Pl. Mer. 434, C. 1, 9, where in the world? #nusquam gentium#, T. Ad. 540, nowhere in the world. Similarly, #locī# with adverbs of time or order, as with #intereā# in Plautus and Terence, #postideā# in Plautus, #posteā# in Sallust, and #inde# in Lucretius; also #locōrum# with #adhūc# and #postid# in Plautus.

1254. In Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus, genitives of abstracts are used with the adverbs #eō#, #quō#, and #hūc#: as, #eō miseriārum#, S. I. 14, 3, to that pitch of distress. Ones with #ut#: #ut quisque audentiae habuisset, adcurrerent#, Ta. 15, 53, they should run up, with a speed commensurate in every case to their daring.

[Errata: 1241 ... (b.) . invisible 1242a ... #Stertinius, sapientum octāvus# octāvos 1250 ... Lucr. 1, 365 1. 365]

THE GENITIVE OF DEFINITION.

1255. (4.) The genitive is used to define that of which a thing consists: as,

#magna multitūdō perditōrum hominum#, 3, 17, 4, a perfect swarm of desperadoes. #innumerābile pondus aurī#, Sest. 93, a weight of gold too great to count. #mīlle numerō nāvium clāssem#, V. 1, 48, an armada a thousand sail strong.

1256. The genitive of an explicit word containing the leading idea is sometimes used to define a more general word; as,

#praedae pecudum hominumque#, L. 24, 20, 5, booty consisting of cattle and human beings. #pignora coniugum ac līberōrum#, L. 2, 1, 5, pledges in the shape of wives and children. #cōnfīsus mūnītiōne fossae#, Caes. C. 1, 42, 3, relying on the defensive works in the shape of a moat. Rarely in poetry and late prose, the proper name of a place, with #urbs#, #prōmunturium#, &c.: as, #urbem Patavī#, V., 1, 247, the city of Patavium (1045). Particularly with the words #vōx#, #nōmen#, #genus#, and especially #causa#: as, #haec vōx voluptātis#, Fin. 2, 6, this word ‘pleasure.’ #nōmen amīcitiae#, Fin. 2, 78, the name ‘friendship.’ Compare #nōmen frāternum#, 1, 36, 5, the name of brothers (1233). #haec īgnōminiae causa#, Clu. 120, this reason, namely the censor’s stigma. #parvulae causae vel falsae suspīciōnis vel terrōris repentīnī#, Caes. C. 3, 72, 4, insignificant causes, as for instance ungrounded suspicion or a panic. #propter eam causam sceleris istīus#, V. 4, 113, for this reason, namely the crime of the defendant.

1257. The genitive of definition is very common with #causā#, less common with #grātiā#, to define what the motive or cause is: as,

#amīcitiae causā#, 1, 39, 2, from motives of friendship. Compare #vestrā magis hoc causā volēbam, quam meā#, DO. 1, 164, I wished this more for your sake than for my own (1234). #honestātis amplitūdinisque grātiā#, RA. 15, in compliment to their respectability and high social standing. So also sometimes with #nōmine#, and in old or official Latin, with #ergō#.

1258. Conversely, the genitive of a generic word denoting a person is sometimes added to a leading word defining the kind of a person: as, #frūstum puerī#, Pl. Per. 849, thou bit of a boy. #mōnstrum hominis#, T. Eu. 696, thou fiend in human shape. #quaedam pestēs hominum#, Fam. 5, 8, 2, some regular plagues in the shape of men.

1259. #quidquid est#, #quantum est#, #quod est#, or #quodcumque est#, with a genitive, is equivalent to an emphatic #omnis#: as, #quidquid patrum est#, L. 3, 17, 5, whatever there is in the shape of senators, i.e. every single senator. #quod est pecūniae, trādit#, Caes. C. 2, 20, 8, what there is in the-way of money, he hands over. Similarly #tantum# for #tot#: as, #tantum hominum#, Pl. Poen. 619, such a mass of men.

THE OBJECTIVE GENITIVE.

1260. (5.) The objective genitive denotes the object of the action expressed in the limited substantive: as,

#metus hostium#, Gell. 9, 12, 13, the fear of the enemy, i.e. which is felt towards them. #vēnditiō bonōrum#, RA. 110, sale of the goods. #lūctū fīlī#, DO. 2, 193, from grief for his son. This construction is freely used, even when the parallel verb has a dative, an ablative, or a prepositional expression: as, #fīdūciā locī#, 7, 19, 2, from confidence in the position. #līberātiōnem culpae#, Lig. 1, acquittal from guilt. #mīlitiae vacātiōnem#, 6, 14, 1, exemption from military service. #opīniōne trium legiōnum dēiectus#, 5, 48, 1, disappointed in his hope of three legions. #deōrum opīniō#, TD. 1, 30, a conception of the gods. #miserrima est contentiō honōrum#, Off. 1, 87, a scramble for office is a pitiful thing.

1261. Instead of the objective genitive, a prepositional expression is sometimes used with greater precision: as,

#metus ā vī atque īrā deōrum#, DN. 1, 45, fear of the might and wrath of the gods. So especially the accusative, usually denoting a person, with #in#, #ergā#, or #adversus#, combined with substantives denoting feeling: as, #odium in hominum ūniversum genus#, TD. 4, 25, hatred to all mankind. #vestra ergā mē voluntās#, C. 4, 1, your good-will towards me.

1262. A possessive pronoun or adjective is sometimes used for the objective genitive: as,

(a.) #odiō tuō#, T. Ph. 1016, from hate to thee. #tuā fīdūciā#, V. 5, 176, from his reliance on you. #aspectūque suō#, Lucr. 1, 91, and at the sight of her. (b.) #metus hostīlis#, S. I. 41, 2, fear felt of the enemy. #servīlis percontātiō#, DO. 2, 327, crossquestioning of the servant-girls. #firmus adversus mīlitārem largītiōnem#, Ta. H. 2, 82, dead-set against any largess to the military.

II. THE GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.

1263. (1.) The genitive is used with many adjectives to denote the object.

Such are chiefly adjectives meaning (a.) desirous, (b.) knowing, or remembering, (c.) participating, controlling, or guilty, (d.) full, and most of their opposites: as, (a.) #aurī cupidus#, Pl. Poen. 179, eager for gold. #sapientiae studiōsōs, id est enim philosophōs#, TD. 5, 9, devotees of wisdom, for that is what ‘philosophers’ means. So also #aemulus#, #avidus#, #fastīdiōsus#, #invidus#. (b.) #gnārus rē̆ī pūblicae#, Br. 228, familiar with government. #rē̆ī mīlitāris perītissimus#, 1, 21, 4, a master of the art military. #hominēs adulēscentulōs, inperītōs rērum#, T. Andr. 910, mere hobbledehoys, not up in the world’s ways. #imperītus mōrum#, RA. 143, behind the times. #immemor beneficiōrum, memor patriae#, Ph. 2, 27, forgetful of kindnesses, never forgetting his country. So also #cōnscius#, #cōnsultus#, #īnscius#, #īnsolēns#, #īnsolitus#, #īnsuētus#, #iēiūnus#, #prōvidus#, #prūdēns#, #rudis#. (c.) #praedae participēs#, Caes. C. 3, 82, 1, sharing in the booty. #manifestus tantī sceleris#, S. I. 35, 8, caught in committing this atrocious crime. #expers glōriae#, IP. 57, without a share in the glory. So also #adfīnis#, #compos#, #cōnsors#, #exhērēs#, #potēns#, #reus#. (d.) #negōtī plēnus#, Pl. Ps. 380, full of business. #fōns plēnissimus piscium#, V. 4, 118, a fountain swarming with fish. #refertō praedōnum marī#, IP. 31, when the sea was crammed with corsairs. So also #fertilis#, #inops#, #līberālis#, #nūdus#, #prōfūsus#.

1264. In poetry and late prose, a great many other adjectives of these meanings, besides those mentioned above, are also used with the genitive. Such are principally: (a.) #avārus#, #cūriōsus#, #incūriōsus#, #sēcūrus#. (b.) #nescius#, #praesāgus#, #praescius#, #scītus#. (c.) #exsors#, #immūnis#, #impos#, #impotēns#, #innocēns#, #innoxius#, #īnsōns#, #noxius#, #suspectus#. (d.) #abundāns#, #dīves#, #egēnus#, #inānis#, #indigus#, #largus#, #parcus#, #pauper#, #prōdigus#, #sterilis#, #vacuus#.

1265. With #cōnscius# and the genitive of a thing, the dative of a person is sometimes added: as, #tot flāgitiōrum exercituī meō cōnscius#, Ta. 1, 43, a participant with my army in so many outrages. Sometimes #cōnscius# has the dative of a thing: as, #mēns cōnscia factīs#, Lucr. 3, 1018, the mind of guilt aware.

1266. (2.) The genitive of the object is often used with present participles which express permanent condition.

These participles are chiefly from verbs which have a transitive use. Not common in old Latin: as, #amantem uxōris#, Pl. As. 857, devoted to his wife, #fugitāns lītium#, T. Ph. 623, inclined to dodge a suit at law. Very common in Cicero: as, #semper appetentēs glōriae praeter cēterās gentīs fuistis#, IP. 7, you have always been more hungry for glory than any other nation. Especially in set expressions: as, #homo amantissimus patriae#, Sull. 34, #vir amantissimus rē̆ī pūblicae#, C. 4, 13, ever a devoted patriot. #negōtī gerentēs#, Sest. 97, business men. #aliēnī appetēns#, DO. 2, 135, S. C. 5, 4, always hankering after other people’s things. In Caesar seldom: as, #fugiēns labōris#, C. 1, 69, 3, apt to shirk exertion.

1267. The genitive is hardly ever found with adjectives in #-āx# (284): as, #huius re͡i mendācem#, Pl. As. 855, untruthful in this point. But in poetry, from Vergil and Horace on, and in late prose, a few genitives occur with adjectives whose parallel verbs have a transitive use, such as #capāx#, #edāx#, #tenāx#, &c.: as, #tempus edāx rērum#, O. 15, 234, thou all-devourer--time.

1268. Some of the adjectives which usually take the genitive have occasionally other constructions.

Thus, with #adfīnis# the dative also occurs (1200), rarely with #aemulus# (1183); the ablative with adjectives of fulness, as #dīves#, #plēnus#, and #refertus# (1387); #iūre# with #cōnsultus# and #perītus# (1385). For #vacuus#, &c., see 1306. Prepositional constructions also occur with these adjectives, such as the accusative with #ad# or #in#, or the ablative with #ab#, #dē#, or #in#: see the dictionary.

1269. For the genitive, with words denoting relationship, connection, friendship, or hostility, see 1203; with #similis#, 1204. With #dignus# and #indignus#, worthy and unworthy, the ablative is regularly used (1392); rarely the genitive: as, #nōn ego sum dignus salūtis?# Pl. Tri. 1153, don’t I deserve a greeting too? #indignus avōrum#, V. 12, 649, unworthy of my sires.

1270. (3.) In poetry and late prose, the genitive is used very freely with many adjectives of various meanings, often merely to indicate what they apply to: as,

#nēmō mīlitāris rē̆ī callidior habēbātur#, Ta. H. 2, 32, at soldiering nobody was thought to have a greater knack. #vetus operis ac labōris#, Ta. 1, 20, an old hand at the toil and moil of army life. #aevī mātūrus Acestēs#, V. 5, 73, Acestes, ripe in years. #sērī studiōrum#, H. S. 1, 10, 21, what laggards at your books. #integer vītae scelerisque pūrus#, H. 1, 22, 1, the man unspotted in his life and clean of sin. #fessī rērum#, V. 1, 178, in travail spent. #satin tū sānu’s mentis aut animī tuī?# Pl. Tri. 454, art thou quite right in thy five wits? (1339).

III. THE GENITIVE WITH VERBS.

VERBS OF VALUING.

1271. A few neuter adjectives of quantity are put in the genitive with verbs of valuing to denote the amount of estimation; such genitives are:

#magnī#, #plūris#, #plūrimī#; #parvī#, #minōris#, #minimī#; #tantī#, #quantī#.

The verbs with which these genitives are used are #aestimō#, #dūcō#, #faciō#, #habeō#, #pendō#, #putō#, and #sum#; rarely #exīstimō#: as, #magnī opera eius aestimāta est#, N. 24, 1, 2, his services were rated high. #nōn magnī pendō#, Pl. As. 460, I don’t care much. #sua parvī pendere#, S. C. 12, 2, a setting small store by what they had of their own. #Verrēsne tibī̆ tantī fuit?# V. 1, 77, was Verres so important in your eyes? #est mihī̆ tantī#. C. 2, 15, it is well worth my while. #quantī is ā cīvibus suīs fieret īgnōrābās?# V. 4, 19, did not you know how the man was prized by his own townsmen? Rarely #maximī#: as, #maximī aestimāre#, Clu. 159, to think all the world of.

1272. In expressions of worthlessness, other genitives are also used thus; such are #nihilī#, or, usually with a negative, #āssis#, #floccī#, #naucī#, #pilī#, #teruncī#: as, #nōn āssis facis?# Cat. 43, 13, car’st not a doit? So also #huius#: as, #huius nōn faciam#, T. Ad. 163, I shall not care a snap.

1273. With #aestimō#, the ablatives #magnō# and #permagnō# are sometimes used: as, #quid? tū ista permagnō aestimās?# V. 4, 13, tell me, do you rate that sort of thing very high yourself? Compare 1390.

1274. The genitives #tantī# and #quantī#, #plūris# and #minōris# are also used with verbs of buying and selling, hiring and letting, and costing. But other words are put in the ablative with these verbs: see 1391. For #magnī#, &c., with #rēfert# and #interest#, see 1279.

1275. A similar genitive occurs in one or two set forms, such as #aequī bonīque dīcō#, or #faciō#, #aequī faciō#, and #bonī cōnsulō#: as, #istūc, Chremēs, aequī bonīque faciō#, T. Hau. 787, I count that, Chremes, fair and good. #aequī istūc faciō#, Pl. MG. 784, that’s all the same to me.

THE VERBS #rēfert# AND #interest#.

1276. #rēfert# and #interest#, it concerns, are much alike in meaning and in construction. But the use of #rēfert# is characteristic of old Latin and poetry; in prose from Cicero on it is almost supplanted by #interest#, especially where persons are concerned.

1277. (1.) With #rēfert# and #interest#, a first or second person concerned is denoted by the possessive pronoun forms #meā#, #tuā#, #nostrā#, #vestrā#; and, from Cicero on, the third person reflexive by #suā#: as,

(a.) #quid id rēfert meā?# Pl. Cur. 395, what’s that to me? #tuā istūc rēfert maxumē#, Pl. Tri. 319, that is of most concern to thee. #nōn suā rēferre#, Quinct. 19, that it did not concern him. #nōn nostrā magis quam vestrā rēfert vōs nōn rebellāre#, L. 34, 17, 7, it is not more for our interest than for your own that you should not make war again. Without the verb: as, #quid istūc nostrā#, or #quid id nostrā?# T. Ph. 800, 940, what’s that to us? (b.) #tuā et meā maximē interest tē valēre#, Fam. 16, 4, 4, your health is a matter of the highest importance to you and to me. #vestrā hōc maximē interest#, Sull. 79, this is of vital moment to you.

1278. (2.) With #interest#, from Cicero on, a third person or thing concerned is denoted by the genitive. Also with #rēfert#, a few times from Sallust on: as,

(a.) #quid eius intererat?# RA. 96, what concern was it of his? #interesse rē̆ī pūblicae sē cum Pompēiō colloquī#, Caes. C. 1, 24, 5, that it was of importance to the common weal that he should have a parley with Pompey. (b.) #faciundum aliquid, quod illōrum magis quam suā rētulisse vidērētur#, S. I. 111, 1, that he must do something which should seem more for the other side’s good than his own. For the accusative with #ad# with these verbs, or for the dative with #rēfert#, see the dictionary.

1279. The matter of concern is expressed by a sentence or infinitive, or by a neuter pronoun; rarely by an appellative: as, #nōn quō meā interesset locī nātūra#, Att. 3, 19, 1, not that the character of the place concerned me. The degree of concern is expressed by an adverb, as #magnopere#, by a neuter accusative, as #multum#, or by a genitive of estimation, #magnī#, #permagnī#, #plūris#, #parvī#, #tantī#, #quantī# (1271).

[Erratum: 1277a ... T. Ph. 800, 940 Ph 800]

JUDICIAL VERBS.

1280. Verbs of accusing, convicting, condemning, and acquitting, take a genitive of the charge: as,

#C. Verrem īnsimulat avāritiae#, V. 1, 128, he charges Verres with avarice. #accūsātus est prōditiōnis#, N. 1, 7, 5, he was charged with treason. #capitis arcēssere#, D. 30, accuse on a capital charge. #prōditiōnis damnātus est#, N. 2, 8, 2, he was convicted of treason. #Pollis pecūniae pūblicae est condemnātus#, Flacc. 43, Pollis was condemned for embezzlement of government money. #maiestātis absolūtī sunt permultī#, Clu. 116, a good many were acquitted of high treason. With this genitive, an ablative, #crīmine#, #iūdiciō#, #nōmine#, or #lēge#, is sometimes expressed (1377): as, #nē quem umquam innocentem iūdiciō capitis arcēssās#, Off. 2, 51, that you are never to accuse any innocent man on a charge affecting his status as a citizen.

1281. The charge is sometimes denoted by a prepositional construction: as, #sescentī sunt, quī inter sīcāriōs et dē venēficiīs accūsābant#, RA. 90, there are hundreds and hundreds that brought charges of murder, by steel and by poison. So also #dē āleā#, of gambling, in Cicero regularly #dē pecūniīs repetundīs#, of extortion, and necessarily #dē vī#, of an act of violence, as #vīs# has no genitive. For the neuter accusative, see 1172.

1282. The penalty also is sometimes denoted by the genitive: as, #cupiō octuplī damnārī Aprōnium#, V. 3, 28, I want to have Apronius condemned to a payment of eightfold. #damnātusque longī Sīsyphus Aeolidēs labōris#, H. 2, 14, 19, and Sisyphus the Aeolid, amerced with penance long. Sometimes by the ablative: as, #capite#, V. 5, 109. So usually from Livy on, when the penalty is a definite sum of money or fractional part of a thing.

IMPERSONAL VERBS OF MENTAL DISTRESS.

1283. A genitive of the thing, commonly with an accusative of the person, is used with five impersonals of mental distress:

#miseret#, #paenitet#, #piget#, #pudet#, #taedet#: as,

#tu͡i mē miseret, me͡i piget#, E. in Div. 1, 66, I pity thee, I loathe myself. #frātris mē pudet pigetque#, T. Ad. 391, my brother stirs my shame and my disgust. #mī pater, mē tu͡i pudet#, T. Ad. 681, dear father, in thy presence I’m abashed. #galeātum sēro duellī paenitet#, J. 1, 169, too late, with casque on head, a combatant repenteth him of war. So also #miserētur#, and in old Latin inceptively, #miserēscit#, #commiserēscit#.

1284. These verbs sometimes have a sentence or a neuter pronoun as subject: as, #nōn tē haec pudent?# T. Ad. 754, does not this make thee blush for shame? Rarely an appellative: as, #mē quidem haec condiciō nōn paenitet#, Pl. St. 51, for my part, with my wedded state I’m well content. Or a person: as, #pudeō#, Pl. Cas. 877, I feel ashamed. For participles and gerundives, see 817.

1285. The genitive is used with the personals #misereor# or #misereō#, and in poetry with #miserēscō#: as,

#aliquandō miserēminī sociōrum#, V. 1, 72, do take pity on your allies, it is high time. #nēminis miserēre certumst, quia me͡i miseret nēminem#, Pl. Cap. 764, I’m bound to care for nobody, as no one cares for me. #Arcadiī miserēscite rēgis#, V. 8, 573, take pity on the king of Arcady.

1286. Personal verbs of desiring, loathing, admiring, and dreading, sometimes take the genitive: as, #pol, quamquam domī cupiō, opperiar#, Pl. Tri. 841, although I yearn for home, I vow I’ll wait (1263). #fastīdit meī#, Pl. Aul. 245, he views me with disdain (1263). #iūstitiaene prius mīrer, bellīne labōrum?# V. 11, 126, thy justice first shall I admire? thy toils in war? #nē tuī quidem testimōnī veritus#, Att. 8, 4, 1, not having any awe about your recommendation either.

VERBS OF MEMORY.

1287. The genitive is used with verbs of remembering and forgetting when they denote an inherent state of memory or of forgetfulness: as,

#faciam ut meī meminerīs dum vītam vīvās#, Pl. Per. 494, I’ll make you remember me as long as you live. #num potuī magis oblīvīscī temporum meōrum, meminisse āctiōnum?# Fam. 1, 9, 8, could I have been more forgetful of my present interests, more mindful of my past career? #reminīscerētur incommodī populī Rōmānī#, 1, 13, 4, he had better bear in mind the rebuff dealt out to Rome. #oblītusque meōrum oblīvīscendus et illīs#, H. E. 1, 11, 10, of friends forgetful and by friends forgot. See 1263.

1288. The accusative is used with these verbs when they denote the mere intellectual exercise of memory or a failure to remember: as,

#equid meministī tu͡om parentum nōmina?# Pl. Poen. 1062, do you remember your parents’ names? #Cinnam meminī vīdī Sūllam#, Ph. 5, 17, I can remember Cinna, I have seen Sulla. #utinam mēmet possim oblīscier!# Accius ap. Non. 500, 5, oh that myself I could forget! #subitō tōtam causam oblītus est#, Br. 217, suddenly he forgot the whole case.

1289. #recordor# has once the genitive (Pis. 12), but from its meaning bring to heart it is naturally found oftener with the accusative. With it and with #meminī#, the ablative with #dē# also occurs. The rare #reminīscor# has the genitive once each in Caesar and Nepos; twice later; oftener the accusative. Neuter pronouns are in the accusative with all these verbs.

1290. The impersonal #venit in mentem# also takes the genitive: as, #venit mihī̆ Platōnis in mentem#, Fin. 5, 2, Plato comes into my head; very exceptionally the ablative with #dē#. But the verb in this combination is often used personally, with the thing occurring to the mind as the subject, and regularly in Cicero, when it is #rēs# or #genus#, or a neuter pronoun.

1291. Verbs of reminding take the accusative of a person and sometimes with it the genitive of a thing: as,

#admonēbat alium egestātis, alium cupiditātis suae#, S. C. 21, 4, he reminded one man of his beggary, another of his greed. So also #commoneō#, #commonē̆faciō#, and, in Tacitus only, #moneō#. Oftener however the thing is in the ablative with #dē#, or, if it is a neuter pronoun or adjective, in the accusative (1172). Rarely a substantive equivalent to a neuter pronoun: as, #eam rem nōs locus admonuit#, S. I. 79, 1, the place has reminded me of that.

[Errata: 1288 ... #Cinnam meminī vīdī Sūllam# vidī 1289 ... the ablative with #dē# also occurs. de]

VERBS OF PARTICIPATION AND MASTERY.

1292. Verbs of participation and mastery sometimes take the genitive in old Latin and in poetry: as, #servom su͡i participat cōnsilī#, Pl. Cist. 163, she makes a slave a sharer in her plot (1263). #quā Daunus agrestium rēgnāvit populōrum#, H. 3, 30, 11, where Daunus was the lord of rural folk (1260). So, even in prose, #potior#, which usually has the ablative (1379): as, #totīus Galliae sēsē potīrī posse spērant#, 1, 3, 8, they hope they can get the mastery over the whole of Gaul. Especially with persons, or with the genitive plural #rērum#: #rērum potior#, get to be, or often, am, master of the situation, or I am monarch of all I survey. Similarly in Tacitus #apīscor#, #adipīscor#: as, #arma, quīs Servius Galba rērum adeptus est#, Ta. 3, 55, the war by which Galba became master of the throne. In Plautus #crēdō# sometimes has the genitive of a thing and dative of a person.

VERBS OF FULNESS AND WANT.

1293. The genitive is sometimes used with verbs of filling, abounding, and lacking, as it is with the corresponding adjectives (1263): as,

#convīvium vīcīnōrum cōtīdiē compleō#, CM. 46, I fill out a dinner-party every day with neighbours. #haec rēs vītae mē, soror, saturant#, Pl. St. 18, these things, my sister, sicken me of life. #terra ferārum nunc etiam scatit#, Lucr. 5, 39, still teems the earth with ravin beasts. So with #egeō# sometimes: as, #egeō cōnsilī#, Att. 7, 22, 2, I am in need of some advice. And usually with #indigeō#: as, #hoc bellum indiget celeritātis#, Ph. 6, 7, this war requires rapid action. But, from Livy on, the ablative is commoner with #indigeō#: see 1305.

1294. With verbs of separating and abstaining, the ablative is regularly used (1302). But the genitive is sometimes found in poetry: as, #mē omnium labōrum levās#, Pl. R. 247, thou riddest me of all my woes. #abstinētō īrārum calidaeque rixae#, H. 3, 27, 69, from bursts of rage keep thou and hot affray.

IV. THE GENITIVE OF EXCLAMATION.

1295. In poetry, the genitive with an adjective in agreement occurs two or three times in exclamation: as, #foederis heu tacitī#, Prop. 5, 7, 21, alas, that secret covenant. Usually the nominative (1117), or the accusative (1149).

THE ABLATIVE.

1296. The ablative is used principally with verbs and their participles, or with adjectives, and consists of three cases that were originally distinct.

1297. I. The ABLATIVE proper denotes that from which something parts or proceeds (1302).

The ablative proper is often accompanied by the prepositions #ab#, #dē#, #ex#, #prae#, #prō#, #sine#, or #tenus#.

1298. With the ablative proper two other cases, originally distinct, a locative case and an instrumental case, were confounded, and merged under the common name of the ablative.

1299. II. The LOCATIVE case denotes the place in, at, or on which action occurs. A few forms of the locative proper are still preserved (1331). But the place where is ordinarily denoted by the locative ablative (1342).

The locative ablative is often accompanied by the prepositions #in# or #sub#.

1300. III. The INSTRUMENTAL case denotes that by which or with which a main person or thing is attended (1356).

The instrumental ablative is often accompanied by the prepositions #cum# or #cōram#.

1301. The ablative or locative is sometimes attached immediately to a substantive.

Thus, (a.) sometimes to a substantive which denotes or implies action: as, #interitus ferrō#, destruction with the sword, like #intereō ferrō#; see 1307, 1331, 1342, 1376, 1377. (b.) In constructions in which the ablative is due to an older combination with a verb: as, #vir singulārī virtūte#, a man of unexampled bravery. See 1309 and 1375.

I. THE ABLATIVE PROPER.

THE ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION AND WANT, AND OF DEPARTURE.

1302. Verbs of separation take an ablative of the thing from which separation takes place: as,

(a.) #caruit forō posteā Pompēius, caruit senātū, caruit pūblicō#, Mil. 18, after that Pompey had to keep away from the market place, from the senate, from highways and byways. #adhūc Q. Ligārius omnī culpā vacat#, Lig. 4, thus far Ligarius proves devoid of any guilt. #egeō cōnsiliō#, Att. 15, 1, A, 5, I need advice (1305). (b.) #Ītaliā prohibētur: nōn tū eum patriā prīvāre, quā caret, sed vītā vīs#, Lig. 11, he is kept out of Italy; you want to deprive him not of his country, from which he is debarred, but of life. #līberēmus cūrā populum Rōmānum#, L. 39, 51, 9, Hannibal’s words when he took poison, 183 B.C., let me relieve Rome of anxiety.

1303. This ablative is used (a.) with such verbs as mean abstain, #abstineō#, #dēsistō#, #supersedeō#; am devoid of, #careō#, #vacō#; need, #egeō#; and in addition to the accusative of the object, (b.) with verbs used transitively, such as mean keep off, #arceō#, #exclūdō# and #interclūdō#, #prohibeō#; drive away, remove, #pellō#, #moveō#, and their compounds; free, #expediō#, #līberō#, #levō#, #solvō# and #exsolvō#; deprive, #orbō#, #prīvō#, #spoliō#, #nūdō#, #fraudō#.

1304. A preposition, #ab# or #ex#, is often used with these verbs, and regularly when the ablative denotes a person. But #careō# and #egeō#, and #exsolvō# and #levō#, never have a preposition.

1305. With #egeō#, the genitive is sometimes used, and often with #indigeō#: see 1293. Also in poetry, with verbs of abstaining and separating: see 1294.

1306. The ablative of separation is sometimes used with such adjectives as #aliēnus#, #expers#, #līber#, #nūdus#, #vacuus#, &c.: as, #negant id esse aliēnum maiestāte deōrum#, Div. 2, 105, they maintain that this is not at variance with the greatness of the gods. #vacuī cūrīs#, Fin. 2, 46, devoid of cares. #arce et urbe orba sum#, E. Tr. 114, of tower and town bereft am I. But sometimes the genitive: see 1263 and 1264; sometimes also prepositional constructions: for these, and particularly for the different constructions of #aliēnus#, see the dictionary.

TOWN AND ISLAND NAMES.

1307. (1.) Proper names of towns and of little islands are put in the ablative with verbs of motion, to denote the place from which motion proceeds: as,

#Dāmarātus fūgit Tarquiniōs Corinthō#, TD. 5, 109, Damaratus ran away from Corinth to Tarquinii. #sīgnum Carthāgine captum#, V. 4, 82, the statue carried off from Carthage. #Megaribus#, Pl. Per. 137, from Megara. #Lēmnō#, Pl. Tru. 90, from Lemnos. #Rōmā accēperam litterās#, Att. 5, 8, 2, I had got a letter from Rome. Rarely with a substantive of motion (1301): as, #dē illīus Alexandrēā discessū#, Att. 11, 18, 1, about his departure from Alexandrea. Also in dating letters: as, #V kal. Sextīl., Rēgiō#, Fam. 7, 19, Regium, 28 July; less often the locative: as, #Īdibus Iūniīs, Thessalonīcae#, QFr. 1, 3, 10, Thessalonica, 13 June. Like a town name: #Ācherunte#, poet. in TD. 1, 37, from Acheron. With an attribute: #ipsā Samō#, V. 1, 51, from Samos itself. #Teānō Sidicīnō#, Att. 8, 11, B, 2, from Sidicinian Teanum.

1308. Singular town or island names sometimes have #ex# in old Latin: thus, #Carystō#, Pl. Ps. 730, from Carystus, or, #ex Carystō#, Ps. 737, indifferently. #ex Andrō#, T. Andr. 70, from Andros. In classical Latin, town names rarely have #ab#: as, #ab Athēnīs proficīscī#, Serv. in Fam. 4, 12, 2, to start from Athens; chiefly of neighbourhood: as, #ab Gergoviā#, 7, 43, 5: 7, 59, 1, from camp at Gergovia; or direction: as, #ā Salōnīs ad Ōricum#, Caes. C. 3, 8, 4, from Salonae to Oricum; regularly with #longē#: as, #longē ā Syrācūsīs#, V. 4, 107, far from Syracuse.

1309. The ablative of a town or country name is rarely attached immediately to a substantive, to denote origin: as, #Periphanēs Rhodō mercātor dīves#, Pl. As. 499, Periphanes from Rhodes a chapman rich. #videō ibī̆ hospitem Zacynthō#, Pl. Mer. 940, I see the friend there from Zacynthus. Rarely in Cicero: as, #Teānō Āpulō laudātōrēs#, Clu. 197, eulogists from Apulian Teanum; in Caesar twice. In Livy with #ab# only: as, #Turnus ab Arīciā#, L. 1, 50, 3, Turnus from Aricia. But the Roman tribe one belongs to, is regularly in the ablative: as, #Q. Verrem Rōmiliā, sc. tribū#, V. a. pr. 1, 23, Verres of the tribe Romilia.

1310. With a verb, country names regularly have a preposition, and always in Cicero, Sallust, and Livy: as, #ē Ciliciā dēcēdēns#, Br. 1, going away from Cilicia. The ablative alone is rare: as, #Aegyptō adveniō domum#, Pl. Most. 440, from Egypt I come home. Chiefly in Tacitus: as, #Aegyptō remeāns#, 2, 69, coming back from Egypt. In Caesar, by attraction: #cōgēbantur Corcȳrā atque Acarnāniā pābulum supportāre#, C. 3, 58, 4, they were forced to fetch fodder from Corcyra and even Acarnania.

1311. (2.) The ablatives #domō# and #rūre#, and in poetry #humō#, are used like proper names of towns: as,

(a.) #domō excesserant#, 4, 14, 5, they had gone away from home. Also metaphorically: as, #domō doctus#, Pl. Mer. 355, by home-experience taught. (b.) #rūre rediīt uxor mea#, Pl. Mer. 705, my wife’s come back from out of town. (c.) #humō#, in Vergil first: as, #vix oculōs attollit humō#, O. 2, 448, scarce from the ground her eyes she lifts.

[Erratum: 1309 ... #Turnus ab Arīciā#, L. 1, 50, 3, 50, 3.]

THE ABLATIVE OF SOURCE, STUFF, OR MATERIAL.

1312. The verb #nāscor# and participles of origin take an ablative to denote parentage or rank in life.

Such participles are: #nātus#, #prōgnātus#, and #ortus#; in poetry and late prose, also #crētus#, #ēditus#, #generātus#, #genitus#, #satus#, and #oriundus#: as, (a.) #Rōmulus deō prōgnātus#, L. 1, 40, 3, Romulus, sprung from a god. #dīs genite#, V. 9, 642, thou sired of gods. Of a parent, #ex# is sometimes used: as #ex mē hic nātus nōn est#, T. Ad. 40, he’s not my son; and of remoter ancestors, #ab#. (b.) #locō nātus honestō#, 5, 45, 2, respectably descended. #summō locō nātus#, 5, 25, 1, of high birth, #familiā antīquissimā nātum#, 7, 32, 4, a member of an old family. Rarely with #dē#: as, #quō dē genere gnātust Philocratēs?# Pl. Cap. 277, what is the parentage of Philocrates?

1313. The ablative with an attribute, attached to a substantive, sometimes denotes stuff or material: as, #aere cavō clipeum#, V. 3, 286, a targe of hallow bronze. #perennī fronde corōnam#, Lucr. 1, 118, a crown of amaranthine leaf. #solidōque adamante columnae#, V. 6, 552, and pillars of the solid adamant. This construction borders closely on the ablative of quality (1375). Rarely without an attribute: as, #pīctās abiete puppīs#, V. 5, 663, painted sterns of fir.

1314. A substantive denoting stuff or material is generally put in the ablative with #dē# or #ex#; thus,

(a.) Directly with a substantive: #pōcula ex aurō#, V. 4, 62, cups of gold. (b.) Oftener with an auxiliary verb or participle: #sīgnum erat hoc Cupīdinis ē marmore#, V. 4, 5, this statue of Cupid was made of marble. #scūtīs ex cortice factīs#, 2, 33, 2, with long shields made out of bark. #ex ūnā gemmā pergrandī trūlla excavāta#, V. 4, 62, a ladle scooped out of a single enormous semi-precious stone.

1315. The ablative with forms of #faciō# and #sum# denotes that with which or to which something is done: as, #quid hōc homine faciās?# Sest. 29, what can you do with such a fellow? #quid mē fīet?# T. Andr. 709, what will become of me? But often the dative (1205): as, #quid tibī̆ faciam?# Att. 7, 3, 2, what shall I do to you? Or the ablative with #dē#: as, #dē frātre quid fīet?# T. Ad. 996, as to my brother, what will come to pass?

THE ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, INFLUENCE, OR MOTIVE.

1316. The ablative is used to denote cause, influence, or motive: as,

#madeō metū#, Pl. Most. 395, I’m drenched with dread. #tū imprūdentiā lāberis#, Mur. 78, you, sir, slip from inadvertence. #maerōre et lacrimīs cōnsenēscēbat#, Clu. 13, she just pined away in sorrow and tears. #īrā incendor#, Pl. Ps. 201, I’m getting hot with wrath. #premor lūctū#, Att. 3, 22, 3, I am bowed down with grief. #quod ego nōn superbiā faciēbam#, DO. 1, 99, I did not act thus from superciliousness, not I. #nōn movētur pecūniā#, V. 4, 18, he is not moved by money. #boat caelum fremitū virūm#, Pl. Am. 232, the welkin rings with roar of men. #dēlictō dolēre, corrēctiōne gaudēre#, L. 90, be pained by the sin, take pleasure in the reproof. #aetāte nōn quīs optuērier#, Pl. Most. 840, owing to age thou canst not see. #Iovis iussū veniō#, Pl. Am. prol. 19, at Jove’s behest I come. #Sēiānus nimiā fortūnā sōcors#, Ta. 4, 39, Sejanus giddy with over-prosperity. #ferōx praedā glōriāque exercitus#, Ta. H. 1, 51, the army flushed with booty and glory. #exercitūs nostrī interitus ferrō#, Pis. 40, the annihilation of our army by the sword (1301).

1317. Instead of the ablative, other constructions often occur, especially with verbs used transitively; such are:

(a.) Prepositional phrases with #dē# or #ex#, in Varro and Livy with #ab#; also with #ob#, #per#, or #propter#: as, #multī in oppidum propter timōrem sēsē recipiunt#, Caes. C. 2, 35, 6, a good many retreated to the town from fear. Sometimes with #prae#: as, #prae amōre exclūstī hunc forās#, T. Eu. 98, it was for love you turned him out of doors: in classical Latin, usually of hindrance: as, #sōlem prae iaculōrum multitūdine nōn vidēbitis#, TD. 1, 101, you won’t see the sun for the cloud of javelins. (b.) Circumlocutions with #causā#, less frequently with #grātiā# (1257). (c.) Ablatives absolute, or participles, particularly auxiliary participles with an ablative to express cause, oftener motive, such as #captus#, #ductus#, #excitātus# or #incitātus#, #impulsus#, #incēnsus#, #īnflammātus#, #mōtus#, #perterritus#: as, #nōnnūllī pudōre adductī remanēbant#, 1, 39, 3, some stuck by from shame.

1318. The person by whom the action of a passive verb is done, is denoted by the ablative with #ab# or #ā#. Also occasionally with verbs equivalent to a passive, such as #cadō#, #intereō#, #pereō#, #vēneō#, &c., &c. Things or animals are sometimes represented as persons by the use of #ab#: as, #animus bene īnfōrmātus ā nātūrā#, Off. 1, 13, a soul meetly fashioned by dame nature. See 1476-1478.

1319. In poetry, an ablative denoting a person, with an adjective in agreement, is sometimes equivalent to an expression with an abstract substantive: as, #et adsiduō ruptae lēctōre columnae#, J. 1, 13, and pillars by persistent reader riven, i.e. #adsiduitāte lēctōris#, or #adsiduā lēctiōne#. #cūrātus inaequālī tōnsōre capillōs#, H. E. 1, 1, 94, my locks by unsymmetric barber trimmed.

THE ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON.

1320. (1.) The ablative may be used with a comparative adjective, when the first of two things compared is in the nominative, or is a subject-accusative.

Such an ablative is translated by than: as, (a.) #lūce sunt clāriōra nōbīs tua cōnsilia#, C. 1, 6, your schemes are plainer to us than day. #ō mātre pulchrā fīlia pulchrior#, H. 1, 16, 1, O daughter fairer than a mother fair. Particularly in sentences of negative import: as, #quis Karthāginiēnsium plūris fuit Hannibale?# Sest. 142, of all the sons of Carthage, who was rated higher than Hannibal? #nec mihī̆ est tē iūcundius quicquam nec cārius#, Fam. 2, 10, 1, and there is nothing in the world nearer and dearer to me than you. (b.) #illud cōgnōscēs profectō, mihī̆ tē neque cāriōrem neque iūcundiōrem esse quemquam#, Fam. 2, 3, 2, one thing I am sure you will see, that there is nobody nearer and dearer to me than you.

1321. (2.) The ablative of comparison is similarly used when the first member of comparison is an accusative of the object: as,

#exēgī monumentum aere perennius#, H. 3, 30, 1, I have builded up a monument more durable than bronze. Particularly so in sentences of negative import: as, #hōc mihī̆ grātius facere nihil potes#, Fam. 13, 44, you can do nothing for me more welcome than this. Also with predicate adjectives dependent on a verb of thinking (1167): as, #Hērodotum cūr vērāciōrem dūcam Enniō?# Div. 2, 116, why should I count Herodotus any more truthful than Ennius? Regularly when the second member of comparison is a relative: as, #quā pecude nihil genuit nātūra fēcundius#, DN. 2, 160, nature has created nothing more prolific than this animal, i.e. the sow.

1322. (3.) In poetry, the ablative of comparison may be used with the first member of comparison in any case: as, #Lūcīlī rītū, nostrūm meliōris utrōque#, H. S. 2, 1, 29, after Lucilius’s way, a better man than thou or I.

1323. (4.) In sentences of negative import, the ablative is sometimes used with #alter# and #alius#, as with a comparative: as, #neque mēst alter quisquam#, Pl. As. 492, and there’s no other man than I. #nec quicquam aliud lībertāte commūnī quaesīsse#, Brut. and Cass. in Fam. 11, 2, 2, and to have aimed at nothing else than freedom for all. But in prose, #quam# is commonly used.

1324. (1.) The second member of comparison is often introduced by #quam#, than, or in poetry by #atque# or #ac#. This member, whatever the case of the first member, is sometimes made the subject of a form of #sum# in a new sentence: as,

#meliōrem quam ego sum suppōnō tibī̆#, Pl. Cur. 256, I give you as a substitute a better than I am myself. #verba M. Varrōnis, hominis quam fuit Claudius doctiōris#, Gell. 10, 1, 4, the words of Varro, a better scholar than Claudius ever was. #ut tibī̆ maiōrī quam Āfricanus fuit, mē adiūnctum esse patiāre#, Fam. 5, 7, 3, so that you will allow me to be associated with you, a bigger man than Africanus ever was.

1325. (2.) When the first member is in the nominative or accusative, #quam# is commonly a mere coordinating word, with both members in the same case: as,

(a.) #plūris est oculātus testis ūnus quam aurītī decem#, Pl. Tru. 490, a single witness with an eye rates higher than a dozen with the ear. (b.) #tū velim exīstimēs nēminem cuiquam neque cāriōrem neque iūcundiōrem umquam fuisse quam tē mihī̆#, Fam. 1, 9, 24, I hope you will be convinced that nobody was ever nearer and dearer to anybody than you to me.

1326. An introductory ablative of a demonstrative or relative pronoun sometimes precedes the construction with #quam#: as, #quid hōc est clārius, quam omnīs Segestae mātrōnās et virginēs convēnisse?# V. 4, 77, what fact is there better known than this, to wit, that all the women in Segesta, married and single, came streaming together?

1327. The ablative is sometimes used with comparative adverbs also.

So particularly in sentences of negative import: as, #nihil lacrimā citius ārēscit#, Corn. 2, 50, nothing dries up quicker than a tear. Less frequently in positive sentences in prose: as, #fortūna, quae plūs cōnsilīs hūmānīs pollet, contrāxit certāmen#, L. 44, 40, 3, fortune, who is mightier than the devices of man, precipitated the engagement. Very commonly, however, #quam# is used with comparative adverbs.

1328. Designations of number or extent are often qualified by #amplius#, #longius#, or #plūs#, over, or by #minus#, under.

The word thus qualified is put in the case which the context would require without any such qualification: as, #plūs septingentī captī#, L. 41, 12, 8, over seven hundred were taken prisoners. #tēcum plūs annum vīxit#, Q. 41, he lived with you over a year (1151). #cum equīs plūs quīngentīs#, L. 40, 32, 6, with over five hundred horses. Less frequently with #quam#. When these words are felt as real substantives in the nominative or accusative, the ablative of comparison may be used (1320): as, #plūs trīduō#, RA. 74, more than three days.

1329. In expressions of age with #nātus#, the adjectives #maior# and #minor# are used as well as #amplius# and #minus#, and with the same construction (1328): as, #annōs nātus maior quadrāgintā#, RA. 39, over forty years old. For other constructions, see the dictionary. Similarly #conlēctus aquae digitum nōn altior ūnum#, Lucr. 4, 414, a pool no deeper than a finger’s breadth (1130). But commonly with comparative adjectives of extent, #quam# is used, or the ablative (1320): as, #palūs nōn lātior pedibus quīnquāgintā#, 7, 19, 1, a marsh not wider than fifty feet.

1330. With a comparative adjective or adverb, the ablatives #opīniōne#, #exspectātiōne#, and #spē#, and some others, chiefly in poetry, take the place of a sentence with #quam#: as,

#opīniōne melius#, Pl. Cas. 338, better than you thought. #minōra opīniōne#, Caes. C. 2, 31, 5, more insignificant than is thought. #lātius opīniōne dissēminātum est hoc malum#, C. 4, 6, this infection is more sweeping than anybody dreams. #spē omnium sērius#, L. 2, 3, 1, later than was generally expected.

II. THE LOCATIVE ABLATIVE.

(A.) THE LOCATIVE PROPER.

1331. (1.) Singular proper names of towns and of little islands are put in the locative to denote the place in or at which action occurs: as,

#quid Rōmae faciam? mentīrī nescio#, J. 3, 41, what can I do in Rome? I don’t know how to lie. #Corinthī et Karthāginī#, Agr. 2, 90, at Corinth and at Carthage. #Lacedaemonī#, N. praef. 4, in Lacedaemon. #Tīburī#, Att. 16, 3, 1, at Tibur. #Rhodī#, Fam. 4, 7, 4, at Rhodes. #mānsiōnēs diutinae Lēmnī#, T. Ph. 1012, protracted stays at Lemnos (1301). Sometimes in dates: as, #data Thessalonīcae#, Att. 3, 20, 3, given at Thessalonica (1307). The locative rarely means near: as, #Antiī#, L. 22, 1, 10, round about Antium. In Plautus only two singular town names with consonant stems occur, and these regularly in the locative, #Carthāginī# and #Sicyōnī#, three times each; once in a doubtful example, #Sicyōne#, Cist. 128. Terence has no examples of these stems. From Cicero on, the locative ablative is commoner with them (1343).

1332. With an adjective attribute also, the locative is used: as, #Teānī Āpulī#, Clu. 27, at the Apulian Teanum. #Suessae Auruncae#, L. 32, 9, 3, at the Auruncan Suessa. The appellative #forum#, market place, used, with an attribute, as a proper name, is sometimes put in the accusative with #ad#: as, #Claternae, ad Forum Cornēlium#, Fam. 12, 5, 2, at Claterna and at Forum Cornelium; sometimes in the locative ablative: #Forō Iūlī#, Plin. Ep. 5, 19, 7.

1333. When the locative is further explained by an appellative following, the appellative is put in the locative ablative, either alone, or with #in#: as, #Antiochīae, celebrī quondam urbe#, Arch. 4, at Antioch, once a bustling town. #Neāpolī, in celeberrimō oppidō#, RabP. 26, at Neapolis, a town swarming with people. An appellative in the ablative with #in# may be further defined by a proper name in the locative: as, #duābus in īnsulīs, Melitae et Samī#, V. 5, 184, in two islands--at Melita and Samos. #in oppidō, Antiochīae#, Att. 5, 18, 1, within town walls--at Antioch. #in sēcessū, Apollōniae#, Suet. Aug. 94, out of town--at Apollonia. Or in the ablative: as, #in oppidō Citiō#, N. 5, 3, 4, in the town of Citium. #in urbe Rōmā#, L. 39, 14, 7, in the city of Rome.

1334. In Plautus, singular town names with stems in #-ā-# or #-o-# are put in the locative ten or twelve times, in the ablative with #in# some fifteen times. Three such have only #in#, never the locative: #in Anactoriō#, Poen. 896, #in Seleuciā#, Tri. 901, #in Spartā#, Poen. 663; furthermore, #in Epidamnō#, Men. 267, 380 twice, #in Ephesō#, B. 309, MG. 441, 778, and #in Epidaurō#, Cur. 341, 429, E. 540, 541, 554, but also #Epidamnī#, Men. prol. 51, #Ephesī#, B. 336, 1047, MG. 648, and #Epidaurī#, E. 636. Terence, who has only #-o-# stems, uses the locative six times, the ablative with #in# four times: only with #in#: #in Andrō#, Andr. 931, #in Imbrō#, Hec. 171. Furthermore #in Lēmnō#, Ph. 873, 1004 but also #Lēmnī#, Ph. 680, 942, 1013. Also #Mīlētī#, Ad. 654, #Rhodī#, Eu. 107, #Sūniī#, Eu. 519.

1335. A town name is sometimes put in the ablative with #in# by assimilation with a parallel #in#: as, #in Illyricō, in ipsā Alexandrēā#, Att. 11, 16, 1, in Illyricum, and at Alexandrea itself. #Antiochum in Syriā, Ptolemaeum in Alexandrīā esse#, L. 42, 26, 7. that Antiochus was in Syria, Ptolemy at Alexandria. #in mōnte Albānō Lāvīniōque#, L. 5, 52, 8, on the Alban mount and at Lavinium. Also without assimilation: as, #nāvis et in Caiētā est parāta nōbīs et Brundusiī#, Att. 8, 3, 6, we have a vessel all chartered, one in Cajeta and one at Brundusium. #in Hispalī#, Caes. C. 2, 18, 1, in Hispalis.

1336. With country names, the locative is very exceptional: as, #Chersonēsī#, N. 1, 2, 4, at the Peninsula. #Aegyptī#, Val. M. 4, 1, 15, in Egypt. Similarly #Accheruntī#, Pl. Cap. 689, 998, Mer. 606, Tru. 749, in Acheron; #Accherunte# however once: #Accheruntest#, Pl. Poen. 431. In Sallust, #Rōmae Numidiaeque#, I. 33, 4, with assimilation of #Numidiae# to #Rōmae#.

1337. (2.) The locatives #domī#, #rūrī#, #humī#, and rarely #orbī#, are used like proper names of towns: as,

(a.) #cēnābō domī#, Pl. St. 482, I shall dine at home. Metaphorically, #domī est#, #nāscitur#, or #habeō#, I can get at home, I need not go abroad for, or I have in plenty: as, #id quidem domī est#, Att. 10, 14, 2, as for that, I have it myself. With a possessive pronoun or #aliēnus# in agreement, either the locative is used, or the ablative with #in#; for #domuī#, as, Off. 3, 99, see 594; with other adjectives the ablative with #in#. (b.) #rūrī#, T. Ph. 363, up in the country; for #rūre#, see 1344 and 1345. (c.) #humī#, on the ground, or to the ground, in Terence first: as, #hunc ante nostram iānuam appōne :: obsecrō, humīne?# T. Andr. 724, set down this baby at our door :: good gracious; on the ground? #iacēre humī#, C. 1, 26, sleeping on bare ground. (d.) #orbī# with #terrae# or #terrārum#: as, #amplissimum orbī terrārum monumentum#, V. 4, 82, the grandest monument in the wide wide world.

1338. The locatives #bellī#, older #du͡ellī#, and #mīlitiae# are sometimes used in contrast with #domī#: as, #domī du͡ellīque#, Pl. Cap. prol. 68, #domī bellīque#, L. 2, 50, 11, #domī mīlitiaeque#, TD. 5, 55, #mīlitiae et domī#, T. Ad. 495, at home and in the field. Rarely without #domī#: as, #bellī#, RP. 2, 56, #mīlitiae#, S. I. 84, 2.

1339. (3.) Other appellatives rarely have the locative: as, #proxumae vīcīniae#, Pl. B. 205, MG. 273, in the next neighbourhood. #terrae#, L. 5, 51, 9, in the earth. With verbs of suspense, doubt, and distress, and with many adjectives, #animī#, in soul, is not infrequent; and #animī# being mistaken for a genitive, #mentis# is also used: as, #dēsipiēbam mentis#, Pl. E. 138, I was beside myself. Oftener #animō# (1344).

1340. Many original locatives have become set as adverbs: as, #peregrī#, abroad. Particularly of pronouns: as, #illī#, Pl. Am. 249, off there, oftener #illīc#; #istī# or #istīc#, #hīc#; sometimes further defined by an added expression: as, #hīc vīcīniae#, T. Ph. 95, here in the neighbourhood. #hīc proxumae vīcīniae#, MG. 273, here in the house next door. #hīc in Veneris fānō me͡a͡e vīcīniae#, Pl. R. 613, here, in the shrine of Venus, in my neighbourhood. #hīc Rōmae#, Arch. 5, here in Rome.

1341. The locative proper sometimes denotes time when: as, #lūcī#, by light, #temperī#, betimes, #herī# or #here#, yesterday, #vesperī#, at evening, #herī vesperī#, DO. 2, 13, last evening. In Plautus, #diē septimī#, Men. 1156, Per. 260, on the seventh day, #māne sānē septimī#, Men. 1157, bright and early on the seventh, #diē crāstinī#, Most. 881, tomorrow. Often with an adjective juxtaposed: as, #postrīdiē#, the day after, #postrīdiē māne#, Fam. 11, 6, 1, early next day, #cōtīdiē#, each day, daily, #prīdiē#, the day before.

[Errata: 1331 ... #mānsiōnēs diutinae Lēmnī# text unchanged: expected form diūtinae 1340 ... #hīc in Veneris fānō me͡a͡e vīcīniae# The vowels “eae” are joined with a single ligature]

(B.) THE ABLATIVE USED AS LOCATIVE.

PLACE IN, ON, OR AT WHICH.

1342. (1.) Plural proper names of towns and of little islands are put in the locative ablative to denote the place in or at which action occurs: as,

#mortuus Cūmīs#, L. 2, 21, 5, he died at Cumae. #Athēnīs tenue caelum, crassum Thēbīs#, Fat. 7, in Athens the air is thin, at Thebes it is thick. #locus ostenditur Capreīs#, Suet. Tib. 62, the place is pointed out at Capreae. Rarely with substantives of action (1301): as, #mānsiō Formiīs#, Att. 9, 5, 1, the stay at Formiae. With an attribute: #Athēnīs tuīs#, Att. 16, 6, 2, in your darling Athens. #Curibus Sabīnīs#, L. 1, 18, 1, at the Sabine Cures.

1343. (2.) Singular proper names of towns with consonant stems are oftener put in the locative ablative than in the locative proper: as,

#adulēscentium gregēs Lacedaemone vīdimus#, TD. 5, 77, we have seen the companies of young men in Lacedaemon. #Karthāgine#, Att. 16, 4, 2, at Carthage. #Tībure#, H. E. 1, 8, 12, at Tibur. #Nārbōne#, Ph. 2, 76, at Narbo. See 1331. So also #Acherunte#, Lucr. 3, 984, in Acheron. #Calydōne et Naupāctō#, Caes. C. 3, 35, 1, at Calydon and Naupactus, with #Naupāctō# attracted by #Calydōne#. With an attribute: #Carthāgine Novā#, L. 28, 17, 11, at New Carthage. #Acherunte profundō#, Lucr. 3, 978, in vasty Acheron.

1344. (3.) A few general appellatives are used in the locative ablative without an attribute, especially in set expressions, to denote the place where: as,

#terrā marīque#, IP. 48, by land and sea; less commonly #marī atque terrā#, S. C. 53, 2, by sea and land. #dextrā Pīraeus, sinistrā Corinthus#, Cael. in Fam. 4, 5, 4, Piraeus on the right, Corinth on the left. Rarely, #rūre#, Pl. Cas. 110, H. E. 1, 7, 1, in the country, for #rūrī# (1337). So #animō#, #animīs#, with verbs of feeling: as, #angor animō#, Br. 7, I am distressed in soul, or I am heart-broken. Metaphorically: #locō#, (a.) in the right place, also #suō locō#, or #in locō#. (b.) #locō#, instead; #numerō#, in the category, both with a genitive. #prīncipiō#, #initiō#, in the beginning.

1345. Certain appellatives, with an attribute, often denote the place where by the locative ablative; so especially #locō#, #locīs#, #rūre#, #librō#, #librīs#, #parte#, #partibus#: as, #remōtō, salūbrī, amoenō locō#, Fam. 7, 20, 2, in a sequestered, healthy, and picturesque nook. #idōneō locō#, 3, 17, 5, in an advantageous spot. #inīquō locō#, 5, 51, 1, on unsuitable ground. #campestribus ac dēmissīs locīs#, 7, 72, 3, in level and sunken places. #rūre meō#, H. E. 1, 15, 17, at my own country box. #rūre paternō#, H. E. 1, 18, 60, J. 6, 55, on the ancestral farm. #aliō librō#, Off. 2, 31, in another book.

1346. Substantives are often used in the locative ablative with #tōtus# in agreement, less often with #cūnctus#, #omnis#, or #medius#, to denote the place where: as, #tōtā Galliā#, 5, 55, 3, all over Gaul. #tōtīs trepidātur castrīs#, 6, 37, 6, there is a panic all over the camp. #omnibus oppidīs#, V. 2, 136, in all the towns. #omnibus oppidīs maritimīs#, Caes. C. 3, 5, 1, in all the seaports. #mediā urbe#, L. 1, 33, 8, in the heart of Rome. But sometimes #in# is used, or the accusative with #per#.

1347. (4.) With country names and most appellatives, the place where is generally expressed by the ablative with #in#. But even without an attribute, the ablative alone is sometimes used, especially in poetry: as,

#Ītaliā#, V. 1, 263, in Italy, #lītore#, V. 1, 184, upon the beach, #corde#, V. 1, 209, in heart, #pectore#, V. 1, 657, in breast, #thalamō#, H. 1, 15, 16, in bower, #umerō#, V. 1, 501, on shoulder, #Ēsquiliīs#, DN. 3, 63, on the Esquiline. Once in Plautus #Ālide#, Cap. 330, in Elis, but eight times #in Ālide#.

1348. The locative ablative is sometimes used with such verbs as #teneō# and #recipiō#: as, (a.) #Ariovistus exercitum castrīs continuit#, 1, 48, 4, Ariovistus kept his infantry in camp. #oppidō sēsē continēbant#, 2, 30, 2, they kept inside the town. (b.) #oppidīs recipere#, 2, 3, 3, to receive inside their towns. #rēx ecquis est, qui senātōrem tēctō ac domō nōn invītet?# V. 4, 25, is there a monarch in the wide world that would not welcome a senator to house and home?

1349. The locative ablative is used with #fīdō# and #cōnfīdō#, #glōrior#, #laetor#, #nītor#, #stō#, and with #frētus#: as, #barbarī cōnfīsī locī nātūrā in aciē permānsērunt#, 8, 15, 1, the natives, trusting in the nature of their position, kept their stand in battle array. #superiōribus vīctōriis frētī#, 3, 21, 1, relying on their former victories. For other constructions with these words, see the dictionary.

TIME AT WHICH OR TIME WITHIN WHICH.

1350. (1.) The locative ablative is used to denote the point of time at which action occurs.

So particularly of substantives denoting periods or points of time, thus: #hieme#, 5, 1, 1, in the winter. #Kalendīs#, H. Epod. 2, 70, upon the first, i.e. of the month. Generally with an attribute: as, #prīmō vēre#, 6, 3, 4, in the first month of spring. #Mārtiīs Kalendīs#, H. 3, 8, 1, upon the first of March. With a parallel locative (1341): #vesperī eōdem diē#, Att. 8, 5, 1, the evening of the same day.

1351. Words not in themselves denoting periods or points of time, are in the same way put in the ablative: as,

#patrum nostrōrum memoriā#, 1, 12, 5, in the memory of our fathers. #nōn modo illīs Pūnicīs bellīs, sed etiam hāc praedōnum multitūdine#, V. 4, 103, not only in the Punic wars of yore, but also in the present swarm of pirates. #proxumīs comitiīs#, 7, 67, 7, at the last election. #spectāculīs#, Att. 2, 19, 3, at the shows. Especially substantives of action in #-tus# or #-sus# (235): as, #sōlis occāsū#, 1, 50, 3, at sunset. #adventū in Galliam Caesaris#, 5, 54, 2, at Caesar’s arrival in Gaul. #eōrum adventū#, 7, 65, 5, after these people came. #discessū cēterōrum#, C. 1, 7, when the rest went away.

1352. (2.) The locative ablative is used to denote the space of time within which action occurs: as,

#paucīs diēbus opus efficitur#, 6, 9, 4, the job is finished up in a few days. #tribus hōris Aduātucam venīre potestis#, 6, 35, 8, in three hours you can get to Aduatuca. #quae hīc mōnstra fīunt, annō vix possum ēloquī#, Pl. Most. 505, what ghost-transactions take place here I scarce could tell you in a year. #cum ad oppidum Senonum Vellaunodūnum vēnisset, id bīduō circumvāllāvit#, 7, 11, 1, arriving at Vellaunodunum, a town of the Senons, in two days time he invested it. #quicquid est, bīduō sciēmus#, Att. 9, 14, 2, whatever it may be, we shall know in a couple of days.

1353. The ablative of the time at or within which action occurs is sometimes accompanied by #in#: as, #in bellō#, 6, 1, 3, in the war. #in tempore#, T. Hau. 364, in the nick of time. #in adulēscentiā#, Pl. B. 410, in my young days. #in tālī tempore#, Lucr. 1, 93, L. 22, 35, 7, in such a stress, at such an hour. #in hōc trīduō#, Pl. Ps. 316, within the next three days. Especially of repeated action, in the sense of a or every, with numerals: as, #ter in annō#, Pl. B. 1127, RA. 132, three times a year. #in hōrā saepe ducentōs versūs dictābat#, H. S. 1, 4, 9, two hundred verses in an hour he’d often dictate off. But occasionally without #in#: as, #mē deciēns diē ūnō extrūdit aedibus#, Pl. Aul. 70, ten times a day he thrusts me from the house. #septiēns diē#, L. 28, 6, 10, seven times a day.

1354. An ablative of the time within which action occurs is sometimes followed by a relative pronoun sentence, with the relative pronoun likewise in the ablative: as, #quadrīduō, quō haec gesta sunt, rēs ad Chrȳsogonum dēfertur#, RA. 20, within the four days space in which this occurred, the incident is reported to Chrysogonus, i.e. four days after this occurred. #diēbus decem, quibus māteria coepta erat conportārī, omnī opere effectō#, 4, 18, 1, the job being all done ten days after the carting of the stuff had begun.

1355. The ablative is exceptionally used to denote duration of time: as,

#tōtā nocte continenter iērunt#, 1, 26, 5, they went on and on all night without interruption. Regularly, however, the accusative (1151); but the ablative is common in inscriptions.

III. THE INSTRUMENTAL ABLATIVE.

(A.) THE ABLATIVE OF ATTENDANCE.

THE ABLATIVE OF ACCOMPANIMENT.

1356. A few indefinite designations of military forces denote accompaniment by the ablative alone, or oftener with #cum#: as,

(a.) #ad castra Caesaris omnibus cōpiīs contendērunt#, 2, 7, 3, they marched upon Caesar’s camp with all their forces. #omnibus cōpiīs ad Ilerdam proficīscitur#, Caes. C. 1, 41, 2, he marches before Ilerda, horse, foot, and dragoons. (b.) #is cīvitātī persuāsit, ut cum omnibus cōpiīs exīrent#, 1, 2, 1, well, this man induced the community to emigrate in a body, bag and baggage.

1357. The participles #iūnctus# and #coniūnctus# take the ablative of the thing joined with: as, #dēfēnsiōne iūncta laudātiō#, Br. 162, a eulogy combined with a defence. But sometimes the ablative with #cum# is used, or the dative (1186).

THE ABLATIVE OF MANNER.

1358. (1.) Certain substantives without an attribute are put in the ablative alone to denote manner; but usually substantives without an attribute have #cum#.

(a.) Such adverbial ablatives are #iūre# and #iniūriā#, #ratiōne et viā#, #silentiō#, #vitiō#, #ōrdine#, #sponte#, #cōnsuētūdine#, &c.: as, #Arātus iūre laudātur#, Off. 2, 81, Aratus is justly admired. #iniūriā suspectum#, C. 1, 17, wrongfully suspected. #in omnibus, quae ratiōne docentur et viā#, O. 116, in everything that is taught with philosophic method. #silentiō ēgressus#, 7, 58, 2, going out in silence. #cēnsōrēs vitiō creātī#, L. 6, 27, 5, censors irregularly appointed. #ōrdine cūncta exposuit#, L. 3, 50, 4, he told the whole story from beginning to end, i.e. with all the particulars. (b.) With #cum#: #face rem hanc cum cūrā gerās#, Pl. Per. 198, see that this job with care thou dost. #cum virtūte vīvere#, Fin. 3, 29, to live virtuously.

1359. (2.) The ablative of a substantive with an attribute is often used to denote manner, sometimes with #cum#: as,

(a.) #ī pede faustō#, H. E. 2, 2, 37, go with a blessing on thy foot. #dat sonitū magnō strāgem#, Lucr. 1, 288, it deals destruction with a mighty roar. #ferārum rītū sternuntur#, L. 5, 44, 6, they throw themselves down beast-fashion. #apis Matīnae mōre modōque operōsa carmina fingō#, H. 4, 2, 27, in way and wise of Matin bee laborious lays I mould. #‘indoctus’ dīcimus brevī prīmā litterā, ‘īnsānus’ prōductā, ‘inhūmānus’ brevī, ‘īnfēlīx’ longā#. O. 159, we pronounce #indoctus# with the first letter short, #īnsānus# with it long, #inhūmānus# with it short, #īnfēlīx# with it long (167). #ternō cōnsurgunt ōrdine rēmī#, V. 5, 120, with triple bank each time in concert rise the oars. (b.) #Allobroges magnā cum cūrā suōs fīnēs tuentur#, 7, 65, 3, the Allobrogans guard their own territory with great care.

1360. With a substantive meaning way or manner, as #modō#, #rītū#, &c., feeling or intention, as #hāc mente#, #aequō animō#, condition, as #eā condiciōne#, or a part of the body, as in #nūdō capite#, bareheaded, #cum# is not used.

1361. Other expressions denoting manner, particularly prepositional expressions with #per#, may be found in the dictionary: as, #per dolum#, 4, 13, 1, by deceit, #per iocum#, Agr. 2, 96, in fun, #per litterās#, Att. 5, 21, 13, by letter, in writing, #per vim#, RA. 32, violently, #per praestigiās#, V. 4, 53, by some hocus pocus or other, &c., &c. Sometimes the ablative with #ex#.

THE ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE.

1362. (1.) The ablative of a substantive, with a predicate participle in agreement, is used to denote an attendant circumstance of an action.

In this construction, which is called the Ablative Absolute, (a.) the present participle is sometimes used: as, #nūllō hoste prohibente incolumem legiōnem in Nantuātīs perdūxit#, 3, 6, 5, with no enemy hindering, he conducted the legion in safety to the Nantuates. Much oftener, however, (b.) the perfect participle: as, #hōc respōnsō datō discessit#, 1, 14, 7, this answer given he went away. (c.) The future participle is also used in the ablative absolute from Livy on: as, #hospite ventūrō, cessābit nēmo tuōrum#, J. 14, 59, a visitor to come, your slaves will bustle each and all.

1363. A predicate ablative with a participle meaning made, kept, chosen, or the like, occurs in Cicero, Caesar, Nepos, and Livy, but is rare (1167): as, #Dolābellā hoste dēcrētō#, Ph. 11, 16, Dolabella having been voted an enemy of the state.

1364. The perfect participles of deponents used actively in the ablative absolute, are chiefly those of intransitive use, such as #nātus#, #mortuus#, #ortus#, #profectus#. From Sallust on, other perfect deponent participles also are used actively with an accusative. Cicero and Caesar use a few deponent participles, such as #ēmeritus#, #pactus#, #partītus#, #dēpopulātus#, as passives, and later authors use many other participles so.

1365. (2.) The ablative of a substantive, with a predicate noun in agreement, is often used to denote an attendant circumstance of an action: as,

#brevitātem secūtus sum tē magistrō#, Fam. 11, 25, 1, I aimed at brevity with you as a teacher. #nātus dīs inimīcīs#, Pl. Most. 563, born under wrath of gods. #M. Messālā et M. Pīsōne cōnsulibus#, 1, 2, 1, in the consulship of Messala and Piso. #istō praetōre vēnit Syrācūsās#, V. 4, 61, in the defendant’s praetorship he came to Syracuse.

1366. The nominative #quisque#, #plerīque#, or #ipse#, sometimes accompanies the ablative absolute: as, #causā ipse prō sē dictā, damnātur#, L. 4, 44, 10, he is condemned after pleading his case in person.

1367. The ablative absolute may denote in a loose way various relations which might be more distinctly expressed by subordinate sentences.

So particularly: (a.) Time: as, #tertiā initā vigiliā exercitum ēdūcit#, Caes. C. 3, 54, 2, at the beginning of the third watch he leads the army out. (b.) Cause or means: as, #C. Flāminium Caelius religiōne neglēctā cecidisse apud Trāsumēnum scrībit#, DN. 2, 8, Caelius writes that Flaminius fell at Trasumene in consequence of his neglect of religious observances. (c.) Concession: as, #id paucīs dēfendentibus expugnāre nōn potuit#, 2, 12, 2, though the defenders were few, he could not take it by storm. (d.) Hypothesis: as, #quae potest esse vītae iūcunditās sublātīs amīcitiīs?# Pl. 80, what pleasure can there be in life, if you take friendships away? (e.) Description: as, #domum vēnit capite obvolūtō#, Ph. 2, 77, he came home with his head all muffled up.

1368. It may be seen from the examples above that a change of construction is often desirable in translating the ablative absolute. Particularly so in many set idiomatic expressions: as, #nūllā interpositā morā#, Caes. C. 3, 75, 1, without a moment’s delay, instantly. #equō admissō#, 1, 22, 2, #equō citātō#, Caes. C. 3, 96, 3, full gallop. #clāmōre sublātō#, 7, 12, 5, with a round of cheers. #bene rē gestā salvos redeō#, Pl. Tri. 1182, crowned with success I come back safe and sound.

1369. The substantive of the ablative absolute usually denotes a different person or thing from any in the main sentence. But exceptions to this usage sometimes occur: as,

#quibus audītīs, eōs domum remittit#, 4, 21, 6, after listening to these men, he sends them home again. #sī ego mē sciente paterer#, Pl. MG. 559, if I should wittingly myself allow, more emphatic than #sciēns#. #sē iūdice nēmo nocēns absolvitur#, J. 13, 2, himself the judge, no criminal gets free.

1370. Two ablatives absolute often occur together, of which the first indicates the time, circumstances, or cause of the second: as, #exaudītō clāmōre perturbātīs ōrdinibus#, 2, 11, 5, the ranks being demoralized from hearing the shouts. #cōnsūmptīs omnibus tēlīs gladiīs dēstrictīs#, Caes. C. 1, 46, 1, drawing their swords after expending all their missiles.

1371. The substantive is sometimes omitted in the ablative absolute, particularly when it is a general word for a person or a thing which is explained by a relative: as, #praemissīs, quī repūrgārent iter#, L. 44, 4, 11, sending sappers and miners ahead to clear a way. #relātīs ōrdine, quae vīdissent#, L. 42, 25, 2, telling circumstantially all they had seen.

1372. The ablative neuter of some perfect participles is used impersonally (1034). This use is rare in old Latin, in classical Latin commonest in Cicero, and afterwards in Livy: as, #auspicātō#, DN. 2, 11, with auspices taken. #sortītō#, V. 2, 126, lots being drawn, or by lot. Such ablatives readily become adverbs (704). Substantives are also sometimes used alone: as, #austrō#, Div. 2, 58, when the wind is south. #tranquillitāte#, Plin. Ep. 8, 20, 6, when it is calm. #serēnō#, L. 37, 3, 3, the day being clear.

1373. The ablative neuter of some perfect participles is occasionally used in agreement with a sentence or an infinitive: as, #cōgnitō vīvere Ptolomaeum#, L. 33, 41, 5, it being known that Ptolomy was alive. This construction is not used in old Latin, and is rare in classical Latin, but common in Livy and Tacitus. So adjectives also: as, #incertō quid vītārent#, L. 28, 36, 12, it not being obvious what they were to steer clear of.

1374. The ablative absolute is sometimes attended, especially in Livy and Tacitus, by an explanatory word, such as #etsī#, #tamen#, #nisi#, #quasi#, #quamquam#, or #quamvīs#: as, #etsī aliquō acceptō dētrīmentō, tamen summā exercitūs salvā#, Caes. C. 1, 67, 5, though with some loss, yet with the safety of the army as a whole.

THE ABLATIVE OF QUALITY.

1375. The ablative with an adjective in agreement or with a limiting genitive is used to denote quality, either predicatively or attributively: as,

(a.) Predicatively: #capillō sunt prōmissō#, 5, 14, 3, they have long hair, or let their hair grow long. #singulārī fuit industriā#, N. 24, 3, 1, he had unparalleled activity. #animō bonō’s#, Pl. Aul. 732, be of good cheer. #ad flūmen Genusum, quod rīpīs erat impedītīs#, Caes. C. 3, 75, 4, to the river Genusus, which had impracticable banks. (b.) Attributively: #difficilī trānsitū flūmen rīpīsque praeruptīs#, 6, 7, 5, a river hard to cross and with steep banks. #interfectus est C. Gracchus, clārissimō patre, avō, maiōribus#, C. 1, 4, Gracchus was done to death, a man with an illustrious father, grandfather, and ancestors in general (1044). #bōs cervī figūrā#, 6, 26, 1, an ox with the shape of a stag. Compare the genitive of quality (1239).

THE ABLATIVE OF THE ROUTE TAKEN.

1376. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of motion to denote the route taken: as,

#Aurēliā viā profectus est#, C. 2, 6, he has gone off by the Aurelia Road. #omnibus viīs sēmitīsque essedāriōs ex silvīs ēmittēbat#, 5, 19, 2, he kept sending his chariot men out by all possible highways and byways. #hīs pontibus pābulātum mittēbat#, Caes. C. 1, 40, 1, by these bridges he sent foraging. #frūmentum Tiberī vēnit#, L. 2, 34, 5, some grain came by the Tiber. #lupus Ēsquilīna portā ingressus per portam Capēnam prope intāctus ēvāserat#, L. 33, 26, 9, a wolf that came in town by the Esquiline gate had got out through the Capene gate, almost unscathed. This construction gives rise to some adverbs: see 707. The ablative of the route is sometimes used with a substantive of action (1301): as, #nāvigātiō īnferō#, Att. 9, 5, 1, the cruise by the lower sea. #eōdem flūmine invectiō#, Fin. 5, 70, entrance by the same river.

(B.) THE INSTRUMENTAL PROPER.

THE ABLATIVE OF INSTRUMENT OR MEANS.

1377. The ablative is used to denote the instrument or means: as,

#pugnābant armīs#, H. S. 1, 3, 103, they fought with arms. #clārē oculīs videō, sum pernīx pedibus, manibus mōbilis#, Pl. MG. 630, I can see distinctly with my eyes, I’m nimble with my legs, and active with my arms. #iuvābō aut rē tē aut operā aut cōnsiliō bonō#, Pl. Ps. 19, I’ll help thee either with my purse or hand or good advice. #lacte et carne vīvunt, pellibusque sunt vestītī#, 5, 14, 2, they live on milk and meat, and they are clad in skins. #contentus paucīs lēctōribus#, H. S. 1, 10, 74, content with readers few. #centēnāque arbore flūctum verberat#, V. 10, 207, and with an hundred beams at every stroke the wave he smites. Rarely with substantives denoting action (1301): as, #gestōrēs linguīs, audītōrēs auribus#, Pl. Ps. 429, reporters with their tongues and listeners with their ears. #tenerīs labellīs mollēs morsiunculae#, Pl. Ps. 67^a, caressing bites with velvet lips.

1378. When the instrument is a person, the accusative with #per# is used: as, #haec quoque per explōrātōrēs ad hostēs dēferuntur#, 6, 7, 9, this too is reported to the enemy through the medium of scouts. Or a circumlocution, such as #virtūte#, #beneficiō#, #benignitāte#, or especially #operā#, with a genitive or possessive; as, #deūm virtūte multa bona bene parta habēmus#, Pl. Tri. 346, thanks to the gods, we’ve many a pretty penny prettily put by. #meā operā Tarentum recēpistī#, CM. 11, It was through me you got Tarentum back. Rarely the ablative of a person, the person being then regarded as a thing: as, #iacent suīs testibus#, Mil. 47, they are cast by their own witnesses.

1379. The instrumental ablative is used with the five deponents #fruor#, #fungor#, #potior#, #ūtor#, #vēscor#, and several of their compounds, and with #ūsus est# and #opus est#: as,

#pāce numquam fruēmur#, Ph. 7, 19, we never shall enjoy ourselves with peace, i.e. we never shall enjoy peace. #fungar vice cōtis#, H. AP. 304, I’ll play the whetstone’s part. #castrīs nostrī potītī sunt#, 1, 26, 4, our people made themselves masters of the camp. #vestrā operā ūtar#, L. 3, 46, 8, I will avail myself of your services. #carne vēscor#, TD. 5, 90, I live on meat. #opust chlamyde#, Pl. Ps. 734, there is a job with a cloak, i.e. we need a cloak.

1380. Instead of the instrumental ablative, some of the above verbs take the accusative occasionally in old and post-Augustan Latin: thus, in Plautus, Terence, Cato, always #abūtor#, also #fungor#, except once in Terence; #fruor# in Cato and Terence, and #perfungor# in Lucretius, once each; #potior# twice in Plautus and three times in Terence, often also the genitive (1292). The gerundive of these verbs is commonly used personally in the passive, as if the verbs were regularly used transitively (2244).

1381. #ūtor# often has a second predicative ablative: as, #administrīs druidibus ūtuntur#, 6, 16, 2, they use the druids as assistants. #facilī mē ūtētur patre#, T. Hau. 217, an easy-going father he will find in me.

1382. #ūsus est# and #opus est# sometimes take a neuter participle, especially in old Latin: as, #vīsō opust cautōst opus#, Pl. Cap. 225, there’s need of sight, there’s need of care. Sometimes the ablative with a predicate participle: as, #celeriter mī eō homine conventōst opus#, Pl. Cur. 302, I needs must see that man at once.

1383. With #opus est#, the thing wanted is often made the subject nominative or subject accusative, with #opus# in the predicate: as, #dux nōbīs et auctor opus est#, Fam. 2, 6, 4, we need a leader and adviser. Usually so when the thing needed is a neuter adjective or neuter pronoun: as, #multa sibī̆ opus esse#, V. 1, 126, that he needed much. A genitive dependent on #opus# is found once or twice in late Latin (1227).

1384. #ūsus est# is employed chiefly in comedy, but also once or twice in Cicero, Lucretius, Vergil, and Livy. Once with the accusative: #ūsust hominem astūtum#, Pl. Ps. 385, there’s need of a sharp man.

THE ABLATIVE OF SPECIFICATION.

1385. The instrumental ablative is used to denote that in respect of which an assertion or a term is to be taken: as,

#temporibus errāstī#, Ph. 2, 23, you have slipped up in your chronology. #excellēbat āctiōne#, Br. 215, his forte lay in delivery. #Helvētiī reliquōs Gallōs virtūte praecēdunt#, 1, 1, 4, the Helvetians outdo the rest of the Kelts in bravery. #hī omnēs linguā, īnstitūtīs, lēgibus inter sē differunt#, 1, 1, 2, these people all differ from each other in language, usages, and laws. #sunt quīdam hominēs nōn rē sed nōmine#, Off. 1, 105, some people are human beings not in reality but in name. #ūna Suēba nātiōne, altera Nōrica#, 1, 53, 4, one woman a Suebe by birth, the other Noric. #vīcistis cochleam tarditūdine#, Pl. Poen. 532, you’ve beaten snail in slowness. #dēmēns iūdiciō volgī#, H. S. 1, 6, 97, mad in the judgement of the world. #sapiunt me͡ā sententiā#, T. Ph. 335, in my opinion they are wise. #meā quidem sententiā#, CM. 56, in my humble opinion. #quis iūre perītior commemorārī potest?# Clu. 107, who can be named that is better versed in the law?

THE ABLATIVE OF FULNESS.

1386. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of abounding, filling, and furnishing: as,

#vīlla abundat porcō, haedō, āgnō#, CM. 56, the country place is running over with swine, kid, and lamb. #tōtum montem hominibus complērī iussit#, 1, 24, 3, he gave orders for the whole mountain to be covered over with men. #Māgōnem poenā adfēcērunt#, N. 23, 8, 2, they visited Mago with punishment. #legiōnēs nimis pulcrīs armīs praeditās#, Pl. Am. 218, brigades in goodliest arms arrayed. #cōnsulārī imperiō praeditus#, Pis. 55, vested with the authority of consul. For the genitive with #compleō# and #impleō#, see 1293.

1387. The ablative is sometimes used with adjectives of fulness, instead of the regular genitive (1263). Thus, in later Latin, rarely with #plēnus#: as, #maxima quaeque domus servīs est plēna superbīs#, J. 5, 66, a grand establishment is always full of stuck-up slaves. #et ille quidem plēnus annīs abiīt, plēnus honōribus#, Plin. Ep. 2, 1, 7, well, as for him, he has passed away, full of years and full of honours. So in Cicero and Caesar, once each. Also with #dīves# in poetry, and, from Livy on, in prose. With #refertus#, the ablative of things is common, while persons are usually in the genitive (1263). With #onustus#, the ablative is generally used, rarely the genitive.

THE ABLATIVE OF MEASURE, EXCHANGE, AND PRICE.

1388. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of measuring and of exchanging, and in expressions of value and price: as,

(a.) #quod magnōs hominēs virtūte mētīmur#, N. 18, 1, 1, because we gauge great men by their merit. (b.) #nēmō nisi vīctor pāce bellum mūtāvit#, S. C. 58, 15, nobody except a conqueror has ever exchanged war for peace. (c.) #haec sīgna sēstertiūm sex mīllibus quīngentīs esse vēndita#, V. 4, 12, that these statues were sold for sixty-five hundred sesterces. #aestimāvit dēnāriīs III#, V. 3, 214, he valued it at three denars. #trīgintā mīllibus dīxistis eum habitāre#, Cael. 17, you have said he pays thirty thousand rent. #quod nōn opus est, āsse cārum est#, Cato in Sen. Ep. 94, 28, what you don’t need, at a penny is dear. #hem, istūc verbum, mea voluptās, vīlest vīgintī minīs#, Pl. Most. 297, bless me, that compliment, my charmer, were at twenty minas cheap.

1389. With #mūtō# and #commūtō#, the ablative usually denotes the thing received. But sometimes in Plautus, and especially in Horace, Livy, and late prose, it denotes the thing parted with: as, #cūr valle permūtem Sabīnā dīvitiās operōsiōrēs?# H. 3, 1, 47, why change my Sabine dale for wealth that brings more care? Similarly with #cum# in the prose of Cicero’s age: as, #mortem cum vītā commūtāre#, Sulp. in Fam. 4, 5, 3, to exchange life for death.

1390. The ablative of price or value is thus used chiefly with verbs or verbal expressions of bargaining, buying or selling, hiring or letting, costing, being cheap or dear. Also with #aestimō#, of a definite price, and sometimes #magnō#, #permagnō# (1273).

1391. The ablatives thus used, are (a.) those of general substantives of value and price, such as #pretium#, (b.) numerical designations of money, or (c.) neuter adjectives of quantity, #magnō#, #permagnō#, #quam plūrimō#, #parvō#, #minimō#, #nihilō#, #nōnnihilō#: as, #magnō decumās vēndidī#, V. 3, 40, I sold the tithes at a high figure. For #tantī# and #quantī#, #plūris# and #minōris#, see 1274.

1392. The ablative is also used with #dignus# and #indignus#: as,

#dignī maiōrum locō#, Agr. 2, 1, well worthy of the high standing of their ancestors. #nūlla vōx est audīta populī Rōmānī maiestāte indigna#, 7, 17, 3, not a word was heard out of keeping with the grandeur of Rome. See also #dignor# in the dictionary. Similarly in Plautus with #condignē#, #decōrus#, #decet#, #aequē#, #aequos#. For the genitive with #dignus#, see 1269; for the accusative with #dignus# and a form of #sum#, 1144.

[Erratum: 1389 ... #cūr valle permūtem Sabīnā dīvitiās operōsiōrēs?# operōsiōres]

THE ABLATIVE OF THE AMOUNT OF DIFFERENCE.

1393. The instrumental ablative is used to denote the amount of difference.

This ablative is used with any words whatever of comparative or of superlative meaning: as, #ūnō diē longiōrem mēnsem faciunt aut bīduō#, V. 2, 129, they make the month longer by a day, or even by two days. #ubī̆ adbibit plūs paulō#, T. Hau. 220, when he has drunk a drop too much. #nummō dīvitior#, Pl. Ps. 1323, a penny richer. #bīduō post#, 1, 47, 1, two days after. #multīs ante diēbus#, 7, 9, 4, many days before. #paucīs ante diēbus#, C. 3, 3, a few days ago. #nimiō praestat#, Pl. B. 396, ‘t is ever so much better. #multō mālim#, Br. 184, I would much rather. #multō maxima pars#, C. 4, 17, the largest part by far.

1394. In expressions of time, the accusative is sometimes used with #post#, less frequently with #ante#, as prepositions, instead of the ablative of difference: as, #post paucōs diēs#, L. 21, 51, 2, #post diēs paucōs#, L. 37, 13, 6, #paucōs post diēs#, L. 33, 39, 2, after a few days. #paucōs ante diēs#, L. 39, 28, 4, #diēs ante paucōs#, L. 31, 24, 5, a few days before. With this prepositional construction, ordinals are common: as, #post diem tertium#, 4, 9, 1, after the third day, according to the Roman way of reckoning, i.e. the next day but one.

1395. (1.) When the time before or after which anything occurs is denoted by a substantive, the substantive is put in the accusative with #ante# or #post#: as,

#paulō ante tertiam vigiliam#, 7, 24, 2, a little before the third watch. #bīduō ante vīctōriam#, Fam. 10, 14, 1, the day but one before the victory. #paucīs diēbus post mortem Āfricānī#, L. 3, a few days after the death of Africanus.

1396. Sometimes in late writers, as Tacitus, Pliny the younger, and Suetonius, a genitive is loosely used: as, #sextum post clādis annum#, Ta. 1, 62, i.e. #sextō post clādem annō#, six years after the humiliating defeat. #post decimum mortis annum#, Plin. Ep. 6, 10, 3, ten years after his death. Similarly #intrā sextum adoptiōnis diem#, Suet. Galb. 17, not longer than six days after the adoption-day.

1397. (2.) When the time before or after which anything occurs is denoted by a sentence, the sentence may be introduced:

(a.) By #quam#: as, #post diem tertium gesta rēs est quam dīxerat#, Mil. 44, it took place two days after he said it. With #quam#, #post# is sometimes omitted. Or (b.) less frequently by #cum#: as, #quem trīduō, cum hās dabam litterās, exspectābam#, Planc. in Fam. 10, 23, 3, I am looking for him three days after this writing (1601). For a relative pronoun sentence, see 1354.

1398. Verbs of surpassing sometimes have an accusative of extent (1151): as, #mīrāmur hunc hominem tantum excellere cēterīs?# IP. 39, are we surprised that this man so far outshines everybody else? With comparatives, the accusative is rare: as, #aliquantum inīquior#, T. Hau. 201, somewhat too hard. Similarly #permultum ante#, Fam. 3, 11, 1, long long before.

1399. In numerical designations of distance, the words #intervāllum# and #spatium# are regularly put in the ablative: as, #rēx VI mīlium passuum intervāllō ā Saburrā cōnsēderat#, Caes. C. 2, 38, 3, the king had pitched six miles away from Saburra. So sometimes #mīlle#: as, #mīlibus passuum VI a Caesaris castrīs sub monte cōnsēdit#, 1, 48, 1. See 1152.

[Errata: 1393 ... #multīs ante diēbus#, 7, 9, 4 diēbus. 1395 ... #bīduō ante vīctōriam# vĭctōriam]

TWO OR MORE ABLATIVES COMBINED.

1400. Two or more ablatives denoting different relations are often combined in the same sentence: as,

#Menippus, meō iūdiciō (1385) tōtā Asiā (1346) illīs temporibus (1350) disertissimus#, Br. 315, Menippus, in my opinion the most gifted speaker of that day in all Asia. #hāc habitā ōrātiōne (1362) mīlitibus studiō (1316) pugnae ardentibus (1370) tubā (1377) sīgnum dedit#, Caes. C. 3, 90, 4, seeing that his soldiers were hot for battle after this speech, he gave the signal by trumpet.

USE OF CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.

1401. Two cases, the accusative and the ablative, are used with prepositions.

1402. Prepositions were originally adverbs which served to define more exactly the meaning of a verb.

Thus, #endo#, in, on, the older form of #in#, is an adverb, in an injunction occurring in a law of the Twelve Tables, 451 B.C., #manum endo iacitō#, let him lay hand on. Similarly, #trāns#, over, in #trānsque datō#, and he must hand over, i.e. #trāditōque#.

1403. In the course of time such adverbs became verbal prefixes; the verbs compounded with them may take the case, accusative or ablative, required by the meaning of the compound. Thus, #amīcōs adeō#, I go to my friends (1137); #urbe exeō#, I go out of town (1302).

1404. For distinctness or emphasis, the prefix of the verb may be repeated before the case: as, #ad amīcōs adeō#; #ex urbe exeō#. And when it is thus separately expressed before the case, it may be dropped from the verb: as, #ad amīcōs eō#; #ex urbe eō#.

1405. The preposition thus detached from the verb becomes an attendant on a substantive, and serves to show the relation of the substantive in a sentence more distinctly than the case alone could.

1406. A great many adverbs which are never used in composition with a verb likewise become prepositions: as, #apud#, #circiter#, #īnfrā#, #iūxtā#, #pōne#, #propter#, &c., &c. The inflected forms of substantives, #prīdiē#, #postrīdiē# (1413), #tenus# (1420), and #fīnī# (1419), are also sometimes used as prepositions. And #vicem# (1145), #causā#, #grātiā#, #nōmine#, #ergō# (1257), resemble prepositions closely in meaning.

1407. A trace of the original adverbial use of prepositions is sometimes retained, chiefly in poetry, when the prefix is separated from its word by what is called Tmesis: as, #īre inque gredī#, i.e. #ingredīque#, Lucr. 4, 887, to walk and to step off. #per mihī̆ mīrum vīsum est#, DO. 1, 214, passing strange it seemed to me.

1408. Even such words as are used almost exclusively as prepositions sometimes retain their original adverbial meaning also: as, #adque adque#, E. in Gell. 10, 29, 2, and up and up, and on and on, or and nearer still and still more near. #occīsīs ad hominum mīlibus quattuor#, 2, 33, 5, about four thousand men being killed. #susque dēque#, Att. 14, 6, 1, up and down, topsy turvy, no matter how.

1409. On the other hand, some verbal prefixes are never used as separate prepositions with a substantive. These are called Inseparable Prepositions; they are: #amb-#, round, #an-#, up, #dis-#, in two, #por-#, towards, #rē̆d-#, back. Usually also #sēd-#, apart (1417).

PREPOSITIONS USED WITH THE ACCUSATIVE.

1410. The accusative is accompanied by the following prepositions:

#ad#, to, #adversus# or #adversum#, towards, against, #ante#, in composition also #antid-#, before, #apud#, near, at, #circā#, #circum#, #circiter#, round, about, #cis#, #citrā#, this side of, #contrā#, opposite to, #ergā#, towards, #extrā#, outside, #īnfrā#, below, #inter#, between, #intrā#, within, #iūxtā#, near, #ob#, against, #penes#, in the possession of, #per#, through, #pōne#, #post#, in Plautus #postid#, #poste#, #pos#, behind, #praeter#, past, #prope# (#propius#, #proximē#), #propter#, near, #secundum#, after, #subter#, under, #suprā#, above, #trāns#, across, #uls#, #ultrā#, beyond. For the various shades of meaning and applications of these prepositions, see the dictionary.

1411. Prepositions which accompany the accusative may be easily remembered in this order:

ante, apud, ad, adversum, circum, cis, ob, trāns, secundum, penes, pōne, prope, per, post, and all in -ā and -ter.

1412. Of the above named words some are not used as prepositions till a relatively late period.

Thus, #īnfrā# is first used as a preposition by Terence and once only; #circā# somewhat before and #citrā# about Cicero’s time; #ultrā# first by Cato; #iūxtā# by Varro. In Cicero #iūxtā# is still used only as an adverb, in Caesar and Nepos as a preposition.

1413. The substantive forms #prīdiē#, the day before, and #postrīdiē#, the day after, are sometimes used with an accusative like prepositions, mostly in Cicero, to denote dates: as, #prīdiē nōnās Māiās#, Att. 2, 11, 2, the day before the nones of May, i.e. 6 May. #postrīdiē lūdōs Apollinārīs#, Att. 16, 4, 1, the day after the games of Apollo, i.e. 6 July. For the genitive with these words, see 1232.

1414. The adverb #vorsus# or #versus#, wards, occurs as a post positive (1434) preposition rarely: once in Sallust, #Aegyptum vorsus#, J. 19, 3, Egyptwards, in Cicero a few times, twice in Pliny the elder. #usque#, even to, occurs with names of towns in Terence (once), Cicero, and later; with appellatives in Cato (once) and late writers.

1415. #clam#, secretly, is ordinarily an adverb. But in old Latin it is used often as a preposition, unknown to, with an accusative of a person. Terence has once the diminutive form #clanculum#, Ad. 52. With the ablative only in the MSS. of Caesar, once, #clam vōbīs#, C. 2, 32, 8, without your knowledge, and in Bell. Afr. 11, 4.

1416. #subter#, under, is used in poetry, once by Catullus and once by Vergil, with the locative ablative: as, #Rhoetēō subter lītore#, Cat. 65, 7, beneath Rhoeteum’s strand.

PREPOSITIONS USED WITH THE ABLATIVE.

1417. The ablative is accompanied by the following prepositions:

#abs#, #ab#, or #ā#, from, #cōram#, face to face, #dē#, down from, from, of, #ex# or #ē#, out of, #prae#, at the fore, in front of, #prō#, before, #quom# or #cum#, with, #sine#, without. In official or legal language, also #sēd# or #sē#, without. For the different classes of ablatives with these prepositions, see 1297-1300; for the various shades of meanings and applications, see the dictionary.

1418. Prepositions which accompany the ablative may be easily remembered in this order:

abs (ab, ā), cum, cōram, dē, prae, prō, sine, ex (or ē).

1419. The ablative #fīnī#, as far as, is used in old Latin as a preposition with the ablative: as, #osse fīnī#, Pl. Men. 859, down to the bone. #operītō terrā rādīcibus fīnī#, Cato, RR. 28, 2, cover with loam the length of the roots. Also, as a real substantive, with a genitive (1255): as, #ānsārum īnfimārum fīnī#, Cato, RR. 113, 2, up to the bottom of the handles. Rarely #fīne#, and before the genitive: as, #fīne genūs#, O. 10, 537, as far as the knee.

1420. #tenus#, the length, was originally a substantive accusative (1151). From Cicero on, it is used as a preposition with the ablative, and standing after its case: as, #Taurō tenus#, D. 36, not further than Taurus. #pectoribus tenus#, L. 21, 54, 9, quite up to the breast. #hāctenus#, thus far, only thus far. Also, as a real substantive, with a genitive, usually a plural, mostly in verse (1232): as, #labrōrum tenus#, Lucr. 1, 940, the length of the lips, up to the lips. #Cūmārum tenus#, Cael. in Fam. 8, 1, 2, as far as Cumae.

1421. The adverbs #palam#, in presence of, #procul#, apart from, either near or far, #simul#, with, are rarely used in poetry and late prose as prepositions with the ablative. #coram# occurs but once as a preposition (inscriptional) before Cicero’s time. #absque# with the ablative occurs once each in Cicero and Quintilian; in Plautus and Terence only in a coordinate protasis (1701; 2110).

PREPOSITIONS USED WITH THE ACCUSATIVE OR THE ABLATIVE.

1422. Two cases, the accusative and the ablative, are accompanied by the prepositions in, older #endo#, #indu#, into, in, #sub#, under, and #super#, over, on.

1423. (1.) #in# and #sub# accompany the accusative of the end of motion, the locative ablative of rest: as,

(a.) #in cūriam vēnimus#, V. 4, 138, we went to the senate-house. #in vincla coniectus est#, V. 5, 17, he was put in irons. #hīc pāgus eius exercitum sub iugum mīserat#, 1, 12, 5, this canton had sent his army under the yoke. (b.) #erimus in castrīs#, Ph. 12, 28, we shall be in camp. #viridī membra sub arbutō strātus#, H. 1, 1, 21, stretched out--his limbs--all under an arbute green.

1424. Verbs of rest sometimes have #in# with the accusative, because of an implied idea of motion. And, conversely, verbs of motion sometimes have #in# with the ablative, because of an implied idea of rest: as,

(a.) #mihi in mentem fuit#, Pl. Am. 180, it popped into my head, i.e. came in and is in (compare #venit hoc mī in mentem#, Pl. Aul. 226. #in eius potestātem venīre nōlēbant#, V. 1, 150. #in eōrum potestātem portum futūrum intellegēbant#, V. 5, 98, they knew full well the haven would get under the control of these people). (b.) #Caesar exercitum in hībernīs conlocāvit#, 3, 29, 3, Caesar put the army away in winter quarters, i.e. put them into and left them in. #eam in lectō conlocārunt#, T. Eu. 593, they laid the lady on her couch. So commonly with #locō#, #conlocō#, #statuō#, #cōnstituō#, #pōnō#, and its compounds. For #expōnō# and #impōnō#, see the dictionary.

1425. (2.) #super# accompanies the ablative when it has colloquially the sense of #dē#, about, in reference to: as, #hāc super rē scrībam ad tē Rēgiō#, Att. 16, 6, 1, I’ll write you about this from Regium. In other senses, the accusative, but sometimes in poetry the ablative, chiefly in the sense of on: as, #ligna super focō largē repōnēns#, H. 1, 9, 5, piling on hearth the faggots high. #nocte super mediā#, V. 9, 61, at dead of night. #paulum silvae super hīs#, H. S. 2, 6, 3, a bit of wood to crown the whole.

[Errata: 1424a ... compare #venit hoc mī in mentem# text unchanged: expected form vēnit So commonly with #locō#, #conlocō# #locō#. #conlocō#]

COMBINATION OF SUBSTANTIVES BY A PREPOSITION.

1426. (1.) Two substantives are sometimes connected by a preposition, to indicate certain attributive relations (1043); such are particularly:

(a.) Place: as, #illam pugnam nāvālem ad Tenedum#, Mur. 33, the sea-fight off Tenedus. #excessum ē vītā#, Fin. 3, 60, the departure from life. (b.) Source, origin, material: as, #ex Aethiopiā ancillulam#, T. Eu. 165, a lady’s maid from Aethiopia. #pōcula ex aurō#, V. 4, 62, bowls of gold (1314). (c.) Direction of action, connection, separation: as, #amor in patriam#, Fl. 103, love of country. #vestra ergā mē voluntās#, C. 4, 1, your good will towards me. #proelium cum Tūscīs ad Iāniculum#, L. 2, 52, 7, the battle with the Tuscans at Janiculum. #vir sine metū#, TD. 5, 48, a man devoid of fear (1043).

1427. (2.) Very commonly, however, other constructions are used, even to indicate the relations above: as,

#bellum Venetōrum#, 3, 16, 1, war with the Venetans (1231). #bellō Cassiānō#, 1, 13, 2, in the war with Cassius (1233). #in aureīs pōculīs#, V. 4, 54, in golden bowls (1233). #scūtīs ex cortice factīs#, 2, 33, 2, with long shields made out of bark (1314). #post vīctōriam eius bellī, quod cum Persīs fuit#, Off. 3, 49, after the victory in the war with the Persians.

1428. Prepositional expressions are sometimes used predicatively: as, #sunt omnēs sine maculā#, Pl. 6, 14, they are all without spot or blemish. And sometimes they are equivalent to adjectives: as, #contrā nātūram#, TD. 4, 11, unnatural, #suprā hominem#, DN. 2, 34, superhuman. Or to substantives: as, #sine pondere#, O. 1, 20, things without weight. Or to adverbs: as, #sine labōre#, Pl. R. 461, easily.

[Erratum: 1426a ... L. 2, 52, 7 L 2,]

REPETITION OR OMISSION OF A PREPOSITION WITH SEVERAL SUBSTANTIVES.

1429. (1.) A preposition is often repeated with emphasis before two or more substantives: as,

#in labōre atque in dolōre#, Pl. Ps. 685, in toil and in trouble. Particularly so with #et . . . et#, #aut . . . aut#, #nōn sōlum . . . sed etiam#, #nōn minus ... quam#, &c., &c.: as, #et ex urbe et ex agrīs#, C. 2, 21, from Rome and from the country too.

1430. (2.) A preposition is often used with the first only of two or more substantives: as, #in labōre ac dolōre#, TD. 5, 41, in toil and trouble. #incidit in eandem invidiam quam pater suus#, N. 5, 3, 1, he fell under the selfsame ban as his father. Particularly when the second is in apposition: as, #cum duōbus ducibus, Pyrrhō et Hannibale#, L. 28, with two commanders, Pyrrhus and Hannibal.

[Erratum: 1429 ... #nōn minus ... quam#, &c., &c. final . missing]

TWO PREPOSITIONS WITH ONE SUBSTANTIVE.

1431. (1.) When two prepositions belong to one and the same substantive, the substantive is expressed with the first. With the second, the substantive is repeated, or its place is taken by a pronoun: as,

#contrā lēgem prōque lēge#, L. 34, 8, 1, against the law and for the law. #partim contrā Avītum, partim prō hōc#, Clu. 88, partly against Avitus, partly for him. If, however, the two prepositions accompany the same case, the substantive need not be repeated: as, #intrā extrāque mūnītiōnēs#, Caes. C. 3, 72, 2, inside and outside the works.

1432. (2.) The second preposition is often used adverbially, without any substantive: as, #et in corpore et extrā#, Fin. 2, 68, both in the body and outside.

POSITION OF PREPOSITIONS.

1433. In general a preposition precedes its case: see 178.

1434. Disyllabic prepositions sometimes follow their substantives. Thus, in Cicero, #contrā#, #ultrā#, and #sine#, sometimes stand after a relative; so likewise #inter# in Cicero, Caesar, and Sallust; occasionally also #penes# and #propter#. For #versus#, see 1414; for #fīnī#, 1419; for #tenus#, 1420.

1435. Of monosyllables, #ad# and #dē# often follow a relative. Also #cum# often in Cicero and Sallust, and regularly in Caesar. With a personal or a reflexive pronoun, #cum# regularly follows, as #mēcum#, #nōbīscum#, #sēcum#.

1436. In poetry and late prose, prepositions are freely put after their cases.

1437. In oaths and adjurations, #per# is often separated from its proper accusative by the accusative of the object: as, #per tē de͡ōs ōrō#, T. Andr. 538, I beg thee by the gods, in the gods’ name.

USE OF ADVERBS.

1438. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.

(a.) With verbs, all sorts of adverbs are used: as, of Place: #quis istīc habet?# Pl. B. 114, who lives in there? Time: #tum dentēs mihi cadēbant prīmulum#, Pl. Men. 1116, my teeth were just beginning then to go. Number: #bis cōnsul fuerat P. Āfricānus#, Mur. 58, Africanus had twice been consul. Degree, Amount: #Ubiī magnopere ōrābant#, 4, 16, 5, the Ubians earnestly entreated. #Dumnorīx plūrimum poterat#, 1, 9, 3, Dumnorix was all-powerful. Manner: #bene quiēvit, libenter cibum sūmpsit#, Plin. Ep. 3, 16, 4, he has slept beautifully, he has relished his food. (b.) With adjectives and adverbs, oftenest adverbs of degree or amount only, or their equivalents, such as #bene#, #ēgregiē#, &c.: as, #valdē dīligēns#, Ac. 2, 98, very particular. #ēgregiē fortis#, DO. 2, 268, exceptionally brave. Adverbs of manner, however, are also used, especially in poetry: as, #turpiter hīrtum#, H. E. 1, 3, 22, disreputably rough, i.e. disreputable and rough.

1439. An adverb is sometimes used with the meaning of an adjective: as,

#reliquīs deincēps diēbus#, 3, 29, 1, the remaining successive days. #dē suīs prīvātim rēbus#, 5, 3, 5, in relation to their personal interests. #undique silvae#, Plin. Ep. 1, 6, 2, the surrounding woods. Particularly when the substantive expresses character, like an adjective: as, #vērē Metellus#, Sest. 130, a trueblooded Metellus. #rūsticānus vir, sed plānē vir#, TD. 2, 53, a country man, but every inch a man.

1440. Perfect participles used as substantives are commonly qualified by an adverb, and not by an adjective. Particularly so #dictum#, #factum#, #inventum#, #respōnsum#, with #bene# and #male#, and their synonymes: as, #rēctē ac turpiter factum#, 7, 80, 5, heroism and cowardice. #bene facta male locāta male facta arbitror#, E. in Off. 2, 62, good deeds ill put, bad deeds I count. In superlative qualifications, however, the adjective is preferred.

1441. Other substantives also may be qualified by an adverb, when a verb construction or a participle is implied: as, #C. Flāminius cōnsul iterum#, Div. 1, 77, Flaminius in his second consulship. #ō totiēns servos#, H. S. 2, 7, 70, time and again a slave. #ictū comminus#, Caecin. 43, by a hand-to-hand blow. #pūblicē testem#, V. 2, 156, a government witness. #populum lātē rēgem#, V. 1, 21, a nation regnant wide. #lātē tyrannus#, H. 3, 17, 9, lord paramount far and near.

1442. An adverb sometimes takes the place of a substantive: as, #cum amīcī partim dēseruerint mē, partim etiam prōdiderint#, QFr. 1, 3, 5, since my friends have some of them abandoned me, and others again have actually betrayed me, i.e. #aliī . . . aliī#. #postquam satis tūta circā vidēbantur#, L. 1, 58, 2, finding every thing round about looked pretty safe, i.e. #quae circā erant#. #palam laudārēs, sēcrēta male audiēbant#, Ta. H. 1, 10, his outward walk you would have admired; his private life was in bad odour, i.e. #quae palam fīēbant#.

NEGATIVE ADVERBS.

1443. (1.) The negative oftenest used in declaration or interrogation is #nōn#, not: as,

#nōn metuō mihi#, Pl. B. 225, I fear not for myself. #nōn semper imbrēs nūbibus hīspidōs mānant in agrōs#, H. 2, 9, 1, not always from the clouds do showers on stubbly fields come dripping dropping down. #nōn dīcēs hodiē?# H. S. 2, 7, 21, will you not say without delay?

1444. #nōn# is a modification of #noenum# or #noenu#, compounded of #ne#, no, and the accusative #oinom# or #oenum#, the older form of #ūnum#, one thing. #noenum# occurs in Plautus twice, in Ennius, Lucilius, Afranius, and Varro, once each, and #noenu# occurs twice in Lucretius (99).

1445. Negation is often expressed by other compounds of #ne#. In such cases the Latin idiom frequently differs from the English, and a transfer of the negative is required in translation.

Such compounds are: (a.) Verbs, such as #negō#, #nequeō#, #nesciō#, #nōlō#: as, #negat vērum esse#, Mur. 74, he maintains it is not true. (b.) Nouns, such as #nēmō#, #neuter#, #nūllus#, #nihil#: as, #nēminī meus adventus labōrī fuit#, V. 1, 16, my visit did not trouble anybody. (c.) Adverbs, such as #numquam#, #nusquam#. (d.) Similarly, the conjunction #neque# is used for and not, but not, unless a single word is to be emphasized or contrasted: as, #nec frūstrā#, 8, 5, 3, and not in vain.

1446. A form #nec# is used rarely in old Latin in the sense of #nōn#: as, #tū dīs nec rēctē dīcis#, Pl. B. 119, thou dost abuse the gods, i.e. #nōn rēctē# or #male dīcis#. After Plautus’s time, #nec# for #nōn# occurs in a few set combinations, such as #nec opīnāns#, not expecting, and, from Livy on, #necdum#, not yet, i.e. #nōndum#.

1447. The form #nē# usually introduces an imperative or a subjunctive, as will be explained further on. But #nē# is also used in the combination #nē . . . quidem#, not even, not . . . either, with the emphatic word between #nē# and #quidem#: as, #nē tum quidem#, 1, 50, 2, not even then. #nē Vorēnus quidem sēsē vāllō continet#, 5, 44, 6, Vorenus did not keep inside the palisade either.

1448. The adjective #nūllus# is sometimes used, chiefly in colloquial language, for #nōn# or #nē# (1051): as, #Philotīmus nūllus vēnit#, Att. 11, 24, 4, no Philotimus has shown himself. #nūllus crēduās#, Pl. Tri. 606, you needn’t believe it at all.

1449. (2.) The negative #haut# or #haud#, not, is used principally with adjectives and adverbs, less frequently with verbs: as,

(a.) #haud mediocris vir#, RP. 2, 55, no ordinary man. #rem haud sānē difficilem#, CM. 4, a thing not particularly hard. #haud procul#, CM. 15, not far. In all periods of the language often combined with #quisquam#, #ūllus#, #umquam#, #usquam#. (b.) In old Latin #haud# is freely used with all sorts of verbs, especially with #possum#. In Cicero, it occurs here and there with a few verbs, such as #adsentior#, #errō#, #īgnōrō#, #nītor#, #amō#, but is principally confined to #sciō#, in the combination #haud sciō an#, I don’t know but (1782). Caesar uses #haud# once only, and then in this combination.

1450. A shorter form, #hau#, occurs often in old Latin, and a few times in the classical period: as, #heic est sepulcrum hau pulcrum pulcrai fēminae#, CIL. I, 1007, 2, on the burial site of a woman, here is the site not sightly of a sightly dame. In Plautus it is juxtaposed with #sciō#, making #hausciō#, i.e. #nesciō#.

1451. (3.) Negation may also be intimated by such words as #vix#, hardly, #parum#, not . . . enough, not quite, #minus#, less, not, #minimē#, least of all, #male#, &c.

1452. Two negatives in the same sentence are usually equivalent to an affirmative.

Thus, with #nōn# first, an indefinite affirmative: as, #nōn nēmō#, somebody, a certain gentleman, one or another. #nōn nūllus#, some. #nōn nihil#, something, somewhat. #nōn numquam#, sometimes. With #nōn# second, a universal affirmative: as, #nēmō nōn#, everybody, every human being. #nūllus nōn#, every. #nihil nōn#, every thing. #numquam nōn#, always. #nōn possum nōn cōnfitērī#, Fam. 9, 14, 1, I must confess. #nēmō īgnōrat#, V. 2, 111, everybody knows.

1453. Sometimes, however, in old Latin, a second negation is used merely to emphasize the negative idea: as, #lapideō sunt corde multī, quōs nōn miseret nēminis#, E. in Fest. p. 162, there’s many a man with heart of stone, that feels for nobody. For doubled negatives in compound sentences, see 1660.

[Erratum: 1445 ... (d.) (d)]

USE OF DEGREES OF COMPARISON.

THE POSITIVE.

1454. The positive sometimes expresses an idea of disproportion: as,

#prō multitūdine hominum angustōs sē fīnīs habēre arbitrābantur#, 1, 2, 5, in view of their large numbers they thought they had a cramped place to live in. Generally, however, disproportion is expressed as in 1460 or 1461.

THE COMPARATIVE.

1455. When two things only are compared, the comparative is used: as,

#uter igitur melior?# Div. 2, 133, which of the two then is the better? #uter est īnsānior hōrum?# H. S. 2, 3, 102, which of these two is crazier? #uter erātis, tūn an ille, maior?# Pl. Men. 1119, you were--which of the two the bigger, thou or he?

1456. The superlative is sometimes loosely used when only two things are meant: as, #Numitōrī, quī stirpis maximus erat, rēgnum lēgat#, L. 1, 3, 10, to Numitor, who was the eldest of the family, he bequeaths the crown, of two brothers, Numitor and Amulius. #id me͡ā minumē rēfert, quī sum nātū maxumus#, T. Ad. 881, that is of small concern to me, who am the eldest son, says Demea, who has only one brother.

1457. From Cicero on, an adjective or adverb is sometimes compared with another adjective or adverb. In such comparisons #quam# is always used.

In this case: (a.) Both members may have the positive form, the first with #magis#: as, #Celer disertus magis est quam sapiēns#, Att. 10, 1, 4, Celer is more eloquent than wise. #magis audācter quam parātē#, Br. 241, with more assurance than preparation. Or (b.) Both members may have the comparative suffix: as, #lubentius quam vērius#, Mil. 78, with greater satisfaction than truth. #pestilentia minācior quam perniciōsior#, L. 4, 52, 3, a plague more alarming than destructive.

1458. But sometimes the second member is put in the positive, even when the first has the comparative suffix: as, #ācrius quam cōnsīderātē#, Ta. H. 1, 83, with more spirit than deliberation. And sometimes both members: as, #clārīs maiōribus quam vetustīs#, Ta. 4, 61, of a house famous rather than ancient.

1459. The comparative may be modified by ablatives of difference, such as #multō#, far, #aliquantō#, considerably, #paullō# or #paulō#, a little, #nimiō#, too much, ever so much (1393). Also by #etiam#, even, still, and in Catullus, Sallust, Vergil, and later Latin by #longē#, far, #adhūc#, still.

1460. The comparative of an adjective or adverb often denotes that which is more than usual or more than is right: as,

#solēre aiunt rēgēs Persārum plūrēs uxōrēs habēre#, V. 3, 76, they say the Persian kings generally have several wives. #senectūs est nātūrā loquācior#, CM. 55, age is naturally rather garrulous. #stomachābātur senex, sī quid asperius dīxeram#, DN. 1, 93, the old gentleman always got provoked if I said anything a bit rough.

1461. The comparative of disproportion is often defined by some added expression: as,

#prīvātīs maiōra focīs#, J. 4, 66, something too great for private hearths (1321). #flāgrantior aequō nōn dēbet dolor esse virī#, J. 13, 11, the indignation of a man must not be over hot (1330). In Livy and Tacitus by #quam prō# with the ablative: see the dictionary. Sometimes a new sentence is added: as, #sum avidior, quam satis est, glōriae#, Fam. 9, 14, 2, I am over greedy of glory. For #quam ut# or #quam quī#, see 1896.

1462. The comparative with a sentence of negative import is often preferred to the superlative with a positive sentence: as,

#elephantō bēluārum nūlla prūdentior#, DN. 1, 97, of the larger beasts not one is more sagacious than the elephant, or the elephant is the most sagacious of beasts. #sequāmur Polybium, quō nēmō fuit dīligentior#, RP. 2, 27, let us follow Polybius, the most scrupulous of men. For #nēmō# or #quis#, the more emphatic #nihil# or #quid# is often used: as, #Phaedrō nihil ēlegantius, nihil hūmānius#, DN. 1, 93, Phaedrus was the most refined and sympathetic of men.

1463. In colloquial language, a comparative suffix is sometimes emphasized by the addition of #magis#: as, #mollior magis#, Pl. Aul. 422, more tenderer. And sometimes by a mixture of construction, the comparative is modified by #aequē#, like the positive: as, #homo mē miserior nūllus est aequē#, Pl. Mer. 335, there’s not a man so woebegone as I, for #miserior# alone, or #aequē miser#.

1464. The comparative with the ablative is particularly common, when a thing is illustrated by some striking typical object, usually an object of nature. In such illustrations, the positive with as is commonly used in English: as, #lūce clārius#, V. 2, 186, plain as day. #ō fōns Bandusiae, splendidior vitrō#, H. 3, 13, 1, ye waters of Bandusia, as glittering as glass. #melle dulcior ōrātiō#, E. in CM. 31, words sweet as honey. #ventīs ōcior#, V. 5, 319, quick as the winds. #vacca candidior nivibus#, O. Am. 3, 5, 10, a cow as white as driven snow. #caelum pice nigrius#, O. H. 17, 7, a sky as black as pitch. #dūrior ferrō et saxō#, O. 14, 712, as hard as steel and stone.

THE SUPERLATIVE.

1465. When more than two things are compared, the superlative is used to represent a quality as belonging in the highest degree to an individual or to a number of a class: as,

#proximī sunt Germānīs#, 1, 1, 3, they live the nearest to the Germans. #hōrum omnium fortissimī#, 1, 1, 3, the bravest of these all.

1466. The superlative may be strengthened by the addition of such words as #ūnus#, preeminently, usually with a genitive, #maximē#, #quam#, with or without a form of #possum#, as possible, &c., &c. (1892). In old Latin by #multō#; from Cicero on, by #longē#, far, and #vel#, perhaps, even: as,

#cōnfirmāverim rem ūnam esse omnium difficillimam#, Br. 25, I am not afraid to avouch it is the one hardest thing in the world. #longē nōbilissimus#, 1, 2, 1, the man of highest birth by far. #quam maximīs potest itineribus in Galliam contendit#, 1, 7, 1, he pushes into Gaul by the quickest marches he can. #quam mātūrrimē#, 1, 33, 4, as early as possible.

1467. The superlative is also used to denote a very high degree of the quality.

This superlative, called the Absolute Superlative, or the Superlative of Eminence, may be translated by the positive with some such word as most, very: as, #homo turpissimus#, V. 4, 16, an utterly unprincipled man. Often best by the positive alone: as, #vir fortissimus, Pīsō Aquītānus#, 4, 12, 4, the heroic Piso of Aquitain (1044).

1468. In exaggerated style, the superlative of eminence may be capped by a comparative: as, #stultior stultissumō#, Pl. Am. 907, a greater than the greatest fool. #ego miserior sum quam tū, quae es miserrima#, Fam. 14, 3, 1, I am myself more unhappy than you, who are a most unhappy woman.

(B.) USE OF THE VERB.

VOICE.

THE ACTIVE VOICE.

1469. In the active voice, the subject is represented as performing the action of the verb.

1470. By action is meant the operation of any verb, whether active or passive, and whether used intransitively or transitively.

1471. The active of one verb sometimes serves as the passive of another: thus, #pereō#, go to destruction, die, serves as the passive of #perdō#, destroy, and #vēneō#, go to sale, am sold, as the passive of #vēndō#, put for sale, sell. Similarly #fīō#, become, get to be, am made, is used in the present system as the passive of #faciō#, make (788).

THE PASSIVE VOICE.

1472. In the passive voice, the subject is represented as acted upon.

1473. The object accusative of the active voice becomes the subject of the passive voice (1125); and the predicate accusative of the active voice becomes a predicate nominative with the passive voice (1167).

Thus (a.) in the active construction: #illum laudābunt bonī, hunc etiam ipsī culpābunt malī#, Pl. B. 397, the one the good will praise, the other e’en the bad themselves will blame. In the passive: #laudātur ab hīs, culpātur ab illīs#, H. S. 1, 2, 11, he’s praised by some, by others blamed. Active: #cīvēs Rōmānōs interficiunt#, 7, 3, 1, they slay some citizens of Rome. Passive: #Indutiomarus interficitur#, 5, 58, 6, Indutiomarus is slain. (b.) Active: #mīlitēs certiōrēs facit#, 3, 5, 3, he informs the soldiers. Passive: #certior factus est#, 2, 34, he was informed.

1474. Verbs which have two accusatives, one of the person and one of the thing in the active voice, generally have the person as subject in the passive, less frequently the thing: see 1171.

1475. An emphasizing or defining accusative, or an accusative of extent or duration, is occasionally made the subject of a passive: as,

#haec illīc est pugnāta pugna#, Pl. Am. 253, this fight was fought off there (1140). #tōta mihī dormītur hiems#, Mart. 13, 59, 1, all winter long by me is slept, i.e. #tōtam dormiō hiemem# (1151).

1476. The person by whom the action is done is put in the ablative with #ab# or #ā# (1318); the thing by which it is done is put in the instrumental ablative (1377); as,

(a.) #nōn numquam latrō ā viātōre occīditur#, Mil. 55, once in a while the robber gets killed by the wayfarer. #respondit, ā cīve sē spoliārī mālle quam ab hoste vēnīre#, Quintil. 12, 1, 43, he said in reply that he would rather be plundered by a Roman than sold by an enemy (1471). (b.) #ūnīus virī prūdentiā Graecia līberāta est#, N. 2, 5, 3, Greece was saved from slavery by the sagacity of a single man, i.e. Themistocles. Very often, however, the person or thing is not expressed, particularly with impersonals.

1477. When the person is represented as a mere instrument, the ablative is used without #ab# (1378); and when collectives, animals, or things without life are personified, the ablative takes #ab# (1318): as,

(a.) #neque vērō minus Platō dēlectātus est Diōne#, N. 10, 2, 3, and Plato on his part was just as much bewitched with Dion. (b.) #eius ōrātiō ā multitūdine et ā forō dēvorābātur#, Br. 283, his oratory was swallowed whole by the untutored many and by the bar.

1478. Sometimes the person by whom the action is done is indicated by the dative of the possessor: see 1216. And regularly with the gerund and gerundive construction (2243).

1479. Only verbs of transitive use have ordinarily a complete passive. Verbs of intransitive use have only the impersonal forms of the passive (1034): as,

#diū atque ācriter pugnātum est#, 1, 26, 1, there was long and sharp fighting. #tōtīs trepidātur castrīs#, 6, 37, 6, all through the camp there was tumult and affright. #mihī̆ quidem persuādērī numquam potuit, animōs ēmorī#, CM. 80, for my part, I never could be convinced that the soul becomes extinct at death (1181). Similarly verbs which have a transitive use may also be used impersonally: as, #di͡ēs noctīsque ēstur, bibitur#, Pl. Most. 235, there is eating and drinking all day and all night (1133).

1480. The complementary dative of a verb in the active voice is in poetry very rarely made the subject of a passive verb: as, #invideor#, H. AP. 56, I am envied. #imperor#, H. E. 1, 5, 21, I charge myself.

1481. The passive had originally a reflexive meaning, which is still to be seen in the passive of many verbs: as,

#exercēbātur plūrimum currendō et lūctandō#, N. 15, 2, 4, he took a great deal of exercise in running and wrestling. #dēnsōs fertur in hostīs#, V. 2, 511, he tries to charge upon the serried foes. #quod semper movētur, aeternum est#, TD. 1, 53, anything that is always moving, is eternal.

1482. The present participle of reflexives is sometimes used in a reflexive sense: as, #exercēns#, exercising oneself, exercising, #ferēns#, tearing along, #vehēns#, riding, and #invehēns#, mounted on, #pāscēns#, browsing, #versāns#, playing, being, #volvēns#, rolling. Also the gerund: as, #iūs vehendī#, the privilege of riding.

1483. Passive forms of #coepī# and #dēsinō# are commonly used in the perfect system, when a dependent infinitive is passive: as,

#litterīs ōrātiō est coepta mandārī#, Br. 26, oratory began to be put in black and white. #veterēs ōrātiōnēs legī sunt dēsitae#, Br. 123, the old speeches ceased to be read. But the active forms are sometimes used by Cornificius, Sallust, and Livy, and regularly by Tacitus. The active forms are used with #fierī# also, which is not passive (789); but even with #fierī#, Livy uses the passive forms.

1484. Similar attractions with a passive infinitive occur in #potestur#, &c., #quītur# and #quitus sum#, #nequītur#, &c., rarely, and mostly in old Latin: as, #fōrma in tenebrīs nōscī nōn quitast#, T. Hec. 572, her shape could hardly be distinguished in the dark.

1485. Some perfect participles have an active meaning: as, #adultus#, grown up. See 907, and also in the dictionary #cautus#, #cōnsultus#, #concrētus#, #dēflāgrātus#, #incōnsīderātus#, #occāsus#, #nūpta#.

[Erratum: 1482 ... as, #exercēns# as.]

DEPONENTS.

1486. Many verbs have only passive inflections, but with the meaning of active inflections. Such verbs are called Deponents.

1487. In many deponents, a reflexive, passive, or reciprocal action is still clearly to be seen: as,

#nāscor#, am born; #moror#, delay myself, get delayed; #ūtor#, avail myself; #amplectimur#, hug each other; #fābulāmur#, talk together; #partīmur#, share with one another.

1488. Some verbs have both active and deponent inflections: as, #adsentiō#, agree, more commonly #adsentior#. #mereō#, earn, and #mereor#, deserve. See also in the dictionary #altercor#, #auguror#, #comitor#, #cōnflīctor#, #fabricor#, #faeneror#, #mūneror#, #ōscitor#, #palpor#, #populor#, #revertor#. The following have active inflections in the present system and deponent inflections in the perfect system: #audeō#, #cōnfīdō# and #diffīdō#, #gaudeō#, #soleō#: see also 801.

1489. In old Latin especially, many verbs which afterwards became fixed as deponents occur with active inflections also: as, #adūlō#, #arbitrō#, #aucupō#, #auspicō#, #lūctō#, #lūdificō#, #morō#, #partiō#, #venerō#, &c., &c.

1490. Verbs which are usually deponent are rarely found with a passive meaning: as, #Sūllānās rēs dēfendere crīminor#, LAgr. 3, 13, I am charged with defending Sulla’s policy.

1491. When it is desirable to express the passive of a deponent, a synonyme is sometimes used: thus, the passive of #mīror#, admire, may sometimes be represented by #laudor#, am praised. Or some circumlocution: as, #habet venerātiōnem quidquid excellit#, DN. 1, 45, anything best in its kind is looked on with respect, as passive of #veneror#. #familia in suspīciōnem est vocāta#, V. 5, 10, the household was suspected, as passive of #suspicor#.

1492. The perfect participle of deponents is sometimes used with a passive meaning. Some of the commonest of these participles are: #adeptus#, #commentus#, #complexus#, #cōnfessus#, #ēmentītus#, #expertus#, #meditātus#, #opīnātus#, #pactus#, #partītus#, #testātus#, &c., &c.

MOOD.

THE INDICATIVE MOOD.

DECLARATIONS.

1493. The indicative mood is used in simple, absolute declarations: as,

#arma virumque canō#, V. 1, 1, arms and the man I sing. #leve fit quod bene fertur onus#, O. A. 4, 2, 10, light gets the load that’s bravely borne.

1494. The negative used with the indicative is commonly #nōn#, not (1443). For other negative expressions, see 1445-1451.

1495. Certain verbs and verbal expressions denoting ability, duty, propriety, necessity, and the like, mostly with an infinitive, are regularly put in the indicative, even when the action of the infinitive is not performed.

This applies to declarations, questions, or exclamations: as, (a.) #possum dē ichneumonum ūtilitāte dīcere, sed nōlō esse longus#, DN. 1, 101, I might expatiate on the usefulness of the ichneumon, but I do not care to be long-winded. #inter ferās satius est aetātem dēgere quam in hāc tantā immānitāte versārī#, RA. 150, it would be better to pass your days in the midst of howling beasts than to live and move among such brutish men. (b.) #stultī erat sperāre#, Ph. 2. 23, it would have been folly to hope. #quid enim facere poterāmus?# Pis. 13, for what else could we have done? (c.) #licuit uxōrem genere summō dūcere#, Pl. MG. 680, I might have married a wife of high degree. #nōn potuit pīctor rēctius dēscrībere eius fōrmam#, Pl. As. 402, no painter could have hit his likeness more exactly. (d.) #quantō melius fuerat prōmissum patris nōn esse servātum#, Off. 3, 94, how much better it would have been, for the father’s word not to have been kept.

1496. The principal verbs and verbal expressions thus used are: (a.) #possum#, #licet#, #dēbeō#, #oportet#, #convenit#, #decet#. (b.) #aequum#, #aequius#, #iūstum#, #fās#, #necesse est#; #cōnsentāneum#, #satis#, #satius#, #optābile#, #optābilius est#; #ūtilius#, #melius#, #optimum#, #pār#, #rēctum est#; #facile#, #difficile#, #grave#, #īnfīnītum#, #longum#, #magnum est#; #est# with the predicative genitive, or a possessive pronoun (1237). (c.) Similarly, but without an infinitive, forms of #sum# with a gerund, a gerundive, or a future participle.

1497. The imperfect of most of the above verbs and verbal expressions often relates to action not performed at the present time: as,

#hīs aliās poteram subnectere causās; sed eundum est#, J. 3, 315, to these I might add other grounds; but I must go. The context must determine whether the imperfect relates (a.) to action not performed either in the present as here, or in the past as in 1495, or (b.) to action performed in the past: as, #sollicitāre poterat, audēbat#, C. 3, 16, he had at once the assurance and the ability to play the tempter’s part.

1498. Forms of #possum# are sometimes put in the subjunctive (1554). Thus, #possim#, &c., often (1556), also #possem#, &c., usually of present time (1560), less frequently of past time (1559), #potuissem#, &c., particularly in sentences of negative import (1561), rarely #potuerim#, &c. (1558). Sometimes also #dēbērem#, &c., of present time (1560), #dēbuissem#, &c., chiefly in apodosis.

QUESTIONS.

1499. The indicative is the mood ordinarily used in enquiries and in exclamations: as,

(a.) #huic ego ‘studēs?’ inquam. respondit ‘etiam.’ ‘ubī̆?’ ‘Mediōlānī.’ ‘cūr nōn hīc?’ ‘quia nūllōs hīc praeceptōrēs habēmus,’# Plin. Ep. 4, 13, 3, said I to the boy, ‘do you go to school?’ ‘yes, sir,’ said he; ‘where?’ ‘at Mediolanum;’ ‘why not here?’ ‘oh because we haven’t any teachers here.’ (b.) #ut ego tuum amōrem et dolōrem dēsīderō#, Att. 3, 11, 12, how I always feel the absence of your affectionate sympathy.

1500. Questions and exclamations are used much more freely in Latin than in English. Particularly common are two questions, of which the first is short and general, leading up to the real question: as,

#sed quid ais? ubi nunc adulēscēns habet?# Pl. Tri. 156, but tell me, where is the youngster living now? #estne? vīcī? et tibī̆ saepe litterās dō?# Cael. in Fam. 8, 3, 1, is it true? have I beaten? and do I write to you often? The real question is often preceded by #quid est#, #quid dīcis#, or by #quid#, #quid vērō#, #quid tum#, #quid posteā#, #quid igitur#, #quid ergō#, &c., &c.: as, #quid? canis nōnne similis lupō?# DN. 1, 97, why, is not the dog like the wolf?

1501. There are two kinds of questions: (1.) Such questions as call for the answer yes or no in English: as, is he gone? These may conveniently be called Yes or No Questions. (2.) Questions introduced by an interrogative pronoun, or by a word derived from an interrogative pronoun: as, who is gone? where is he? These are called Pronoun Questions.

YES OR NO QUESTIONS.

1502. (1.) Yes or No questions are sometimes put without any interrogative particle: as,

#Thraex est Gallīna Syrō pār?# H. S. 2, 5, 44, of two gladiators, is Thracian Bantam for the Syrian a match? Often intimating censure: as, #rogās?# Pl. Aul. 634, dost ask? or what an absurd question. #prōmpsistī tū illī vīnum? :: nōn prōmpsī#, Pl. MG. 830, thou hast been broaching wine for him? :: not I. Especially with #nōn#: as, #patēre tua cōnsilia nōn sentīs?# C. 1, 1, you don’t see that your schemes are out? It is often doubtful whether such sentences are questions, exclamations, or declarations.

1503. (2.) Yes or No questions are usually introduced by one of the interrogative particles #-ne# or #-n#, #nōnne#, #num#, #an#, #anne#.

1504. A question with #-ne# or #-n# may enquire simply, without any implication as to the character of the answer, or it may either expect an affirmative answer like #nōnne#, or less frequently a negative answer like #num#: as,

(a.) #valen?# Pl. Tri. 50, art well? #habētin aurum?# Pl. B. 269, have you got the gold? (b.) #iussīn in splendōrem darī bullās hās foribus?# Pl. As. 426, didn’t I give orders to polish up the bosses of the door? #facitne ut dixī?# Pl. Am. 526, isn’t he acting as I said? (c.) #istō immēnsō spatiō quaerō, Balbe, cūr Pronoea vestra cessāverit. labōremne fugiēbat?# DN. 1, 22, I want to know, Balbus, why your people’s Providence lay idle all that immeasurable time; it was work she was shirking, was it? #quid, mundum praeter hunc umquamne vīdistī? negābis#, DN. 1, 96, tell me, did you ever see any universe except this one? you will say no.

1505. Sometimes the #-ne# of an interrogative sentence is transferred to a following relative, chiefly in Plautus and Terence: as, #rogās? quīne arrabōnem ā mē accēpistī ob mulierem?# Pl. R. 860, how can you ask, when you have got the hansel for the girl from me? Similarly, #ō sērī studiōrum, quīne putētis difficile#, H. S. 1, 10, 21, what laggards at your books, to think it hard, i.e. #nōnne estis sērī studiōrum, quī putētis difficile?# Compare 1569.

1506. To a question with #nōnne#, a positive answer is usually expected, seldom a negative: as,

(a.) #nōnne meministī? :: meminī vērō#, TD. 2, 10, don’t you remember? :: oh yes. Sometimes a second or third question also has #nōnne#, but oftener #nōn#: as, #nōnne ad tē L. Lentulus, nōn Q. Sanga, nōn L. Torquātus vēnit?# Pis. 77, did not Lentulus and Sanga and Torquatus come to see you? (b.) #nōnne cōgitās?# RA. 80, do you bear in mind? #nōnne# is rare in Plautus, comparatively so in Terence, but very common in classical Latin.

1507. To a question with #num# a negative answer is generally expected. Less frequently either a positive or a negative answer indifferently: as,

(a.) #num negāre audēs?# C. 1, 8, do you undertake to deny it? #num, tibi cum faucēs ūrit sitis, aurea quaeris pōcula?# H. S. 1, 2, 114, when thirst thy throat consumes, dost call for cups of gold? Rarely #numne#: as, #quid, deum ipsum numne vīdistī?# DN. 1, 88, tell me, did you ever see god in person? (b.) #sed quid ais? num obdormīvistī dūdum?# Pl. Am. 620, but harkee, wert asleep a while ago? #numquīd vīs?# Pl. Tri. 192, hast any further wish?

1508. A question with #an#, less often #anne#, or if negative, with #an nōn#, usually challenges or comments emphatically on something previously expressed or implied: as,

#an habent quās gallīnae manūs?# Pl. Ps. 29, what, what, do hens have hands? #an# is also particularly common in argumentative language, in anticipating, criticising, or refuting an opponent: as, #quid dīcis? an bellō Siciliam virtūte tuā līberātam?# V. 1, 5, what do you say? possibly that it was by your prowess that Sicily was rid of the war? #at vērō Cn. Pompēī voluntātem ā mē aliēnābat ōrātiō mea. an ille quemquam plūs dīlēxit?# Ph. 2, 38, but it may be urged that my way of speaking estranged Pompey from me. why, was there anybody the man loved more? In old Latin, #an# is oftener used in a single than in an alternative question, while in classical Latin it is rather the reverse.

1509. (3.) Yes or No questions are sometimes introduced by #ecquis#, #ecquō#, #ecquandō#, or #ēn umquam#: as,

heus, ecquis hīc est? Pl. Am. 420, hollo, is e’er a person here? #ecquid animadvertis hōrum silentium?# C. 1, 20, do you possibly observe the silence of this audience? (1144). #ō pater, ēn umquam aspiciam tē?# Pl. Tri. 588, O father, shall I ever set mine eyes on thee?

1510. (4.) In Plautus, #satin# or #satin ut#, really, actually, sometimes becomes a mere interrogative or exclamatory particle: as, #satin abiīt ille?# Pl. MG. 481, has that man really gone his way?

[Errata: 1507a ... H. S. 1, 2, 114 H S. DN. 1, 88 DN]

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ANSWERS.

1511. There are no two current Latin words corresponding exactly with yes and no in answers.

1512. (1.) A positive answer is expressed by some emphatic word of the question, repeated with such change as the context may require: as,

#an nōn dīxī esse hoc futūrum? :: dīxtī#, T. Andr. 621, didn’t I say that this would be? :: you did. #hūc abiīt Clītiphō :: sōlus? :: sōlus#, T. Hau. 904, here Clitipho repaired :: alone? :: alone. The repeated word may be emphasized by #sānē#, #vērō#: as, #dāsne manēre animōs post mortem? :: dō vērō#, TD. 1, 25, do you grant that the soul lives on after death? :: oh yes. Often, however, adverbs are used, without the repetition, such as #certē#, #certō#, #etiam#, #factum#, #ita#, #ita enimvērō#, #ita vērō#, #sānē#, #sānē quidem#, #scīlicet#, oh of course, #vērō#, rarely #vērum#.

1513. (2.) A negative answer is expressed by a similar repetition, with #nōn# or some other negative added: as,

#estne frāter intus? :: nōn est#, T. Ad. 569. is brother in? :: he’s not. Or, without repetition, by such words as #nōn#, #nōn ita#, #nōn quidem#, #nōn hercle vērō#, #minimē#, #minimē quidem#, #minimē vērō#, #nihil minus#.

1514. #immō# introduces a sentence rectifying a mistake, implied doubt, or understatement in a question: as, #nūllane habēs vitia? :: immō alia, et fortasse minōra#, H. S. 1, 3, 20, have you no faults? :: I beg your pardon, other faults, and peradventure lesser ones. #causa igitur nōn bona est? immō optima#, Att. 9, 7, 4, isn’t the cause a good one then? good? yes, more than good, very good.

ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS.

1515. The alternative question belongs properly under the head of the compound sentence. But as the interrogative particles employed in the single question are also used in the alternative question, the alternative question is most conveniently considered here.

1516. In old English, the first of two alternative questions is often introduced by the interrogative particle whether, and the second by or: as, whether is it easier to say, Thy sins be forgiven thee, or to say Arise? In modern English, whether is not used thus.

1517. The history of the Latin alternative question is just the reverse of the English. In old Latin, the first question is very often put without any interrogative particle. Later, in the classical period, the use of #-ne#, or oftener of #utrum#, etymologically the same as whether, is overwhelmingly predominant.

1518. In the simplest form of the alternative sentence, neither question is introduced by an interrogative particle: as,

#quid agō? adeō, maneō?# T. Ph. 736, what shall I do? go up and speak, or wait? (1531).

1519. Of two alternative questions, the first either has no interrogative particle at all, or is more commonly introduced by #utrum#, #-ne#, or #-n#. The second is introduced by #an#, rarely by #anne#, or if it is negative, by #an nōn#: as,

(a.) #album an ātrum vīnum pōtās?# Pl. Men. 915, do you take light wine or dark? #Tacitus es an Plīnius?# Plin. Ep. 9, 23, 3, are you Tacitus or Pliny? #sortiētur an nōn?# PC. 37, will he draw lots or not? (b.) #iam id porrō utrum libentēs an invītī dabant?# V. 3, 118, then furthermore did they offer it voluntarily or did they consent to give it under stress? #utrum cētera nōmina in cōdicem acceptī et expēnsī dīgesta habēs an nōn?# RC. 9, have you all other items methodically posted in your ledger or not? (c.) #servosne es an līber?# Pl. Am. 343, art bond or free? #esne tū an nōn es ab illō mīlitī Macedoniō?# Pl. Ps. 616, art thou or art thou not the Macedonian captain’s man? #videōn Clīniam an nōn?# T. Hau. 405, do I see Clinia or not?

1520. #necne# for #an nōn# is rare: as, #sēmina praetereā linquontur necne animāī corpore in exanimō?# Lucr. 3, 713, are seeds moreover left or not of soul within the lifeless frame? Twice in Cicero: as, #sunt haec tua verba necne?# TD. 3, 41, are these your words or not? But #necne# is common in indirect questions.

1521. Instead of a single second question with #an#, several questions may be used if the thought requires it, each introduced by #an#.

1522. Sometimes an introductory #utrum# precedes two alternative questions with #-ne# and #an#: as, #utrum tū māsne an fēmina ’s?# Pl. R. 104, which is it, art thou man or maid? This construction has its origin in questions in which #utrum# is used as a live pronoun: as, #utrum māvīs? statimne nōs vēla facere an paululum rēmigāre?# TD. 4, 9, which would you rather do, have us make sail at once, or row just a little bit? In Horace and late prose, #utrumne . . . an# is found a few times.

1523. Sometimes a second alternative question is not put at all: as, #utrum hōc bellum nōn est?# Ph. 8, 7, in old English, whether is not this war?

1524. Two or more separate questions asked with #-ne . . . -ne#, or with #num ... num#, must not be mistaken for alternative questions: as, #num Homērum, num Hēsiodum coēgit obmūtēscere senectūs?# CM. 23, did length of days compel either Homer or Hesiod to hush his voice? (1692).

1525. An alternative question is answered by repeating one member or some part of it, with such changes as the context may require.

PRONOUN QUESTIONS.

1526. Pronoun questions or exclamations are introduced by interrogative pronouns, or words of pronoun origin.

Such words are: (a.) #quis#, #quī#, #quoius#, #uter#, #quālis#, #quantus#, #quotus#: as, #quid rīdēs?# H. S. 2, 5, 3, why dost thou laugh? (1144). #uter est īnsānior hōrum?# H. S. 2, 3, 102, which of these is the greater crank? #hōra quota est?# H. S. 2, 6, 44, what’s o’clock? (b.) Or #unde#, #ubī̆#, #quō#, #quōr# or #cūr#, #quī# ablative, how, #quīn#, why not, #quam#, how, #quandō#, #quotiēns#: as, #unde venīs et quō tendis?# H. S. 1, 9, 62, whence dost thou come, and whither art thou bound? #deus fallī quī potuit?# DN. 3, 76, how could a god have been taken in? (1495). #quam bellum erat cōnfitērī nescīre#, DN. 1, 84, how pretty it would have been to own up that you did not know (1495).

1527. Sometimes #quīn# loses its interrogative force, and introduces an impatient imperative, particularly in Plautus and Terence, or an indicative of sudden declaration of something obvious or startling: as,

(a.) #quīn mē aspice#, Pl. Most. 172, why look me over, won’t you? i.e. #mē aspice, quīn aspicis?# So twice in Cicero’s orations. (b.) #quīn discupiō dīcere#, Pl. Tri. 932, why I am bursting with desire to tell.

1528. In Plautus, Terence, Horace, and Livy, #ut#, how, also is used in questions: as, #ut valēs?# Pl. R. 1304, how do you do? #ut sēsē in Samniō rēs habent?# L. 10, 18, 11, how is every thing in Samnium? Very commonly, and in Cicero only so, in exclamations also: as, #ut fortūnātī sunt fabrī ferrāriī, quī apud carbōnēs adsident; semper calent#, Pl. R. 531, what lucky dogs the blacksmiths be, that sit by redhot coals; they’re always warm.

1529. In poetry, #quis#, #uter#, and #quantus# are found a few times with #-ne# attached; as, #uterne ad cāsūs dubiōs fīdet sibi certius?# H. S. 2, 2, 107, which of the two in doubtful straits will better in himself confide?

1530. Two or more questions or exclamations are sometimes united with one and the same verb: as,

#unde quō vēnī?# H. 3, 27, 37, whence whither am I come? #quot diēs quam frīgidīs rēbus absūmpsī#, Plin. Ep. 1, 9, 3, how many days have I frittered away in utter vapidities. #quantae quotiēns occāsiōnēs quam praeclārae fuērunt#, Mil. 38, what great chances there were, time and again, splendid ones too.

[Errata: 1526 ... Such words are: (a.) #quis#, #quī#, #quoius# #quis# #quī#, 1527a ... #mē aspice, quīn aspicis?# quin]

SOME APPLICATIONS OF QUESTIONS.

1531. A question in the indicative present or future may be used to intimate command or exhortation, deliberation, or appeal: as,

(a.) #abin hinc?# T. Eu. 861, will you get out of this? #abin an nōn? :: abeō#, Pl. Aul. 660, will you begone or not? :: I’ll go. #quīn abīs?# Pl. MG. 1087, why won’t you begone? or get you gone, begone. #nōn tacēs?# T. Ph. 987, won’t you just hold your tongue? #ecquis currit pollinctōrem arcēssere?# Pl. As. 910, won’t some one run to fetch the undertaker man? #quīn cōnscendimus equōs?# L. 1, 57, 7, why not mount? or to horse, to horse. (b.) #quid est, Crasse, īmusne sessum?# DO. 3, 17, what say you, Crassus, shall we go and take a seat? #quoi dōnō lepidum novum libellum?# Cat. 1, 1, unto whom shall I give the neat new booklet? #quid agō? adeō, maneō?# T. Ph. 736, what shall I do? go up and speak, or wait? (c.) #eōn? vocō hūc hominem? :: ī, vocā#, Pl. Most. 774, shall I go, and shall I call him here? :: go call him. See also 1623. Such indicative questions occur particularly in old Latin, in Catullus, in Cicero’s early works and letters, and in Vergil.

1532. Some set forms occur repeatedly, especially in questions of curiosity, surprise, incredulity, wrath, or captiousness: as,

#sed quid ais?# T. Andr. 575, but apropos, or but by the way (1500). #quid istīc?# T. Andr. 572, well, well, have it your way: compare #quid istīc verba facimus?# Pl. E. 141. #ain tū?# Br. 152, no, not seriously? #itane?# T. Eu. 1058, not really? Frequently #egone#: as, #quid nunc facere cōgitās? :: egone?# T. Hau. 608, what do you think of doing now? :: what, I? In Plautus, threats are sometimes introduced by #scīn quō modō?# do you know how? i.e. at your peril.

1533. A question is sometimes united with a participle, or an ablative absolute, or thrown into a subordinate sentence: as,

#quem frūctum petentēs scīre cupimus illa quō modō moveantur?# Fin. 3, 37, with what practical end in view do we seek to know how yon bodies in the sky keep in motion? #quā frequentiā prōsequente crēditis nōs illinc profectōs?# L. 7, 30, 21, by what multitudes do you think we were seen off when we left that town? #‘hominēs’ inquit ‘ēmistī.’ quid utī faceret?# Sest. 84, ‘you bought up men’ says he; with what purpose?

[Erratum: 1532 ... T. Andr. 575, 575.]

THE INFINITIVE OF INTIMATION.

1534. The infinitive is principally used in subordination, and will be spoken of under that head. One use, however, of the present infinitive in main sentences, as a kind of substitute for a past indicative, requires mention here.

1535. In animated narration, the present infinitive with a subject in the nominative sometimes takes the place of the imperfect or perfect indicative: as,

#interim cōtīdiē Caesar Aeduōs frūmentum flāgitāre#, 1, 16, 1, there was Caesar meantime every day dunning and dunning the Aeduans for the grain. #Diodōrus sordidātus circum hospitēs cursāre, rem omnibus nārrāre#, V. 4, 41, Diodorus kept running round in sackcloth and ashes from friend to friend, telling his tale to everybody. #intereā Catilīna in prīmā aciē versārī, labōrantibus succurrere#, S. C. 60, 4, Catiline meantime bustling round in the forefront of battle, helping them that were sore bestead. #tum vērō ingentī sonō caelum strepere, et micāre ignēs, metū omnēs torpēre#, L. 21, 58, 5, at this crisis the welkin ringing with a dreadful roar, fires flashing, everybody paralyzed with fear. This infinitive occurs in almost all writers, for instance, Plautus, Terence, Cicero, Horace, and particularly Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus. Less commonly in Caesar. Usually two or more infinitives are combined, and infinitives are freely mixed with indicatives. The subject is never in the second person.

1536. This infinitive is used to sketch or outline persistent, striking, or portentous action, where description fails; and as it merely intimates the action, without distinct declaration, and without notation of time, number, or person, it is called the Infinitive of Intimation. It cannot be adequately represented in English.

1537. The infinitive of intimation is sometimes used without a subject, when emphasis centres in the action alone; as,

#ubī̆ turrim procul cōnstituī vīdērunt, inrīdēre ex mūrō#, 2, 30, 3, when they saw the tower planted some way off, jeer after jeer from the wall. #tum spectāculum horribile in campīs patentibus: sequī fugere, occīdī capī#, S. I. 101, 11, then a heartrending spectacle in the open fields: chasing and racing, killing and catching.

1538. Terence and Petronius have it in questions: as, #rēx tē ergō in oculīs :: scīlicet :: gestāre? :: vērō#, T. Eu. 401, your king then always bearing you :: of course, of course :: in eye? :: oh yes. #quī morī timōre nisi ego?# Petr. 62.

1539. It may be mentioned here, that the infinitive of intimation is sometimes used from Sallust on in relative clauses and with #cum#, when. Also by Tacitus in a temporal protasis with #ubī̆#, #ut#, #dōnec#, or #postquam#, co-ordinated with a present or imperfect indicative protasis: as,

(a.) #cingēbātur interim mīlite domus, cum Libō vocāre percussōrem#, Ta. 2, 31, the house meantime was encompassed with soldiers, when Libo called for somebody to kill him (1869). (b.) #ubī̆ crūdēscere sēditiō et ā convīciīs ad tēla trānsībant, inicī catēnās Flāviānō iubet#, Ta. H. 3, 10, when the riot was waxing hot, and they were proceeding from invectives to open violence, he orders Flavian to be clapped in irons (1933).

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

DECLARATIONS.

I. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF DESIRE.

(A.) WISH.

1540. The subjunctive may be used to express a wish.

Wishes are often introduced by #utinam#, in old and poetical Latin also by #utī#, #ut#, and curses in old Latin by #quī#; these words were originally interrogative, how. Sometimes the wish is limited by #modo#, only. In negative wishes #nē# is used, either alone, or preceded by #utinam# or #modo#; rarely #nōn#, or the old-fashioned #nec#, not (1446).

1541. (1.) The present and perfect represent a wish as practicable; although a hopeless wish may, of course, if the speaker chooses, be represented as practicable: as,

(a.) #tē spectem, suprēma mihī cum vēnerit hōra#, Tib. 1, 1, 59, on thee I’d gaze, when my last hour shall come. #utinam illum diem videam#, Att. 3, 3, I hope I may see the day. (b.) #utinam cōnēre#, Ph. 2, 101, I hope you may make the effort. (c.) #dī vortant bene quod agās#, T. Hec. 196, may gods speed well whate’er you undertake. #quī illum dī omnēs perduint#, T. Ph. 123, him may all gods fordo. #ō utinam hībernae duplicentur tempora brūmae#, Prop. 1, 8, 9, oh that the winter’s time may doubled be. #utinam revīvīscat frāter#, Gell. 10, 6, 2, I hope my brother may rise from his grave. #nē istūc Iuppiter sīrit#, L. 28, 28, 11, now Jupiter forefend. The perfect is found principally in old Latin.

1542. The present is very common in asseveration: as,

#peream, nisi sollicitus sum#, Fam. 15, 19, 4, may I die, if I am not worried. #sollicitat, ita vīvam, me tua valētūdō#, Fam. 16, 20, your state of health worries me, as I hope to live. #ita vīvam, ut maximōs sūmptūs faciō#, Att. 5, 15, 2, as I hope to be saved, I am making great outlays. See also 1622.

1543. The perfect subjunctive sometimes refers to past action now completed: as, #utinam abierit malam crucem#, Pl. Poen. 799, I hope he’s got him to the bitter cross (1165). #utinam spem implēverim#, Plin. Ep. 1, 10, 3, I hope I may have fulfilled the expectations.

1544. (2.) The imperfect represents a wish as hopeless in the present or immediate future, the pluperfect represents it as unfulfilled in the past: as,

(a.) #tēcum lūdere sīcut ipsa possem#, Cat. 2, 9, could I with thee but play, e’en as thy mistress’ self, to Lesbia’s sparrow. #utinam ego tertius vōbīs amīcus adscrīberer#, TD. 5, 63, would that I could be enrolled with you myself, as the third friend, says tyrant Dionysius to Damon and Phintias. (b.) #utinam mē mortuum prius vīdissēs#, QFr. 1, 3, 1, I wish you had seen me dead first. (c.) #utinam nē in nemore Pēliō secūribus caesa accēdisset abiēgna ad terram trabēs#, E. in Cornif. 2, 34, had but, in Pelion’s grove, by axes felled, ne’er fallen to the earth the beam of fir, i.e. for the Argo. #utinam ille omnīs sēcum cōpiās ēdūxisset#, C. 2, 4, I only wish the man had marched out all his train-bands with him.

1545. In old or poetical Latin, the imperfect sometimes denotes unfulfilled past action, like the usual pluperfect; as, #utinam in Siciliā perbīterēs#, Pl. R. 494, would thou hadst died in Sicily. #utinam tē dī prius perderent#, Pl. Cap. 537, I wish the gods had cut thee off before. See 2075.

1546. In poetry, a wish is sometimes thrown into the form of a conditional protasis with #sī# or #ō sī#: as, #ō sī urnam argentī fōrs quae mihi mōnstret#, H. S. 2, 6, 10, oh if some chance a pot of money may to me reveal.

(B.) EXHORTATION, DIRECTION, STATEMENT OF PROPRIETY.

1547. The subjunctive may be used to express an exhortation, a direction, or a statement of propriety.

The subjunctive of exhortation is sometimes preceded in old Latin by #utī# or #ut#, originally interrogative. In negative exhortations or directions, #nē#, #nēmō#, #nihil#, or #numquam#, &c., is used, rarely #nōn#.

1548. (1.) The present expresses what is to be done or is not to be done in the future: as,

(a.) #hoc quod coepī prīmum ēnārrem#, T. Hau. 273, first let me tell the story I’ve begun. #taceam nunc iam#, Pl. B. 1058, let me now hold my tongue. #cōnsīdāmus hīc in umbrā#, Leg. 2, 7, let us sit down here in the shade. #nē difficilia optēmus#, V. 4, 15, let us not hanker after impossibilities. (b.) HAICE · VTEI · IN · COVENTIONID · EXDEICATIS, CIL. I, 196, 23, this you are to proclaim in public assembly. (c.) #nōmina dēclīnāre et verba in prīmīs puerī sciant#, Quintil. 1, 4, 22, first and foremost boys are to know how to inflect nouns and verbs. #utī adserventur magnā dīligentiā#, Pl. Cap. 115, let them be watched with all due care. #nē quis tamquam parva fastīdiat grammaticēs elementa#, Quintil. 1, 4, 6, let no man look down on the rudiments of grammar fancying them insignificant.

1549. (2.) The perfect subjunctive is rare: as, #idem dictum sit#, Quintil. 1, 1, 8, the same be said, once for all. Mostly in prohibitions: as, #morātus sit nēmō quō minus abeant#, L. 9, 11, 13, let no man hinder them from going away.

1550. In positive commands, the second person singular often has a definite subject in old or epistolary Latin, and particularly #sīs#, for the imperative #es# or #estō#. Usually however an indefinite subject (1030): as,

(a.) #eās#, Pl. R. 519, be off. #hīc apud nōs hodiē cēnēs#, Pl. Most. 1129, dine here with us today. #cautus sīs, mī Tirō#, Fam. 16, 9, 4, you must be careful, dear Tiro. (b.) #istō bonō ūtāre, dum adsit#, CM. 33, enjoy this blessing while you have it with you.

1551. When a prohibition is expressed in the subjunctive, the second person of the present is often used in old Latin, sometimes the perfect. Later, however, the perfect is generally prevalent. In the classical period, the present is almost confined to poetry. For the imperative in prohibitions, see 1581-1586.

(a.) #nē illum verberēs#, Pl. B. 747, you mustn’t thrash the man. Once in Horace: #nē sīs patruos mihī#, S. 2, 3, 88, don’t play stern governor to me. (b.) #nē trānsierīs Ibērum#, L. 21, 44, 6, do not cross the Iberus. #quod dubitās nē fēcerīs#, Plin. Ep. 1, 18, 5, what you have doubt about, never do.

1552. (3.) The imperfect or (but not in old Latin) pluperfect subjunctive is sometimes used to express past obligation or necessity: as,

(a.) Imperfect: #quae hīc erant cūrārēs#, T. Hec. 230, thou shouldst have looked to matters here. #paterētur#, T. Hau. 202, he should have stood it. #quod sī meīs incommodīs laetābantur, urbis tamen perīculō commovērentur#, Sest. 54, well, if they did gloat over my mishaps, still they ought to have been touched by the danger to Rome. #crās īrēs potius#, Pl. Per. 710, you’d better have gone tomorrow, i.e. have resolved to go tomorrow. #poenās penderēs#, Pl. B. 427, thou hadst to pay a penalty. (b.) Pluperfect: #restitissēs, rēpugnāssēs, mortem pugnāns oppetīssēs#, Poet. in Sest. 45, thou shouldst have made a stand, fought back, and fighting met thy fate. #quid facere dēbuistī? frūmentum nē ēmissēs#, V. 3, 195, what ought you to have done? you should not have bought any wheat. Usually, however, past obligation or necessity is expressed by the gerundive construction, or by some separate verb meaning ought (1496).

[Errata: 1548a ... Quintil. 1, 4, 22, 22. #utī adserventur magnā dīligentiā#, . for , Quintil. 1, 4, 6 . invisible]

(C.) WILLINGNESS, ASSUMPTION, CONCESSION.

1553. The subjunctive of desire may be used to denote willingness, assumption, or concession: as,

#ōderint dum metuant#, Poet. in Suet. Cal. 30, they are welcome to hate, as long as they fear. #nē sit sānē summum malum dolor, malum certē est#, TD. 2, 14, grant for aught I care that pain is not the worst evil, an evil it certainly is. #nīl fēcerit, estō#, J. 6, 222, he may be guiltless, be it so.

[Erratum: 1553 ... #nē sit sānē summum malum dolor, malum certē est#, #certē est#.]

II. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF ACTION CONCEIVABLE.

1554. The subjunctive is often used to represent action as conceivable, without asserting that it actually takes place.

In some of its applications, this subjunctive is often more exactly defined by an expression of doubt or of assurance: as, #fors fuat an# in Plautus, #forsitan# from Terence on (rarely #forsan#, #fors#), #fortasse#, may be, perhaps; #opīnor#, #haud sciō an#, I fancy; #facile#, easily, #sine ūllā dubitātiōne#, unhesitatingly, &c., &c. The negative used with this subjunctive is #nōn#.

1555. This subjunctive is particularly common in guarded or diffident statements: thus, #velim#, I could wish, #nōlim#, I should not be willing, #mālim#, I would rather, #dīxerim#, I should say, are often preferred to a blunter #volō#, I insist, #nōlō#, I won’t, #mālō#, I prefer, or #dīcō#, I say.

1556. The present denotes action in an indefinite future: as,

(a.) #ego forsitan in grege adnumerer#, RA. 89, as for me, I might perhaps be counted in the common herd. #mūtuom argentum rogem#, Pl. Tri. 758, money I might borrow. #haud sciō an rēctē dīcāmus#, Sest. 58, I rather think we may say with propriety. (b.) The second person singular generally has an imaginary subject (1030): as, #dīcās hīc forsitan#, J. 1, 150, here peradventure thou mayst say, i.e. anybody may say. #rogēs mē quid sit deus, auctōre ūtar Simōnidē#, DN. 1, 60, you may ask me what god is; I should follow the lead of Simonides. #migrantīs cernās#, V. 4, 401, thou canst descry them on the move (1635). Often with some generalizing word, such as #saepe#, #numquam#, #plūrēs#: as, #saepe videās#, H. S. 1, 4, 86, thou oft canst see. #Fortūnam citius reperiās quam retineās#, Publil. Syr. 168, dame Fortune thou mayst sooner find than bind. (c.) #nunc aliquis dīcat mihi#, H. S. 1, 3, 19, now somebody may say to me (more commonly #dīcet aliquis#, #dīcēs#, 1620). #forsitan aliquis dīcat#, L. 5, 52, 5, perhaps somebody may say. #hoc vōbīs incrēdibile videātur#, V. 3, 109, this may seem incredible to you.

1557. (1.) The perfect seldom occurs in old Latin. Later, it is rarely used of past time. In this use it resembles the perfect of concession (1553): as,

(a.) #forsitan temere fēcerim#, RA. 31, peradventure I may have acted rashly. #errāverim fortasse#, Plin. Ep. 1, 23, 2, I may have been mistaken perhaps. (b.) #concēdō; forsitan aliquis aliquandō eius modī quippiam fēcerit#, V. 2, 78, I grant it; perhaps somebody, at some time or other, may have done something of the sort. #haec ipsa forsitan fuerint nōn necessāria#, Br. 52, even this may perhaps have been superfluous.

1558. (2.) The perfect is oftenest used with a future meaning, and particularly the first person singular active of verbs meaning think or say: as,

(a.) #nōn facile dīxerim#, TD. 5, 121, I could not readily say. #hoc sine ūllā dubitātiōne cōnfirmāverim#, Br. 25, this I can assert without any hesitation. #pāce tuā dīxerim#, TD. 5, 12, by your leave I would say. The first person plural occurs first in Cornificius, and is rare: as, #hunc deum rīte beātum dīxerīmus#, DN. 1, 52, such a god we should be right in pronouncing happy. (b.) #plānē perfectum Dēmosthenem facile dīxerīs#, Br. 35, you would readily pronounce Demosthenes absolutely perfect (1030). #tū vērō eum nec nimis valdē umquam nec nimis saepe laudāverīs#, Leg. 3, 1, oh no, rest assured you never can praise him too emphatically nor too often. #conluviem istam nōn nisi metū coērcuerīs#, Ta. 14, 44, such a motley rabble you can only keep under by terrorism. (c.) #forsitan quispiam dīxerit#, Off. 3, 29, perhaps somebody may say.

1559. (1.) The imperfect properly denotes action which might have taken place in the past: as,

(a.) #nōn ego hoc ferrem calidus iuventā cōnsule Plancō#, H. 3, 14, 27, this I should not have brooked in my hot youth, in Plancus’ consulate. (b.) The second person singular, particularly of verbs meaning see, make out, think, say, generally has an imaginary subject (1030): as, #vidērēs#, H. S. 2, 8, 77, thou mightst have seen. #cernerēs#, L. 22, 7, 12, you might have descried. #nescīrēs#, L. 3, 35, 3, you could not have told. #tē columen rē̆ī pūblicae dīcerēs intuērī#, Sest. 19, you would have sworn you were gazing on a pillar of the state. (c.) #quī vidēret, urbem captam dīceret#, V. 4, 52, anybody who saw it, would have said it was a captured city. #dīcī hoc in tē nōn potest, posset in Tarquiniō, cum rēgnō esset expulsus#, TD. 1, 88, this cannot be said in your case; it might have been said in Tarquin’s, when he was driven from the throne. #numquam faceret#, T. Ph. 121, he never would have done it.

1560. (2.) The imperfect often denotes action not performed at the present time; so especially #vellem# (#nōllem#, #māllem#): as,

(a.) #nimis vellem habēre perticam#, Pl. As. 589, I wish so much I had a stick. #vellem adesse posset Panaetius; quaererem ex eō#, TD. 1, 81, I only wish Panaetius could be with us: I should ask him (Panaetius was dead). #cuperem voltum vidēre tuum#, Att. 4, 16, 7, I should like to see the expression of your face. #māllem Cerberum metuerēs#, TD. 1, 12, I would rather you stood in dread of Cerberus. #possem idem facere#, TD. 1, 84, I could do the same. (b.) #melius sequerēre cupīdine captam#, O. 14, 28, better for thee it were a loving bride to woo. (c.) #in hāc fortūnā perūtilis eius opera esset#, Att. 9, 17, 2, in the present pinch his services would be extremely valuable.

1561. The pluperfect represents action which did not take place in the past: as,

(a.) #vellem quidem licēret: hoc dīxissem#, RA. 138, I only wish it were allowed; I should have said so and so. (b.) #dedissēs huic animō pār corpus, fēcisset quod optābat#, Plin. Ep. 1, 12, 8, you might have given this spirit a body to match; he would have done what he craved to do. (c.) #urbēs et rēgna celeriter tanta nēquitia dēvorāre potuisset#, Ph. 2, 67, such colossal prodigality might have been capable of swallowing down cities and kingdoms speedily. #vīcissent inprobōs bonī; quid deinde?# Sest. 43, the good might have overpowered the bad; what next?

1562. It may be mentioned here, that the subjunctive of action conceivable often extends to subordinate sentences: see 1731.

QUESTIONS.

1563. I. The subjunctive is often used to ask what action or whether any action is desired, commanded, proper, or necessary.

In many instances a negative answer or no answer at all is expected The negative is #nē#, sometimes #nōn#.

(a.) #quō mē vertam?# Scaur. 19, which way shall I turn? #quid faciam, praescrībe :: quiēscās :: nē faciam, inquis, omnīnō versūs?# H. S. 2, 1, 5, lay down the law, what I’m to do :: keep still :: wilt have me write, sayst thou, no verse at all? #quid igitur faciam? nōn eam?# T. Eu. 46, what then am I to do? not go? #quid nī meminerim?# DO. 2, 273, why should not I remember? or of course I remember. #huic cēdāmus? huius condiciōnēs audiāmus?# Ph. 13, 16, shall we bow the knee to him? shall we listen to his terms? (b.) #quid tandem mē facere decuit? quiēscerem et paterer?# L. 42, 41, 12, what in the world ought I to have done? keep inactive and stand it?

1564. Such questions sometimes have the alternative form: as, #Corinthiīs bellum indīcāmus, an nōn?# Inv. 1, 17, are we to declare war against Corinth, or not? #utrum indicāre mē e͡i thēnsaurum aequom fuit, an ego alium dominum paterer fierī hīsce aedibus?# Pl. Tri. 175, should I have pointed out the hoard to him, or should I have allowed another to become the owner of this house? here #paterer# is equivalent to #aequom fuit patī# (1495).

1565. II. The subjunctive is often used to ask whether action is conceivable: as,

(a.) #quis putet celeritātem ingenī L. Brūtō dēfuisse?# Br. 53, who can suppose that Brutus lacked ready wit? i.e. #nēmō putet# (1556), #putābit# (1620), or #putāre potest#. #sī enim Zēnōnī licuit, cūr nōn liceat Catōnī?# Fin. 3, 15, for if it was allowed Zeno, why should not it be allowed Cato? (b.) #hoc tantum bellum quis umquam arbitrārētur ab ūnō imperātōre cōnficī posse?# IP. 31, who would ever have dreamed that this stupendous war could be brought to a close by a single commander? The imperfect sometimes denotes action not performed at the present time (1560): #quis enim cīvis rēgī nōn favēret?# D. 6, for what Roman would not feel for the king? (c.) #ego tē vidēre nōluerim?# QFr. 1, 3, 1, I have objected to seeing you?

1566. The subjunctive is often used in interrogative outbursts of surprise, disapprobation, indignation, or captious rejoinder. In such questions a pronoun, #ego#, #tū# (#ille#), is usually expressed. The negative is #nōn#.

This subjunctive occurs in Plautus and Terence, in Cicero, oftenest the letters, in Horace, Vergil, and Livy. Not in Caesar nor Sallust.

1567. (1.) The question may have no interrogative word, or may have #-ne#, especially in comedy: as,

(a.) #nōn tacēs? :: taceam?# T. Ph. 987, you hold your tongue :: I hold my tongue? #nē flē :: egone illum nōn fleam?# Pl. Cap. 139, weep not :: what, I not weep for him? #tū pulsēs omne quod obstat?# H. S. 2, 6, 30, what, you, sir, punch whatever’s in your way? #faveās tū hostī? ille litterās ad tē mittat?# Ph. 7, 5, you, sir, sympathize with the enemy? he correspond with you? #sapiēnsne nōn timeat?# Ac. 2, 135, a sage not be afraid? (b.) #ego mihī̆ umquam bonōrum praesidium dēfutūrum putārem?# Mil. 94, could I have dreamed that I should ever lack the protection of the patriotic? (c.) #‘apud exercitum mihī̆ fuerīs’ inquit ‘tot annōs?’# Mur. 21, ‘to think of your having been with the army, bless my soul?’ says he, ‘so many years.’ (d.) #mihī̆ cuiusquam salūs tantī fuisset, ut meam neglegerem?# Sull. 45, could anybody’s safety have been so important in my eyes as to make me disregard my own?

1568. (2.) The question may have #utī# or #ut#: as,

#tē ut ūlla rēs frangat? tū ut umquam tē corrigās?# C. 1, 22, any thing break you down? you ever reform? #pater ut obesse fīlīo dēbeat?# Planc. 31, a father morally bound to work against his son?

1569. (3.) The question with #utī# or #ut# is sometimes attended by a remnant of another question with #-ne# or #-n#. In this combination, #-ne# either precedes, joined to an emphatic word, or it is attached directly to #utī# or #ut#: as,

(a.) #egone ut tē interpellem?# TD. 2, 42, what I? interrupt you? #illīne ut impūne concitent fīnitima bella?# L. 4, 2, 12, what, they be allowed to stir up border warfare with impunity? #virgō haec līberast :: meane ancilla lībera ut sit, quam ego numquam ēmīsī manū?# Pl. Cur. 615, this girl is free :: my servant-girl? she to be free, when I have never set her free? (b.) #utne tegam spurcō Dāmae latus?# H. S. 2, 5, 18, what, I’m to shield a nasty Dama’s side? #somnium. utine haec īgnōrāret su͡om patrem?# T. Ph. 874, oh bosh, not to have known the father that begat her? See 1505 and 1532.

1570. It may be mentioned here, that the interrogative subjunctive is often used in subordinate sentences: see 1731.

[Erratum: 1565a ... Fin. 3, 15 Fin 3,]

THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.

COMMAND.

1571. The second person of the imperative mood is used in commands, either particular or general.

Commands are very often attended by a vocative or vocative nominative, or by #tū#, sir, sirrah, or #vōs#, gentlemen, you people (1118). They are of various kinds, as follows: (a.) Order, often to an inferior: thus, to an official: #līctor, conligā manūs#, Rab. 13, L. 1, 26, 7, Gell. 12, 3, 2, lictor, tie up his wrists. To soldiers: as, #dēsilīte mīlitēs#, 4, 25, 3, overboard, my men. #sīgnifer, statue sīgnum#, L. 5, 55, 1, standardbearer, plant your standard. #īnfer mīles sīgnum#, L. 6, 8, 1, advance your standard, man, or charge. To sailors: as, #hūc dīrigite nāvēs#, L. 29, 27, 13, head your galleys this way. To slaves: as, #convorrite aedēs scōpīs, agite strēnuē#, Pl. B. 10, sweep up the house with brooms, be brisk. Also to an equal: as, #aperīte aliquis#, Pl. Mer. 130, open the door there somebody (1080). Or to a superior: as, #heus, exī, Phaedrome#, Pl. Cur. 276, ho Phaedromus, come out. (b.) Exhortation, entreaty, summons, request, prayer, imprecation, wish, concession, &c.: as, #vōs vōbīs cōnsulite#, 7, 50, 5, every man of you for himself. #ēs, bibe, animō obsequere#, Pl. MG. 677, eat, drink, and be merry. #sperne voluptātēs#, H. E. 1, 2, 55, scorn thou delights. #quīn tū ī intrō#, Pl. Most. 815, go in, go in, won’t you go in? (1527). #patent portae, proficīscere, ēdūc tēcum etiam omnīs tuōs#, C. 1, 10, the gates are open, march forth; take out all your myrmidons with you too. #audī, Iuppiter#, L. 1, 32, 6, bow down thine ear, Jupiter. #ī in crucem#, Pl. As. 940, get you gone to the cross. #vīve valēque#, H. S. 2, 5, 109, long live and thrive, or farewell. #tibī̆ habē#, Pl. Men. 690, you keep it yourself.

1572. The imperative is often softened by the addition of #amābō#, #obsecrō#, #quaesō#, prithee, I beg, or #sīs#, #sultis#, #sōdēs#, please (97). It is sharpened by #age#, #agedum# or #agidum#, #age sīs#, mark me, or #ī#, go, come on, or by #modo#, only. The concessive imperative sometimes has #sānē#, for all me.

1573. In Plautus and Terence, the enclitic #dum#, a while, a minute, just, is often attached to the imperative: as, #manedum#, Pl. As. 585, wait a minute. In classical Latin, #dum# is retained with #age# and #agite#: as, #agedum cōnferte cum illīus vītā P. Sūllae#, Sull. 72, come now, compare Sulla’s life with that man’s (1075).

1574. It may be mentioned here, that the imperative is often used in the protasis of a conditional sentence: as,

#tolle hanc opīniōnem, lūctum sustuleris#, TD. 1, 30, do away with this notion, and you will do away with mourning for the dead. Once only in old Latin, but often in late Latin, with a copulative: as, #perge, ac facile ecfēceris#, Pl. B. 695, start on, and you will do it easily.

1575. (1.) The third person, and the longer forms of the second person, are used particularly in laws, legal documents, and treaties, and also in impressive general rules and maxims: as,

(a.) #rēgiō imperiō duō suntō#, Leg. 3, 8, there shall be two men vested with the power of kings. #amīcitia rēgī Antiochō cum populō Rōmānō hīs lēgibus estō#, L. 38, 38, 1, there shall be amity between king Antiochus and Rome on the following terms. (b.) #vīcīnīs bonus estō#, Cato, RR. 4, always be good to your neighbours. #mōribus vīvitō antīquīs#, Pl. Tri. 295, live thou in old-time ways. The longer forms are often called the Future Imperative.

1576. (2.) The longer forms of the second person are also sometimes used in the ordinary speech of everyday life: as, #cavētō#, QFr. 1, 3, 8, beware. In old Latin, often #ēs#, be thou, but in classical Latin, oftener #estō# (or #sīs#). Usually #habētō#, meaning keep, or consider, regularly #scītō#, #scītōte#, you must know (846). In verse, the long forms may sometimes be due to the metre: as, #hīc hodiē cēnātō#, Pl. R. 1417, take dinner here today. #pār prō parī refertō#, T. Eu. 445, pay tit for tat. But also without such necessity: as, #aufertō intrō#, Pl. Tru. 914, take it within. #quiētus estō, inquam#, T. Ph. 713, be not concerned, I say.

1577. (3.) It may be mentioned here, that the longer forms are very often used in the apodosis of a complex sentence, particularly with a future or a future perfect protasis: as,

#sī iste ībit, ītō#, Pl. Ps. 863, if he shall go, go thou. #medicō mercēdis quantum poscet, prōmittī iubētō#, Fam. 16, 14, 1, you must order your medical man to be promised all he shall charge in the way of a fee. #ubī̆ nihil erit quod scrībās, id ipsum scrībitō#, Att. 4, 8b, 4, when you don’t have anything to write, then write just that. #cum ego P. Grānium testem prōdūxerō, refellitō, sī poteris#, V. 5, 154, when I put Granius on the witness stand, refute him if you can.

1578. In such combinations, however, the shorter forms are sometimes found: as, #ubi volēs, accerse#, T. Andr. 848, fetch me when you will. And conversely the longer forms are also found with a present protasis: as, #ūnum illud vidētō, sī mē amās#, Fam. 16, 1, 2, attend to this one thing, an thou lovest me.

1579. A command is sometimes expressed by the subjunctive, accompanying #fac#, #facitō#, #fac ut#, #facitō ut#, #cūrā ut#, #cūrātō ut#, #vidē#, #vidē ut#, #volō#, or particularly #velim#: as,

#magnum fac animum habeās et spem bonam#, QFr. 1, 2, 16, see that you keep up an heroic soul and unabated hope (1712). #fac cōgitēs#, Fam. 11, 3, 4, see that you bear in mind. #cūrā ut valeās#, Fam. 12, 29, 3, take good care of yourself. #velim exīstimēs#, Fam. 12, 29, 2, I should like to have you consider. For commands in the subjunctive alone, see 1547; in the future indicative, 1624; in the form of a question, 1531.

1580. A periphrastic perfect passive form is rare: as, #iūre caesus estō#, Twelve Tables in Macrob. Sat. 1, 4, 19, he shall be regarded as killed with justifying circumstances. #probē factum estō#, L. 22, 10, 6, let it be considered justified. #at vōs admonitī nostrīs quoque cāsibus este#, O. Tr. 4, 8, 51, but be ye warned by our misfortunes too.

[Errata: 1571 ... Pl. MG. 677, 677. 1577 ... Att. 4, 8b, 4, 4.]

PROHIBITION.

1581. (1.) In prohibitions with the second person, the imperative with #nē# is used in old Latin, and with #nēve# as a connective, rarely #neque#: as,

#nē flē#, Pl. Cap. 139, weep not. #nē saevī tantō opere#, T. Andr. 868, be not thus wroth. Sometimes in classical poetry also, in imitation of old style: as, #nē saevī, magna sacerdōs#, V. 6, 544, rave not, thou priestess grand. Once in Livy: #nē timēte#, 3, 2, 9, be not afraid.

1582. From Ovid on, #nōn# is used a few times for #nē#: as, #nōn cārīs aurēs onerāte lapillīs#, O. AA. 3, 129, load not with precious stones your ears.

1583. (2.) Prohibitions in the second person are usually expressed by #nōlī# or #nōlīte# with the infinitive, particularly in classical prose: as,

#obiūrgāre nōlī#, Att. 3, 11, 2, don’t scold. #nōlīte id velle quod fierī nōn potest#, Ph. 7, 25, don’t yearn after the unattainable.

1584. In poetry, equivalents for #nōlī# are sometimes used with the infinitive, such as #fuge#, #parce# or #comperce#, #conpesce#, #mitte# or #omitte#, #absiste#: as, #quid sit futūrum crās, fuge quaerere#, H. 1, 9, 13, what fate the morrow brings, forbear to ask. Livy has once #parce#, 34, 32, 20.

1585. (3.) A prohibition in the second person is often expressed by the subjunctive accompanying #cavē̆#, #fac nē#, #vidē nē#, #vidētō nē#, #cūrā nē#, #cūrātō nē#, or #nōlim#, and in old Latin #cavē̆ nē#: as,

#cavē festīnēs#, Fam. 16, 12, 6, don’t be in a hurry. #cavētō nē suscēnseās#, Pl. As. 372, see that thou beest not wroth. #hoc nōlim mē iocārī putēs#, Fam. 9, 15, 4, I should hate to have you think I am saying this in fun. For prohibitions in the second person with #nē# and the present or perfect subjunctive, see 1551. For the subjunctive coordinated with #cavē̆#, see 1711.

1586. In law language, prohibitions are expressed by the third person of the imperative with #nē#, and with #nēve# as a connective: as,

#hominem mortuom in urbe nē sepelītō nēve ūritō#, Twelve Tables in Leg. 2, 58, he shall not bury nor yet shall he burn a dead man in town. #mulierēs genās nē rāduntō nēve lessum fūneris ergō habentō#, Twelve Tables in Leg. 2, 59, women shall not tear their cheeks nor shall they keen in lamentation for the dead (1257). Likewise with #nēmō#: as, #nēminī pārentō#, Twelve Tables in Leg. 3, 8, they shall not be subject to anybody. See also 1548.

TENSE.

THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.

THE PRESENT TENSE.

1587. The present indicative represents action as going on at the time of speaking or writing: as,

#scrībō#, I write, or I am writing. #nunc prīmum audiō#, T. Andr. 936, for the first time I hear. #notat ad caedem ūnum quemque nostrūm#, C. 1, 2, he is marking us out for death, each and all. #domus aedificātur#, Att. 4, 2, 7, the house is building.

1588. The present is used to denote action customary or repeated at any time, or a general truth: as,

#agrī cultūrae nōn student#, 6, 22, 1, they do not apply themselves to farming. #virī in uxōrēs vītae necisque habent potestātem#, 6, 19, 3, the married men have power of life and death over their wives. #probitās laudātur et alget#, J. 1, 74, uprightness gets extolled, and left out in the cold. #dum vītant stultī vitia, in contrāria currunt#, H. S. 1, 2, 24, while fools essay a vice to shun, into its opposite they run. #mors sōla fatētur quantula sint hominum corpuscula#, J. 10, 172, death is the only thing that tells what pygmy things men’s bodies be. #stultōrum plēna sunt omnia#, Fam. 9, 22, 4, the world is full of fools. #rīsū ineptō rēs ineptior nūllast#, Cat. 39, 16, there’s nothing sillier than a silly laugh.

1589. The present, when accompanied by some expression of duration of time, is often used to denote action which has been going on some time and is still going on.

This present is translated by the English perfect: as, #Lilybaeī multōs iam annōs habitat#, V. 4, 38, he has lived at Lilybaeum this many a year. #iam dūdum auscultō#, H. S. 2, 7, 1, I have been listening for an age. #satis diū hōc iam saxum vorsō#, T. Eu. 1085, I’ve trundled at this boulder long enough as ’t is. #nimium diū tē castra dēsīderant#, C. 1, 10, the camp has felt your absence altogether too long. #iam diū īgnōrō quid agās#, Fam. 7, 9, 1, I have not known this long time how you are getting on. This use extends to the subjunctive and to nouns of the verb also. But if the action is conceived as completed, the perfect is used: as, #sērō resistimus ē̆ī quem per annōs decem aluimus#, Att. 7, 5, 5, it is too late to oppose a man whom we have been supporting ten long years.

1590. The present is often used to represent past action as going on now. This is called the Present of Vivid Narration: as,

#trānsfīgitur scūtum Puliōni et verūtum in balteō dēfīgitur. āvertit hīc cāsus vāgīnam, inpedītumque hostēs circumsistunt#, 5, 44, 7, Pulio has his shield run through, and a javelin sticks fast in his sword belt. This mischance puts his scabbard out of reach, and the enemy encompass him in this hampered condition. This present often stands side by side with a past tense. It is common in subordinate sentences also.

1591. The present is sometimes used in brief historical or personal memoranda, to note incidents day by day or year by year as they occur. This is called the Annalistic Present: as,

#Proca deinde rēgnat. is Numitōrem prōcreat. Numitōrī rēgnum vetustum Silviae gentis lēgat#, L. 1, 3, 9, after this Proca is king; this man begets Numitor; to Numitor he bequeaths the ancient throne of the Silvian race. #duplicātur cīvium numerus. Caelius additur urbī mōns#, L. 1, 30, 1, number of citizens doubled; Mt. Caelius added to city. #in Māmurrārum lassī deinde urbe manēmus#, H. S. 1, 5, 37, in the Mamurras’ city then forspent we sleep. Particularly common with dates: as, #A. Vergīnius inde et T. Vetusius cōnsulātum ineunt#, L. 2, 28, 1, then Verginius and Vetusius enter on the consulship. #M. Sīlānō L. Nōrbānō cōnsulibus Germānicus Aegyptum proficīscitur#, Ta. 2, 59, in the consulship of Silanus and Norbanus, Germanicus leaves for Egypt.

1592. Verbs of hearing, seeing, and saying are often put in the present, even when they refer to action really past: as,

#audiō Valerium Mārtiālem dēcessisse#, Plin. Ep. 3, 21, 1, I hear that Martial is dead, i.e. the epigrammatist, 102 A.D. Particularly of things mentioned in books, or in quoting what an author says: as, #Hercyniam silvam, quam Eratosthenī nōtam esse videō#, 6, 24, 2, the Hercynian forest, which I see was known to Eratosthenes. #Platō ‘ēscam malōrum’ appellat voluptātem#, CM. 44, Plato calls pleasure the ‘bait of sin.’

1593. The present is sometimes loosely used of future action: as,

#crās est mihī̆ iūdicium#, T. Eu. 338, tomorrow I’ve a case in court. #ego sȳcophantam iam condūcō dē forō#, Pl. Tri. 815, for me, a sharper from the market place I’ll straight engage. #quam mox inruimus?# T. Eu. 788, how soon do we pitch in? This present is also used in subordinate sentences with #antequam# and #priusquam# (1912, 1915), with #dum#, until (2006), and sometimes with #sī#.

THE IMPERFECT TENSE.

1594. The imperfect indicative represents action as going on in past time: as,

#scrībēbam#, I was writing, or I wrote. #ei mihi quālis erat#, V. 2, 274, woe’s me, how ghastly he appeared. #multōsque per annōs errābant āctī fātīs#, V. 1, 31, and they for many a year were roaming round, by fates pursued.

1595. The imperfect often denotes past action lasting while something else occurred: as,

#an tum erās cōnsul, cum mea domus ardēbat?# Pis. 26, were you perhaps consul at the time my house was burning down? #neque vērō tum īgnōrābat sē ad exquīsīta supplicia proficīscī#, Off. 3, 100, and all the time he knew perfectly well that he was starting off to suffer studied torments.

1596. The imperfect is used to denote repeated or customary past action or condition: as,

#commentābar dēclāmitāns cōtīdiē#, Br. 310, I always practised speaking my compositions every day. #noctū ambulābat in pūblicō Themistoclēs#, TD. 4, 44, Themistocles used to promenade the streets nights.

1597. The imperfect, when accompanied by some expression of duration of time, is used to denote action which had been going on for some time, and was still going on.

This imperfect, which is translated by the English pluperfect, is analogous to the present in 1589: as, #pater grandis nātū iam diū lectō tenēbātur#, V. 5, 16, his aged father had long been bedridden. #hōram amplius iam permultī hominēs mōliēbantur#, V. 4, 95, something over an hour a good many men had been prizing away. But if the action is conceived as completed at a past time, the pluperfect is used: as, #diem iam quīntum cibō caruerat#, 6, 38, 1, four whole days he had gone without eating.

1598. In a few examples, the imperfect is used to denote action suddenly recognized, though going on before: as, #ehem, Parmenō, tūn hīc erās?# T. Hec. 340, why bless me, Parmeno, were you here all this time?

1599. In descriptions of place or in general truths, where the present might be expected, the imperfect is sometimes used, by assimilation to past action in the context: as, #ipsum erat oppidum Alesia in colle summō#, 7, 69, 1, Alesia proper was situated on the top of a hill. Often also in subordinate sentences.

1600. For the imperfect indicative of certain verbs relating to action not performed at the present time, see 1497; for the conative use, see 2302.

1601. In letters, the imperfect may denote action at the time of writing, the writer transferring himself to the time of the reader: as,

#haec tibi dictābam post fānum putre Vacūnae#, H. E. 1, 10, 49, I dictate this for thee behind Vacuna’s crumbling shrine. #nihil habēbam quod scrīberem#, Att. 9, 10, 1, I have nothing to write. Similarly in the delivery of messages: as, #scrībae ōrābant#, H. S. 2, 6, 36, the clerks request. The present, however, is very often used where the imperfect would be applicable. Compare 1616.

THE PERFECT TENSE.

1602. The Latin perfect indicative represents two English tenses: thus, the preterite, I wrote, and the perfect, I have written, are both expressed by the perfect #scrīpsī#. In the first sense, this perfect is called the Historical Perfect; in the second sense, it is called the Perfect Definite.

THE HISTORICAL PERFECT.

1603. The historical perfect simply expresses action as having occurred at an indefinite past time, without implying anything as to the duration of the action: as,

#scrīpsī#, I wrote. #vēnī, vīdī, vīcī#, Caesar in Suet. Iul. 37, came, saw, overcame. #apud Helvētiōs longē nōbilissimus fuit Orgetorīx#, 1, 2, 1, among the Helvetians, the man of highest birth by all odds was Orgetorix. #Diodōrus prope triennium domō caruit#, V. 4, 41, for nearly three years Diodorus had to keep away from home. #in Graeciā mūsicī flōruērunt, discēbantque id omnēs#, TD. 1, 4, in Greece musicians stood high, and everybody studied the art (1596).

1604. It may be mentioned here, that in subordinate sentences the historical perfect is sometimes loosely used from the writer’s point of view, instead of the more exact pluperfect demanded by the context: as, #aliquantum spatiī ex eō locō, ubī̆ pugnātum est, aufūgerat#, L. 1, 25, 8, he had run off some distance from the spot where the fighting had occurred. See 1925.

THE PERFECT DEFINITE.

1605. The perfect definite expresses action which is already completed at the present time, and the effects of which are regarded as continuing: as,

#scrīpsī#, I have written. #dīxērunt#, Clu. 73, #dīxēre#, Quintil. 1, 5, 43, they have finished speaking. #spectātōrēs, fābula haec est ācta#, Pl. Most. 1181, ladies and gentlemen, this play is done.

1606. In old Latin, #habeō# with the perfect participle is sometimes equivalent to a periphrastic perfect: as, #illa omnia missa habeō#, Pl. Ps. 602, I’ve dropped all that, i.e. #mīsī#. But in classical Latin, the participle and a tense of #habeō# are more or less distinct in their force: as, #Caesar aciem īnstrūctam habuit#, 1, 48, 3, Caesar kept his line drawn up, not had drawn up. Compare 2297.

1607. With verbs of inceptive meaning the perfect definite is equivalent to the English present: as,

#cōnsistō#, take my stand, #cōnstitī#, stand, #cōnsuēscō#, get used, #cōnsuēvī#, am used, #nōscō#, learn, #nōvī#, know. Similarly #meminī#, remember, and #ōdī#, hate. The pluperfect of such verbs is represented by the English imperfect, and the future perfect by the English future.

1608. The perfect often denotes a present resulting state: as, #vīcīne, periī, interiī#, Pl. Most. 1031, my neighbour, I am dead and gone. Particularly in the passive voice: as, #Gallia est omnis dīvīsa in partēs trēs#, 1, 1, 1, Gaul, including everything under the name, is divided into three parts. Compare 1615.

1609. In the perfect passive, forms of #fuī#, &c., are sometimes used to represent a state no longer existing: as, #monumentō statua superimposita fuit, quam dēiectam nūper vīdimus ipsī#, L. 38, 56, 3, on the monument there once stood a statue which I saw not long ago with my own eyes, lying flat on the ground. Similarly, in the pluperfect, #fueram#, &c.: as, #arma quae fīxa in parietibus fuerant, ea sunt humī inventa#, Div. 1, 74, the arms which had once been fastened on the walls were found on the floor. Sometimes, however, forms of #fuī#, &c., #fueram#, &c., and #fuerō#, &c., are used by Plautus, Cicero, especially in his letters, Nepos, Sallust, and particularly Livy, in passives and deponents, quite in the sense of #sum#, &c.

1610. The perfect of some verbs may imply a negative idea emphatically by understatement, as:

#fuit Īlium#, V. 2, 325, Ilium has been, i.e. Ilium is no more. #vīximus, flōruimus#, Fam. 14, 4, 5, we have lived our life, we have had our day. #fīlium ūnicum adulēscentulum habeō. āh, quid dīxī? habēre mē? immō habuī#, T. Hau. 93, I have one only son, a growing boy. Ah me, what did I say, I have? Oh no, have had.

1611. The perfect may denote an action often done, or never done: as,

#iam saepe hominēs patriam cārōsque parentēs prōdiderunt#, Lucr. 3, 85, time and again have men their land betrayed and parents dear. #nōn aeris acervus et aurī dēdūxit corpore febrīs#, H. E. 1, 2, 47, no pile of brass and gold hath fevers from the body drawn. #multī, cum obesse vellent, prōfuērunt et, cum prōdesse, obfuērunt#, DN. 3, 70, many a man has done good, when he meant to do harm, and when he meant to do good, has done harm. Common from Cicero, Sallust, and Catullus on, especially in poetry.

1612. The perfect is sometimes used as a lively future perfect to express completed future action: as,

#quam mox coctumst prandium?# Pl. R. 342, how soon is lunch all cooked? #cui sī esse in urbe licēbit, vīcimus#, Att. 14, 20, 3, if he shall be allowed to stay in town, the day is ours. #periī, sī mē aspexerit#, Pl. Am. 320, I’m gone, if he lays eyes on me.

1613. It may be mentioned here, that the perfect is regularly used in a subordinate sentence denoting time anterior to a present of repeated action (1588). In such sentences the present is preferred in English: as,

#reliquī, quī domī mānsērunt, sē atque illōs alunt#, 4, 1, 5, the others, that stay at home, always support themselves and the above-mentioned also. #sī quī aut prīvātus aut populus eōrum dēcrētō nōn stetit, sacrificiīs interdīcunt#, 6, 13, 6, if any man or any community does not abide by their decree, they always debar them from sacrifices. So also with #quom# or #cum#, #quotiēns#, #simul atque#, #ubī̆#. Compare 1618.

[Erratum: 1611 ... #nōn aeris acervus et aurī dēdūxit corpore febrīs# auri]

THE PLUPERFECT TENSE.

1614. The pluperfect indicative expresses past action, completed before another past action expressed or understood: as,

#scrīpseram#, I had written. #Pyrrhī temporibus iam Apollō versūs facere dēsierat#, Div. 2, 116, in Pyrrhus’s day Apollo had quite given up making poetry. #mortuus erat Āgis rēx. fīlium relīquerat Leōtychidem#, N. 17, 1, 4, Agis the king had died; he had left a son Leotychides.

1615. The pluperfect often expresses a past resulting state: as,

#castra oportūnīs locīs erant posita#, 7, 69, 7, the camp was pitched on favourable ground. #ita ūnō tempore et longās nāvēs aestus complēverat, et onerāriās tempestās adflīctābat#, 4, 29, 2, thus at one and the same time the tide had filled the men-of-war, and the gale of wind kept knocking the transports about. This use is analogous to that of the perfect in 1608.

1616. In letters, the pluperfect is sometimes used to denote action occurring previous to the time of writing, the writer transferring himself to the time of the reader: as,

#ūnam adhūc ā tē epistolam accēperam#, Att. 7, 12, 1, I have only had one letter from you thus far. This use is analogous to that of the imperfect in 1601, and very often, where this pluperfect would be applicable, the perfect is used.

1617. The pluperfect is sometimes used where the perfect would be expected. Particularly so when it anticipates a past tense to follow in a new sentence: as, #quod factum prīmō populārīs coniūrātiōnis concusserat. neque tamen Catilīnae furor minuēbātur#, S. C. 24, 1, this terrified the conspirators at first; and yet Catiline’s frenzy was not getting abated. Verbs of saying are also often put in the pluperfect in subordinate sentences referring to a preceding statement: as, #Epidamniēnsis ille, quem dūdum dīxeram, adoptat illum puerum surruptīcium#, Pl. Men. prol. 57, said man of Epidamnus that I named erewhile adopts said kidnapped boy.

1618. It may be mentioned here, that the pluperfect is used in a subordinate sentence denoting time anterior to a past tense of repeated action. In such sentences the preterite is preferred in English: as,

#hostēs ubī̆ aliquōs singulārēs cōnspexerant, incitātīs equīs adoriēbantur#, 4, 26, 2, every time the enemy caught sight of detached parties, they would always charge full gallop. Compare the analogous perfect in 1613.

[Erratum: 1617 ... #quod factum prīmō populārīs coniūrātiōnis concusserat# popularīs]

THE FUTURE TENSE.

1619. The future indicative expresses future action, either momentary or continuous: as,

#scrībam#, I shall write, I shall be writing, or I will write, I will be writing. The future commonly expresses either prediction, or will, determination, promise, threat: as, (a.) #tuās litterās exspectābō#, Att. 5, 7, I shall be on the lookout for letters from you. (b.) #vīvum tē nōn relinquam; moriēre virgīs#, V. 4, 85, I will not leave you alive; you shall die under the rod. But separate forms to mark the sharp distinction which exists between shall and will in the English future and future perfect are utterly unknown in Latin: thus, in #occīdar equidem, sed victus nōn perībō#, Cornif. 4, 65, I shall be murdered, to be sure, but I will not die a vanquished man, the difference between the prediction contained in I shall, and the determination contained in I will, cannot be expressed in Latin by the future indicative.

1620. The future is often used in diffident assertion, to express an assumption, a belief, conviction, or concession, of the speaker himself, without implying its universal acceptance: as,

#dīcēs#, TD. 2, 60, you will say. #dīcet aliquis#, TD. 3, 46, somebody will say (1556). #dabit hoc Zēnōnī Polemō#, Fin. 4, 51, Polemo will concede this point to Zeno. #excūdent aliī spīrantia mollius aera, crēdō equidem#, V. 6, 847, with greater grace, I well believe, shall others shape the bronze that breathes. Particularly in conclusions: as, #sequētur igitur vel ad supplicium beāta vīta virtūtem#, TD. 5, 87, happiness then will walk with goodness even to the scaffold. Or in general truths: as, #cantābit vacuus cōram latrōne viātor#, J. 10, 22, the pourë man whan he goth by the weye, bifore the thevës he may synge and pleye.

1621. The future sometimes predicts that a thing not yet known to be true will prove to be true: as, #haec erit bonō genere nāta#, Pl. Per. 645, this maid, you’ll find, is come of honest stock, i.e. #esse reperiētur#. Compare the imperfect in 1598.

1622. In Plautus and Terence, the future is sometimes used in protestations, wishes, or thanks: as, #ita mē dī amābunt#, T. Hau. 749, so help me heaven. #dī tē amābunt#, Pl. Men. 278, the gods shall bless thee. Usually, however, the subjunctive: see 1542 and 1541.

1623. The future is sometimes used in questions of deliberation or appeal: as, #dēdēmus ergō Hannibalem?# L. 21, 10, 11, are we then to surrender Hannibal? #hancine ego ad rem nātam memorābō?# Pl. R. 188, am I to say that I was born for such a fate? Oftener the present subjunctive (1563), or sometimes the present indicative (1531).

1624. The future is sometimes used, particularly in the second person, to express an exhortation, a direction, a request, a command, or with #nōn# a prohibition: as,

#crās ferrāmenta Teānum tollētis#, H. E. 1, 1, 86, tomorrow to Teanum you will take your tools. #bonā veniā mē audiēs#, DN. 1, 59, you will listen to me with kind indulgence. #tū intereā nōn cessābis#, Fam. 5, 12, 10, meantime you will not be inactive. #haec igitur tibī̆ erunt cūrae#, Fam. 3, 9, 4, you will attend to this then, i.e. #haec cūrābis#.

1625. It may be mentioned here, that the future is used in sentences subordinate to a future, an imperative, or a subjunctive implying a future: as,

#profectō nihil accipiam iniūriae, sī tū aderis#, Att. 5, 18, 3, I am sure I shall suffer no harm, if you are with me. #ut mēd esse volēs, ita erō#, Pl. Ps. 239, as you will have me be, so will I be. #ut is quī audiet, cōgitet plūra, quam videat#, DO. 2, 242, so that the hearer may imagine more than he sees. But sometimes a present is used (1593).

THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

1626. The future perfect indicative expresses completed future action: as,

#scrīpserō#, I shall have written, or I will have written. The future perfect is very common in Latin, particularly in protasis with a relative, with #cum#, #ubī̆#, &c., with #antequam# or #priusquam#, with #ut (... ita)#, as (... so), or with #sī#, to express action anterior in time to a future; in English, this future perfect is usually represented by a loose present or perfect: as, #quicquid fēceris, adprobābō#, Fam. 3, 3, 2, whatever you do, I shall think right. Examples will be given further on, in speaking of the complex sentence.

1627. It may be mentioned here that the future perfect in protasis and apodosis both denotes two actions occurring at one and the same time; these actions are usually identical: as,

#quī Antōnium oppresserit, is hoc bellum taeterrimum cōnfēcerit#, Fam. 10, 19, 2, the man that puts down Antony will put an end to this cruel war, i.e. putting down Antony will be ending the war. #respīrārō, sī tē vīderō#, Att. 2, 24, 5, I shall take breath again, if I set eyes on you.

1628. The future perfect sometimes denotes a future resulting state: as,

#molestus certē e͡i fuerō#, T. Andr. 641, at all events I shall have proved a bane to him. #meum rē̆ī pūblicae atque imperātōrī officium praestiterō#, 4, 25, 3, I will have my duty all done to country and commander too.

1629. The future perfect is sometimes used to express rapidity of future action, often with the implication of assurance, promise, or threat: as,

#abierō#, Pl. Most. 590, I’ll instantly be gone. #iam hūc revēnerō#, Pl. MG. 863, B. 1066, I’ll be back here again forthwith. #prīmus impetus castra cēperit#, L. 25, 38, 17, the first rush will see the camp carried.

1630. The future perfect often denotes action postponed to a more convenient season, or thrown upon another person.

Often thus with #post#, #aliās#, and particularly #mox#: as, #vōbīs post nārrāverō#, Pl. Ps. 721, I’ll tell you by and by, i.e. I won’t tell you now. #ad frātrem mox īerō#, Pl. Cap. 194, I’ll to my brother’s by and by, i.e. not yet. #fuerit ista eius dēlīberātiō#, L. 1, 23, 8, that is a question for him to settle, i.e. not me. Especially #vīderō#: as, #quae fuerit causa, mox vīderō#, Fin. 1, 35, what the reason was, I won’t consider now. #rēctē secusne aliās vīderimus#, Ac. 2, 135, whether right or not, we will consider some other time, i.e. never. #vōs vīderitis#, L. 1, 58, 10, that is a question for you, i.e. not me.

1631. The future perfect sometimes denotes action which will have occurred while something else takes place: as,

#nōn erō vōbīs morae: tībīcen vōs intereā hīc dēlectāverit#, Pl. Ps. 573^a, I will not keep you long; meantime the piper will have entertained you here. #tū invītā mulierēs, ego accīverō puerōs#, Att. 5, 1, 3, do you, sir, invite the ladies, and I will meantime have fetched the children.

1632. The future perfect is often not perceptibly different from the future, especially in the first person singular in old Latin: as,

#ego mihī prōvīderō#, Pl. Most. 526, I’ll look out for myself. #erōs in obsidiōne linquet, inimīcūm animōs auxerit#, Pl. As. 280, he’ll leave his owners in a state of siege, he’ll swell the courage of the enemy. Similarly Cicero, in the protases #sī potuerō#, #sī voluerō#, #sī licuerit#, #sī placuerit#.

[Erratum: 1630 ... not yet. #fuerit ista eius dēlīberātiō# . invisible]

THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE WITH #sum#.

1633. The future active participle combined with the tenses of #sum# expresses action impending, resolved on, or destined, at the time indicated by the tense of the verb: as,

#cum hōc equite pugnātūrī estis#, L. 21, 40, 10, with this kind of cavalry are you going to fight. #bellum scrīptūrus sum, quod populus Rōmānus cum Iugurthā gessit#, Sall. I. 5, 1, I purpose to write the history of the war that the people of Rome carried on with Jugurtha. #fīet illud, quod futūrum est#, Div. 2, 21, whatever is destined to be, will be. #Delphōs petiīt, ubī̆ columnās, quibus impositūrī statuās rēgis Perseī fuerant, suīs statuīs dēstināvit#, L. 45, 27, 6, he went to Delphi, where he appropriated for his own statues the pillars on which they had intended to put statues of king Perses.

THE TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

1634. In simple sentences, the tenses of the subjunctive correspond in general to the same tenses of the indicative. But the present has a future meaning; the imperfect sometimes expresses past, sometimes present action; and the perfect sometimes expresses past action, and sometimes future action.

1635. The present subjunctive is sometimes used in reference to past action, like the indicative present of vivid narration (1590): as, #migrantīs cernās#, V. 4, 401, you can descry them swarming out (1556). #comprehendī iussit; quis nōn pertimēscat?# V. 5, 14, he ordered them to be arrested; who would not be thoroughly scared? (1565). See also 2075.

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE, OR COORDINATION.

1636. Two or more independent simple sentences may be coordinated to form a compound sentence in one of two ways: either without a connective, or with a connective.

What applies to the coordination of sentences, also applies to the coordination of the parts of sentences in abridged sentences (1057).

(A.) WITHOUT A CONNECTIVE.

1637. When simple sentences or parts of sentences are coordinated without any connective, this mode of arrangement is called Asyndetic Coordination or Asyndeton.

Asyndeton, whether in unabridged or in abridged sentences, is more usual with three or more members than with two. It occurs particularly often in Plautus, Terence, Ennius, and Cato, also in Cicero, especially in his early works and letters.

1638. The sentences in which asyndeton occurs are commonly such as might be connected by words meaning and or but; less often by words meaning as, for, &c. Asyndeton is especially common:

1639. (a.) In animated narration of events happening at the same moment, in description, and in climaxes. Also in mention of colleagues in office, and in many set phrases and formulas: as,

#vēnī, vīdī, vīcī#, Caesar in Suet. Iul. 37, came, saw, overcame. #nostrī celeriter ad arma concurrunt, vāllum cōnscendunt#, 5, 39, 3, our men rush speedily to arms, clamber up the palisade. #huic s. c. intercessit C. Caelius, C. Pānsa, tribūnī pl.#, Fam. 8, 8, 7, this decree of the senate was objected to by Caelius and Pansa, tribunes of the commons. #hī ferre agere plēbem#, L. 3, 37, 7, there were these people worrying and harrying the commons (1535).

1640. (b.) In contrasts or antitheses: as,

#opīniōnis commenta dēlet diēs, nātūrae iūdicia cōnfirmat#, DN. 2, 5, the fictions of speculation are swept away by time, but the judgements of nature are confirmed. Particularly when either member is positive, the other negative: #vincere scīs, Hannibal, victōriā ūtī nescīs#, L. 22, 51, 4, you know how to conquer, Hannibal, but not how to use victory, says Maharbal after Cannae, 216 B.C.

1641. Asyndeton is very common with two or more imperatives: as, #ēgredere ex urbe, Catilīna, līberā rem pūblicam metū, in exsilium proficīscere#, C. 1, 20, go forth from Rome, Catiline, relieve the commonwealth from its fear, depart into exile. Particularly when the first is #age#, come on, mark me, or #ī#, go (1572). But from Horace on, #ī nunc#, go to now, is followed by #et# with a second imperative in derisive orders. In old Latin, the imperatives may be joined by #et# or even #atque#.

1642. Asyndeton is also common with parentheses. These often take the place of a modern foot-note: as, #lēgātus capite vēlātō fīlō (lānae vēlāmen est) ‘audī, Iuppiter,’ inquit#, L. 1, 32, 6, the envoy with his head covered with a ‘filum’ (that is to say a wrap of wool) says ‘bow down thine ear, Jupiter.’ Parentheses however are often introduced, from Terence on by #nam#, and from Sallust and Cicero on, by #et#, #neque#, #autem#, #enim#, &c.

(B.) WITH A CONNECTIVE.

(1.) CONJUNCTIONS AS CONNECTIVES.

1643. Simple sentences or parts of sentences may be connected by copulative, disjunctive, or adversative conjunctions.

(a.) COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

1644. Copulative conjunctions denote union, and connect both the sentences and their meaning. They are #et#, #-que#, #atque# or #ac#, and, and #neque# or #nec#, neither.

1645. (1.) #et#, and, is the commonest copulative, and connects either likes or unlikes; with two members only, it is either used between them, or is prefixed for emphasis to both: as,

#Dumnorīx apud Sēquanōs plūrimum poterat et Helvētiīs erat amīcus#, 1, 9, 3, Dumnorix was very influential among the Sequani and a friend to the Helvetians. #Dēmocritus alba discernere et ātra nōn poterat#, TD. 5, 114, Democritus could not tell white and black apart. #et discipulus et magister perhibēbantur inprobī#, Pl. B. 425, both pupil and master were rated as knaves.

1646. With three or more members, #et# is either used between the members or, frequently, prefixed for emphasis to all. Often, however, it is omitted throughout (1637), or a third member is appended by #-que# (1651): as,

#persuādent Rauricīs et Tulingīs et Latovicīs utī ūnā cum hīs proficīscantur#, 1, 5, 4, they induce the Rauricans, Tulingans, and Latovicans to join them in their march. #is et in custōdiam cīvēs Rōmānōs dedit et supplicātiōnem mihī̆ dēcrēvit et indicēs maximīs praemiīs adfēcit#, C. 4, 10, this person voted in the first place to put Roman citizens in ward, then to decree a thanksgiving in my honour, and lastly to reward the informers with liberal gifts.

1647. Two members belonging closely together as a pair, and connected by #et#, #atque#, or #-que#, are sometimes put asyndetically with another member or members: as,

#Aeduī ferunt sē dēiectōs prīncipātū; queruntur fortūnae commūtātiōnem et Caesaris indulgentiam in sē requīrunt#, 7, 63, 8, the Aeduans set forth that they were cast down from the chief place; they complain of the change of fortune, and say they miss Caesar’s former kindness to them. #nūntiātum est equitēs Ariovistī propius tumulum accēdere et ad nostrōs adequitāre; lapidēs in nostrōs conicere#, 1, 46, 1, it was reported that Ariovistus’s cavalry were moving nearer the hillock and galloping up to the Romans; that they were throwing stones at our men.

1648. #et# has sometimes the meaning of also or of and also, particularly when there is a change of speakers, or before a pronoun: as, #et hoc sciō#, Plin. Ep. 1, 12, 11, I know that too. Sometimes also after #vērum#, #nam#, and #simul#, especially when a pronoun follows. Not in Caesar.

1649. (2.) #-que#, and, combines members which belong together and make a whole, though they may be different or opposed to each other; the second member is often a mere appendage: as,

#rogat ōratque tē#, RA. 144, he begs and entreats you, or he earnestly entreats you. #lībertī servolīque nōbilium#, RA. 141, the freedmen and slaves of the great, or retainers, bond and free. #omnēs ea, quae bona videntur, sequuntur fugiuntque contrāria#, TD. 4, 12, everybody runs after what seems good and avoids the opposite. #-que# is usually put after the first word of the new member. It is particularly common in old or legal style.

1650. The combination #-que . . . -que#, both . . . and, is very common in poetry: as, #noctēsque diēsque#, E. in CM. 1, both night and day. In prose, it is used by Sallust when the first word is a pronoun: as, #mēque rēgnumque meum#, I. 10, 2, both myself and my throne; and by Livy to connect two relative sentences: as, #omnēs quīque Rōmae quīque in exercitū erant#, 22, 26, 5, everybody, both people in Rome and people in the army.

1651. After two members without a connective, a third member is sometimes appended by #-que#: as,

#satis habēbat hostem rapīnīs, pābulātiōnibus, populātiōnibusque prohibēre#, 1, 15, 4, he was satisfied with keeping the enemy from plundering, foraging, and ravaging.

1652. (3.) #atque#, or before any consonant except #h# often #ac#, and, and besides, adds something belonging essentially to what goes before, but more important as a supplement or extension; as,

#sē ex nāvī prōiēcit atque in hostēs aquilam ferre coepit#, 4, 25, 4, he sprang overboard and furthermore proceeded to bear the eagle upon the enemy. #magna dīs immortālibus habenda est atque huic Iovī Statōrī grātia#, C. 1, 11, we owe a great debt of gratitude to the gods immortal in general, and to yon Jove the Stayer in particular. #atque . . . atque# occurs for #et . . . et# once in Vergil, and once in Silius Italicus.

1653. #atque# is used in comparisons, after words of likeness and unlikeness: as,

#parī spatiō trānsmissus, atque ex Galliā est in Britanniam#, 5, 13, 2, the journey across is just as long as it is from Gaul to Britain. #īdemque iussērunt simulācrum Iovis facere maius et contrā, atque anteā fuerat, ad orientem convertere#, C. 3, 20, and they furthermore gave orders to make a statue of Jupiter, a bigger one, and to turn it round to the east, the opposite of the way it originally faced. Sometimes #et# is thus used after #alius#, #aliter#, #aequē#, #pariter#, &c.: see the dictionary.

1654. With adjectives and adverbs in the comparative degree, #atque# sometimes takes the place of #quam# than, when the first member of comparison is negative (1895): as, #amīcior mihi nūllus vīvit atque is est#, Pl. Mer. 897, I have no greater friend alive than that man is. So in Plautus, Terence, Lucretius, Catullus, Vergil, rarely in Cicero, and in Horace even when the first member is positive.

1655. A sentence is often introduced by #et#, #-que#, or #atque#, where but would be used in English, particularly so when a positive sentence follows a negative one: as,

#Sōcratēs nec patrōnum quaesīvit nec iūdicibus supplex fuit adhibuitque līberam contumāciam#, TD. 1, 71, Socrates did not try to find an advocate nor bow the knee to his judges, but he was plain-spoken and defiant. #nostrōrum mīlitum impetum hostēs ferre nōn potuērunt ac terga vertērunt#, 4, 35, 2, the enemy could not stand the dash of our people, but turned their backs. #hominis nē Graecī quidem ac Mȳsī potius#, QFr. 1, 1, 19, a creature who is not even a Greek, but more of a Mysian.

1656. Two sentences, one of which would ordinarily be introduced by a subordinating temporal conjunction, are sometimes, mostly in poetry, coordinated by #et# or #-que#: as, #dīxit et in silvam pennīs ablāta refūgit#, V. 3, 258, she spake, and on her pinions sweeping, vanished to the wood, i.e. #simul atque dīxit, refūgit#.

1657. (4.) #neque# or #nec#, neither, nor, and . . . not, but . . . not, is used as a negative copulative, sometimes as a negative adversative: as,

#opīniōnibus volgī rapimur in errōrem nec vēra cernimus#, Leg. 2, 43, we are swept into error by the delusions of the world and cannot make out the truth. #nōn enim temere nec fortuī̆tō creātī sumus#, TD. 1, 118, for we were not created at adventure nor by accident. #subsidiō suīs iērunt collemque cēpērunt, neque nostrōrum mīlitum impetum sustinēre potuērunt#, 7, 62, 8, they went to aid their people and carried the hill, but they could not stand the fiery onset of our soldiers. #neque# or #nec# is often repeated: as, #nec meliōrēs nec beātiōrēs esse possumus#, RP. 1, 32, we can neither be better nor wiser.

1658. #nec# is rarely used in the sense of #nē . . . quidem#, not even, not . . . either: as, #nec nunc#, H. S. 2, 3, 262, not even now, a free quotation of #nē nunc quidem#, T. Eu. 46. #nec . . . quidem#, and not even, is used once or twice for the common #ac nē . . . quidem# or #et nē . . . quidem#.

1659. Instead of #neque# or #nec#, and not, the copulatives #et#, #atque#, rarely #-que#, followed by a negative, #nōn#, #nēmō#, #nihil#, &c., are sometimes used in Cicero and Livy, less often in old Latin, and rarely in Caesar and Sallust: as, #quid tū fēcissēs, sī tē Tarentum et nōn Samarobrīvam mīsissem?# Fam. 7, 12, 1, what would you have done, if I had sent you to Tarentum, and not to Samarobriva? Particularly thus #et nōn#, or oftener #ac nōn#, in corrections. But ordinarily #neque# or #nec# is preferred to #et nōn#, and #nec quisquam#, &c., to #et nēmō#, &c. (1445).

1660. When #neque# is followed by another negative, the assertion is positive (1452): as,

#nec hoc ille nōn vīdit#, Fin. 4, 60, and the man did not fail to see this. This positive use begins with Varro. In old Latin two negatives, and particularly #neque . . . haud#, are often used, as in old English, to strengthen the negation (1453).

1661. After a general negative, a word may be emphasized by #nē ... quidem# or #nōn modo#, or the parts of a compound sentence may be distributed by #neque . . . neque#, without destroying the negation: as,

#nihil in locīs commūnibus, nē in fānīs quidem, nihil istum neque prīvātī neque pūblicī tōtā in Siciliā relīquisse#, V. 4, 2, that the defendant has left nothing untouched in public places, no, not even in the temples, nothing either in the way of private or of public property, in all Sicily. Similarly when a coordinate member is appended with #neque#: as, #nequeō satis mīrārī neque conicere#, T. Eu. 547, I can’t quite puzzle out or guess.

COMBINATION OF DIFFERENT COPULATIVES.

1662. Different copulatives are sometimes combined, as follows.

1663. (1.) The affirmative copulatives #et# and #-que# are sometimes combined, particularly in abridged sentences: as,

#et Epamīnōndās praeclārē cecinisse dīcitur, Themistoclēsque est habitus indoctior#, TD. 1, 4, Epaminondas in the first place is said to have played beautifully, and Themistocles was not considered exactly an educated man. This combination is used by Cicero rarely, by Horace in the satires, and rarely by late writers.

1664. The sequence #-que . . . et# is rare in old Latin, and not used by Caesar, Vergil, or Horace. #-que . . . atque# is first used by Lucretius, then by Vergil, Ovid, Livy, and Tacitus.

1665. (2.) Affirmative and negative copulatives are sometimes combined. Thus #neque# or #nec# combined with #et#, in the sequences #neque . . . et# and #et . . . neque#, which is rare in old Latin, is common in Cicero: as,

#nec mīror et gaudeō#, Fam. 10, 1, 4, in the first place I am not surprised, and in the second place I feel glad; #neque . . . et nōn#, however, is rare. #patēbat via et certa neque longa#, Ph. 11, 4, there lay a road open at once plain and not long. #neque . . . -que# begins with Cicero, but is rare (1655), #neque . . . ac# begins with Tacitus.

1666. Of all the Latin writers, Tacitus aims most at variety by combination of asyndeton and by the use of different copulatives: as, #rēgem Rhamsēn Libyā Aethiopiā Mēdīsque et Persīs et Bactriānō ac Scythā potītum#, 2, 60, that king Rhamses got control of Libya and Aethiopia and the Medes and Persians, and the Bactrian and Scythian.

(b.) DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

1667. Disjunctive conjunctions connect the sentences, but disconnect the meaning. They are #aut#, #vel#, #sīve# or #seu#, #-ve#, and #an#, or. Of these conjunctions, #aut#, #vel#, and #sīve# are often placed before two or more members of a sentence in the sense of either . . . or. And in poetry, #-ve . . . -ve# sometimes occurs.

1668. (1.) #aut#, or, sometimes or even, or at least, is used between two members which are to be represented as essentially different in meaning, and of which one excludes the other: as,

#hīc vincendum aut moriendum, mīlitēs, est#, L. 21, 43, 5, here you must conquer, my men, or die. #hōrae mōmentō cita mors venit aut victōria laeta#, H. S. 1, 1, 7, within an hour’s brief turn comes speedy death or victory glad. #aut vīvam aut moriar#, T. Ph. 483, I shall either live or die. #sīderibus dubiīs aut illō tempore quō sē frīgida circumagunt pigrī serrāca Boōtae#, J. 5, 22, when stars blink faint, or even at the time when round rolls slow Boötes’ frigid wain. #quā rē vī aut clam agendum est#, Att. 10, 12, 5 [10, 12b, 2], so we must use force, or at any rate secrecy. Sometimes #aut# connects kindred ideas: as, #equī ictī aut vulnerātī cōnsternābantur#, L. 21, 33, 6, the horses kept getting frantic from being hit or wounded.

1669. #aut#, in the sense of otherwise, or else, sometimes introduces a statement of what necessarily follows, if something else is not done: as,

#audendum est aliquid ūniversīs, aut omnia singulīs patienda#, L. 6, 18, 7, you must make some bold dash collectively, or else you must suffer every thing individually. #vel# is also occasionally used in this sense.

1670. (2.) #vel#, or, introduces an alternative as a matter of choice or preference, and often relates merely to the selection of an expression: as,

#eius modī coniūnctiōnem tēctōrum oppidum vel urbem appellāvērunt#, RP. 1, 41, such a collection of dwelling-houses they called, well, a town or a city, whichever you please. #vel imperātōre vel mīlite mē ūtiminī#, S. C. 20, 16, use me as your generalissimo or as a private, whichever you will. #Catilīnam ex urbe vel ēiēcimus vel ēmīsimus vel ipsum ēgredientem verbīs prōsecūtī sumus#, C. 2, 1, we have--what shall I say?--driven Catiline out of town, or allowed him to go out, or, when he was going out of his own accord, wished him a pleasant journey. #vel# is often followed by #etiam#, #potius#, or #dīcam#. From Tacitus on, #vel# is sometimes used in the sense of #aut#: as, #vincendum vel cadendum esse#, Ta. 14, 35, they must do or die (1668).

1671. #vel# is sometimes used in the sense of if you will, even, or perhaps, especially before superlatives, or in the sense of for instance: as,

#huius domus est vel optima Messānae, nōtissima quidem certē#, V. 4, 3, this gentleman’s house is perhaps the finest in all Messana, at any rate the best known. #amant tēd omnēs mulierēs, neque iniūriā: vel illae, quae here palliō mē reprehendērunt#, Pl. MG. 58, the girls all idolize you, well they may; for instance those that buttonholed me yesterday.

1672. (3.) #sīve# or #seu#, or, used as a disjunctive conjunction, denotes a distinction which is not essential, or the speaker’s uncertainty as to some matter of detail; when used once only, it is chiefly in corrections, often with #potius#, rather, added; as,

#is Ascanius urbem mātrī seu novercae relīquit#, L. 1, 3, 3, said Ascanius left the city to his mother, or his stepmother, if you prefer. #dīxit Pompēius, sīve voluit#, QFr. 2, 3, 2, Pompey made a speech, or rather attempted to make one.

1673. #sīve# is often repeated in the sense of either, or no matter whether . . . or: as,

#ita sīve cāsū sīve cōnsiliō deōrum, quae pars calamitātem populō Rōmānō intulerat, ea prīnceps poenās persolvit#, 1, 12, 6, thus, no matter whether from chance or through special providence, the part which had done damage to Rome was the first to pay penalty in full.

1674. (4.) #-ve# rarely connects main sentences, usually only the less important parts of the sentence, or, oftener still, subordinate sentences: as,

#cūr timeam dubitemve locum dēfendere?# J. 1, 103, why should I fear or hesitate to stand my ground? #Appius ad mē bis terve litterās mīserat#, Att. 6, 1, 2, Appius had written me two or three times. With #nē# it forms #nēve# or #neu#, which is used as a continuation of #nē# or #ut#: see 1581; 1586; 1947.

1675. (5.) The interrogative particle #an# sometimes becomes a disjunctive conjunction, or, or possibly, or perhaps: as, #Simōnidēs an quis alius#, Fin. 2, 104, Simonides or possibly somebody else. Common in Cicero, though not so in his speeches, and in Livy, commonest in Tacitus.

[Erratum: 1667 ... #aut#, #vel#, and #sīve# are often #sīve#. are]

(c.) ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

1676. Adversative conjunctions connect the sentences, but contrast the meaning. They are #autem#, on the other hand, #sed#, #vērum#, #cēterum#, but, #vērō#, but, indeed, #at#, but, #tamen#, #nihilō minus#, nevertheless.

Of these conjunctions, #autem# and #vērō# are put after one word, or sometimes after two closely connected words; #tamen# is put either at the beginning, or after an emphatic word.

1677. (1.) #autem#, again, on the other hand, however, simply continues the discourse by a statement appended to the preceding, without setting it aside: as,

#hōrum prīncipibus pecūniās, cīvitātī autem imperium tōtīus prōvinciae pollicētur#, 7, 64, 8, to the chieftains of this nation on the one hand he promises moneys, and to the community on the other hand the hegemony of the whole province. The opposition in a sentence introduced by #autem#, again, is often so weak that a copulative, and, might be used: as, #ille quī Dī̆ogenem adulēscēns, post autem Panaetium audierat#, Fin. 2, 24, the man who in his early youth had sat at the feet of Diogenes, and afterwards of Panaetius. #autem# is oftenest used in philosophical or didactic discourse, less frequently in history, oratory, or poetry.

1678. #autem# is often used in questions: as, #metuō crēdere :: crēdere autem?# Pl. Ps. 304, I am afraid to trust :: trust, do you say?

1679. (2.) #sed# or #set#, and #vērum#, but, are used either in restriction, or, after a negative, in direct opposition: as,

#vēra dīcō, sed nēquīquam, quoniam nōn vīs crēdere#, Pl. Am. 835, I tell the truth, but all in vain, since you are bent not to believe. #nōn ego erus tibī, sed servos sum#, Pl. Cap. 241, I am not your master, but your slave.

1680. #nōn modo#, or #nōn sōlum#, not only, not alone, is followed by #sed etiam# or #vērum etiam#, but also, by #sed . . . quoque#, but ... as well, or sometimes by #sed# or #vērum# alone: as,

#quī nōn sōlum interfuit hīs rēbus, sed etiam praefuit#, Fam. 1, 8, 1, who has not had a hand only in these matters, but complete charge. #quī omnibus negōtiīs nōn interfuit sōlum, sed praefuit#, Fam. 1, 6, 1. #nōn tantum# is sometimes used by Livy, and once or twice by Cicero, but not by Caesar or Sallust, for #nōn modo#. Livy and Tacitus sometimes omit #sed# or #vērum#.

1681. #nōn modo# has sometimes the meaning of #nōn dīcam#: as, #nōn modo ad certam mortem, sed in magnum vītae discrīmen#, Sest. 45, I won’t say to certain death, but to great risk of life.

1682. #nōn modo# or #nōn sōlum#, when attended by another negative, may also be followed by #sed nē . . . quidem#, but not even, or #sed vix#, but hardly: as,

#nōn modo tibī̆ nōn īrāscor, sed nē reprehendō quidem factum tuum#, Sull. 50, so far from being angry with you I do not even criticise your action. When both members have the same predicate, usually placed last, the negation in #nē . . . quidem# or #vix# usually applies to the first member also: as, #tālis vir nōn modo facere, sed nē cōgitāre quidem quicquam audēbit, quod nōn audeat praedicāre#, Off. 3, 77, a man of this kind will not only not venture to do, but not even to conceive anything which he would not venture to trumpet to the world, or will not venture to conceive, much less do.

1683. (3.) #cēterum# is sometimes used in the sense of #sed#, in Terence, Sallust, and Livy. Sometimes also in the sense of #sed rē vērā#, in Sallust and Tacitus, to contrast reality with pretence.

1684. (4.) #vērō#, but, indeed, introduces an emphatic contrast or a climax: as,

#sed sunt haec leviōra, illa vērō gravia atque magna#, Pl. 86, however, all this is less important, but the following is weighty and great. #scīmus mūsicēn nostrīs mōribus abesse ā prīncipis persōnā, saltāre vērō etiam in vitiīs pōnī#, N. 15, 1, 2, we know that, according to our Roman code of ethics, music is not in keeping with the character of an eminent man, and as to dancing, why that is classed among vices. In Plautus, #vērō# is only used as an adverb; its use as an adversative conjunction begins with Terence. In the historians, #vērō# is often equivalent to #autem#.

1685. (5.) #at#, but, denotes emphatic lively opposition, an objection, or a contrast: as,

#brevis ā nātūrā nōbīs vīta data est; at memoria bene redditae vītae sempiterna#, Ph. 14, 32, a short life hath been given by nature unto man; but the memory of a life laid down in a good cause endureth for ever. #at# is often used before a word indicating a person or a place, to shift the scene, especially in history. In law language, #ast# sometimes occurs, and #ast# is also sometimes used, generally for the metre, in Vergil, Horace, and late poetry.

1686. (6.) #tamen#, #nihilō minus#, nevertheless.

#accūsātus capitis absolvitur, multātur tamen pecūniā#, N. 4, 2, 6, he is accused on a capital charge and acquitted, but is nevertheless fined in a sum of money. #minus dolendum fuit rē nōn perfectā, sed poeniendum certē nihilō minus#, Mil. 19, there was less occasion for sorrow because the thing was not done, but certainly none the less for punishment.

[Erratum: 1677 ... 7, 64, 8 7. 64, 8]

(2.) OTHER WORDS AS CONNECTIVES.

1687. Instead of a conjunction, other words are often used as connectives: as, #pars . . . pars#, #aliī . . . aliī#; adverbs of order or time: as, #prīmum#, first, or #prīmō#, at first #... deinde . . . tum#, &c.; and particularly adverbs in pairs: as, #modo . . . modo#, #tum . . . tum#, less frequently #quā . . . quā#, #simul . . . simul#: as,

#multitūdō pars prōcurrit in viās, pars in vestibulīs stat, pars ex tēctīs prōspectant#, L. 24, 21, 8, part of the throng runs out into the streets, others stand in the fore-courts, others gaze from the house-tops. #prōferēbant aliī purpuram, tūs aliī, gemmās aliī#, V. 5, 146, they produced some of them purple, others frankincense, others precious stones. #prīmō pecūniae, deinde imperī cupīdō crēvit#, S. C. 10, 3, at first a love of money waxed strong, then of power. #tum hoc mihī̆ probābilius, tum illud vidētur#, Ac. 2, 134, one minute this seems to me more likely, and another minute that.

1688. Simple sentences may also be coordinated by words denoting inference or cause, such as #ergō#, #igitur#, #itaque#, therefore; #nam#, #namque#, #enim#, for, #etenim#, for you see: as,

#adfectus animī in bonō virō laudābilis, et vīta igitur laudābilis bonī virī, et honesta ergō, quoniam laudābilis#, TD. 5, 47, the disposition in a good man is praiseworthy, and the life therefore of a good man is praiseworthy, and virtuous accordingly, seeing it is praiseworthy. Of these words, #nam#, #namque#, and #itaque# are usually put first in the sentence; #enim# and #igitur#, usually after one word, rarely after two. But in Plautus regularly, and generally in Terence, #enim# has the meaning of indeed, verily, truly, depend upon it, and may stand at the beginning.

1689. In Plautus, the combination #ergō igitur# occurs, and in Terence and Livy, #itaque ergō#: as, #itaque ergō cōnsulibus diēs dicta est#, L. 3, 31, 5, accordingly then a day was set for the trial of the consuls.

1690. The interrogative #quippe#, why? losing its interrogative meaning, is also used as a coordinating word, why, or for: as, #hōc genus omne maestum ac sollicitum est cantōris morte Tigellī: quippe benignus erat#, H. S. 1, 2, 2, such worthies all are sad, are woebegone over Tigellius the minstrel’s death; why he was generosity itself.

1691. Simple sentences may also be coordinated by pronominal words, such as #hinc#, #inde#, hence, #eō#, #ideō#, #idcircō#, #proptereā#, so, on that account, &c.: as,

#nocte perveniēbant; eō custōdiās hostium fallēbant#, L. 23, 19, 10, they got there in the night; in that way they eluded the enemy’s pickets. But #eō# and #ideō# are not used thus by Cicero, Caesar, or Sallust, or #idcircō# and #proptereā# by Cicero or Caesar.

1692. In animated rhetorical discourse any word repeated with emphasis may serve as a copulative; this is called Anaphora: as,

#mīles in forum, mīles in cūriam comitābātur#, Ta. 1, 7, soldiers went with him to the forum, soldiers to the senate chamber. #ēreptī estis ex interitū, ēreptī sine sanguine, sine exercitū, sine dīmicātiōne#, C. 3, 23, you are rescued from death, rescued without bloodshed, without an army, without a struggle.

[Erratum: 1687 ... #tum . . . tum#, less frequently , invisible]

THE INTERMEDIATE COORDINATE SENTENCE.

1693. A sentence coordinate in form with another sentence is often equivalent in meaning to a subordinate sentence. Such sentences are called Intermediate Coordinate Sentences.

The most varied relations of a subordinate sentence may be thus expressed by a coordinate sentence, and the combination of the two coordinate sentences is in sense equivalent to a complex sentence.

1694. Such coordinated sentences are a survival of a more primitive state of the language. They occur oftenest in Plautus and Terence, in Cicero’s philosophical works and letters, in Horace’s satires and epistles, and in Juvenal. In general they have been superseded by complex sentences, even in the oldest specimens of the language.

1695. I. The relation of the two members may not be indicated by the mood, but left to be determined from the context.

Thus, in the combination #amat, sapit#, Pl. Am. 995, he is in love, he shows his sense, the two members #amat# and #sapit# are alike in form. But in sense, #sapit# is the main member and #amat# is the subordinate member. Just what the relation of the #amat# is, whether it is #sī amat#, if he is in love, #cum amat#, when he is in love, #quod amat#, because he is in love, or #etsī amat#, though he is in love, &c., &c., is left to the reader to make out. The following are some of the commonest combinations of this class:

1696. (1.) The coordinated member may stand instead of the commoner accusative and infinitive with a verb of perceiving, thinking, knowing, or saying (2175). Such are #crēdō#, #fateor#, #opīnor#, #putō#, #certum est#, &c.: as,

#lūdōs mē facitis, intellegō#, Pl. Per. 802, you are making game of me, I am aware. #nārrō tibī̆: plānē relēgātus mihī̆ videor#, Att. 2, 11, 1, I tell you what, I seem to myself regularly banished. #spērō, servābit fidem#, Pl. E. 124, I hope he’ll keep his word (2235).

1697. (2.) The coordinated member may be a direct question or an exclamation.

Thus (a.) in enquiries calling for an answer: as, #sīgnī dīc quid est#, Pl. Am. 421, tell me, what is there in the shape of seal? (1251). Or (b.) in ejaculation: as, #viden ut astat furcifer?# Pl. Most. 1172, seest how the knave is posing there? #vidēte quaesō, quid potest pecūnia#, Pl. St. 410, see pray how all-commanding money is. This construction occurs oftenest in comedy, and with an imperative meaning say, tell, or look. The subordinate construction is the rule: see 1773.

1698. (3.) The coordinated member rarely represents a relative sentence (1816): as,

#urbs antīqua fuit, Tyriī tenuēre colōnī#, V. 1, 12, there was an ancient town, which Tyrian settlers held. #est locus, Hesperiam Graī cōgnōmine dīcunt#, V. 1, 530, there is a place, the Greeks by name Hesperia call, imitated from #est locus Hesperiam quam mortālēs perhibēbant#, E. in Macrob. Sat. 6, 1, there is a place which sons of men Hesperia called.

1699. (4.) The coordinated member may represent a subordinate temporal member: as,

#vēnit hiemps, teritur Sicuōnia bāca trapētis#, V. G. 2, 519, has winter come, in mills is Sicyon’s olive ground (1860). #vix prōram attigerat, rumpit Sāturnia fūnem#, V. 12, 650, scarce had he touched the prow, Saturnia snaps the rope, i.e. #cum rumpit# (1869). #lūcēbat iam ferē, prōcēdit in medium#, V. 5, 94, it was just about light, when he presents himself before them. #fuit ōrnandus in Mānīliā lēge Pompēius; temperātā ōrātiōne ōrnandī cōpiam persecūtī sumus#, O. 102, when I had to glorify Pompey in the matter of the Manilius law, I went through the ample material for glorification in moderate language.

1700. (5.) The coordinated member may be equivalent to a member with #ut#, expressing result (1965): as,

#iam faxō sciēs#, T. Eu. 663, I’ll let you know at once, i.e. #sciās# (1712) or #ut sciās# (1965). #iam faxō hīc erunt#, Pl. B. 715, I’ll warrant they shall soon be here. #adeō rēs rediīt, adulēscentulus victus est#, T. Hau. 113, things came to such a pass the youngster was put down. #cētera dē genere hōc, adeō sunt multa, loquācem dēlassāre valent Fabium#, H. S. 1, 1, 11, the other cases of the kind, so plentiful are they, might tire the gabbling Fabius out. #ita haec ūmōre tigna pūtent, nōn videor mihi sarcīre posse aedīs meās#, Pl. Most. 146, so sopping rotten are these joists, I don’t think I can patch my house. #ita avidō ingeniō fuit, numquam indicāre id fīliō voluit suō#, Pl. Aul. prol. 9, so niggardly was he, he’d never point it out to his own son. #tanta incepta rēs est, haud somnīculōsē hoc agundumst#, Pl. Cap. 227, so big a job have we begun, not drowsily must this be done.

1701. (6.) The coordinated member may be equivalent to a conditional protasis: as,

(a.) #fīliam quis habet, pecūniā opus est#, Par. 44, a man has a daughter, he needs money. #trīstis es, indignor#, O. Tr. 4, 3, 33, if you are sad, I feel provoked. (b.) #sī iste ībit, ītō; stābit, astātō simul#, Pl. Ps. 863, if he shall move, move thou; but shall he stand, stand by his side. #in caelum, iusseris, ībit#, J. 3, 78, say but the word, he’ll mount the sky. (c.) #subdūc cibum ūnum diem āthlētae, Iovem Olympium inplōrābit#, TD. 2, 40, cut off an athlete from his food just a day, he will pray to Jupiter aloft in Olympus (1574). (d.) #Zēnōnem rogēs, respondeat totidem verbīs#, Fin. 4, 69, you may ask Zeno, he would answer in just as many words (1556). (e.) #tū quoque magnam partem opere in tantō, sineret dolor, Īcare, habērēs#, V. 6, 31, thou too a goodly space in work so vast, had grief allowed, O Icarus, hadst filled (1559). #at darēs hanc vim M. Crassō, in forō saltāret#, Off. 3, 75, but had you given this chance to Crassus, he would have capered in the market place (1559). #nam absque tē esset, hodiē numquam ad sōlem occāsum vīverem#, Pl. Men. 1022, for were it not for you, I ne’er should live this blessed day till set of sun (1560, 2110). (f.) #ūnā fuissēmus, cōnsilium certē nōn dēfuisset#, Att. 9, 6, 6, had we been together, we certainly should not have lacked a programme (1561).

1702. (7.) The coordinated member may be equivalent to a concession: as,

#id fortasse nōn perfēcimus, cōnātī quidem sumus#, O. 210; though we have perhaps not attained unto this, yet we have attempted it. #ergō illī intellegunt quid Epicūrus dīcat, ego nōn intellegō?# Fin. 2, 13, do those gentlemen then understand what Epicurus means, and I not?

1703. (8.) The coordinated member may denote efficient cause or reason: as,

#peregrīnus ego sum, Sauream nōn nōvī#, Pl. As. 464, I am a stranger, and I don’t know Saurea. #mulier es, audācter iūrās#, Pl. Am. 836, because you are a woman, you are bold to swear. #tacent, satis laudant#, T. Eu. 476, their silence is sufficient praise.

1704. (9.) The coordinated member may represent the protasis of a comparative sentence with #ut# (1937): as,

#ita mē dī ament, honestust#, T. Eu. 474, so help me heaven, he is a proper man. #sollicitat, ita vīvam, mē tua, mī Tirō, valētūdō#, Fam. 16, 20, your health, dear Tiro, keeps me fidgety, as I hope to live.

1705. II. The subordinate idea is often indicated by the subjunctive of desire coordinated with another verb, usually with one which has a different subject.

Thus, the combination #amēs: oportet#, you should love; it is right (1547), in which the two verbs are used separately, blends into one whole, #amēs oportet#, Fin. 2, 35, it is right you should love. The verb with which the subjunctive is coordinated specifies more exactly the general idea of desire contained in the subjunctive itself. The tense of the coordinate subjunctive is regulated by that of the other verb.

1706. The negative employed with coordinated subjunctives is the adverb #nē#, not.

Thus, the combination #vidē: nē mē lūdās#, see to it; don’t you fool me (1547), in which the two verbs are used separately, blends into one whole, #vidē nē mē lūdās#, Pl. Cur. 325, see to it you don’t fool me. Similarly, #metuō: nē peccet#, I am afraid; let her not slip up (1548), becomes #metuō nē peccet#, Pl. Per. 624, I am afraid she may slip up. From its frequent use in sentences of subordinate meaning, #nē# came at an early period to be regarded as a subordinating conjunction also, lest, that . . . not, as well as an adverb, and took the place of the less usual #ut nē#. Hence members with #nē# are more conveniently treated under the head of subordination (1947).

1707. (1.) The subjunctive is often coordinated with verbs of wishing. Such are #volō#, #nōlō#, rarely #mālō#, #optō#, #placet#, &c.: as,

#animum advortās volō#, Pl. Cap. 388, I wish you would pay heed (1548). #quid vīs faciam?# T. Hau. 846, what wilt thou I should do? (1563). #vin conmūtēmus? tuam ego dūcam et tū meam?# Pl. Tri. 59, would you like to swap? I take your wife, and you take mine? (1563). #mālō tē sapiēns hostis metuat, quam stultī cīvēs laudent#, L. 22, 39, 20, I would rather a wise enemy should fear you, than stupid fellow-citizens admire you (1548). Coordination is the rule with #velim#, #vellem#, &c., used in the sense of #utinam# (1540): as, #dē Menedēmō vellem vērum fuisset, dē rēgīnā velim vērum sit#, Att. 15, 4, 4, about Menedemus I could wish it had been true, about the queen I hope it may be true. #tellūs optem prius īma dehīscat#, V. 4, 24, I would the earth to deepest depths might sooner yawn. #L. Domitius dīxit placēre sībī̆ sententiās dē singulīs ferrent#, Caes. C. 3, 83, 3, Domitius said his view was they should vote on the men separately.

1708. (2.) The subjunctive is often coordinated with verbs of request, entreaty, encouragement, exhortation, charge, direction, command. Such are #precor#, #rogō#, #ōrō#, #petō#, #hortor#, #postulō#, #moneō#, #cēnseō#; #mandō#, #imperō#, #praecipiō#, #dēcernō#; and chiefly in old Latin, #iubeō#: as,

(a.) #reddās incolumem precor#, H. 1, 3, 7, deliver him up safe I pray. #rogat fīnem ōrandī faciat#, 1, 20, 5, he requests him to make an end of entreaty. #ā tē id quod suēstī petō, mē absentem dēfendās#, Fam. 15, 8, I ask you to do as you always do, stand up for me when I am away. #nōn hortor sōlum sed etiam rogō atque ōrō, tē colligās virumque praebeās#, Fam. 5, 18, 1, I not only exhort you, but more than that I beg and entreat you, pull yourself together and quit you like a man. #postulō etiam atque etiam cōnsīderēs quō prōgrediāre#, L. 3, 45, 10, I charge you think again and again what you are coming to. #tē moneō videās, quid agās. magnō opere cēnseō, dēsistās#, V. 5, 174, I advise you to consider what you are doing. I earnestly recommend you to stop. #hunc admonet iter cautē faciat#, 5, 49, 3, he warns him he must pursue his march with care. (b.) #huic mandat Rēmōs adeat#, 3, 11, 2, he directs him to go to the Remans. #praecipit ūnum omnēs peterent Indutiomarum#, 5, 58, 5, he says they must all concentrate their attack on Indutiomarus. #huic imperat quās possit adeat cīvitātēs#, 4, 21, 8, he orders him to visit such communities as he can. #senātus dēcrēvit darent operam cōnsulēs nē quid rēs pūblica dētrīmentī caperet#, S. C. 29, 2, the senate decreed the consuls must see to it that the commonwealth received no harm. #iube maneat#, T. Hau. 737, tell her she must stay. #mīlitēs certiōrēs facit, paulisper intermitterent proelium#, 3, 5, 3, he tells the soldiers they must stop fighting a little while. #abī, nūntiā patribus urbem Rōmānam mūniant#, L. 22, 49, 10, go tell the fathers they must fortify Rome town. #dīxī equidem in carcerem īrēs#, Pl. St. 624, I’m sure I told you you must go to jail. #scrībit Labiēnō cum legiōne veniat#, 5, 46, 3, he writes to Labienus he must come with a legion. #lēgātiōnem mittunt sī velit suōs recipere, obsidēs sibī̆ remittat#, 3, 8, 5, they send an embassy, if he wishes to get his own men back, he must send back the hostages to them.

1709. (3.) The subjunctive is often coordinated with expressions of propriety or necessity. Such are #oportet#, #optumum est#, #opus est#, #decet#, #necesse est#.

#mē ipsum amēs oportet, nōn mea#, Fin. 2, 85, it is myself you should love, not my possessions. #quoniam habēs istum equom, aut ēmerīs oportet, aut hērēditāte possideās, aut surripuerīs necesse est#, Inv. 1, 84, since you are in possession of that horse, you must either have bought him or inherited him, or else you must necessarily have stolen him. #sed taceam optumumst#, Pl. E. 60, but I’d best hold my tongue. #nihil opust rescīscat#, Pl. Mer. 1004, she needn’t find it out at all. #condemnētur necesse est#, RA. 111, be condemned he needs must.

1710. (4.) The subjunctive is sometimes coordinated with verbs of permission or concession. Such are #permittō# in Sallust and Livy, #concēdō#, also #sinō#, mostly in the imperative, chiefly in old Latin and poetry, and the impersonal #licet# (used thus often in Cicero, rarely before or after): as,

#supplēmentum scrīberent cōnsulēs, permissum#, L. 27, 22, 11, leave was given that the consuls might fill up the army. #sine sciam#, L. 2, 40, 5, let me know. #sine modo adveniat senex#, Pl. Most. 11, let but the old man come. #fremant omnēs licet, dīcam quod sentiō#, DO. 1, 195, though everybody may growl, I will say what I think. See 1904.

1711. (5.) The subjunctive is often coordinated with the imperative #cavē̆#, #cavētō#, #cavēte#, beware, used in the sense of #nē# (1585): as,

#cavē faciās#, Att. 13, 33, 4, don’t do it. #cave dīrumpātis#, Pl. Poen. prol. 117, don’t break it off (1075).

1712. (6.) The subjunctive is often coordinated with verbs of giving, persuading, accomplishing, taking care. In this case the subjunctive has the meaning of purpose or result. Such are the imperative #cedo#, and #dō#, #persuādeō#, #impetrō#, #cūrō#, also #faciō#, particularly #fac# and #facitō#: as,

#cedo bibam#, Pl. Most. 373, give me to drink. #date bibat tībīcinī#, Pl. St. 757, give the piper to drink. #huic Sp. Albīnus persuādet rēgnum Numidiae ā senātū petat#, S. I. 35, 2, Albinus induces him to ask of the senate the throne of Numidia. #tandem inpetrāvī abīret#, Pl. Tri. 591, at last I’ve coaxed him to clear out. #fac sciam#, Fam. 7, 16, 3, let me know. #faxō sciās#, Pl. Men. 644, I’ll let you know, much oftener #sciēs# or #scībis# (1700). #fac bellus revertāre#, Fam. 16, 18, 1, mind you come back a beauty (1579).

1713. A subjunctive is now and then loosely coordinated with verbs in general, to indicate the purpose of the action: as,

#ēvocāte hūc Sōsiam, Blepharōnem arcēssat#, Pl. Am. 949, call Sosia here, let him fetch Blepharo. #clārē advorsum fābulābor, hic auscultet quae loquar#, Pl. Am. 300, I’ll speak distinctly face to face, that he may hear what I shall say. #operam hanc subrupuī tibī̆, ex mē scīrēs#, Pl. Am. 523, I did this secretly for you, that you might learn from me. #manibus date līlia plēnīs, purpureōs spargam flōrēs#, V. 6, 883, lilies in handfuls give, I fain would scatter purple flowers, that is, that I may scatter.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE, OR SUBORDINATION.

1714. In a complex sentence, that is one consisting of a main and a subordinate sentence, the subordinate member is introduced by some subordinating word: such are,

I. Interrogative words, in indirect questions; II. Relative pronouns; III. Relative conjunctive particles, or conjunctive particles not of relative origin.

1715. Subordinate sentences may have the value of a substantive, usually as subject or as object; of an attributive; or of an adverb or adverbial adjunct: as,

(a.) #eādem nocte accidit ut esset lūna plēna#, 4, 29, 1, it came to pass the same night that there was a full moon. #videō quid agās#, Fam. 16, 17, I see what you are driving at. (b.) #fundus quī est in agrō, quī Sabīnus vocātur, eum meum esse aiō#, Mur. 26, the estate which is in the territory which is called Sabine, that I maintain is mine, lawyers’ wordiness for #fundus Sabīnus#. (c.) #cum advesperāsceret, ad pontem Mulvium pervēnērunt#, C. 3, 5, when it was getting dark, they reached the Mulvius bridge, i.e. #vesperī#, or #prīmō vespere#.

1716. Subordinate sentences which express time or place, are called Temporal or Local sentences; comparison or manner, Comparative or Modal sentences; condition, cause, or concession, Conditional, Causal, or Concessive sentences; purpose, Final sentences; result, Consecutive sentences.

1717. In a main sentence, the indicative present, future, and future perfect, and the imperative, are called Primary Tenses; the indicative imperfect, historical perfect, and pluperfect, and the infinitive of intimation, are called Secondary Tenses. The perfect definite and the present of vivid narration are sometimes regarded as primary tenses, oftener as secondary tenses.

1718. Verbs which have an implication of futurity, such as those meaning can, ought, must, &c., with an infinitive, also subjunctives of wish (1540) or of exhortation (1547), may be called Virtual Futures.

1719. Sometimes the subjunctive serves as a main sentence: see 1762; sometimes a noun of the verb: see 1766.

MOOD OF THE SUBORDINATE SENTENCE.

1720. The indicative and the subjunctive are both used in subordinate sentences, as will be shown in the treatment of the several words of subordination. Some general uses may be mentioned collectively here.

THE INDICATIVE MOOD.

1721. The indicative is ordinarily used in sentences introduced by a relative pronoun, or by a causal conjunctive word other than #cum#.

#pontem, quī erat ad Genāvam, iubet rescindī#, 1, 7, 2, he orders the bridge which was near Geneva torn up. #concēdō, quia necesse est#, RA. 145, I give up, because I have to. In sentences of this class, however, the subjunctive is often required, particularly in indirect discourse (1722), or in cases of attraction (1728).

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF INDIRECT DISCOURSE AND OF ATTRACTION.

1722. The subjunctive is used in relative, causal, temporal, and conditional sentences in indirect discourse, and in cases of attraction.

1723. A direct quotation or question gives the words of the original speaker without alteration. When the original words of a quotation or question are changed to conform to the construction of the sentence in which they are quoted, it is called Indirect Discourse.

1724. In the complete form of indirect discourse, the subjunctive is subordinate to an infinitive or an accusative with the infinitive, dependent on a verb of saying or thinking (2175): as,

#negat Epicūrus iūcundē posse vīvī, nisi cum virtūte vīvātur#, TD. 3, 49, Epicurus avers there is no living happily, without living virtuously; directly, #iūcundē vīvī nōn potest, nisi cum virtūte vīvitur#. #Sōcratēs dīcere solēbat, omnēs in eō quod scīrent, satis esse ēloquentēs#, DO. 1, 63, Socrates used to maintain that all men were eloquent enough in a matter they knew; directly, #omnēs in eō quod sciunt satis sunt ēloquentēs#.

1725. The idea of saying or thinking is often not formally expressed in the main sentence, and the indirect discourse is intimated by the subordinate subjunctive only: as,

#noctū ambulābat in pūblicō Themistoclēs, quod somnum capere nōn posset#, TD. 4, 44, Themistocles used to walk the streets nights, ‘because he could not sleep,’ given as Themistocles’s reason; the writer’s would be #poterat#. #Paetus omnēs librōs, quōs frāter suus relīquisset, mihī̆ dōnāvit#, Att. 2, 1, 12, Paetus made me a present of all the books ‘that his brother had left.’ #dum reliquae nāvēs eō convenīrent, in ancorīs expectāvit#, 4, 23, 4, he waited at anchor till the rest of the vessels should gather there (2005). #pervēnit priusquam Pompēius sentīre posset#, Caes. C. 3, 67, 4, he got there before Pompey should be able to learn of his coming (1919). #Xerxēs praemium prōposuit, quī invēnisset novam voluptātem#, TD. 5, 20, Xerxes offered a reward to anybody who should devise a new form of entertainment (2110).

1726. A speaker or writer may quote his own thoughts in the indirect form, like another person’s: as, #haec tibi dictābam post fānum putre Vacūnae, exceptō quod nōn simul essēs, cētera laetus#, H. E. 1, 10, 49, I write thee this behind Vacuna’s mouldering pile, in all else well, except that thou’rt not here the while (1601).

1727. Instead of an intimation of indirect discourse by a mere subjunctive, a verb of thinking or saying is sometimes introduced by #quī#, or especially #quod#, sometimes by #cum#, and put illogically itself in the subjunctive: as, #litterās, quās mē sibī̆ mīsisse dīceret, recitāvit#, Ph. 2, 7, he read off a letter, which he said I sent him, i.e. #quās mīsissem#. #impetrāre nōn potuī, quod religiōne sē impedīrī dīcerent#, Sulpicius in Fam. 4, 12, 3, I could not get leave, because they said they were hampered by religious scruple, i.e. #quod impedīrentur#. #cum dīceret#, DN. 3, 83, saying as he did. This construction is common in Cicero, somewhat so in Caesar, rare in Sallust.

1728. The subjunctive is used in sentences expressing an essential part of the thought, which are subordinate to another subjunctive, or to an infinitive. This is called the Subjunctive of Attraction, or of Assimilation: as,

#vereor nē, dum minuere velim labōrem, augeam#, Leg. 1, 12, I am afraid I may make the work harder, while I am aiming to make it less. #sī sōlōs eōs dīcerēs miserōs, quibus moriendum esset, nēminem eōrum, quī vīverent exciperēs#, TD. 1, 9, if you should pronounce only such people unhappy as had to die, you would not except one of those who were living. #mōs est Syrācūsīs, ut sī quā dē rē ad senātum referātur, dīcat sententiam quī velit#, V. 4, 142, it is the custom at Syracuse, that if any question is discussed in the senate, anybody who pleases may express his opinion. #sapiēns nōn dubitat, sī ita melius sit, migrāre dē vītā#, Fin. 1, 62, the sage does not hesitate, if this be the better course, to withdraw from life. #mōs est Athēnīs laudārī in cōntiōne eōs, quī sint in proeliīs interfectī#, O. 151, it is the custom in Athens to eulogize in public assembly such as have fallen in action.

1729. The indicative is kept in subordinate statements added or vouched for by the person reporting, and also in circumlocutions equivalent to a substantive: as,

#nūntiātum est Ariovistum ad occupandum Vesontiōnem, quod est oppidum maximum Sēquanōrum, contendere#, 1, 38, 1, it was reported that Ariovistus was pressing on to seize Vesontio, which is the most considerable town of the Sequans. #prūdentissima cīvitās Athēniēnsium, dum ea rērum potīta est, fuisse trāditur#, RA. 70, Athens is said to have been passing wise, as long as she held the hegemony. #vīs, quae restant, mē loquī?# T. Andr. 195, wilt have me tell the rest? i.e. #relicua#. #fierī potest, ut id quod sentit polītē ēloquī nōn possit#, TD. 1, 6, it may be that he cannot express his thought in polished style, i.e. #sententiam suam#.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF REPEATED ACTION.

1730. The subjunctive is sometimes used in relative, temporal, or conditional sentences, to express action repeated or occurring at no particular time: as,

(a.) #neque aliter sī faciat, ūllam inter suōs habet auctōritātem#, 6, 11, 4, and if he does not do this, he never has any ascendancy at all over his people. With the present and perfect, however, this subjunctive is confined principally to the indefinite second person singular (1030): as, #bonus sēgnior fit, ubī̆ neglegās#, S. I. 31, 28, the good man always gets slacker, when you are neglectful. #sīquoi mūtuom quid dederīs, fit prō propriō perditum#, Pl. Tri. 1050, if you’ve lent anything to any man, ’tis not your own, but lost. (b.) The imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive begin with Catullus and Caesar, and get to be common with Livy and Tacitus: as, #sī quis prehenderētur, cōnsēnsū mīlitum ēripiēbātur#, Caes. C. 3, 110, 4, every time a man was taken up, he was rescued by the joint action of the rank and file. #quemcumque līctor prēndisset, tribūnus mittī iubēbat#, L. 3, 11, 2, every man the lictor arrested, a tribune would order released.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE AS IN THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.

1731. The subjunctive of wish, of action conceivable, or of interrogation, is sometimes used in a subordinate sentence exactly as in main sentences: as,

#haec diē nātālī meō scrīpsī, quō utinam susceptus nōn essem#, Att. 11, 9, 3, this I have written on my birthday, on which day I wish I had never been lifted from the ground (1544). #ut videās#, Lucr. 3, 348, so that you can see (1556). #neque id faciō, ut forsitan quibusdam videar, simulātiōne#, Fam. 1, 8, 2, nor do I do it, as perhaps I may seem to some to do, from hypocrisy (1556). #etiamst paucīs vōs quod monitōs voluerim#, Pl. Cap. 53, there’s one point more, on which I’d have you briefly warned (1558). #erant eiusmodī sitūs oppidōrum, ut neque pedibus aditum habērent neque nāvibus, quod minuente aestū nāvēs in vadīs adflīctārentur#, 3, 12, 1, the towns were so situated that there was no access to them by land, nor by boat either, because at ebb tide vessels would pound on the shoals (1559). #vix erat hoc imperātum, cum illum spoliātum vidērēs#, V. 4, 86, hardly was the order from his lips, when you might have seen the man stript (1559). #quō mē vertam nesciō#, Clu. 4, I don’t know which way to turn (1563).

[Erratum: 1731 ... #neque id faciō, ut forsitan quibusdam videar, simulātiōne#, final , missing]

TENSE OF THE SUBORDINATE SENTENCE.

THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.

1732. I. The tense of a subordinate indicative often indicates a close relation of time with the tense of the leading verb, particularly in cases of repeated contemporaneous or antecedent action. The subordinate sentence in such combinations is said to have Relative time.

1733. (1.) The subordinate indicative tense may express action concurrent with the main action. Two concurrent sentences are usually put in the same tense.

Concurrent action is said to be (a.) congruent, when two actions merely cover the same time: as, #dum legō, adsentior#, TD. 1, 24, as long as I am reading, I assent. #dum necesse erat, ūnus omnia poterat#, RA. 139, so long as it had to be, one man controlled the world. #dum Latīnae loquentur litterae, quercus huic locō nōn deerit#, Leg. 1, 2, as long as Latin literature has the gift of speech, this spot will not lack its oak. #vīxit, dum vīxit, bene#, T. Hec. 461, he lived well all the time he lived. #quoad potuit, fortissimē restitit#, 4, 12, 5, as long as he could, he made a manful stand. Or (b.) coincident, when one action is virtually the same as the other: as, #cum tacent, clāmant#, C. 1, 21, while they are dumb, they cry out, i.e. their silence is as telling as a shout. #fēcistī mihī̆ pergrātum, quod Serāpiōnis librum mīsistī#, Att. 2, 4, 1, you have obliged me very much by sending Serapio’s book.

1734. (2.) The subordinate indicative tense may express action contemporaneous, antecedent, or subsequent, in relation to the main action.

1735. (a.) Action contemporaneous with a main present is expressed by a present, with a main future or virtual future, by a future, with a main secondary tense by an imperfect: as,

#quod est, eō decet ūtī#, CM. 27, what you have, that you should avail yourself of. #hōrologium mittam, sī erit sūdum#, Fam. 16, 18, 3, I will send the clock, if it is pleasant (1625). #paulātim dabis, sī sapiēs#, T. Hau. 870, you’ll give in driblets, if you are wise. #cum relaxāre animōs volent, caveant intemperantiam#, Off. 1, 122, when they want to unbend, let them beware of excess (1625; 1718). #omnia deerant, quae ad reficiendās nāvēs erant ūsuī#, 4, 29, 4, they were out of everything that was serviceable for repairing their vessels.

1736. (b.) Action antecedent to a main present is expressed by a perfect, to a main future or virtual future by a future perfect, to a main secondary tense by a pluperfect: as,

#quōcumque aspexistī tuae tibī̆ occurrunt iniūriae#, Par. 18, wherever you turn your gaze, you are confronted by your own abominable acts. #cum posuī librum, adsēnsiō omnis ēlābitur#, TD. 1, 24, when I drop the book, all assent melts away (1860). #quicquid fēceris, adprobābō#, Fam. 3, 3, 2, no matter what you do, I shall think it well (1626). #ut quisque istīus animum offenderat, in lautumiās statim coniciēbātur#, V. 5, 143, any man that wounded his sensibilities was always flung into the quarries without any ado.

1737. (c.) Action subsequent to a main present is expressed by the future participle with a present form of #sum#, to a main future or virtual future by the future participle with a future form of #sum#, and to a main secondary tense by the future participle with an imperfect form of #sum#: as,

#decem diēs sunt ante lūdōs, quōs Cn. Pompēius factūrus est#, V. a. pr. 31, there are ten days before the shows which Pompey is to manage. #attentōs faciēmus, sī dēmōnstrābimus ea, quae dictūrī erimus, magna esse#, Inv. 1, 23, we shall make people attentive if we show that what we are going to say is important. #rēx, quia nōn interfutūrus nāvālī certāminī erat, Magnēsiam concessit#, L. 36, 43, 9, as the king was not to have a hand in the action at sea, he moved off to Magnesia.

1738. II. A subordinate indicative tense is said to be Independent when it simply expresses time of its own, without any close relation to the time of the main action.

Such independent tenses may denote general present action: as, #ībam forte viā sacrā, sīcut meus est mōs#, H. S. 1, 9, 1, in Sacred Street, as is my wont, I happened to be promenading (relatively, #erat mōs#, 1735). #nōn mē appellābis, sī sapis#, Pl. Most. 515, you won’t address me, if you have sense (relatively, #sī sapiēs#, 1735). Or past action, either continuous, completed, or indefinite: as, #ut mōs fuit Bī̆thȳniae rēgibus, lectīcā ferēbātur#, V. 5, 27, he regularly rode in a litter, as was the practice of the despots of Bithynia; here #fuit# denotes action simply as past, without further definition of time (1603), whereas #erat#, relative to the time of #ferēbātur#, would imply which was then the practice (1595).

1739. With #dum#, in the time while, an independent present is used: see 1995. With #postquam#, &c., after, an independent perfect is used of a single action; see 1925.

THE TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

1740. Subordinate subjunctive sentences were originally independent coordinate sentences, in the tense required to express the thought. By degrees the subordinate sentence blended closely with the main sentence, and the combination of the two was regarded as one whole.

1741. I. The time of the subordinate subjunctive is usually Relative, that is either contemporaneous, antecedent, or subsequent, in relation to that of the main action.

1742. Action contemporaneous with the main action is expressed by a present or imperfect subjunctive. Action antecedent is expressed by a perfect or a pluperfect subjunctive. Action subsequent is expressed by the future participle with a form of #sim# or of #essem#.

1743. Subordinate sentences with verbs of will or aim, with verbs of fear, also final sentences and many consecutive sentences are expressed in Latin as contemporaneous with the main action, not as subsequent to it.

1744. II. The main and subordinate sentences may express wholly different spheres of time by tenses not commonly used together, when the thought requires it. In such cases the tense of the subordinate member is called Independent, like the analogous tenses of the indicative (1738).

1745. The use of subordinate subjunctive tenses relatively to the main tense, or what is commonly called the Sequence of Tenses, is as follows:

TENSE SUBORDINATE TO AN INDICATIVE.

1746. (1.) The present, or perfect subjunctive, or the future participle with a form of #sim#, is used in sentences subordinate to a primary tense (1717): as,

(a.) #tē hortor, ut Rōmam pergās#, QFr. 1, 3, 4, I urge you to repair to Rome. #cūrā, ut quam prīmum veniās#, Fam. 4, 10, 1, mind that you come as soon as you can. #ego quid accēperim sciō#, RA. 58, I know what I have received. #quam sum sollicitus quidnam futūrum sit#, Att. 8, 6, 3, how anxious I am to know what in the world is to come. (b.) #in eum locum rēs dēducta est ut salvī esse nequeāmus#, Fam. 16, 12, 1, to such a pass has it come that we cannot be saved. #an oblītus es quid initiō dīxerim?# DN. 2, 2, have you possibly forgotten what I said at the start? #quoniam in eam ratiōnem vītae nōs fortūna dēdūxit, ut sempiternus sermō dē nōbīs futūrus sit, caveāmus#, QFr. 1, 1, 38, since fortune has set us in such a walk of life that we are to be eternally talked about, let us be on our guard. (c.) #efficiam, ut intellegātis#, Clu. 7, I will see that you understand. #dīcent quid statuerint#, V. 2, 175, they will tell what they decided on. #quae fuerit causa, mox vīderō#, Fin. 1, 35, what the reason was I won’t consider till by and by (1630). #tē disertum putābō, sī ostenderis quō modō sīs eōs inter sīcāriōs dēfēnsūrus#, Ph. 2, 8, I shall think you a most effective speaker, if you show how you are going to defend them on the charge of murder.

1747. (2.) The imperfect, or pluperfect subjunctive, or the future participle with a form of #essem#, is used in sentences subordinate to a secondary tense (1717): as,

(a.) #hīs rēbus fīēbat, ut minus lātē vagārentur#, 1, 2, 4, so it came to pass that they did not roam round much. #docēbat, ut tōtīus Galliae prīncipātum Aeduī tenuissent#, 1, 43, 6, he showed how the Aeduans had had the mastery over all Gaul. #Flaccus quid aliī posteā factūrī essent scīre nōn poterat#, Fl. 33, Flaccus could not tell what other people would do in the future. (b.) #is cīvitātī persuāsit, ut dē fīnibus suīs cum omnibus cōpiīs exīrent#, 1, 2, 1, this man prevailed on his community to emigrate from their place of abode, bag and baggage. #quās rēs in Hispāniā gessisset, disseruit#, L. 28, 38, 2, he discoursed on his military career in Spain. #an Lacedaemoniī quaesīvērunt num sē esset morī prohibitūrus?# TD. 5, 42, did the Spartans ask whether he was going to prevent them from dying? (c.) #Ariovistus tantōs sibī̆ spīritūs sūmpserat, ut ferendus nōn vidērētur#, 1, 33, 5, Ariovistus had put on such high and mighty airs that he seemed intolerable. #hīc pāgus, cum domō exīsset patrum nostrōrum memoriā, L. Cassium cōnsulem interfēcerat#, 1, 12, 5, this canton, sallying out from home in our fathers’ recollection, had put Cassius, the consul, to death. #illud quod mihī̆ extrēmum prōposueram, cum essem de bellī genere dictūrus#, IP. 17, the point I had reserved till the end, when I was going to discourse on the character of the war.

1748. With any kind of a secondary main sentence, a subordinate general truth usually stands in the past, contrary to the English idiom: as,

#hīc cōgnōscī licuit, quantum esset hominibus praesidī in animī firmitūdine#, Caes. C. 3, 28, 4, here there was a chance to learn what a bulwark man has in courage. In the direct form #est# (1588).

1749. A subsequent relation is sometimes loosely suggested by a simple subjunctive; necessarily so with verbs which lack the future participle, or which are in the passive: as, #sum sollicitus quidnam dē prōvinciīs dēcernātur#, Fam. 2, 11, 1, I am anxious to see what in the world may be decided on about the provinces.

1750. In a single example, a future perfect of resulting state is represented in subordination as follows: #nec dubitō quīn cōnfecta iam rēs futūra sit#, Fam. 6, 12, 3, and I have no doubt the job will soon be completely finished up, directly, #sine dubiō cōnfecta iam rēs erit#.

1751. (1.) An imperfect subjunctive expressing a particular past result, cause, reason, &c., is sometimes connected with a main general present tense (1744): as,

#cuius praeceptī tanta vīs est, ut ea Delphicō deō tribuerētur#, Leg. 1, 58, the power of this rule is so mighty that it was ascribed to the Delphic god. #cuius rē̆ī tanta est vīs, ut Ithacam illam sapientissimus vir immortālitātī antepōneret#, DO. 1, 196, so irresistible is the power of this sentiment that the shrewdest of men loved his little Ithaca better than life eternal; of Ulixes. #laudantur ōrātōrēs veterēs quod crīmina dīluere dīlūcidē solērent#, V. 2, 191, the orators of old are admired ‘because they were always clear in explaining accusations away.’ The secondary sequence is also sometimes exceptionally used with ordinary presents.

1752. (2.) The present of vivid narration is commonly regarded as a secondary tense, especially when the subordinate sentence precedes, and regularly with narrative #cum#. Sometimes however as a primary tense: as,

(a.) #servīs suīs Rubrius, ut iānuam clauderent, imperat#, V. 1, 66, Rubrius orders his slaves to shut the front door. #Aeduī, cum sē dēfendere nōn possent, lēgātōs ad Caesarem mittunt#, 1, 11, 2, the Aeduans, finding they could not defend themselves, send some envoys to Caesar. (b.) #hortātur, ut arma capiant#, 7, 4, 4, he urges them to fly to arms. Sometimes the two sequences stand side by side, or a subjunctive of primary sequence has itself a second subordinate subjunctive of secondary sequence. Either sequence is used with the present of quotation also (1592).

1753. (3.) Subordinate sentences of past action conceivable, of action non-occurrent, or dubitative questions of the past, retain their past unchanged with a main primary tense: as,

(a.) #vērī simile nōn est, ut ille monumentīs maiōrum pecūniam antepōneret#, V. 4, 11, it is not conceivable that the man would have thought more of money than of his heirlooms, i.e. #nōn antepōneret# (1559). (b.) #omnia sīc erunt inlūstria, ut ad ea probanda tōtam Siciliam testem adhibēre possem#, V. 5, 139, everything will be so self-evident, that I could use all Sicily as a witness to prove it (1560). #taceō, nē haec quidem conligō, quae fortasse valērent apud iūdicem#, Lig. 30, I’ll hold my tongue, I won’t even gather together the following arguments, which might perhaps be telling with a juryman (1560). (c.) #quaerō ā tē cūr C. Cornēlium nōn dēfenderem#, Vat. 5, I put the question to you, why I was not to defend Cornelius (1563).

1754. A final subjunctive subordinate to a perfect definite sometimes has the primary sequence, but more commonly the secondary: as,

(a.) #etiamne ad subsellia cum ferrō vēnistis, ut hīc iugulētis Sex. Rōscium?# RA. 32, have you actually come to the court-room knife in hand, to cut Roscius’s throat on the spot? (b.) #nē īgnōrārētis esse aliquās pācis vōbīs condiciōnēs, ad vōs vēnī#, L. 21, 13, 2, I have come to you to let you know that you have some chances of peace. #addūxī hominem in quō satis facere exterīs nātiōnibus possētis#, V. a. pr. 2, I have brought up a man in whose person you can give satisfaction to foreign nations.

1755. An independent present or perfect subjunctive may be put with a main secondary tense (1744):

1756. (1.) In relative, causal, or concessive sentences: as,

#cum in cēterīs colōniīs duūm virī appellentur, hī sē praetōrēs appellārī volēbant#, Agr. 2, 93, though they are styled in all other colonies The Two, these men wanted to be styled praetors. #quī adulēscēns nihil umquam nisi sevērissimē et gravissimē fēcerit, is eā aetāte saltāvit?# D. 27, did the man who in his growing years invariably behaved with austere propriety, dance and caper round in his old age? #hōc tōtō proeliō cum ab hōrā septimā ad vesperum pugnātum sit, āversum hostem vidēre nēmō potuit#, 1, 26, 2, during the whole of this engagement, though the fighting went on from an hour past noon till evening, nobody could catch a glimpse of an enemy’s back.

1757. (2.) Often in consecutive sentences: as,

(a.) #in prōvinciā Siciliā, quam iste per triennium ita vexāvit, ut ea restituī in antīquum statum nūllō modō possit#, V. a. pr. 12, in the province of Sicily, which the defendant so effectually tormented three years running that it cannot be restored at all to its original estate. #priōrēs ita rēgnārunt, ut omnēs conditōrēs partium certē urbis numerentur#, L. 2, 1, 2, such was the administration of the monarchs preceding, that they are all accounted founders of parts at least of Rome. (b.) The perfect subjunctive sometimes represents the time of the perfect definite: as, #tantum in aerārium pecūniae invēxit, ut ūnīus imperātōris praeda fīnem attulerit tribūtōrum#, Off. 2, 76, he conveyed such quantities of money into the treasury, that the plunder turned in by a single commander has put an end to tribute for good and all. #eō usque sē praebēbat patientem atque impigrum, ut eum nēmō umquam in equō sedentem vīderit#, V. 5, 27, he showed himself so indefatigably active that no human being has ever seen him astride a horse. Sometimes the time of the historical perfect: as, #temporis tanta fuit exiguitās, ut ad galeās induendās tempus dēfuerit#, 2, 21, 5, so scant was the time that they had not time to put their helmets on. #hīc ita quiēvit, ut eō tempore omnī Neāpolī fuerit#, Sull. 17, this man held so quiet that he staid all that time at Neapolis. In Cicero a negative subordinate perfect is not uncommon; an affirmative one is very rare. This construction is more common in Nepos, Livy, and Tacitus, and is the prevalent one in Suetonius.

1758. The imperfect only is used in complementary sentences with past verbs of happening, such as #accidit#, #contigit#, &c. (1966).

1759. When two consecutive subjunctives are coordinated, they usually have the same tense. Sometimes however the first is perfect and the second imperfect, or the reverse.

1760. (3.) An indirect question in the present or perfect sometimes retains its original tense with a main secondary tense (1744): as,

#hīc quantum in bellō fortūna possit, cōgnōscī potuit#, 6, 35, 2, here there was a chance to see how potent dame Fortùne is in war. Here #possit# represents #potest# of a general truth (1588); but usually general truths have the regular sequence (1748). #cūr abstinuerit spectāculō ipse, variē trahēbant#, Ta. 1, 76, why the emperor did not go to the show, they accounted for in this way and that, representing #cūr abstinuit? quō cōnsiliō redierim initiō audīstis, post estis expertī#, Ph. 10, 8, what my idea was in coming back, you learned first by hearsay, afterwards by personal observation, representing #quō cōnsiliō rediī?#

1761. The subordinate subjunctive has sometimes the sequence of the nearest verb, instead of that of its proper verb: as, #cūrāvit, quod semper in rē pūblicā tenendum est, nē plūrimum valeant plūrimī#, RP. 2, 39, he arranged it so, a point which is always to be held fast in government, that the greatest number may not have the greatest power.

[Erratum: 1750 ... directly, #sine dubiō cōnfecta iam rēs erit#. directly.]

TENSE SUBORDINATE TO A SUBJUNCTIVE.

1762. When the leading verb is a subjunctive, the present is regarded as primary, and the imperfect and pluperfect as secondary: as,

(a.) #exspectō eius modī litterās ex quibus nōn quid fīat, sed quid futūrum sit sciam#, Att. 5, 12, 2, I am expecting a letter of a kind to let me know not what is going on, but what will be going on. #quid prōfēcerim faciās mē velim certiōrem#, Fam. 7, 10, 3, how far I have succeeded I wish you would let me know. (b.) #quālis esset nātūra montis quī cōgnōscerent mīsit#, 1, 21, 1, he sent some scouts to find out what the character of the mountain was. #quid mē prohibēret Epicūrēum esse, sī probārem quae dīceret#, Fin. 1, 27, what would prevent me from being an Epicurean, if I accepted what he said? #quae sī bis bīna quot essent didicisset Epicūrus, certē nōn dīceret#, DN. 2, 49, Epicurus would certainly not say this, if he had ever been taught how much twice two is (1748).

1763. An imperfect subjunctive of action non-occurrent at the present time has occasionally the present sequence: as, #mīrārēris, sī interessēs, quā patientiā valētūdinem toleret#, Plin. Ep. 1, 22, 7, you would be amazed to find, if you were with him, with what dogged endurance he bears up under his illness. But the secondary sequence is far more common.

1764. (1.) The perfect subjunctive in independent main sentences of prohibition (1551) or of action conceivable (1558) is regarded as a primary tense: as,

#nē dubitārīs quīn id mihī̆ futūrum sit antīquius#, Att. 7, 3, 2, don’t entertain any doubt that this course will be preferable in my eyes. #quid nōn sit citius quam quid sit dīxerim#, DN. 1, 60, I could sooner tell what is not, than what is.

1765. (2.) In subordinate sentences, the perfect subjunctive has the main sequence when it represents the indicative perfect definite, and the secondary when it represents the indicative historical perfect or the imperfect: as,

(a.) #nēmō ferē vestrūm est, quīn, quem ad modum captae sint Syrācūsae saepe audierit#, V. 4, 115, there is hardly a man of your number but has heard over and over again how Syracuse was taken. (b.) #quā rē acciderit ut id suspicārēre quod scrībis nesciō#, Fam. 2, 16, 1, how it came to pass that you suspected what you write, I can’t imagine.

TENSE SUBORDINATE TO A NOUN OF THE VERB.

1766. (1.) A subjunctive subordinate to one of the nouns of the verb, except the perfect infinitive or the perfect participle, follows the sequence of the verb: as,

#dēsinō quaerere cūr ēmerīs#, V. 4, 10, I cease to ask why you bought. #nēminem tam āmentem fore putāvērunt, ut emeret argentum#, V. 4, 9, they did not dream anybody would be crazy enough to buy plate. #secūrī percussī, adeō torpentibus metū quī aderant, ut nē gemitus quidem exaudīrētur#, L. 28, 29, 11, they were beheaded, everybody there being so completely paralyzed with fear that not even a groan could be heard. #Q. Fabius Pīctor Delphōs missus est scīscitātum, quibus precibus deōs possent plācāre#, L. 22, 57, 5, Fabius Pictor was sent to Delphi to find out by what sort of prayers they could get the ear of the gods. #cupīdō incessit animōs iuvenum scīscitandī ad quem eōrum rēgnum esset ventūrum#, L. 1, 56, 10, the youths were possessed with a desire to find out to which one of their number the throne was to fall.

1767. (2.) With a perfect infinitive or perfect participle, the subordinate subjunctive may be in the imperfect or pluperfect, even with a primary leading verb: as,

#satis mihī̆ multa verba fēcisse videor, quā rē esset hoc bellum necessārium#, IP. 27, I fancy I have said enough to show why this war is unavoidable. #hunc istī aiunt, cum taurum immolāvisset, mortuum concidisse#, Br. 43, your gentlemen say that this man, after sacrificing a bull, tumbled down dead. #viātor bene vestītus causa grassātōrī fuisse dīcētur cūr ab eō spoliārētur#, Fat. 34, a well-dressed traveller will be said to have been a temptation for a footpad to rob him. #versābor in rē saepe quaesītā, suffrāgia clam an palam ferre melius esset#, Leg. 3, 33, I shall be working on a question that has often been put, whether it was better to vote secretly or openly.

1768. The sequence with a perfect infinitive is, however, often primary: as, #hīc sī fīnem faciam dīcendī, satis iūdicī fēcisse videar cūr secundum Rōscium iūdicārī dēbeat#, RC. 14, if I should stop speaking here, I should feel I had made it plain enough to the court why a judgement should be rendered for Roscius.

1769. The secondary sequence is used with #meminī#, remember, even when it has the present infinitive (2220): as, #L. Metellum meminī ita bonīs esse vīribus extrēmō tempore aetātis, ut adulēscentiam nōn requīreret#, CM. 30, I can remember Metellus’s being so good and strong in the very last part of his life that he did not feel the want of youth.

1770. Sentences with a subjunctive due to another subjunctive or to an infinitive are put as follows:

1771. (1.) Sentences of relative time express contemporaneous, antecedent, and subsequent action like corresponding indicative sentences, with the appropriate sequence: as,

#vereor, nē, dum minuere velim labōrem, augeam#, Leg. 1, 12, I am afraid that while I wish to make the work less, I may make it more. #crocodīlōs dīcunt, cum in terrā partum ēdiderint, obruere ōva#, DN. 2, 129, they say that the crocodile, after laying on land, buries her eggs. #dīcēbam quoad metuerēs, omnia tē prōmissūrum: simul ac timēre desīssēs, similem tē futūrum tuī#, Ph. 2, 89, I said that as long as you were afraid, you would promise everything; the moment you ceased to fear, you would be just like yourself. #cōnstituērunt ea, quae ad proficīscendum pertinērent, comparāre#, 1, 3, 1, they resolved to get such things ready as were necessary for the march. #erat scrīptum: nisi domum reverterētur, sē capitis eum damnātūrōs#, N. 4, 3, 4, it stood written that, if he did not come back home, they would condemn him to death (direct form #nisi revertēris, damnābimus#). #lēgātī vēnērunt, quī sē ea, quae imperāsset, factūrōs pollicērentur#, 4, 22, 1, some envoys came, to engage to do what he ordered (direct form #quae imperāris, faciēmus#). #Venetī cōnfīdēbant Rōmānōs neque ūllam facultātem habēre nāvium, neque eōrum locōrum ubī̆ bellum gestūrī essent portūs nōvisse#, 3, 19, 6, the Venetans felt assured that the Romans had not any proper supply of ships, and were not acquainted with the ports in the places where they were to fight.

1772. (2.) Sentences with independent time retain the independent time in the subjunctive in primary sequence (1744); in secondary sequence the present becomes imperfect, and the perfect becomes pluperfect: as,

(a.) #quamquam opīniō est, eum quī multīs annīs ante hōs fuerit, Pīsistratum, multum valuisse dīcendō#, Br. 27, though there is an impression that the man who lived years and years before these people, Pisistratus, was a very telling orator (direct form, #quī fuit#, 1738). #dīcitur, posteā quam vēnerit, paucīs diēbus esse mortuus#, Clu. 175, he is said to have died a few days after he came (1739). (b.) #cōgnōvit Suēbōs, posteā quam pontem fierī comperissent, nūntiōs in omnēs partēs dīmīsisse#, 4, 19, 2, he ascertained that after the Suebans had learned of the building of the bridge, they had sent out messengers in every direction.

THE INDIRECT QUESTION.

1773. The subjunctive is used in indirect questions or exclamations.

Thus, when the direct question, #quī scīs#, how do you know? is subordinated to a main sentence, such as #quaerō#, I ask, the #scīs# becomes #sciās#: #quaerō quī sciās#, RA. 59, I ask how you know. Questions or exclamations thus subordinated are called Indirect (1723). In English, indirect questions are usually characterized simply by the position of the words, the subject standing before the verb.

1774. The indirect question is one of the commonest of constructions. It depends on verbs or expressions meaning not only ask, but also tell, inform, ascertain, see, hear, know, consider, deliberate, doubt, wonder, fear, &c., &c.

YES OR NO QUESTIONS.

1775. Indirect Yes or No questions are introduced by the same interrogative particles that are used in direct questions (1503). But in indirect questions, #num# and #-ne# are used without any essential difference, in the sense of whether, if. #nōnne# is used thus only by Cicero, and by him only with #quaerō#: as,

#quaeris num disertus sit?# Planc. 62, do you ask whether he is a good speaker? #quaesīvī cōgnōsceretne sīgnum#, C. 3, 10, I asked if he recognized the seal. #quaerō nōnne tibī̆ faciendum idem sit#, Fin. 3, 13, I ask whether you ought not to do the same. #vidēte num dubitandum vōbīs sit#, IP. 19, consider whether you ought to have any hesitation.

1776. The combinations #-ne . . . -ne#, and #an . . . an#, introducing two separate questions, are rare; #-ne . . . -ne# is mostly confined to poetry. In a few instances such questions can hardly be distinguished from alternatives.

1777. A conditional protasis with #sī#, if, to see if, or #sī forte#, if perchance, sometimes takes the place of an indirect question in expressions or implications of trial, hope, or expectation: as, #ībō, vīsam sī domīst#, T. Hau. 170, I’ll go and see if he’s at home. Usually with the subjunctive: as, #exspectābam, sī quid scrīberēs#, Att. 16, 2. 4, I was waiting to see whether you would write anything. #circumfunduntur hostēs, sī quem aditum reperīre possent#, 6, 37, 4, the enemy came streaming round, to see if they could find any way of getting in.

ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS.

1778. Indirect alternative questions are introduced like direct questions (1519). But when the second member is negative, it has oftener #necne# than #an nōn#: as,

#hoc quaerāmus, vērum sit an falsum#, Clu. 124, let us ask this question, whether it is true or false. #quaesīvī ā Catilīnā in conventū fuisset, necne#, C. 2, 13, I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting or not. #permultum interest utrum perturbātiōne animī, an cōnsultō fīat iniūria#, Off. 1, 27, it makes a vast difference whether wrong be done in heat of passion, or with deliberate intent. #quaerō, eum Brūtīne similem mālīs an Antōniī#, Ph. 10, 5, I ask whether you would rather have him like Brutus or like Antony.

1779. An introductory #utrum# preceding an alternative question with #-ne# and #an# occurs a few times in Plautus and Cicero; #utrumne . . . an# occurs once in Cicero, and twice in Horace and Tacitus each; compare 1522. After #utrum#, a second alternative is sometimes suppressed, as in the direct question (1523).

1780. #-ne# in the second member only of an alternative question is rare, and not used by Caesar or Sallust: as, #sine sciam captīva māterne sim#, L. 2, 40, 5, let me know whether I am a captive or a mother.

1781. (1.) A few times in Plautus and Terence, the second member only of an alternative question is expressed with #quī sciō an?# or #quī scīs an?# equivalent to perhaps: as, #quī scīs an quae iubeam faciat?# T. Eu. 790, perhaps she’ll do as I direct. Horace has once #quī scīs an#, AP. 462, in the sense of perhaps, and once #quis scit an#, 4, 7, 17, in the sense of perhaps not.

1782. (2.) The second member only of an alternative question is often expressed after #haud sciō an#, I don’t know but, possibly, perhaps, with #nōn#; #nēmō#, #nūllus#, &c., if the sentence is negative: as,

#haud sciō an fierī possit#, V. 3, 162, I don’t know but it is possible. Similarly, though not often, with #nesciō an#, #haud sciam an#, #dubitō an#, #dubitārim an#, #dubium an#, #incertum an#, &c.: as, #ēloquentiā nesciō an habuisset parem nēminem#, Br. 126, in oratory I fancy he would have had no peer. This use, in which #haud sciō an# becomes adverbial, and the subjunctive approaches closely that of modest assertion, is principally confined to Cicero. In later Latin, #haud sciō an#, &c., sometimes has a negative sense, I don’t know whether, with #ūllus#, &c.

1783. From Curtius on, #an# is used quite like #num# or #-ne#, in a single indirect question, without implication of alternatives.

1784. Two alternatives are rarely used without any interrogative particles at all: as, #velit nōlit scīre difficile est#, QFr. 3, 8, 4, will he nill he, it is hard to know, i.e. whether he will or not. Compare 1518.

[Errata: 1778 ... Off. 1, 27 . invisible 1782 ... #ēloquentiā nesciō an habuisset parem nēminem#, . for ,]

PRONOUN QUESTIONS.

1785. Indirect pronoun questions are introduced by the same pronominal words that are used in direct pronoun questions (1526): as,

#cōgnōscit, quae gerantur#, 5, 48, 2, he ascertains what is going on. #vidētis ut omnēs dēspiciat#, RA. 135, you can see how he looks down on everybody. #quid agās et ut tē oblectēs scīre cupiō#, QFr. 2, 3, 7, I am eager to know how you do and how you are amusing yourself.

ORIGINAL SUBJUNCTIVES.

1786. Questions already in the subjunctive may also become indirect.

Thus, #quō mē vertam?# V. 5, 2, which way shall I turn? (1563) becomes indirect in #quō mē vertam nesciō#, Clu. 4, I don’t know which way I am to turn. #quid faciam?# H. S. 2, 1, 24, what shall I do? (1563) becomes indirect in #quid faciam, praescrībe#, H. S. 2, 1, 5, lay down the law, what I’m to do. #neque satis cōnstābat quid agerent#, 3, 14, 3, and it was not at all clear what they had best do. #dubitāvī hōsce hominēs emerem an nōn emerem#, Pl. Cap. 455, I had my doubts, whether to buy these men or not to buy (1564).

INDICATIVE QUESTIONS APPARENTLY INDIRECT.

1787. In old Latin, the indicative occurs often in connections where the subjunctive would be used in classical Latin: as,

#dīc, quis est#, Pl. B. 558, say, who is it? whereas #dīc quis sit# would mean say who it is. In such cases the question is not subordinate, but coordinate, usually with an imperative (1697), or with some such expression as #tē rogō#, #volō scīre#, #scī̆n#, or the like. Such coordination occurs exceptionally in the classical period: as, #et vidē, quam conversa rēs est#, Att. 8, 13, 2, and observe, how everything is changed. #adspice, ut ingreditur#, V. 6, 856, see, how he marches off.

1788. The indicative is used with #nesciō# followed by a pronominal interrogative, when this combination is equivalent to an indefinite pronoun or adverb: as,

#prōdit nesciō quis#, T. Ad. 635, there’s some one coming out. This is a condensed form for #prōdit nesciō quis sit#, there’s coming out I don’t know who it is, the real question, #sit#, being suppressed, and #nesciō quis# acquiring the meaning of #aliquis#, somebody. Similarly #nesciō# with #unde#, #ubī̆#, #quandō#, #quot#, &c., in writers of all ages. Plautus uses #sciō quid#, #sciō ut#, &c., somewhat in this way once or twice with the indicative: as, #scio quid agō#, B. 78, I’m doing I know what.

1789. This combination often expresses admiration, contempt, or regret: as, #contendō tum illud nesciō quid praeclārum solēre existere#, Arch. 15, I maintain that in such a combination the beau ideal of perfection always bursts into being. #paulum nesciō quid#, RA. 115 an unconsidered trifle. #dīvīsa est sententia, postulante nesciō quō#, Mil. 14. the question was divided, on motion of what’s his name. #nesciō quō pactō#, C. 31, unfortunately.

1790. The indicative is used in like manner with many expressions, originally exclamatory, which have become adverbs: such are #immāne quantum#, prodigiously, #mīrum quantum#, wonderfully, #sānē quam#, immensely, &c., &c. See 712 and the dictionary.

1791. Relative constructions often have the appearance of indirect questions, and care must be taken not to confound the two. Thus, #ut# is a relative in #hanc rem, ut factast, ēloquar#, Pl. Am. 1129, I’ll tell this thing as it occurred, i.e. not how it occurred. #nōstī quae sequontur#, TD. 4, 77, you know the things that follow, i.e. not what follows.

THE RELATIVE SENTENCE.

1792. Relative sentences are introduced by relative words, the most important of which is the pronoun #quī#, who, which, or that. The relative pronoun may be in any case required by the context, and may represent any of the three persons.

1793. The relative adverbs, #ubī̆#, #quō#, #unde#, often take the place of a relative pronoun with a preposition, chiefly in designations of place, and regularly with town and island names. Less frequently of persons, though #unde# is not uncommonly thus used.

1794. In a wider sense, sentences introduced by any relative conjunctive particle, such as #ubī̆#, when, are sometimes called relative sentences. Such sentences, however, are more conveniently treated separately, under the head of the several conjunctive particles.

1795. (1.) The relative pronoun, like the English relative who, which, was developed from the interrogative. Originally, the relative sentence precedes, and the main sentence follows, just as in question and answer.

Thus, #quae mūtat, ea corrumpit#, Fin. 1, 21, what he changes, that he spoils, is a modification of the older question and answer: #quae mūtat? ea corrumpit#, what does he change? that he spoils. With adjective relatives, the substantive is expressed in both members, in old or formal Latin: as, #quae rēs apud nostrōs nōn erant, eārum rērum nōmina nōn poterant esse ūsitāta#, Cornif. 4, 10, what things did not exist among our countrymen, of those things the names could not have been in common use.

1796. (2.) The relative sentence may also come last. As early as Plautus, this had become the prevalent arrangement, and the substantive of the main sentence is called the Antecedent: as,

#ultrā eum locum, quō in locō Germānī cōnsēderant, castrīs idōneum locum dēlēgit#, 1, 49, 1, beyond the place in which place the Germans had established themselves, he selected a suitable spot for his camp. The three words #diēs#, #locus#, and #rēs#, are very commonly expressed thus both in the antecedent and the relative sentence. This repetition is rare in Livy, and disappears after his time.

1797. In old Latin, rarely in classical poetry, a sentence sometimes begins with an emphasized antecedent put before the relative, and in the case of the relative: as, #urbem quam statuō vostra est#, V. 1, 573, the city which I found is yours; for #quam urbem statuō, ea vostra est#. In the main sentence, #is#, #hīc#, #iste#, or #ille#, is often used; less frequently, as in this example, an appellative.

1798. The main sentence often has the determinative or demonstrative, or the substantive, or both omitted: as,

(a.) #ubī̆ intellēxit diem īnstāre, quō diē frūmentum mīlitibus mētīrī oportēret#, 1, 16, 5, when he saw the day was drawing nigh, on which day the grain was to be measured out to his men. (b.) #quōs āmīsimus cīvīs, eōs Mārtis vīs perculit#, Marc. 17, what fellow-citizens we have lost, those the fury of the War-god smote down. (c.) #Sabīnus quōs tribūnōs mīlitum circum sē habēbat, sē sequī iubet#, 5, 37, 1, Sabinus ordered what tribunes of the soldiers he had about him, to follow him.

1799. The antecedent is often omitted when it is indefinite, or is obvious from the context: as,

#sunt quī mīrentur#, V. 1, 6, there be who wonder. #dēlēgistī quōs Rōmae relinquerēs#, C. 1, 9, you picked out people to leave in Rome. #quod periīt, periīt#, Pl. Cist. 703, gone is gone. #Caesar cōgnōvit Cōnsidium, quod nōn vīdisset, prō vīsō sibī̆ renūntiāvisse#, 1, 22, 4, Caesar ascertained that Considius had reported to him as seen what he had not seen.

1800. An ablative or nominative abstract in the relative sentence sometimes represents an ablative of manner or quality omitted from the main sentence: as, #quā prūdentiā es, nihil tē fugiet#, Fam. 11, 13, 1, with what sense you have, nothing will elude you, i.e. #eā quā es prūdentiā, nihil tē fugiet. spērō, quae tua prūdentia est, tē valēre#, Att. 6, 9, 1, I hope that, with your characteristic caution, you are well. #at Āiāx, quō animō trāditur, mīlliēs oppetere mortem quam illa perpetī māluisset#, Off. 1, 113, Ajax, on the contrary, with his traditional vehemence, would have chosen rather to die a thousand deaths than to submit to such indignities. This ellipsis begins with Cicero, and is found a few times only in later writers.

AGREEMENT OF THE RELATIVE.

1801. The agreement of the relative has already been spoken of in a general way (1082-1098). For convenience, however, it may be set forth here more explicitly.

1802. A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender and number, but its case depends on the construction of the sentence in which it stands: as,

#Hippiās glōriātus est ānulum quem habēret, pallium quō amictus, soccōs quibus indūtus esset, sē suā manū cōnfēcisse#, DO. 3, 127, Hippias prided himself that he had made with his own hand the ring that he wore, the cloak in which he was wrapped, and the slippers that he had on. This holds of all relatives with inflected form, such as #quīcumque#, #quālis#, #quantus#, &c., &c.

1803. When the relative refers to two or more antecedents of different gender, its gender is determined like that of a predicate adjective (1087): as,

#mātrēs et līberī, quōrum aetās misericordiam vestram requīrēbat#, V. 5, 129, mothers and babies, whose years would appeal to your sympathy (1088). #ōtium atque dīvitiae, quae prīma mortālēs putant#, S. C. 36, 4, peace and prosperity, which the sons of men count chiefest of blessings (1089). #fortūna, quam nēmō ab incōnstantiā et temeritāte sēiunget, quae digna nōn sunt deō#, DN. 3, 61, fortune, which nobody will distinguish from caprice and hazard, qualities which are not befitting god (1089). Sometimes the relative agrees with the nearest substantive: as, #eās frūges atque frūctūs, quōs terra gignit#, DN. 2, 37, the crops, and the fruits of the trees that earth produces.

1804. The relative is sometimes regulated by the sense, and not by the form of the antecedent: as,

#equitātum praemittit quī videant#, 1, 15, 1, he sends the cavalry ahead, for them to see (1095). #ūnus ex eō numerō, quī ad caedem parātī erant#, S. I. 35, 6, one of the number that were ready to do murder (1095). #duo prōdigia, quōs improbitās tribūnō cōnstrictōs addīxerat#, Sest. 38, a pair of monstrosities, whom their depravity had delivered over in irons to the tribune. #scrība pontificis, quōs nunc minōrēs pontificēs appellant#, L. 22, 57, 3, a clerk of the pontiff, which clerks they call nowadays lesser pontiffs, i.e. #quōs scrībās. Vēiēns bellum exortum, quibus Sabīnī arma coniūnxerant#, L. 2, 53, 1, a Vejan war broke out, with whom the Sabines had allied themselves, i.e. #bellum cum Vēientibus.#

1805. A relative referring to a proper name and explanatory appellative combined, may take the gender of either: as, #flūmine Rhēnō, quī agrum Helvētium ā Germānīs dīvidit#, 1, 2, 3, by the river Rhine, which is the boundary between Helvetians and Germans. #ad flūmen Scaldem quod īnfluit in Mosam#, 6, 33, 3, to the river Scheldt, that empties itself into the Maas.

1806. With verbs of indeterminate meaning (1035), the relative pronoun sometimes agrees with the predicate substantive: as, #Thēbae ipsae, quod Boeōtiae caput est#, L. 42, 44, 3, Thebes itself, which is the capital of Boeotia. Often, however, with the antecedent: as, #flūmen quod appellātur Tamesis#, 5, 11, 8, the river which is called the Thames.

1807. When the relative is subject, its verb agrees with the person of the antecedent: as,

#haec omnia is fēcī, quī sodālis Dolābellae eram#, Fam. 12, 14, 7, all this I did, I that was Dolabella’s bosom friend. #inīquos es, quī mē tacēre postulēs#, T. Hau. 1011, thou art unfair, expecting me to hold my tongue. So also when the antecedent is implied in a possessive: as, #cum tū nostrā, quī remānsissēmus, caede tē contentum esse dīcēbās#, C. 1, 7, when you said you were satisfied with murdering us, who had staid behind.

1808. For an accusative of the relative with an ablative antecedent the ablative is rarely used: as, #notante iūdice quō nōstī populō#, H. S. 1, 6, 15, the judge condemning--thou know’st who--the world. This represents the older interrogative conception: #notante iūdice--quō?--nōstī, populō# (1795).

1809. A new substantive added in explanation of an antecedent is put after the relative, and in the same case: as, #ad Amānum contendī, quī mōns erat hostium plēnus#, Att. 5, 20, 3, I pushed on to Amanus, a mountain that was packed with the enemy. This use begins with Cicero; but from Livy on, the explanatory word is also put as an appositive, with the relative following: as, #Decius Magius, vir cui nihil dēfuit#, L. 23, 7, 4, Magius, a man that lacked nothing.

1810. An adjective, especially a comparative, superlative, or numeral, explanatory of a substantive in the main sentence, is often put in the relative sentence: as,

#palūs quae perpetua intercēdēbat Rōmānōs ad īnsequendum tardābat#, 7, 26, 2, a morass, that lay unbroken between, hindered the Romans from pursuit.

1811. When reference is made to the substance of a sentence, the neuter #quod# is used, or more commonly #id quod#, either usually in parenthesis: as,

#intellegitur, id quod iam ante dīxī, imprūdente L. Sūllā scelera haec fierī#, RA. 25, it is plain, as I have said once before, that these crimes are committed without the cognizance of Sulla. In continuations, #quae rēs#: as, #nāvēs removērī iussit, quae rēs māgnō ūsuī nostrīs fuit#, 4, 25, 1, he ordered the vessels to be withdrawn, a course which proved very advantageous for our people.

[Erratum: 1811 ... quae rēs māgnō text unchanged: word generally spelled “magn-” (see endnote on first edition)]

MOODS IN THE RELATIVE SENTENCE.

1812. The relative is sometimes equivalent to a conditional protasis. When thus used, it may have either the indicative or the subjunctive, as the sense requires: as,

(a.) #quod beātum est, nec habet nec exhibet cuiquam negōtium#, DN. 1, 85, whatsoever is blessed, has no trouble and makes none to anybody. #quisquis hūc vēnerit, pugnōs edet#, Pl. Am. 309, whoever comes this way, shall have a taste of fists (1796). #omnia mala ingerēbat quemquem adspexerat#, Pl. Men. 717, she showered all possible bad names on every man she saw (1795). (b.) #haec quī videat, nōnne cōgātur cōnfitērī deōs esse#, DN. 2, 12, whoso should see this would be forced, wouldn’t he? to admit the existence of gods. #quī vidēret, equom Trōiānum intrōductum dīceret#, V. 4, 52, whoever saw it would have sworn it was the Trojan horse brought in (1559).

THE INDICATIVE MOOD.

1813. The indicative is used in simple declarations or descriptions introduced by a relative: as,

#quem dī dīligunt, adulēscēns moritur#, Pl. B. 816, whom the gods love, dies young. #reliquī, qui domī mānsērunt, sē alunt#, 4, 1, 5, the others, that stay at home, support themselves (1736). #quōs labōrantēs cōnspexerat, hīs subsidia submittēbat#, 4, 26, 4, to such as he saw in stress, he kept sending reinforcements (1736). #tū quod volēs faciēs#, QFr. 3, 4, 5, do what you like (1735).

1814. The indicative is also used with indefinite relative pronouns and adverbs: as, #quidquid volt, valdē volt#, Att. 14, 1, 2, whatever he wants, he wants mightily. #quisquis est#, TD. 4, 37, whoever he may be. #quācumque iter fēcit#, V. 1, 44, wherever he made his way. In later writers the imperfect or pluperfect is often in the subjunctive: see 1730.

1815. An original indicative often becomes subjunctive, particularly in indirect discourse (1722); or by attraction (1728); or to indicate repeated action (1730). See also 1727 and 1731.

[Erratum: 1814 ... TD. 4, 37 4. 37]

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

1816. Relative pronoun sentences take the subjunctive to denote (1.) a purpose, (2.) a characteristic or result, (3.) a cause, reason, proof, or a concession.

SENTENCES OF PURPOSE.

1817. (1.) Relative sentences of purpose are equivalent to subjunctive sentences introduced by #ut#, in order that, to (1947): as,

#ea quī cōnficeret, C. Trebōnium relinquit#, 7, 11, 3, he left Trebonius to manage this. #quālis esset nātūra montis, quī cōgnōscerent, mīsit#, 1, 21, 1, he sent some scouts to ascertain what the character of the mountain was. #haec habuī dē amīcitiā quae dīcerem#, L. 104, this was what I had to say of friendship. Sentences of purpose are an extension of the subjunctive of desire (1540).

SENTENCES OF CHARACTERISTIC OR RESULT.

1818. (2.) Relative sentences of characteristic or result are equivalent to subjunctive sentences introduced by #ut#, so as to, so that (1947).

The main sentence sometimes has a word denoting character, such as #is#, #eius modī#, rarely #tālis#: as, #neque is sum, quī mortis perīculō terrear#, 5, 30, 2, but I am not the man to be scared by danger of death, no not I. Often, however, character is intimated by the mood alone: as, #secūtae sunt tempestātēs quae nostrōs in castrīs continērent#, 4, 34, 4, there followed a succession of storms to keep our people in camp. #quod miserandum sit labōrātis#, DN. 3, 62, you struggle away to a pitiable degree. Sentences of result are an extension of the subjunctive of action conceivable (1554).

1819. The subjunctive with #quī# is often used with #dignus#, #indignus#, or #idōneus#, usually with a form of #sum#: as, #Līviānae fābulae nōn satis dignae quae iterum legantur#, Br. 71, Livy’s plays are not worth reading twice. #nōn erit idōneus quī ad bellum mittātur#, IP. 66, he will not be a fit person to be sent to the war. Twice thus, #aptus#, once in Cicero, once in Ovid. In poetry and late prose these adjectives sometimes have the infinitive. #dignus# and #indignus# have also #ut# in Plautus, Livy, and Quintilian.

1820. Relative subjunctive sentences are sometimes coordinated by #et# or #sed#, with a substantive, adjective, or participle: as, #audāx et coetūs possit quae ferre virōrum#, J. 6, 399, a brazen minx, and one quite capable of facing crowds of men.

1821. Relative sentences after assertions or questions of existence or non-existence, usually take the subjunctive: as,

#sunt quī putent#, TD. 1, 18, there be people to think, there be who think, or some people think. #nēmō est quī nesciat#, Fam. 1, 4, 2, there is nobody that doesn’t know. #sapientia est ūna quae maestitiam pellat ex animīs#, Fin. 1, 43, wisdom is the only thing to drive sadness from the soul.

1822. Such expressions are: #est (exsistit, exortus est), quī#; #sunt (reperiuntur, nōn dēsunt), quī#; #nēmō est, quī#; #quis est, quī#; #sōlus# or #ūnus est, quī#; #est, nihil est, quod#; #quid est, quod?# #habeō, nōn habeō, nihil habeō, quod#, &c., &c. Indefinite subjects are sometimes used with these verbs: as, #multī#, #quīdam#, #nōnnūllī#, #aliī#, #paucī#; sometimes appellatives: as, #hominēs#, #philosophī#.

1823. The indicative, however, is not infrequently found in affirmative sentences, particularly in old Latin and in poetry: as, #sunt quōs sciō esse amīcōs#, Pl. Tri. 91, some men there are I know to be my friends. #interdum volgus rēctum videt, est ubi peccat#, H. E. 2, 1, 63, sometimes the world sees right, there be times when it errs. #sunt item, quae appellantur alcēs#, 6, 27, 1, then again there are what they call elks.

[Erratum: 1823 ... #sunt quōs sciō esse amīcōs#, Pl. Tri. 91 printed . for ,]

SENTENCES OF CAUSE OR CONCESSION.

1824. (3.) Relative sentences of cause, reason, proof, or of concession, are equivalent to subjunctive sentences introduced by #cum#, since, though (1877): as,

(a.) #hospes, quī nihil suspicārētur, hominem retinēre coepit#, V. 1, 64, the friend, suspecting nothing, undertook to hold on to the man. Often justifying the use of a single word: as, #ō fortūnāte adulēscēns, quī tuae virtūtis Homērum praecōnem invēnerīs#, Arch. 24, oh youth thrice-blest, with Homer trumpeter of thy prowess. #ad mē vēnit Hēraclīus, homo nōbilis, quī sacerdōs Iovis fuisset#, V. 4, 137, I had a call from Heraclius, a man of high standing, as is proved by his having been a priest of Jupiter. (b.) #Cicerō, quī mīlitēs in castrīs continuisset, quīnque cohortēs frūmentātum mittit#, 6, 36, 1, though Cicero had kept his men in camp, he sends five cohorts foraging.

1825. With #quī tamen#, however, the indicative is usual: as, #alter, quī tamen sē continuerat, nōn tenuit eum locum#, Sest. 114, the other, though he had observed a quiet policy, did not hold the place.

1826. Oftentimes, where a causal relation might be expected, a simple declaratory indicative is used: as,

#habeō senectūtī magnam grātiam, quae mihī̆ sermōnis aviditātem auxit#, CM. 46, I feel greatly indebted to age, which has increased my eagerness for conversation. Particularly thus in old Latin: as, #sed sumne ego stultus, quī rem cūrō pūblicam?# Pl. Per. 75, but am I not a fool, who bother with the common weal? Compared with: #sed ego sum īnsipientior, quī rēbus cūrem pūplicis#, Pl. Tri. 1057, but I’m a very fool, to bother with the common weal. Often of coincident action (1733): as, #stultē fēcī, quī hunc āmīsī#, Pl. MG. 1376, I’ve acted like a fool, in letting this man off.

1827. The causal relative is often introduced by #quippe#, less frequently by #ut#, or #ut pote#, naturally: as,

#‘convīvia cum patre nōn inībat;’ quippe quī nē in oppidum quidem nisi perrārō venīret#, RA. 52, ‘he never went to dinner-parties with his father;’ why, of course not, since he never went to a simple country town even, except very rarely. #dictātor tamen, ut quī magis animīs quam vīribus frētus ad certāmen dēscenderet, omnia circumspicere coepit#, L. 7, 14, 6, but the dictator, naturally, since he went into the struggle trusting to mind rather than muscle, now began to be all on the alert. With #quippe quī#, the indicative only is used by Sallust, and is preferred by Plautus and Terence. Cicero has, with one exception, the subjunctive, Tacitus and Nepos have it always. Livy has either mood. Not in Caesar. #ut quī# has the subjunctive. It occurs a few times in Plautus, Cicero, once in Caesar, oftenest in Livy. With the indicative once in Cicero, and once in Tacitus. #ut pote quī# has the subjunctive. It is used by Plautus, by Cicero, once with the indicative, by Sallust, and Catullus.

1828. The indefinite ablative #quī#, somehow, surely, sometimes follows #quippe# or #ut# in old Latin, in which case it must not be confounded with the relative: as, #quippe quī ex tē audīvī#, Pl. Am. 745, why, sure I’ve heard from you; it cannot be the relative here, as the speaker is a woman.

1829. The subjunctive is used in parenthetical sentences of restriction: as,

#quod sciam#, Pl. Men. 500; T. Ad. 641; RA. 17, to the best of my knowledge and belief. #quod sine molestiā tuā fīat#, Fam. 13, 23, 2, as far as may be without trouble to yourself. #quī# is often followed by #quidem#: as, #omnium ōrātōrum, quōs quidem ego cōgnōverim, acūtissimum iūdicō Q. Sertōrium#, Br. 180, of all orators, at least of all that I have made the acquaintance of myself, I count Sertorius the sharpest.

1830. The indicative, however, is used in #quod attinet ad#, as to, and usually with #quantum#, and with forms of #sum# and #possum#: as, #quod sine molestiā tuā facere poteris#, Att. 1, 5, 7, as far as you can without troubling yourself.

CORRELATIVE SENTENCES.

1831. Sentences are said to be correlative, when a relative pronoun or adverb has a corresponding determinative or demonstrative pronoun or adverb in the main sentence.

Thus, the ordinary correlative of #quī# is #is#, less frequently #hīc#, #ille#, #īdem#. Similarly #tot . . . quot# are used as correlatives; also #quō . . . eō#, #quantō . . . tantō#; #quantum . . . tantum#; #tam . . . quam#; #totiēns . . . quotiēns#; #tālis . . . quālis#; #ubī̆ . . . ibī̆#; #ut . . . ita#, #sīc#, or #item#; #cum ... tum#.

RELATIVE SENTENCES COMBINED.

(A.) COORDINATION OF A RELATIVE.

1832. (1.) When two coordinate relative sentences would have the second relative in the same case as the first, the second relative is usually omitted: as,

#Dumnorīgī quī prīncipātum optinēbat, ac maximē plēbī acceptus erat, persuādet#, 1, 3, 5, he prevails with Dumnorix, who held the headship, and was popular with the commons.

1833. (2.) When two coordinate relative sentences require two different cases of the relative, the relative is usually expressed with both, or else the second relative, which is usually nominative or accusative, is omitted, or #is#, #hīc#, #ille#, or #īdem#, is substituted for it: as,

(a.) #cūr loquimur dē eō hoste, quī iam fatētur sē esse hostem, et quem nōn timeō?# C. 2, 17, why am I talking about an enemy who admits himself he is an enemy, and whom I do not fear? (b.) #Bocchus cum peditibus, quōs Volux addūxerat, neque in priōre pugnā adfuerant#, S. I. 101, 5, Bocchus with the infantry whom Volux had brought up, and who had not been engaged in the first skirmish. (c.) #Viriāthus, quem C. Laelius frēgit, ferōcitātemque eius repressit#, Off. 2, 40, Viriathus, whom Laelius crushed, and curbed his fiery soul. This last use is chiefly limited to old Latin, Cicero, and Lucretius.

(B.) SUBORDINATION OF A RELATIVE.

1834. A sentence consisting of a main and a relative member, may be further modified by a more specific relative sentence: as,

#proximī sunt Germānīs quī trāns Rhēnum incolunt# (general), #quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt# (specific), 1, 1, 3, they are nearest to the Germans that live beyond the Rhine, with whom they carry on uninterrupted hostilities. #īdem artifex Cupīdinem fēcit illum quī est Thespiīs# (general), #propter quem Thespiae vīsuntur# (specific), V. 4, 4, the selfsame artist made the world-renowned Cupid at Thespiae, which is the attraction for tourists in Thespiae.

THE RELATIVE INTRODUCING A MAIN SENTENCE.

1835. Besides the ordinary use of the relative, to introduce a subordinate sentence, it is often used like #hīc#, or #is#, or like #et is#, #is autem#, #is enim#, or #is igitur#, to append a fresh main sentence or period to the foregoing: as,

#cōnsiliō convocātō sententiās exquīrere coepit, quō in cōnsiliō nōnnūllae huius modī sententiae dīcēbantur#, 3, 3, 1, calling a council of war, he proceeded to ask their opinion, and in this council some opinions of the following import were set forth. #centuriōnēs hostēs vocāre coepērunt; quōrum prōgredī ausus est nēmō#, 5, 43, 6, the officers proceeded to call the enemy; but not a man of them ventured to step forward. #perūtilēs Xenophōntis librī sunt; quos legite studiōsē#, CM. 59, Xenophon’s works are extremely profitable reading; so do read them attentively. In Plautus this use is rare; but it becomes more and more prevalent, and in the time of Cicero the relative is one of the commonest connectives.

1836. From this use of the relative come many introductory formulas, such as #quō factō#, #quā rē cōgnitā#, #quae cum ita sint#, &c., &c.

1837. A connective #quod# is often used before #sī#, #nisi#, or #etsī#, less frequently before #quia#, #quoniam#, #utinam#, #quī#, &c.

This #quod# may be translated so, but, now, whereas, as to that, &c., or it is often best omitted in translation. See 2132.

THE CONJUNCTIVE PARTICLE SENTENCE.

#quod.#

1838. The conjunctive particle #quod#, originally the neuter of the relative pronoun, has both a declarative sense, that, and a causal sense, because. In both senses it regularly introduces the indicative (1721). For special reasons, however, the subjunctive is often used, and particularly in indirect discourse (1722).

1839. In some of its applications, particularly in old Latin, the conjunctive particle #quod# can hardly be distinguished from the pronoun #quod#, as follows:

1840. (1) In old Latin, #quod#, why, for what, is sometimes used with #veniō# and #mittō#. Thus, as in #id vēnimus#, Pl. MG. 1158, that’s why we’ve come, #id# is used to define the purpose of the motion (1144), so also #quod#, in #quod vēnī, ēloquar#, T. Hau. prol. 3, what I’ve come for, I’ll set forth. Instead of #quod#, more explicitly #quam ob rem#: as, #quam ob rem hūc sum missa#, Pl. R. 430, what I am sent here for.

1841. (2.) #quod#, why, for what, is used in such expansions as #quid est quod?# #quid habēs quod?# or #nihil est quod#: as,

#quid est quod mē excīvistī?# Pl. E. 570, why is it that you’ve called me out? (1144). Usually with the subjunctive (1563): as, #quid est quod plūra dīcāmus?# Clu. 59, what reason is there for saying more? For #quod#, sometimes #quā rē#, #quam ob rem#, #cūr#, &c. The question itself is also sometimes varied: as, #quid fuit causae, cūr in Āfricam Caesarem nōn sequerēre?# Ph. 2, 71, what earthly reason was there, why you should not have followed Caesar to Africa?

1842. (3.) #quod#, as to what, or that, is used, especially at the beginning of a sentence, to introduce a fact on which something is to be said, often by way of protest or refutation: as,

#vērum quod tū dīcis, nōn tē mī īrāscī decet#, Pl. Am. 522, but as to what you say, it is n’t right that you should get provoked with me. #quod multitūdinem Germānōrum in Galliam trādūcat, id sē suī mūniendī causā facere#, 1, 44, 6, as to his moving a great many Germans over to Gaul, that he did for self-protection (1722). This construction is particularly common in Caesar, and in Cicero’s letters.

1843. When #quod#, in case, suppose, although, introduces a mere conjecture or a concession, the subjunctive is used (1554): as, #quod quispiam ignem quaerat, extinguī volō#, Pl. Aul. 91, in case a man may come for fire, I want the fire put out. This use is principally found in old Latin, but once or twice also in Cicero.

1844. #quod#, that, the fact that, is often used in subordinate sentences which serve to complete the sense of the main sentence.

1845. The sentence with #quod# may represent a subject, as with #accēdit#; an object, as with #praetereō#, &c.; or any case of a substantive; frequently it is in apposition with a demonstrative or an appellative: as,

(a.) #accēdēbat, quod suōs ab sē līberōs abstrāctōs dolēbant#, 3, 2, 5, there was added this fact, that they lamented that their own children were torn from them; or less clumsily, then too they lamented. #praetereō, quod eam sibī̆ domum sēdemque dēlēgit, in quā cōtīdiē virī mortis indicia vidēret#, Clu. 188, I pass over the fact that she picked out a house to live in, in which she would see, day in day out, things to remind her of her husband’s death. #illud minus cūrō, quod congessistī operāriōs omnēs#, Br. 297, I am not particularly interested in the fact that you have lumped together all sorts of cobblers and tinkers. (b.) #Caesar senātūs in eum beneficia commemorāvit, quod rēx appellātus esset ā senātū#, 1, 43, 4, Caesar told of the kindnesses of the senate to the man, the fact that ‘he had been styled king by the senate’ (1722). #quō factō duās rēs cōnsecūtus est, quod animōs centuriōnum dēvinxit et mīlitum voluntātēs redēmit#, Caes. C. 1, 39, 4, thus he killed two birds with one stone: he won the hearts of the officers, and he bought golden opinions of the rank and file. #hōc ūnō praestāmus vel maximē ferīs, quod conloquimur inter nōs#, DO. 1, 32, in this one circumstance do we perhaps most of all surpass brutes, that we can talk with each other. #labōre et industriā et quod adhibēbat grātiam, in prīncipibus patrōnīs fuit#, Br. 233, thanks to his untiring industry, and to his bringing his winning manners to bear, he figured among the leaders of the bar.

1846. #accēdit#, as the passive of #addō#, often has the subjunctive with #ut#: see 1965. #addō quod#, especially in the imperative form #adde quod#, occurs in Accius, Terence, Lucretius, Horace, and Ovid. #adiciō quod# begins with Livy.

1847. The sentence with #quod# is often introduced by a prepositional expression, such as #eō# with #dē#, #ex#, #in#, #prō#, rarely with #cum#; or #id# with #ad# in Livy, #super# in Tacitus.

1848. #nisi quod#, or in Plautus and Terence #nisi quia#, but for the fact that, except, only that, and #praeter quam quod#, besides the fact that, are used in limitations: as, #nihil peccat, nisi quod nihil peccat#, Plin. Ep. 9, 26, 1, he erreth naught, save that he naught doth err. Livy has also #super quam quod#. #tantum quod# in the sense of #nisi quod# is rare; more commonly of time, just, hardly.

1849. #quid quod?# for #quid dē eō dīcam quod?# what of the fact that, or nay more, marks an important transition: as, #quid quod salūs sociōrum in perīculum vocātur?# IP. 12, nay more, the very existence of our allies is endangered.

1850. With verbs of doing or happening, accompanied by some word of manner, #quod# introduces a verb of coincident action (1733): as,

#bene facis quod mē adiuvās#, Fin. 3, 16, you are very kind in helping me. #videor mihī̆ grātum fēcisse Siculīs, quod eōrum iniūriās sum persecūtus#, V. 2, 16, I flatter myself that I have won the gratitude of the Sicilians in acting as avenger of their wrongs. In this sense #quī# (1826) or #cum# (1874) is often used, or in Plautus and once in Horace #quia#.

1851. #quod#, that, because, is used to denote cause with verbs of emotion.

Thus, as with #id# in #id gaudeō#, T. Andr. 362, I’m glad of that (1144), so with an object sentence, as #gaudeō quod tē interpellāvī#, Leg. 3, 1, I’m glad that I interrupted you. Such verbs are: #gaudeō#, #laetor#; #mīror#; #doleō#, #maereō#, #angor#, #indignor#, #suscēnseō#, #īrāscor#, &c. In old Latin, Cicero’s letters, Livy, and rarely in Tacitus such verbs may have #quia#, sometimes #quom# (1875). For the accusative with the infinitive, see 2187.

1852. Verbs of praising, blaming, accusing, and condemning, often take #quod#: as,

#quod bene cōgitāstī aliquandō, laudō#, Ph. 2, 34, that you have ever had good intentions, I commend. #laudat Africānum Panaetius, quod fuerit abstinēns#, Off. 2, 76, Panaetius eulogizes Africanus, ‘for being so abstinent’ (1725). #ut cum Sōcratēs accūsātus est quod corrumperet iuventūtem#, Quintil. 4, 4, 5, as when Socrates was charged with ‘demoralizing the rising generation’ (1725). #grātulor#, congratulate, and #grātiās agō#, thank, have regularly #quod# or #cum# (1875). Verbs of accusing sometimes have #cūr#.

1853. Causal #quod#, owing to the fact that, because, introduces an efficient cause, or a reason or motive: as,

(a.) #in hīs locīs, quod omnis Gallia ad septentriōnēs vergit, mātūrae sunt hiemēs#, 4, 20, 1, in these parts the winter sets in early, owing to the fact that Gaul in general lies to the north. #Helvētiī reliquōs Gallōs virtūte praecēdunt, quod ferē cōtīdiānīs proeliīs cum Germānīs contendunt#, 1, 1, 4, the Helvetians outshine the rest of the Gauls in bravery, because they do battle with the Germans almost every day. #hōrum fortissimī sunt Belgae, proptereā quod a cultū prōvinciae longissimē absunt#, 1, 1, 3, of these the stoutest fighting-men are the Belgians, for the reason that they live furthest away from the comforts of the province. (b.) #T. Mānlius Torquātus fīlium suum, quod is contrā imperium in hostem pugnāverat, necārī iussit#, S. C. 52, 30, Torquatus ordered his own son to be put to death, because the young man had fought with the enemy contrary to orders. #exōrāvit tyrannum ut abīre licēret, quod iam beātus nōllet esse#, TD. 5, 62, he induced the monarch to let him go, ‘because he didn’t care to be Fortune’s pet any longer’ (1725). #Bellovacī suum numerum nōn contulērunt, quod sē suō arbitriō bellum esse gestūrōs dīcerent#, 7, 75, 5, the Bellovacans would not put in their proper quota, saying they meant to make war on their own responsibility (1727).

[Erratum: 1845a ... Caesar told of the kindnesses of the senate told off]

1854. #quod# often has a correlative in the main sentence, such as #eō#, #ideō#, #idcircō#, #proptereā#. In Sallust, #eā grātiā#. In Plautus, causal #quod# is very rare compared to causal #quia#.

1855. An untenable reason is introduced in Plautus by #nōn eō quia#, in Terence by #nōn eō quō#; in Cicero very rarely by #neque# or #non eō quō#, usually by #nōn quod# or #nōn quō#; by #nōn quia# rarely in classical Latin, but commonly from Livy on. The valid reason follows, with #sed quod#, #sed quia#, or with #sed# and a fresh main sentence.

The mood is usually subjunctive (1725): as, #pugilēs ingemīscunt, nōn quod doleant, sed quia prōfundendā vōce omne corpus intenditur#, TD. 2, 56, boxers grunt and groan, not because they feel pain, but because by explosion of voice the whole system gets braced up. Sometimes, but very rarely in classical prose, the indicative. Correlatives, such as #idcircō#, ideō, &c., are not uncommon. Reversed constructions occur, with #magis# followed by #quam#, as: #magis quod#, #quō#, or #quia#, followed by #quam quō#, #quod#, or #quia#. The negative not that . . . not, is expressed by #nōn quod nōn#, #nōn quō nōn#, or #nōn quīn#.

[Erratum: 1855 ... #nōn quō nōn#, or #nōn quīn# quin]

#quia.#

1856. #quia#, a neuter accusative plural of the relative stem (701) is used in both a declarative and a causal sense, like #quod# (1838). It is, however, more prevalent in Plautus, less so from Terence on.

1857. For the uses of declarative #quia#, see under 1848, 1850, 1851.

1858. Causal #quia#, with or without a correlative, such as #ideō#, #eō#, #proptereā#, &c., is common in old Latin (1854) and poetry, unusual in prose (once in Caesar) before Tacitus. For #nōn quia#, &c., see 1855.

#quom# or #cum#.

1859. #quom# or #cum# (157, 711), used as a relative conjunctive particle (1794), has a temporal meaning, when, which readily passes over to an explanatory or causal meaning, in that, since or although. In both meanings it introduces the indicative in old Latin. In classical Latin, temporal #cum# in certain connections, and causal #cum# regularly, introduces the subjunctive. The subjunctive is also used with #cum# for special reasons, as in the indefinite second person (1731), by attraction (1728), and commonly by late writers to express repeated past action (1730). #cum#, when, is often used as a synonym of #sī#, if, and may then introduce any form of a conditional protasis (2016, 2110).

(A.) TEMPORAL #cum#.

WITH THE INDICATIVE.

1860. #cum#, when, whenever, if, of indefinite time, may introduce any tense of the indicative required by the context: as,

#facile omnēs, quom valēmus, rēcta cōnsilia aegrōtīs damus#, T. Andr. 309, we all, when well, give good advice to sick folk easily. #Rōmae videor esse, cum tuās litterās legō#, Att. 2, 15, 1, I always fancy myself in Rome, when I am reading a letter from you. #cum posuī librum, adsēnsiō omnis ēlābitur#, TD. 1, 24, when I drop the book, all assent melts away (1613). #incenderis cupiditāte lībertātis, cum potestātem gustandī fēceris#, RP. 2, 50, you will inspire them with a passion for freedom, when you give them a chance to taste it (1627). #hīs cum fūnēs comprehēnsī adductīque erant, praerumpēbantur#, 3, 14, 6, every time the lines were caught by these and hauled taut, they would part (1618). The subjunctive is used, chiefly by late writers, rarely by Cicero and Caesar, to express repeated past action (1730): as, #cum in convīvium vēnisset, sī quicquam caelātī adspexerat, manūs abstinēre nōn poterat#, V. 4, 48, when he went to a dinner party, if he ever caught sight of a bit of chased work, he never could keep his hands off (2050).

1861. #cum#, when, of definite time, regularly introduces the indicative in old Latin, even where the subjunctive is required in classical Latin (1872): as,

#nam illa, quom tē ad sē vocābat, mēmet esse crēdidit#, Pl. Men. 1145, for when that lady asked you in, she thought ’twas I. #postīculum hoc recēpit, quom aedīs vēndidit#, Pl. Tri. 194, this back part he excepted, when he sold the house.

1862. #cum#, when, of definite time, regularly introduces the indicative of any action, not of past time: as,

#sed dē hīs etiam rēbus, ōtiōsī cum erimus, loquēmur#, Fam. 9, 4, but we will talk of this when we have time. #cum ego P. Grānium testem prōdūxerō, refellitō, sī poteris#, V. 5, 154, when I put Granius on the witness stand, refute him if you can.

1863. With #cum#, when, the indicative is used of definite past time to date the action of the main clause, as follows:

1864. (1.) The indicative imperfect is regularly used with #cum#, when, to denote a continued action parallel and coincident in duration with another continued action, also in the imperfect: as,

#quom pugnābant maxumē, ego tum fugiēbam maxumē#, Pl. Am. 199, while they were fighting hardest, then I was running hardest. #tum cum rem habēbās, quaesticulus tē faciēbat attentiōrem#, Fam. 9, 16, 7, as long as you were a man of substance, the fun of making money made you a little close.

1865. (2.) The indicative imperfect is often used with #cum#, when, denoting a continued action, to date an apodosis in the perfect: as,

#legiōnēs quom pugnābant maxumē, quid in tabernāclō fēcistī?# Pl. Am. 427, what did’st thou in the tent what time the legions fought their mightiest? #hīs librīs adnumerandī sunt sex dē rē pūblicā, quōs tum scrīpsimus cum gubernācula rē̆ī pūblicae tenēbāmus#, Div. 2, 3, to these books are to be added the six On the State, which I wrote at the time I was holding the helm of state. But when the object of the clause is not distinctly to date the apodosis, its verb is in the subjunctive (1872).

1866. (3.) The indicative perfect or present of vivid narration is used with #cum#, when, to date an apodosis in the perfect or present of vivid narration: as,

#‘per tuās statuās’ vērō cum dīxit, vehementius rīsimus#, DO. 2, 242, but when he uttered the words ‘by your statues’ we burst into a louder laugh. #cum occīditur Sex. Rōscius, ibīdem fuērunt#, RA. 120, when Roscius was murdered, they were on the spot. #cum diēs vēnit, causā ipse prō sē dictā, damnātur#, L. 4, 44, 10, when the day of the trial came, he spoke in his own defence and was condemned. The present is particularly common in old colloquial Latin: as, #vivom, quom abīmus, līquimus#, Pl. Cap. 282, we left him alive when we came away. For #cum prīmum# in narration, see 1925; for #cum extemplō#, 1926.

1867. (4.) The indicative perfect or present of vivid narration is regularly used with #cum#, when, to denote a momentary action when the apodosis denotes continued action: as,

#cum Caesar in Galliam vēnit, alterīus factiōnis prīncipēs erant Aeduī, alterīus Sēquanī#, 6, 12, 1, when Caesar came to Gaul, the leaders of one party were the Aeduans, of the other the Sequanians. #eō cum veniō, praetor quiēscēbat#, V. 4, 32, when I got there, the praetor was taking a nap.

1868. An emphatic indicative clause with #cum#, while, often follows the main action.

The clause with #cum# is usually inconsistent with the main action, and #cum# is often attended by #intereā#, #interim#, all the time, #etiam tum#, still, #nōndum#, #hauddum#, not yet, no longer, #quidem#, by the way, or #tamen#, #nihilōminus#, nevertheless: as,

#caedēbātur virgīs in mediō forō Messānae cīvis Rōmānus, cum intereā nūllus gemitus audiēbātur#, V. 5, 162, there was flogged with rods in open market place at Messana a citizen of Rome, while all the time not a groan was to be heard. #ēvolārat iam ē cōnspectū quadrirēmis, cum etiam tum cēterae nāvēs ūnō in locō mōliēbantur#, V. 5, 88, she had already sped out of sight, the four-banker, while the rest of the vessels were still struggling round in one and the same spot. This use is very rare in old Latin. Not in Caesar. With the infinitive of intimation, see 1539.

1869. An indicative clause with #cum#, usually expressing sudden or unexpected action, sometimes contains the main idea, and is put last.

In this case #cum# is often attended by #subitō# or #repente#, suddenly, and the first clause contains #iam#, already, by this time, #vix#, #aegrē#, hardly, #vixdum#, hardly yet, or #nōndum#, not yet. The first verb is commonly in the imperfect or pluperfect, and the second in the perfect or present of vivid narration: as,

#dīxerat hoc ille, cum puer nūntiāvit venīre Laelium#, RP. 1, 18, scarcely had he said this, when a slave announced that Laelius was coming. #vix ea fātus eram, gemitū cum tālia reddit#, V. 2, 323, scarce had I spoke the words, when with a groan he answers thus. #Hannibal iam subībat mūrōs, cum repente in eum patē̆factā portā ērumpunt Rōmānī#, L. 29, 7, 8, Hannibal was already moving up to the walls, when all of a sudden the gate flies open and the Romans come pouring out upon him. #iamque hoc facere apparābant, cum mātres familiae repente prōcurrērunt#, 7, 26, 3, they were already preparing to do it, when suddenly the married women rushed forward. This use is very rare in old Latin. From Sallust on, it is found occasionally with the infinitive of intimation (1539).

1870. A clause with #cum# is often used attributively with words denoting time, or with #est#, #fuit#, or #erit#.

The mood is the same as with a relative pronoun, sometimes the indicative, and regularly in old Latin, but usually the subjunctive: as, #fuit quoddam tempus cum in agrīs hominēs vagābantur#, Inv. 1, 2, there was an age of the world when men roved round in the fields (1813, 1823). #fuit tempus cum rūra colerent hominēs#, Varro, RR. 3, 1, 1, there was a time when men dwelt in the fields (1818, 1821). #est cum exōrnātiō praetermittenda est#, Cornif. 2, 30, sometimes ornamentation should be avoided. #fuit anteā tempus, cum Germānōs Gallī virtūte superārent#, 6, 24, 1, there was a time when the Gauls outdid the Germans in valour. The subjunctive is also used with #audiō cum# (1722), but with #meminī cum# the indicative: as, #saepe ex socerō meō audīvī, cum is dīceret#, DO. 2, 22, I have often heard my father-in-law saying. #meminī cum mihī̆ dēsipere vidēbāre#, Fam. 7, 28, 1, I remember when I thought you showed bad taste.

1871. The indicative present or perfect with #cum# is used in expressions equivalent to an emphasized accusative or ablative of time, the main verb being #est# or #sunt#: as, #annī prope quadringentī sunt, cum hoc probātur#, O. 171, it is nearly four hundred years that this has been liked. #nōndum centum et decem annī sunt, cum lāta lēx est#, Off. 2, 75, it is not a hundred and ten years yet since the law was passed. In old Latin, the clause with #cum# is made the subject of #est#, and the substantive of time is put in the accusative: as, #hanc domum iam multōs annōs est quom possideō#, Pl. Aul. 3, ’tis many years now I have occupied this house.

WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

1872. With #cum#, when, the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive is used to describe the circumstances under which the action of the main clause took place: as,

#cum rēx Pyrrhus populō Rōmānō bellum intulisset cumque dē imperiō certāmen esset cum rēge potentī, perfuga ab eō vēnit in castra Fabriciī#, Off. 3, 86, king Pyrrhus having made war on the Roman nation, and there being a struggle for sovereignty with a powerful king, a deserter from him came into Fabricius’s camp. #eōdem tempore Attalus rēx moritur alterō et septuāgēsimō annō, cum quattuor et quadrāgintā annōs rēgnāsset#, L. 33, 21, 1, the same year Attalus the king dies, in his seventy-second year, having reigned forty-four years. #hīc pāgus, cum domō exīsset patrum nostrōrum memoriā, L. Cassium cōnsulem interfēcerat#, 1, 12, 5, this canton, sallying out from home in our fathers’ recollection, had put Cassius, the consul, to death. #nam cum inambulārem in xystō, M. ad mē Brūtus vēnerat#, Br. 10, for as I was pacing up and down my portico, Brutus had come to see me. #Antigonus in proeliō, cum adversus Seleucum et Lȳsimachum dīmicāret, occīsus est#, N. 21, 3, 2, Antigonus was killed in battle fighting against Seleucus and Lysimachus. #haec cum Crassus dīxisset, silentium est cōnsecūtum#, DO. 1, 160, a deep silence ensued after Crassus had finished speaking. #cum annōs iam complūrīs societās esset, moritur in Galliā Quīnctius, cum adesset Naevius#, Quinct. 14, the partnership having lasted several years, Quinctius died in Gaul, Naevius being there at the time.

In this use, as the examples show, #cum# with the subjunctive is often equivalent to a participle or an ablative absolute. The use is not found in Plautus (1861). Ennius and Terence have possibly each an instance (disputed) of it, but it was certainly rare until the classical period, when it became one of the commonest of constructions. It must not be confounded with the special uses of the subjunctive mentioned in 1859.

1873. The difference in meaning between #cum# with the indicative and #cum# with the subjunctive may be illustrated by the following examples:

#Gallō nārrāvī, cum proximē Rōmae fuī, quid audīssem#, Att. 13, 49, 2, I told Gallus, when I was last in Rome, what I had heard (1866), #a. d. III kal. Maiās cum essem in Cūmānō, accēpī tuās litterās#, Fam. 4, 2, 1, I received your letter on the twenty-eighth of April, being in my villa at Cumae (1872). #cum vāricēs secābantur C. Mariō, dolēbat#, TD. 2, 35, while Marius was having his varicose veins lanced, he was in pain (1864). #C. Marius, cum secārētur, ut suprā dīxī, vetuit sē adligārī#, TD. 2, 53, Marius being under the surgeon’s knife, as above mentioned, refused to be bound (1872). #num P. Decius, cum sē dēvovēret et in mediam aciem inruēbat, aliquid dē voluptātibus suīs cōgitābat?# Fin. 2, 61, did Decius, offering himself up, and while he was dashing straight into the host, have any thought of pleasures of his own? (1872, 1864).

(B.) EXPLANATORY AND CAUSAL #cum#.

1874. The indicative is often used with explanatory #cum# when the action of the protasis is coincident with that of the apodosis (1733).

In this use #cum# passes from the meaning of when to that, in that, or in or by with a verbal in -ing: as, #hoc verbum quom illī quoidam dīcō, praemōstrō tibī̆#, Pl. Tri. 342, in laying down this lesson for your unknown friend I’m warning you. #cum quiēscunt, probant#, C. 1, 21, their inaction is approval. Denoting the means: as, #tūte tibi prōdes plūrumum, quom servitūtem ita fers ut ferrī decet#, Pl. Cap. 371, you do yourself most good by bearing slavery as it should be borne. For similar uses of #quod#, #quia#, and #quī#, see 1850.

1875. Explanatory #cum# is also used with verbs of emotion; likewise with #grātulor# and #grātiās agō#: as, #quom tu ’s līber, gaudeō#, Pl. Men. 1148, that you are free, I’m glad. #grātulor tibī̆, cum tantum valēs apud Dolābellam#, Fam. 9, 14, 3, I give you joy that you stand so well with Dolabella. #tibī̆ maximās grātiās agō, cum tantum litterae meae potuērunt#, Fam. 13, 24, 2, I thank you most heartily in that my letter had such influence. For similar uses of #quod# and #quia#, see 1851, 1852.

1876. Explanatory #cum# is also used in the sense of since, although, or even though. In these meanings it introduces the indicative in old Latin (1878): as,

Denoting cause: #istō tū pauper es, quom nimis sānctē piu ’s#, Pl. R. 1234, that’s why you are poor yourself, since you are over-scrupulously good. #quom hoc nōn possum, illud minus possem#, T. Ph. 208, since this I can’t, that even less could I. Adversative cause: #īnsānīre mē aiunt, quom ipsī īnsāniunt#, Pl. Men. 831, they say I’m mad, whereas they are mad themselves. Concession: #sat sīc suspectus sum, quom careō noxiā#, Pl. B. 1005, I am enough distrusted as it is, even though I’m void of wrong.

1877. #cum#, since, although, even though, usually introduces the subjunctive: as,

Denoting cause: #cum in commūnibus suggestīs cōnsistere nōn audēret, contiōnārī ex turrī altā solēbat#, TD. 5, 59, since he did not dare to stand up on an ordinary platform, he always did his speaking from a lofty tower, of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse. #Aeduī cum sē dēfendere nōn possent, lēgātōs ad Caesarem mittunt#, 1, 11, 2, since the Aeduans could not defend themselves, they sent ambassadors to Caesar. Adversative cause: #fuit perpetuō pauper, cum dīvitissimus esse posset#, N. 19, 1, 2, he was always poor, whereas he might have been very rich, of Phocion. #Pyladēs cum sīs, dīcēs tē esse Orestēn?# Fin. 2, 79, whereas you are Pylades, will you declare yourself Orestes? Concession: #ipse Cicerō, cum tenuissimā valētūdine esset, nē nocturnum quidem sibī̆ tempus ad quiētem relinquēbat#, 5, 40, 7, Cicero himself, though he was in extremely delicate health, did not allow himself even the night-time for rest. #ille Catō, cum esset Tusculī nātus, in populī Rōmānī cīvitātem susceptus est#, Leg. 2, 5, the great Cato, though born at Tusculum, was received into the citizenship of the Roman nation.

1878. This use of the subjunctive is not found in Plautus. It is thought to have begun in the time of Terence, who may have a couple of instances (disputed). Thereafter, it grew common and was the regular mood used with explanatory and causal #cum# in the classical period.

1879. Explanatory #cum# is sometimes introduced by #quippe#, rarely by #ut pote#, naturally: as,

#tum vērō gravior cūra patribus incessit, quippe cum prōdī causam ab suīs cernerent#, L. 4, 57, 10, then the senators were still more seriously concerned, and naturally enough, since they beheld their cause betrayed by their own people. #valētūdō, ē quā iam ēmerseram, ut pote cum sine febrī labōrāssem#, Att. 5, 8, 1, an illness from which I had already recovered, naturally, since it was unaccompanied by fever. #quippe cum# occurs in Cicero, Nepos, and Livy; #ut pote cum# is used once in Cicero’s letters, once by Pollio to Cicero, and in late writers. For #quippe# and #ut pote# with a causal relative, see 1827.

1880. The adversative idea is often emphasized by the use of #tamen# in the main clause: as, #cum prīmī ōrdinēs hostium concidissent, tamen ācerrimē reliquī resistēbant#, 7, 62, 4, though the front ranks of the enemy had fallen, yet the rest made a most spirited resistance.

(C.) #cum . . . tum.#

1881. A protasis with #cum# is often followed by an emphatic apodosis introduced by #tum#.

The protasis denotes what is general or common or old; the apodosis what is special or strange or new. In classical Latin #tum# is often emphasized by #maximē#, #in prīmīs#, #vērō#, &c.

In this use the mood is more commonly the indicative and the time of the two verbs is apt to be identical: as, #quom mihi paveō, tum Antiphō mē excruciat animī#, T. Ph. 187, whilst for myself I tremble, Antipho puts me in a perfect agony of soul. But #cum anteā distinēbar maximīs occupātiōnibus, tum hōc tempore multō distineor vehementius#, Fam. 12, 30, 2, I was distracted by most important engagements before, but now I am very much more distracted. Less frequently the subjunctive, to denote cause or concession (1877): as, #cum tē ā pueritiā tuā dīlēxerim, tum hōc multō ācrius dīligō#, Fam. 15, 9, 1, whereas I have always loved you from your boyhood, for this I love you with a far intenser love. By abridgement of the sentence (1057), #cum . . . tum# come to be copulative conjunctions (1687): as, #mōvit patrēs cōnscrīptōs cum causa tum auctor#, L. 9, 10, 1, both the cause and its supporter touched the conscript fathers.

#quoniam.#

1882. #quoniam#, compounded of #quom# and #iam#, when now, refers primarily to time, but is seldom so used and only by early writers. The temporal meaning passed early into an exclusively causal meaning, since. In both meanings it regularly introduces the indicative (1721). For special reasons, however, the subjunctive is used, as in indirect discourse (1725), or by attraction (1728).

1883. (1.) #quoniam#, when now, used of time in early Latin, has sometimes as a correlative #continuō#, #subitō#, or #extemplō#; it usually introduces the present indicative (1590): as,

#is quoniam moritur, numquam indicāre id fīliō voluit suō#, Pl. Aul. 9, when he was on his dying bed, he ne’er would point it out to his own son, of a hidden treasure. #quoniam sentiō quae rēs gererētur, nāvem extemplō statuimus#, Pl. B. 290, when now I saw what was doing, we stopped the ship at once.

1884. (2.) #quoniam#, since, seeing that, now that, with the indicative, introduces a reason, usually one known to the person addressed, or one generally known: as,

#vēra dīcō, sed nēquīquam, quoniam nōn vīs crēdere#, Pl. Am. 835, the truth I speak, but all in vain, since thou wilt not believe. #vōs, Quirītēs, quoniam iam nox est, in vestra tecta discēdite#, C. 3, 29, do you, citizens, since it is now grown dark, depart and go to your own several homes. #quoniam in eam ratiōnem vītae nōs fortūna dēdūxit, ut sempiternus sermō dē nōbīs futūrus sit, caveāmus#, QFr. 1, 1, 38, since fortune has set us in such a walk of life that we are to be eternally talked about, let us be on our guard. Often in transition: as, #quoniam dē genere bellī dīxī, nunc dē magnitūdine pauca dīcam#, IP. 20, since I have finished speaking about the character of the war, I will now speak briefly about its extent. With the subjunctive in indirect discourse (1725): as, #crēbrīs Pompēī litterīs castīgābantur, quoniam prīmō venientem Caesarem nōn prohibuissent#, Caes. C. 3, 25, 3, they were rebuked in numerous letters of Pompey, ‘because they had not kept Caesar off as soon as he came.’

#quotiēns#, #quotiēnscumque#.

1885. The relative particle #quotiēns# (711), or #quotiēnscumque#, every time that, whenever, introduces the indicative: as,

#quotiēns quaeque cohors prōcurrerat, magnus numerus hostium cadēbat#, 5, 34, 2, as the cohorts successively charged, a great number of the enemy fell every time. #quoius quotiēns sepulcrum vidēs, sacruficās#, Pl. E. 175, every time you see her tomb, you offer sacrifice. #nec quotiēnscumque mē vīderit, ingemīscet#, Sest. 146, neither shall he fall a-groaning whenever he sees me (1736). #quotiēnsque# is late and rare.

1886. #quotiēns# has sometimes as a correlative #totiēns#, or a combination with #tot# which is equivalent to #totiēns#: as, #quotiēns dīcimus, totiēns dē nōbīs iūdicātur#, DO. 1, 125, every time we make a speech, the world sits in judgement on us. #sī tot cōnsulibus meruisset, quotiēns ipse cōnsul fuit#, Balb. 47, if he had been in the army as many years as he was consul.

1887. The subjunctive imperfect and pluperfect are common in the later writers to indicate repeated action (1730): as, #quotiēns super tālī negōtiō cōnsultāret, ēditā domūs parte ac lībertī ūnīus cōnscientiā ūtēbātur#, Ta. 6, 27, whenever he had recourse to astrologers, it was in the upper part of his house and with the cognizance of only a single freedman.

#quam.#

1888. #quam#, as or than, introduces an indicative protasis in periods of comparison. For special reasons, however, the subjunctive is used, as by attraction (1728), or of action conceivable (1731); see also 1896, 1897.

But usually periods of comparison are abridged (1057) by the omission of the verb or of other parts in the protasis (1325).

WITH THE INDICATIVE.

1889. (1.) #quam#, as, is used in the protasis of a comparative period of equality, generally with #tam# as correlative in the apodosis: as,

#tam facile vincēs quam pirum volpēs comēst#, Pl. Most. 559, you’ll beat as easily as Reynard eats a pear. #tam excoctam reddam atque ātram quam carbōst#, T. Ad. 849, I’ll have her stewed all out and black as is a coal. From Cicero on, the apodosis is in general negative or interrogative: as, #quōrum neutrum tam facile quam tū arbitrāris concēditur#, Div. 1, 10, neither of these points is as readily granted as you suppose. #quid est ōrātōrī tam necessārium quam vōx?# DO. 1, 251, what is so indispensable to the speaker as voice? Otherwise #nōn minus . . . quam#, no less than, just as much, or #nōn magis . . . quam#, just as little or just as much, is often preferred to #tam . . . quam#: as, #accēpī nōn minus interdum ōrātōrium esse tacēre quam dīcere#, Plin. Ep. 7, 6, 7, I have observed that silence is sometimes quite as eloquent as speech. #nōn magis mihī̆ deerit inimīcus quam Verrī dēfuit#, V. 3, 162, I shall lack an enemy as little as Verres did. #domus erat nōn dominō magis ōrnāmentō quam cīvitātī#, V. 4, 5, the house was as much a pride to the state as to its owner.

1890. Instead of #tam#, another correlative is sometimes used in the apodosis. Thus, #aequē . . . quam# occurs in Plautus and in Livy and later writers, generally after a negative expression; #perinde . . . quam# in Tacitus and Suetonius; #iūxtā ... quam# once in Livy. Sometimes the apodosis contains no correlative.

1891. #tam . . . quam# become by abridgement coordinating words: as,

#tam vēra quam falsa cernimus#, Ac. 2, 111, we make out things both true and false.

1892. The highest possible degree is expressed by #tam . . . quam quī# and a superlative without a verb; or by #quam# and a superlative with or without a form of #possum# (1466); sometimes by #quantus# or #ut#: as,

(a.) #tam sum misericors quam vōs; tam mītis quam quī lēnissimus#, Sull. 87, I am as tender-hearted as you; as mild as the gentlest man living. #tam sum amīcus rē̆ī pūblicae quam quī maximē#, Fam. 5, 2, 6, I am as devoted a patriot as anybody can be. (b.) #quam maximīs potest itineribus in Galliam contendit#, 1, 7, 1, he pushes into Gaul by as rapid marches as he can. #cōnstituērunt iūmentōrum quam maximum numerum coëmere#, 1, 3, 1, they determined to buy up the greatest possible number of beasts of burden. (c.) #tanta est inter eōs, quanta maxima potest esse, mōrum distantia#, L. 74, there is the greatest possible difference of character between them. Or without any superlative: #fuge domum quantum potest#, Pl. Men. 850, run home as quick as e’er you can. #ut potuī accūrātissimē tē tūtātus sum#, Fam. 5, 17, 2, I defended you as carefully as I could.

1893. #quam . . . tam#, with two comparatives or superlatives, is equivalent to the more common #quō . . . eō# with two comparatives (1973): as,

(a.) #magis quam id reputō, tam magis ūror#, Pl. B. 1091, the more I think it over, the sorer do I feel. This use is found in Plautus, Lucretius, and Vergil. (b.) #quam quisque pessumē fēcit, tam maxumē tūtus est#, S. I. 31, 14, the worse a man has acted, the safer he always is. This use is found in Plautus, Terence, Cato, Varro, and Sallust.

1894. (2.) #quam#, than, is used in the protasis of a comparative period of inequality, with a comparative in the apodosis: as,

#meliōrem quam ego sum suppōnō tibī̆#, Pl. Cu. 256, I give you in my place a better man than I am. #plūra dīxī quam voluī#, V. 5, 79, I have said more than I intended. #Antōniō quam est, volō peius esse#, Att. 15, 3, 2, I hope Antony may be worse off than he is. #doctrīna paulō dūrior quam nātūra patitur#, Mur. 60, principles somewhat sterner than nature doth support. #potius sērō quam numquam#, L. 4, 2, 11, better late than never. #corpus patiēns algōris suprā quam cuiquam crēdibile est#, S. C. 5, 3, a constitution capable of enduring cold beyond what anybody could believe. #suprā quam# is found in Cicero, Sallust, and often in late writers; #īnfrā# and #ultrā quam# in Cicero, Livy, and late writers (#īnfrā quam# also in Varro); #extrā quam# in Ennius, Cato, and in legal and official language in Cicero and Livy.

1895. #quam# is also used with some virtual comparatives: thus, #nihil aliud#, #nōn aliud quam#, no other than, often as adverb, only; #secus quam# with a negative, not otherwise than; #bis tantō quam#, twice as much as; and #prae quam# in old Latin, in comparison with how; and similar phrases: as,

(a.) #per bīduum nihil aliud quam stetērunt parātī ad pugnandum#, L. 34, 46, 7, for two days they merely stood in battle array. This use occurs first in Sallust, then in Nepos, Livy, and later writers. (b.) #mihī̆ erit cūrae nē quid fīat secus quam volumus#, Att. 6, 2, 2, I will see to it that nothing be done save as we wish. This use occurs in Plautus, Terence, Sallust, Cicero, Livy, and later writers. With both #aliud# and #secus# the clause is rarely positive, with #aliud# not before Livy. For #atque# (#ac#) instead of #quam# when the first clause is negative, see 1654. (c.) #bis tantō valeō quam valuī prius#, Pl. Merc. 297, I am twice as capable as I was before. (d.) #nīl hōc quidem est trīgintā minae, prae quam aliōs sūmptūs facit#, Pl. Most. 981, oh, this is nothing, thirty minae, when you think what other sums he spends. #prae quam# is found only in Plautus rarely. Similar phrases are: #contrā quam#, in Cicero, Livy, and later writers; #praeter quam#, in Plautus, Naevius, and frequently in other writers when followed by #quod# (1848); #super quam quod# (1848) and #īnsuper quam# in Livy; #prō quam# in Lucretius; #advorsum quam#, once in Plautus. #prae quam# is sometimes followed by a relative clause: as, #prae quam quod molestumst#, Pl. Am. 634, compared with what is painful. For #ante# (or #prius#) and #post quam#, see 1911, 1923.

WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

1896. The subjunctive is used with #quam# or #quam ut# after comparatives denoting disproportion (1461): as,

#quicquid erat oneris Segestānīs impōnēbat, aliquantō amplius quam ferre possent#, V. 4, 76, he would impose every possible burden on the Segestans, far too much for them to bear. #quis nōn intellegit Canachī sīgna rigidiōra esse, quam ut imitentur vēritātem?# Br. 70, who does not feel that the statues of Canachus are too stiff to be true to nature? #clārior rēs erat quam ut dissimulārī posset#, L. 26, 51, 11, the thing was too notorious to be hushed up. Instead of #ut#, #quī# is also used by Livy and later writers: as, #maior sum quam cui possit Fortūna nocēre#, O. 6, 195, too strong am I for Fortune to break down, says infatuated Niobe. All these sentences are extensions of the subjunctive of action conceivable (1554, 1818).

1897. The subjunctive is used in clauses introduced by #potius quam#, rather than, to denote action merely assumed. #citius#, #ante#, or #prius#, sooner, is sometimes used in the sense of #potius#: as,

#potius quam tē inimīcum habeam, faciam ut iusseris#, T. Eu. 174, rather than make you my enemy, I will do as you tell me. #dēpugnā potius quam serviās#, Att. 7, 7, 7, fight it out rather than be a slave. #potius vituperātiōnem incōnstantiae suscipiam, quam in tē sim crūdēlis#, V. 5, 105, I will submit to the charge of inconsistency rather than be cruel towards you. #animam omittunt prius quam locō dēmigrent#, Pl. Am. 240, they lose their lives sooner than yield their ground. Livy has also #potius quam ut#. All these sentences are extensions of the subjunctive of desire (1540, 1817).

WITH THE INFINITIVE.

1898. When the main clause is an infinitive, #quam# is often followed by an infinitive: as,

#mālim morīrī me͡os quam mendīcārier#, Pl. Vid. 96, better my bairns be dead than begging bread. #vōcēs audiēbantur prius sē cortice ex arboribus vīctūrōs, quam Pompēium ē manibus dīmissūrōs#, Caes. C. 3, 49, 1, shouts were heard that they would live on the bark of trees sooner than let Pompey slip through their fingers.

#quamquam.#

1899. (1.) #quamquam# is used in old Latin as an indefinite adverb, ever so much, however much: as,

#quamquam negōtiumst, sī quid veis, Dēmiphō, nōn sum occupātus umquam amīcō operam dare#, Pl. Mer. 287, however busy I may be (1814), if anything you wish, dear Demipho, I’m not too busy ever to a friend mine aid to lend. #id quoque possum ferre, quamquam iniūriumst#, T. Ad. 205, that also I can bear, however so unfair. From an adverb, #quamquam# became a conjunction, although.

1900. (2.) #quamquam#, although, introduces the indicative in the concession of a definite fact. In the later writers it is also sometimes used with the subjunctive, sometimes with a participle or an adjective.

(a.) #quamquam premuntur aere aliēnō, dominātiōnem tamen exspectant#, C. 2, 19, though they are staggering under debt, they yet look forward to being lords and masters. #quamquam nōn vēnit ad fīnem tam audāx inceptum, tamen haud omnīnō vānum fuit#, L. 10, 32, 5, though the bold attempt did not attain its purpose, yet it was not altogether fruitless. This is the classical use; but see 1901. (b.) #nam et tribūnīs plēbis senātūs habendī iūs erat, quamquam senātōrēs nōn essent#, Varro in Gell. 14, 8, 2, for even the tribunes of the people, though they were not senators, had the right to hold a meeting of the senate. #haud cunctātus est Germānicus, quamquam fingī ea intellegeret#, Ta. 2, 26, Germanicus did not delay, though he was aware this was all made up. This use is found first in Varro, often in the Augustan poets, sometimes in Livy, always in Juvenal. It does not become common before Tacitus and the younger Pliny. (c.) #sequente, quamquam nōn probante, Amynandrō#, L. 31, 41, 7, Amynander accompanying though not approving (1374). #nē Aquītānia quidem, quamquam in verba Othōnis obstricta, diū mānsit#, Ta. H. 1, 76, Aquitania, though bound by the oath of allegiance to Otho, did not hold out long either. This use is found once each in Cicero and Sallust, half a dozen times in Livy, oftener in Tacitus.

1901. The subjunctive is also used often with #quamquam# for special reasons, as by attraction (1728), in indirect discourse (1725), and of action conceivable (1731).

1902. For #quamquam# appending a fresh main sentence, see 2153; for its use with the infinitive, 2317.

[Erratum: 1899. (1.) (1)]

#quam vīs# or #quamvīs#.

1903. #quam vīs# or #quamvīs# is used as an indefinite adverb (712), as much as you please, and is often joined with an adjective or other adverb to take the place of a superlative: as,

#quam vīs rīdiculus est, ubī̆ uxor nōn adest#, Pl. Men. 318, he’s as droll as you please when his wife isn’t by. #quamveis īnsipiēns poterat persentīscere#, Pl. Merc. 687, the veriest dullard could detect. #quamvīs paucī adīre audent#, 4, 2, 5, the merest handful dares attack. #quamvīs callidē#, V. 2, 134, ever so craftily. #quamvīs# is also sometimes used to strengthen a superlative (1466), though not in classical prose.

1904. (1.) The indefinite adverb #quam vīs#, as much as you please, is often used in subjunctive clauses of concession or permission; such subjunctives are sometimes coordinated with #licet#: as,

#quod turpe est, id quam vīs occultētur, tamen honestum fierī nūllō modō potest#, Off. 3, 78, if a thing is base, let it be hidden as much as you will, yet it cannot be made respectable (1553). #locus hīc apud nōs, quam vīs subitō veniās, semper līber est#, Pl. B. 82, our house is always open, come as sudden as you may (1553). #praeter eōs quam vīs ēnumerēs multōs licet, nōnnūllōs reperiēs perniciōsōs tribūnōs#, Leg. 3, 24, besides these you may tell off as many as you please, you will still find some dangerous tribunes (1710). The combination with #licet# occurs first in Lucretius, then in Cicero.

Instead of #vīs#, other forms are sometimes used: as, #volumus#, #volent#, #velit#, &c.: thus, #quam volent facētī sint#, Cael. 67, they may be as witty as they please (1735). #quam volet Epicūrus iocētur et dīcat sē nōn posse intellegere, numquam mē movēbit#, DN. 2, 46, Epicurus may joke and say he can’t understand it as much as he likes, he will never shake me. From an adverb, #quam vīs# became a conjunction, however much, even if.

1905. (2.) The subjunctive with the conjunction #quamvīs#, however much, even if, though, denotes action merely assumed; when the action is to be denoted as real, #ut# or #sīcut# or the like, with the indicative, usually follows in the best prose (1943): as,

(a.) #quamvīs sint hominēs quī Cn. Carbōnem ōderint, tamen hī dēbent quid metuendum sit cōgitāre#, V. 1, 39, though there may be men who hate Carbo, still these men ought to consider what they have to fear. #nōn enim possīs, quamvīs excellās#, L. 73, you may not have the power, however eminent you may be. This use begins with Cicero and Varro, and gets common in late writers. Not in Livy. (b.) #illa quamvīs rīdicula essent, sīcut erant, mihī̆ tamen rīsum nōn mōvērunt#, Fam. 7, 32, 3, droll as this really was, it nevertheless did not make me laugh. #quamvīs enim multīs locīs dīcat Epicūrus, sīcutī dīcit, satis fortiter dē dolōre, tamen nōn id spectandum est quid dīcat#, Off. 3, 117, even though Epicurus really does speak in many places pretty heroically about pain, still we must not have an eye to what he says. In the Augustan poets rarely, and often in Tacitus, the younger Pliny, and late writers, the subjunctive, without a parenthetical phrase introduced by #ut# or the like, is used of an action denoted as real: as, #expalluit notābiliter, quamvīs palleat semper#, Plin. Ep. 1, 5, 13, he grew pale perceptibly, though he is always a pale man. #maestus erat, quamvīs laetitiam simulāret#, Ta. 15, 54, sad he was, though he pretended to be gay.

1906. #quamvīs#, even if, though, is also sometimes used with the indicative (1900): as,

#erat dignitāte rēgiā, quamvīs carēbat nōmine#, N. 1, 2, 3, he had the authority of a king, though not the title. #quamvīs tacet Hermogenēs, cantor est#, H. S. 1, 3, 129, though he open not his mouth, Hermogenes remains a singer still. This use occurs twice in Lucretius, once in Cicero, Nepos, and Livy each, in Varro, in the Augustan poets, and sometimes in late writers. Not in Tacitus, Pliny the younger, Juvenal, Martial, or Suetonius.

1907. It may be mentioned here that the indefinite adverb #quamlibet#, however you please, is used in subjunctive clauses of concession or permission (1904) once or twice by Lucretius, Ovid, and Quintilian. Velleius has it with the participle, a construction sometimes found with #quamvīs# in late writers.

#tamquam.#

1908. #tamquam#, just as, introduces an indicative protasis in periods of comparison.

The #tam# properly belongs to the apodosis and is attracted to the protasis. #tamquam# has sometimes as correlative #sīc# or #ita#.

#tē hortor ut tamquam poētae bonī solent, sīc tū in extrēmā parte mūneris tuī dīligentissimus sīs#, QFr. 1, 1, 46, I urge you to be very particular at the end of your task, just as good poets always are. #tamquam philosophōrum habent disciplinae ex ipsīs vocābula, parasītī ita ut Gnathōnicī vocentur#, T. Eu. 263, that so parasites may be called Gnathonites even as schools of philosophy are named from the masters. Usually, however, #ut# (1944) or #quemadmodum# is used in this sense; and #tamquam# occurs oftenest in abridged sentences (1057), particularly to show that an illustration is untrue or figurative: as, #Odyssīa Latīna est sīc tamquam opus aliquod Daedalī#, Br. 71, the Odyssey in Latin is, you may say, a regular work of Daedalus. #oculī tamquam speculātōrēs altissimum locum obtinent#, DN. 2, 140, the eyes occupy the highest part, as a sort of watchmen.

1909. In late writers, especially in Tacitus, #tamquam# is often used to introduce a reason or motive, or a thought indirectly expressed: as,

#invīsus tamquam plūs quam cīvīlia agitāret#, Ta. 1, 12, hated on the ground that his designs were too lofty for a private citizen (1725). #lēgātōs increpuit, tamquam nōn omnēs reōs perēgissent#, Plin. Ep. 3, 9, 36, he reproved the embassy ‘for not having completed the prosecution of all the defendants’ (1852, 1725). #suspectus tamquam ipse suās incenderit aedīs#, J. 3, 222, suspected of having set his own house afire.

1910. For #tamquam# instead of #tamquam sī#, see 2118; with a participle, 2121.

#antequam#, #priusquam#.

1911. #antequam# and #priusquam# accompany both the indicative and the subjunctive.

#ante# and #prius# properly belong to the apodosis, and regularly stand with it if it is negative; but otherwise they are usually attracted to the protasis.

#antequam# is very seldom found in old Latin, and it is in general much rarer than #priusquam#, except in Tacitus.

IN GENERAL STATEMENTS.

1912. In general present statements, #antequam# and #priusquam# regularly introduce the perfect indicative or the present subjunctive: as,

#membrīs ūtimur priusquam didicimus cuius ea causā ūtilitātis habeāmus#, Fin. 3, 66, we always use our limbs before we learn for what purposes of utility we have them (1613). #priusquam lūcet, adsunt#, Pl. MG. 709, before ’tis light they’re always here; here #lūcet# is equivalent to #inlūxit#. #ante vidēmus fulgōrem quam sonum audiāmus#, Sen. QN. 2, 12, 6, we always see the flash before we hear the sound. #priusquam sēmen mātūrum siet, secātō#, Cato, RR. 53, always cut before the seed is ripe (1575). With the perfect subjunctive in the indefinite second person (1030): as, #hoc malum opprimit antequam prōspicere potuerīs#, V. 1, 39, this calamity always overwhelms you before you can anticipate it (1731, 1558). For #prius quam#, sooner than, see 1897.

1913. The future indicative is used a few times in general statements by old and late writers, and the perfect subjunctive after a negative clause rarely by Tacitus: as, #bovēs priusquam in viam agēs, pice cornua īnfima unguitō#, Cato, RR. 72, always smear the hoofs of your oxen with pitch before you drive them on the road (1625, 1577). #deū̆m honor prīncipī nōn ante habētur quam agere inter hominēs dēsierit#, Ta. 15, 74, divine honours are not paid to an emperor before he has ceased to live among men. Cicero has the perfect subjunctive in a definition: thus, #prōvidentia, per quam futūrum aliquid vidētur antequam factum sit#, Inv. 2, 160, foresight is the faculty through which a future event is seen before it has taken place. He also has the present indicative once: Div. 1, 120.

1914. In general past statements #antequam# and #priusquam# introduce the subjunctive imperfect or pluperfect; but this use is very rare: as, #dormīre priusquam somni cupīdō esset#, S. C. 13, 3, a-sleeping always before they felt sleepy. #ita saepe magna indolēs virtūtis, priusquam rē̆ī pūblicae prōdesse potuisset, extīncta est#, Ph. 5, 47, thus character of unusual promise was oftentimes cut off, before it could do the government any good.

IN PARTICULAR STATEMENTS.

1915. In particular present or future statements, #antequam# and #priusquam# introduce a present, either indicative or subjunctive; in future statements the future perfect is also used, and regularly when the main verb is future perfect: as,

#antequam ad sententiam redeō, dē mē pauca dīcam#, C. 4, 20, before I come back to the motion, I will say a little about myself (1593). #est etiam prius quam abīs quod volo loquī#, Pl. As. 232, there’s something else I want to say before you go. #antequam veniat in Pontum, litterās ad Cn. Pompēium mittet#, Agr. 2, 53, before he reaches Pontus, he will send a letter to Pompey. #prius quam ad portam veniās, est pistrīlla#, T. Ad. 583, there’s a little bakery just before you get to the gate. #nihil contrā disputābō priusquam dīxerit#, Fl. 51, I will not argue to the contrary before he has spoken (1626). #neque prius, quam dēbellāverō, absistam#, L. 49, 39, 9, and I will not leave off before I have brought the war to an end. #sī quid mihī̆ acciderit priusquam hōc tantum malī vīderō#, Mil. 99, if anything shall befall me before I see this great calamity. #neque prōmittō quicquam neque respondeō prius quam gnātum vīderō#, T. Ph. 1044, I’m not promising anything nor making any answer before I see my son (1593). Tacitus uses neither the present indicative nor the future perfect.

1916. In old Latin the future and the perfect subjunctive also occur: as,

#prius quam quoiquam convīvae dabis, gustātō tūte prius#, Pl. Ps. 885, before you help a single guest, taste first yourself; but Terence does not use the future, and it is found only once or twice later. #nūllō pactō potest prius haec in aedīs recipī, quam illam āmīserim#, Pl. MG. 1095. on no terms can I take my new love to the house, before I’ve let the old love drop; but usually the perfect subjunctive is due to indirect discourse.

1917. In particular past statements #antequam# and #priusquam# introduce the perfect indicative, especially when the apodosis is negative. The imperfect subjunctive rarely occurs, chiefly in late writers.

(a.) #omnia ista ante facta sunt quam iste Ītaliam attigit#, V. 2, 161, all these incidents occurred before the defendant set foot in Italy. #neque prius fugere dēstitērunt quam ad Rhēnum pervēnērunt#, 1, 53, 1, and they did not stay their flight before they fairly arrived at the Rhine. #prius quam hinc abiīt quīndecim mīles minās dederat#, Pl. Ps. 53, the captain had paid down fifteen minae before he left here. (b.) #nec prius sunt vīsī quam castrīs adpropinquārent#, 6, 37, 2, they were not seen before they drew near to the camp. This use of the imperfect subjunctive, not to be confounded with that mentioned in 1919, is not found in old Latin or in Cicero. It is found in Nepos and Livy.

1918. The present indicative also occurs in particular past statements in old Latin: as, #is priusquam moritur mihi dedit#, Pl. Cu. 637, before he died he gave it me. The indicative imperfect occurs four times in Livy and once in late Latin, the pluperfect once in old Latin and once in Cicero.

1919. When the action of the protasis was forestalled, or when action conceivable or purpose is expressed, #antequam# and #priusquam# regularly introduce the imperfect subjunctive in particular past statements: as,

#plērīque interfectī sunt, priusquam occultum hostem vidērent#, L. 35, 29, 3, most of them were slain before they could see the hidden enemy. #antequam verbum facerem, dē sellā surrēxit#, V. 4, 147, before I could utter a word he arose from his seat. #pervēnit priusquam Pompēius sentīre posset#, Caes. C. 3, 67, 4, he arrived before Pompey should be able to learn of his coming (1725). The present and perfect subjunctive occur rarely, generally when the main clause contains a present of vivid narration (1590). The imperfect is not found in old Latin.

1920. The perfect indicative or imperfect subjunctive with #antequam# is often used attributively with nouns denoting time: as,

#fābulam docuit, annō ipsō ante quam nātus est Ennius#, Br. 72, he exhibited a play just a year before Ennius was born. #ducentīs annīs ante quam Rōmam caperent, in Ītaliam Gallī trānscendērunt#, L. 5, 33, 5, two hundred years before they took Rome, the Gauls crossed over to Italy. The pluperfect also occurs, when the main verb is pluperfect: as, #Stāiēnus bienniō antequam causam recēpisset, sescentīs mīllibus nummūm sē iūdicium conruptūrum dīxerat#, Clu. 68, Stajenus had said two years before he undertook the case, that he would bribe the court for six hundred thousand sesterces.

1921. The pluperfect subjunctive is rarely introduced by #antequam# or #priusquam# except in indirect discourse: as,

#antequam dē meō adventū audīre potuissent, in Macedoniam perrēxī#, Pl. 98, before they should be able to hear of my arrival, I proceeded to Macedonia (1725). #āvertit equōs in castra priusquam pābula gustāssent Trōiae Xanthumque bibissent#, V. 1, 472, he drave the horses off to camp, or ever they should taste of Troja’s grass and Xanthus drink (1725).

1922. It may be mentioned here that #postrīdiē quam# and #prīdiē quam# occur a few times in Plautus and Cicero with the indicative; #postrīdiē quam# with the indicative in Suetonius; and #prīdiē quam# with the subjunctive in Livy, Valerius Maximus, and Suetonius.

#posteā quam# or #postquam#.

#ubī̆#, #ut#, #cum prīmum#, #simul atque#.

1923. With #posteā quam#, #postquam# (#posquam#), after, the following words may conveniently be treated: #ubī̆#, #ut#, when; #ubī̆ prīmum#, #ut prīmum#, #cum prīmum#, when first, and in Plautus #quom extemplō#; #simul atque# (or #ac#, less frequently #et# or #ut#, or #simul# alone), at the same time with, as soon as.

#postquam#, #ubī̆#, #ut#, #cum prīmum#, #simul atque#, accompany the indicative.

For examples of the use of tenses, see 1924-1934.

1924. In clauses introduced by #posteā quam# or #postquam#, the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive, found a dozen times in the manuscripts of Cicero’s works and elsewhere, is generally corrected in modern editions or usually the conjunctive particle is emended to #posteā quom# (#cum#). But the subjunctive may of course be used with this and the other particles mentioned in 1923 for special reasons, as with the indefinite second person (1731), by attraction (1728), and in indirect discourse (1725). For the subjunctive of repeated past action with #ubī̆# and #ut#, see 1932. The infinitive of intimation occurs in Tacitus (1539): as, #postquam exuī aequālitās, prōvēnēre dominātiōnēs#, Ta. 3, 26, after equality between man and man was dropped, there came a crop of tyrants.

1925. In narration the perfect indicative is regularly used in clauses introduced by #postquam#, #ubī̆#, #ut#, #cum prīmum#, #simul atque# (1739): as,

#postquam tuās litterās lēgī, Postumia tua mē convēnit#, Fam. 4, 2, 1, after I read your letter, your Postumia called on me. #postquam aurum abstulimus, in nāvem cōnscendimus#, Pl. B. 277, after we got away the money, we took ship. #ubī̆ ad ipsum vēnī dēvorticulum, cōnstitī#, T. Eu. 635, when I came exactly to the side street, I pulled up. #ubī̆ sē diūtius dūcī intellēxit, graviter eōs accūsat#, 1, 16, 5, when he came to see that he was put off a good while, he takes them roundly to task. #quī ut perōrāvit, surrēxit Clōdius#, QFr. 2, 3, 2, when he had finished speaking, up jumped Clodius. #ut abiī abs tē, fit forte obviam mihi Phormiō#, T. Ph. 617, when I left you, Phormio happened to fall in my way. #crīmen eius modī est, ut, cum prīmum ad mē dēlātum est, ūsūrum mē illō nōn putārem#, V. 5, 158, the charge is of such a sort that, when first it was reported to me, I thought I should not use it. #cum prīmum Crētae lītus attigit, nūntiōs mīsit#, L. 37, 60, 4, as soon as he touched the shore of Crete, he sent messengers. #ut prīmum loquī posse coepī, inquam#, RP. 6, 15, as soon as I began to be able to speak, I said. #quem simul atque oppidānī cōnspexērunt, mūrum complēre coepērunt#, 7, 12, 5, as soon as the garrison espied him, they began to man the wall. #at hostēs, ubī̆ prīmum nostrōs equitēs cōnspexērunt, impetū factō celeriter nostrōs perturbāvērunt#, 4, 12, 1, but as soon as the enemy caught sight of our cavalry, they attacked and threw our men into disorder. The conjunction #simul atque# is very rarely found in old Latin.

1926. The present indicative of vivid narration (1590) sometimes occurs: as,

#postquam iam puerī septuennēs sunt, pater onerāvit nāvim magnam#, Pl. Men. prol. 24, after the boys were seven year olds, their father freighted a big ship. #quid ait, ubi mē nōminās#, T. Hau. 303, what sayeth she when you name me? #ubī̆ neutrī trānseundī initium faciunt, Caesar suōs in castra redūxit#, 2, 9, 2, neither party taking the initiative in crossing, Caesar marched his men back to camp. Verbs of perceiving, especially #videō#, occur oftenest in this use, which is common in Plautus and Terence: as, #postquam videt nūptiās adparārī, missast ancilla īlicō#, T. Andr. 513, after she sees a marriage on foot, her maid is sent forthwith. #abeō ab illīs, postquam videō mē lūdificārier#, Pl. Cap. 487, seeing myself made game of, I leave them. #quem posteā quam videt nōn adesse, ardēre atque furere coepit#, V. 2, 92, seeing that the man does not appear, he began to rage and fume. #ubī̆ hoc videt, init cōnsilium importūnī tyrannī#, V. 5, 103, seeing this, he adopted the policy of a savage tyrant. Plautus uses also #quom extemplō#. Such protases often take on a causal sense (see also 1930).

1927. The present or perfect with #postquam# or #ut# is sometimes used in expressions equivalent to an emphasized accusative or ablative of time, the main verb being #est# or #sunt#: as, #septingentī sunt annī postquam inclita condita Rōma est#, E. in Varro, RR. 3, 1, 2, ’tis seven hundred years since glorious Rome was founded. #domō ut abiērunt hic tertius annus#, Pl. St. 29, this is the third year since they left home. #annus est octāvus ut imperium obtinēs#, Ta. 14, 53, it is the eighth year since you acquired empire. For a similar use of #cum#, see 1871.

1928. The pluperfect with #postquam#, denoting resulting state (1615), occurs less frequently: as,

#tum cum P. Āfricānus, posteā quam bis cōnsul fuerat, L. Cottam in iūdicium vocābat#, Caecil. 69, at the time when Africanus, after he had twice been consul, was bringing Cotta to judgement. #postquam omnium oculōs occupāverat certāmen, tum āversam adoriuntur Rōmānam aciem#, L. 22, 48, 4, when every eye was fairly riveted on the engagement, that instant they fell upon the Romans in the rear. Not in Plautus, once in Terence, and rare in classical writers.

1929. The pluperfect, less frequently the perfect, with #postquam# is used attributively with nouns denoting time.

In this use #post# is often separated from #quam#, and two constructions are possible: (a.) Ablative: #annō post quam vōta erat aedēs Monētae dēdicātur#, L. 7, 28, 6, the temple of Moneta is dedicated a year after it was vowed. Without #post#: #quadringentēsimō annō quam urbs Rōmanā condita erat, patriciī cōnsulēs magistrātum iniēre#, L. 7, 18, 1, four hundred years after Rome town was founded, patrician consuls entered into office. (b.) Accusative, with an ordinal, and #post# as a preposition, or, sometimes, #intrā#: #post diem tertium gesta rēs est quam dīxerat#, Mil. 44, the deed was done the next day but one after he said it. See 2419.

1930. The imperfect with #postquam# expresses action continuing into the time of the main action. Such a protasis, especially when negative, usually denotes the cause of the main action: as,

#Appius, postquam nēmō adībat, domum sē recēpit#, L. 3, 46, 9, Appius, finding that nobody presented himself, went back home. #posteā quam ē scaenā explōdēbātur, cōnfūgit in huius domum#, RC. 30, after being repeatedly hissed off the stage, he took refuge in my client’s house.

In old Latin this use is found only once, in Plautus; it is most common in Livy, but occurs frequently in Tacitus. So occasionally the present, generally when the main action is present (see also 1926): as, #postquam nec ab Rōmānīs vōbīs ūlla est spēs, nec vōs moenia dēfendunt, pācem adferō ad vōs#, L. 21, 13, 4, now that it has become plain that you have no hope from the Romans, and that your walls are no protection to you, I bring peace unto you. #postquam līberast, ubī̆ habitet dīcere admodum incertē sciō#, Pl. E. 505, now that she’s free, I’m quite too ill informed to say where she lives. #quae omnia intellegit nihil prōdesse, posteā quam testibus convincitur#, V. 5, 103, he knows that all this is fruitless, now that he is being refuted by witnesses. The perfect with #postquam# or #ut# occurs occasionally in this use with the present in the main clause: as, #animus in tūtō locōst, postquam iste hinc abiīt#, Pl. Ps. 1052, my mind is easy, now that fellow’s gone. #nam ut in nāvī vecta’s, crēdō timida ‘s#, Pl. B. 106, for after your voyage, of course you’re nervous.

1931. #postquam# and #ut# have sometimes the meaning of ever since or as long as: as,

#postquam nātus sum, satur numquam fuī#, Pl. St. 156, since I was born I’ve never had enough to eat. #tibī̆ umquam quicquam, postquam tuos sum, verbōrum dedī?# Pl. Most. 925, have I once ever cheated you as long as I have been your slave? #neque meum pedem intulī in aedīs, ut cum exercitū hinc profectus sum#, Pl. Am. 733, I have n’t set foot in the house ever since I marched out with the army. #ut illōs dē rē pūblicā librōs ēdidistī, nihil ā tē posteā accēpimus#, Br. 19, we have had nothing from you since you published the work On the State.

#ubī̆#, #ut#, #simul atque#.

1932. #ubī̆#, #ut#, or #simul atque# (#ac#) often introduces a clause denoting indefinite or repeated action: as,

#adeō obcaecat animōs fortūna, ubī̆ vim suam refringī nōn vult#, L. 5, 37, 1, so completely does fortune blind the mind when she will not have her power thwarted. #ubī̆ salūtātiō dēflūxit, litterīs mē involvō#, Fam. 9, 20, 3, when my callers go, I always plunge into my book (1613). #omnēs profectō mulierēs tē amant, ut quaeque aspexit#, Pl. MG. 1264, all the ladies love you, every time one spies you. #simul atque sē īnflēxit hīc rēx in dominātum iniūstiōrem, fit continuō tyrannus#, RP. 2, 48, for the moment our king turns to a severer kind of mastery, he becomes a tyrant on the spot. #Messānam ut quisque nostrūm vēnerat, haec vīsere solēbat#, V. 4, 5, any Roman, who visited Messana, invariably went to see these statues (1618). #hostēs, ubī̆ aliquōs singulārēs cōnspexerant, adoriēbantur#, 4, 26, 2, every time the enemy saw some detached parties, they would charge. The imperfect in this use is not common in classical writers, and occurs but once, with #ubī̆#, in old Latin; the pluperfect is rare before the silver age. Clauses with #ut# generally contain some form of #quisque# (2396). Plautus uses #quom extemplō# with the present and perfect. The subjunctive is found with #ubī̆# and #ut quisque# in cases of repeated past action (1730).

1933. #ubī̆#, #ut#, or #simul atque# rarely introduces an imperfect or pluperfect of definite time: as,

#quid ubi reddēbās aurum, dīxistī patrī#, Pl. B. 685, what did you tell your father when you were returning the money? #ubī̆ lūx adventābat, tubicinēs sīgna canere#, S. I. 99, 1, when daylight was drawing on, the trumpeters sounded the call. #ubī̆ nēmō obvius ībat, plēnō gradū ad hostium castra tendunt#, L. 9, 45, 14, finding nobody came to meet them, they advanced double quick upon the enemy’s camp (1930). The use of these tenses referring to definite time is very rare in old Latin, and found only with #ut# in Cicero.

1934. #ubī̆# or #simul atque#, referring to definite time, introduces the future or future perfect, when the apodosis is also future: as,

#simul et quid erit certī, scrībam ad tē#, Att. 2, 20, 2, as soon as there is anything positive, I will write to you. #ego ad tē statim habēbō quod scrībam, simul ut vīderō Cūriōnem#, Att. 10, 4, 12, I shall have something to write you, as soon as ever I see Curio. #nam ubī̆ mē aspiciet, ad carnuficem rapiet continuō senex#, Pl. B. 688, when the old man sees me, he’ll hurry me off to Jack Ketch without any ado. #ubi prīmum poterit, sē illinc subdūcet#, T. Eu. 628, she’ll steal away as soon as she can. Plautus has also #quom extemplō# in this use, and Pliny the Younger #ut primum#.

#utī# or #ut#.

1935. The relative adverb #utī# or #ut# (711) is found in the oldest Latin in the form #utei#, but #ut# was the prevalent form even in the time of Plautus. As a conjunctive particle, it accompanies both the indicative and the subjunctive. For #ut# in wishes, see 1540; in questions, 1568.

WITH THE INDICATIVE.

(A.) #ut#, where.

1936. #utī# or #ut# in the rare signification of where, accompanies the indicative: as, #atque in eōpse adstās lapide, ut praecō praedicat#, Pl. B. 815, and there you stand right on the auction block, just where the crier always cries. #sīve in extrēmōs penetrābit Indōs, lītus ut longē resonante Eōā tunditur undā#, Cat. 11, 2, or shall he pierce to farthest Ind, where by the long-resounding eastern wave the strand is lashed. In classical Latin, #ut# in this sense is used only by the poets, as here and there in Lucilius, Catullus, Cicero’s Aratēa, and Vergil. #ubī̆# is the word regularly used. For #ut#, when, see 1923.

(B.) #ut#, as.

1937. The indicative is used in the protasis of a comparative period introduced by #utī# or #ut#, as.

#ut# often has as a correlative #ita#, #item#, #itidem#, #sīc#, #perinde#, or #similiter#, and sometimes in old Latin and poetry #aequē#, #adaequē#, #pariter#, #nōn aliter#, #nōn secus#, #īdem#. #sīc# is sometimes drawn to the protasis, making #sīcutī#, #sīcut#; #utī# is sometimes strengthened by #vel#, making #velutī#, #velut#, even as, just as. #quemadmodum# often, and #quōmodo# sometimes, stands for #ut#. For the use of #ut# in old Latin in sentences in which classical Latin would employ the indirect question, see 1791. For coordinated comparative sentences without #ut#, see 1704.

#perge ut īnstituistī#, RP. 2, 22, go on as you have begun. #ut volēs mēd esse, ita erō#, Pl. Ps. 240, as you will have me be, so will I be (1625). #ut sēmentem fēceris, ita metēs#, DO. 2, 261, as you sow, y’are like to reap (1626). #ut nōn omnem frūgem in omnī agrō reperīre possīs, sīc nōn omne facinus in omnī vītā nāscitur#, RA. 75, every crime does not start into being in every life, any more than you can find every fruit in every field (1731). Also in asseverations: #ita mē dī amābunt, ut ego hunc auscultō lubēns#, Pl. Aul. 496, so help me heaven, as I am glad to hear this man (1622).

1938. #ut . . . ita# or #sīc#, as . . . so, often stand where concessive and adversative conjunctions might be used; while . . . nevertheless, although ... yet, certainly . . . but: as,

#ut nihil bonī est in morte, sīc certē nihil malī#, L. 14, while there is nothing good after death, yet certainly there is nothing bad. #quō factō sīcut glōriam auxit, ita grātiam minuit#, Suet. Oth. 1, by this action he increased his reputation, but lessened his popularity. #nec ut iniūstus in pāce rēx, ita dux bellī prāvus fuit#, L. 1, 53, 1, but while he was an unjust king in peace, he was not a bad leader in war. This adversative correlation is found sometimes in Cicero, but is far more common in late writers.

1939. #ut quisque#, commonly with a superlative expression, is used in the protasis of a comparative period of equality, with #ita# or #sīc# and commonly another superlative expression in the apodosis: as,

#ut quaeque rēs est turpissima, sīc maximē vindicanda est#, Caec. 7, the more disgraceful a thing is, the more emphatically does it call for punishment. #ut quisque optimē Graecē scīret, ita esse nēquissimum#, DO. 2, 265, that the better Greek scholar a man was, the greater rascal he always was (1722). This construction is often abridged: as, #sapientissimus quisque aequissimō animō moritur#, CM. 83, the sage always dies with perfect resignation. #optimus quisque praeceptor frequentiā gaudet#, Quint. 1, 2, 9, the best teachers always revel in large classes. See 2397.

1940. #ut# often introduces a parenthetical idea, particularly a general truth or a habit which accounts for the special fact expressed in the main sentence: as,

#nēmō, ut opīnor, in culpā est#, Clu. 143, nobody, as I fancy, is to blame. #excitābat flūctūs in simpulō, ut dīcitur, Grātidius#, Leg. 3, 36, Gratidius was raising a tempest in a teapot, as the saying is. #paulisper, dum sē uxor, ut fit, comparat, commorātus est#, Mil. 28, he had to wait a bit, as is always the case, while his wife was putting on her things. #hōrum auctōritāte adductī, ut sunt Gallōrum subita cōnsilia, Trebium retinent#, 3, 8, 3, influenced by these people they detain Trebius, as might have been expected, sudden resolutions being always characteristic of the Gauls. #sēditiōne nūntiātā, ut erat laenā amictus, ita vēnit in cōntiōnem#, Br. 56, an outbreak was reported, and he came to the meeting all accoutred as he was, with his sacrificial robe on. Often elliptically: as, #acūtī hominis, ut Siculī#, TD. 1, 15, a bright man, of course, being a Sicilian. #Aequōrum exercitus, ut quī permultōs annōs imbellēs ēgissent, trepidāre#, L. 9, 45, 10, the army of the Aequians alarmed and irresolute, and naturally, since they had passed a great many years without fighting (1824, 1827).

1941. #ut#, as for example, is used in illustrations, particularly in abridged sentences (1057): as,

#genus est quod plūrēs partēs amplectitur, ut ‘animal.’ pars est, quae subest generī, ut ‘equos,’# Inv. 1, 32, a class is what embraces a number of parts, as ‘living thing’; a part is what is included in a class, as ‘horse.’ #sunt bēstiae in quibus inest aliquid simile virtūtis, ut in leōnibus, ut in canibus#, Fin. 5, 38, there are brutes in which there is a something like the moral quality of man, as for instance the lion and the dog.

1942. The parenthetical clause with #ut# or #prout# sometimes makes an allowance for the meaning of a word, usually an adjective, in the main sentence: as,

#cīvitās ampla atque flōrēns, ut est captus Germānōrum#, 4, 3, 3, a grand and prosperous community, that is according to German conceptions. #ut captus est servōrum, nōn malus#, T. Ad. 480, not a bad fellow, as slaves go. #Sthenius ab adulēscentiā haec comparārat, supellēctilem ex aere ēlegantiōrem, tabulās pīctās, etiam argentī bene factī prout Thermītānī hominis facultātēs ferēbant, satis#, V. 2, 83, Sthenius had been a collector from early years of such things as artistic bronzes, pictures; also of curiously wrought silver a goodly amount, that is as the means of a Thermae man went. Often in abridged sentences: as, #scrīptor fuit, ut temporibus illīs, lūculentus#, Br. 102, he was a brilliant historian for the times. #multae etiam, ut in homine Rōmānō, litterae#, CM. 12, furthermore, extensive reading, that is for a Roman. #ut illīs temporibus, praedīves#, L. 4, 13, 1, a millionaire, for those times.

1943. #ut#, as indeed, as in fact, with the indicative, is used to represent that an action supposed, conceded, or commanded, really occurs: as,

#sit Ennius sānē, ut est certē, perfectior#, Br. 76, grant, for aught I care, that Ennius is a more finished poet, as indeed he is. #utī erat rēs, Metellum esse ratī#, S. I. 69, 1, supposing that it was Metellus, as in fact it was. This use begins in the classical period. It is found particularly with #quamvīs#, 1905; with #sī#, see 2017.

1944. #ut#, as, like, sometimes shows that a noun used predicatively is not literally applicable, but expresses an imputed quality or character: as,

#Cicerō ea quae nunc ūsū veniunt cecinit ut vātēs#, N. 25, 16, 4, Cicero foretold what is now actually occurring, like a bard inspired. #canem et faelem ut deōs colunt#, Leg. 1, 32, they bow the knee to dog and cat as gods. #quod mē sīcut alterum parentem dīligit#, Fam. 5, 8, 4, because he loves me like a second father. #rēgiae virginēs, ut tōnstrīculae, tondēbant barbam patris#, TD. 5, 58, the princesses used to shave their father, just like common barber-girls. In an untrue or a merely figurative comparison #tamquam# (1908) or #quasi# is used.

1945. In old Latin, #prae# is combined with #ut#: #praeut#, compared with how: as, #parum etiam, praeut futūrumst, praedicās#, Pl. Am. 374, you say too little still compared with how ’twill be. #praeut# is sometimes followed by a relative clause: as, #lūdum iocumque dīcet fuisse illum alterum, praeut huius rabiēs quae dabit#, T. Eu. 300, he’ll say the other was but sport and play, compared with what this youth will in his frenzy do.

1946. In Plautus #sīcut#, with the indicative, has once or twice the meaning of since: as, #quīn tū illam iubē abs tē abīre quō lubet: sīcut soror eius hūc gemina vēnit Ephesum#, MG. 974, why, bid her go away from you wherever she may choose, since her twin sister here to Ephesus is come.

WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

#utī# or #ut#.

NEGATIVE #ut nē#, #nē#, or #ut nōn#.

1947. The subjunctive with #ut# is: (A.) That of action desired (1540), in clauses of purpose; in these the negative is #nē#, or sometimes #ut nē#, and and that not, #nēve# or #neu#, rarely #neque# or #nec#. #ut nē#, though used at all periods (not by Caesar, Sallust, or Livy), is chiefly found in older Latin; afterwards #nē# alone took its place (1706). #ut nōn# is used when the negative belongs to a single word. (B.) That of action conceivable (1554), in clauses of result; in these the negative is #ut nōn#, #ut nēmō#, #ut nūllus#, &c.; or with emphasis on the negative, #nēmō ut#, #nūllus ut#, #nihil ut#; also #vix ut#, #paene ut#, #prope ut#.

1948. Final and consecutive clauses with #ut# are of two classes: I. Complementary clauses, that is, such as are an essential complement of certain specific verbs or expressions; such clauses have the value of a substantive, and may represent a subject, an object, or any oblique case. II. Pure final or consecutive clauses, in which the purpose or result of any action may be expressed, and which are not essential to complete the sense of a verb.

(A.) PURPOSE.

I. COMPLEMENTARY FINAL CLAUSES.

1949. (1.) The subjunctive with #ut# or #nē# is used in clauses which serve to complete the sense of verbs of will or aim.

1950. (a.) Verbs of will include those of desire, request, advice, resolution, stipulation, command, or permission.

Will may be suggested by a general verb or expression: as, #dīcō#, #respondeō#, #nūntiō#, &c.; or denoted by specific ones, of which some of the commonest are: desire: #volō# (#mālō#), #concupīscō#, #optō#. request: #petō#, #postulō#, #flāgitō#, #ōrō#, #rogō#, #precor#, #obsecrō#, #implōrō#, #instō#, urge, #invītō#. advice: #suādeō#, #persuādeō#, persuade, #moneō#, bid, #admoneō#, #hortor#, #cēnseō#, propose, vote. resolution, stipulation: #dēcernō#, #statuō#, decree, #cōnstituō#, #placet#, #sanciō#, #pacīscor#, #pepigī#. command: #imperō#, #praecipiō#, #praescrībō#, #mandō#, #negōtium dō#, #ēdīcō#, #ferō#, #caveō#, #interdīcō#. permission: #concēdō#, allow, #permittō#, #committō#, #potestātem faciō#, #veniam dō#, #sinō#, #nōn patior#.

1951. (b.) Verbs of aim include those of striving, accomplishing, or inducing; such are:

striving: #agō# or #id agō#, #animum indūcō#, #temptō#, #operam dō#, #labōrō#, #nītor#, #ēnītor#, #mōlior#, #videō#, #prōspiciō#, #cūrō#, #nihil antīquius habeō quam#, #contendō#, #studeō#, #pūgnō#. accomplishing: #faciō# (#efficiō#, #perficiō#), #praestō#; #mereō#; #impetrō#, #adsequor#, #cōnsequor#, #adipīscor#. inducing: #moveō#, #excitō#, #incitō#, #impellō#, #perpellō#, #cōgō#.

(a.) #optāvit ut in currum patris tollerētur#, Off. 3, 94, he asked to be lifted into his father’s chariot. #optō nē sē illa gēns moveat#, Fam. 12, 19, 2, I hope and pray that that nation may not stir. #Ubiī ōrābant, ut sibī̆ auxilium ferret#, 4, 16, 5, the Ubians begged that he would help them. #Pausaniās ōrāre coepit nē ēnūntiāret#, N. 4, 4, 6, Pausanias began to beg that he would not tell. #hortātus est utī in officiō manēret#, 5, 4, 2, he urged him to remain steadfast in duty. #hortātur eōs nē animō dēficiant#, Caes. C. 1, 19, 1, he urges them not to get disheartened (1752). #suīs, ut idem faciant, imperat#, 5, 37, 1, he orders his men to do the same. #suīs imperāvit nē quod omnīnō tēlum rēicerent#, 1, 46, 2, he ordered his men not to throw any weapon at all back. #huic permīsit, utī in hīs locīs legiōnem conlocāret#, 3, 1, 3, he allowed this man to quarter his legion in these parts. #neque suam neque populī Rōmānī cōnsuētūdinem patī, utī sociōs dēsereret#, 1, 45, 1, that his practice and that of the Roman nation would not allow him to desert his allies.

(b.) #neque id agere ut exercitum teneat ipse, sed nē illī habeant quō contrā sē ūtī possint#, Caes. C. 1, 85, 11, and that his object was not to hold the army himself, but to prevent the other side from having an army which they could use against him. #XII nāvibus āmissīs, reliquīs ut nāvigārī commodē posset effēcit#, 4, 31, 3, a dozen vessels were lost, but he managed to sail comfortably with the rest. #eius bellī fāma effēcit nē sē pugnae committerent Sappīnātēs#, L. 5, 32, 4, the story of this war prevented the Sappinatians from hazarding an engagement. #sī ā Chrȳsogonō nōn impetrāmus ut pecūniā nostrā contentus sit, vītam nē petat#, RA. 150, if we do not succeed in making Chrysogonus satisfied with our money without his aiming at our life. #Aulum spē pactiōnis perpulit, utī in abditās regiōnēs sēsē īnsequerētur#, S. I. 38, 2, Aulus he induced by the hope of a pecuniary settlement to follow him to distant regions. #Antōnium pactiōne prōvinciae perpulerat, nē contrā rem pūblicam sentīret#, S. C. 26, 4, by agreeing to let Antony have a province, he had induced him not to be disaffected toward the government.

1952. Many of these verbs often have a coordinated subjunctive (1705-1713), or, according to the meaning, admit other constructions, which must in general be learned by reading, or from the dictionary. The following points may be noticed:

1953. (a.) The verbs of resolving, #statuō#, #cōnstituō#, and #dēcernō#, and of striving, #nītor#, and #temptō#, have usually the complementary infinitive (2169), unless a new subject is introduced. For #volō# (#mālō#), and #cupiō#, see also 2189; for #iubeō#, #vetō#, #sinō#, and #patior#, 2198. #postulō#, expect, often has the same construction as #volō#, especially in old Latin (2194). For #imperō#, see 2202.

1954. (b.) Some of the above verbs, with the meaning think or say, have the accusative with the infinitive (2175, 2195): as, #volō#, #contendō#, maintain, #concēdō#, admit, #statuō#, assume, #dēcernō#, judge, #moneō#, remind, #persuādeō#, convince.

1955. (c.) Verbs of accomplishing sometimes express result rather than purpose, and when the result is negative, are completed by a clause with #ut nōn# (1965). For the infinitive with such verbs, see 2196.

1956. #est# with a predicate noun is sometimes equivalent to a verb of will or aim, and has the same construction.

So with words like #iūs#, #lēx#, #mūnus#, &c.: as, #iūs esse bellī ut quī vīcissent hīs quōs vīcissent imperārent#, 1, 36, 1, that rules of war entitled conquerors to lord it over conquered. #quis nescit prīmam esse historiae lēgem, nē quid falsī dīcere audeat?# DO. 2, 62, who does not know that the first rule of history is that it shall not venture to say anything false? #iūstitiae prīmum mūnus est ut nē cui quis noceat#, Off. 1, 20, the first duty of justice is that a man harm nobody. #nam id arbitror adprīmē in vītā esse ūtile, ‘ut nē quid nimis,’# T. Andr. 60, for this I hold to be a rule in life that’s passing useful, ‘naught in overplus.’

1957. (2.) The subjunctive with #ut# or #nē# is used in clauses which complete expressions of fear, anxiety, or danger.

#ut#, that not, may not, and #nē#, lest, may, were originally signs of a wish (1540): thus, #vereor, ut fīat#, I am afraid; may it come to pass, acquires the meaning of I am afraid it may not come to pass (1706); and #vereor, nē fīat#, I am afraid; may it not come to pass, of I am afraid it may come to pass. #metuō ut# is common in old Latin, and is used by Horace, but not by Caesar or Sallust, once by Cicero in the orations. #timeō ut# is rare, and first used by Cicero. #vereor ut# is not uncommon.

#at vereor ut plācārī possit#, T. Ph. 965, but I’m afraid she can’t be reconciled. #nē uxor rescīscat metuit#, Pl. As. 743, he is afraid his wife may find it out. #ō puer, ut sīs vītālis metuō, et maiōrum nē quis amīcus frīgore tē feriat#, H. S. 2, 1, 60, my boy, you’ll not see length of days I fear, and that some grander friend may with his coldness cut you dead. #nēquid summā dēperdat metuēns aut ampliet ut rem#, H. S. 1, 4, 31, in dread lest from his store he something lose or may not add to his estate. #metuō nē nōs nōsmet perdiderīmus uspiam#, Pl. MG. 428, I’m afraid we’ve lost ourselves somewhere. #sollicitus nē turba perēgerit orbem#, J. 5, 20, apprehensive that the throng may have finished its round. #nē nōn# is often, though rarely in old Latin, used for #ut#, and regularly when the expression of fear is negative: as, #nōn vereor nē hoc officium meum P. Servīliō nōn probem#, V. 4, 82, I have no fear but I may make my services acceptable in the eyes of Servilius. For #nōn metuō quīn#, see 1986.

1958. #vereor nē# is often equivalent to I rather think, and #vereor ut# to hardly. #vidē (videāmus, videndum est) nē#, and similar expressions, are sometimes used for #vereor nē#, to introduce something conjectured rather than proved: as,

#vereor nē barbarōrum rēx fuerit#, RP. 1, 58, I rather think he was king over savages. #vidē nē mea coniectūra multō sit vērior#, Clu. 97, I rather think my conjecture is in better keeping with the facts.

1959. Other constructions with expressions of fear are: (a.) Indirect question. (b.) Accusative with infinitive. (c.) Complementary infinitive: as,

(a.) #erī semper lēnitās verēbar quorsum ēvāderet#, T. Andr. 175, I was afraid how master’s always gentleness would end. #timeō quid sit#, T. Hau. 620, I have my fears what it may be. #timeō quid rērum gesserim#, Pl. MG. 397, I am concerned to think what capers I have cut. #metuō quid agam#, T. Hau. 720, I’m scared and know not what to do (1731). (b.) #ego mē cupiditātis rēgnī crīmen subitūrum timērem?# L. 2, 7, 9, was I to fear being charged with aspiring to a throne? (c.) #vereor cōram in ōs tē laudāre#, T. Ad. 269, I am afraid to disgrace you with praise to the face (2168).

1960. (3.) The subjunctive with #nē# is used in clauses which serve to complete the sense of verbs of avoiding, hindering, and resisting.

Such are: avoiding: #caveō#, #mē ēripiō#, #vītō#. hindering: #intercēdō#, #interdīcō#, #recūsō#, #repugnō#, #temperō#; also the following which often have #quōminus# (1977): #dēterreō#, #impediō#, #obsistō#, #obstō#, #officiō#, #prohibeō#, #teneō#. resisting: #resistō#, #repugnō#, #recūsō#; with these last often #quōminus#. Some of the above verbs when preceded by a negative also take #quīn# (1986); #prohibeō# and #impediō# have also the accusative with the infinitive (2203). For the subjunctive coordinated with #cavē̆#, see 1711.

#nē quid eīs noceātur neu quis invītus sacrāmentum dīcere cōgātur ā Caesare cavētur#, Caes. C. 1, 86, 4, all precaution is taken by Caesar that no harm be done them, and that nobody be compelled to take the oath against his will. #per eōs, nē causam dīceret, sē ēripuit#, 1, 4, 2, thanks to this display of retainers he succeeded in avoiding trial. #plūra nē scrībam, dolōre impedior#, Att. 11, 13, 5, grief prevents me from writing more. #nē qua sibī̆ statua pōnerētur restitit#, N. 25, 3, 2, he objected to having a statue erected in his honour.

[Errata: 1951b ... #contendō#, #studeō#, #pūgnō#. text unchanged: word generally spelled “pugn-” (see endnote on first edition) 1958 ... #vidē nē mea coniectūra multō sit vērior#, Clu. 97 . for ,]

II. PURE FINAL CLAUSES.

1961. The subjunctive with #ut# or #nē# is used to denote the purpose of the main action.

The purpose is often indicated in the main sentence by an expression like #ideō#, #idcircō#, #proptereā#, #eā mente#, &c.

#vigilās dē nocte, ut tuīs cōnsultōribus respondeās#, Mur. 22, you have to get up early in the morning to give advice to your clients. #maiōrēs nostrī ab arātrō addūxērunt Cincinnātum, ut dictātor esset#, Fin. 2, 12, our fathers brought Cincinnatus from his plough, to be dictator. #dīcam auctiōnis causam, ut damnō gaudeant#, Pl. St. 207, I’ll tell the reason for the sale, that o’er my losses they may gloat. #quīn etiam nē tōnsōrī collum committeret, tondēre fīliās suās docuit#, TD. 5, 58, why, he actually taught his own daughters to shave, so as not to trust his throat to a barber. #Caesar, nē graviōrī bellō occurreret, ad exercitum proficīscitur#, 4, 6, 1, to avoid facing war on a more formidable scale, Caesar goes to the army. #tē ulcīscar, ut nē inpūne in nōs inlūseris#, T. Eu. 941, I’ll be revenged on you, so that you shan’t play tricks on me for nothing (1947). #nē īgnōrārētis esse aliquās pācis vōbīs condiciōnēs, ad vōs vēnī#, L. 21, 13, 2, I have come to you to let you know that you have some chances of peace (1754). #ita mē gessī nē tibī̆ pudōrī essem#, L. 40, 15, 6, I comported myself in such a way that I might not be a mortification to you. #Mariōnem ad tē eō mīsī, ut tēcum ad mē venīret#, Fam. 16, 1, 1, I sent Mario to you with the intention of having him come with you to me. #idcircō nēmō superiōrum attigit, ut hīc tolleret? ideō C. Claudius rettulit, ut C. Verrēs posset auferre?# V. 4, 7, was that the reason why no former officials laid a finger on it, that this man might swoop it away? was that why Claudius returned it, that a Verres might carry it off? #danda opera est, ut etiam singulīs cōnsulātur, sed ita, ut ea rēs aut prōsit aut certē nē obsit rē̆ī pūblicae#, Off. 2, 72, we must be particular in regarding the interests of individuals as well, but with this restriction, that our action may benefit, or at any rate may not damage the country.

1962. The subjunctive with #ut# or #nē# is often used not to express the purpose of the main action, but in a parenthetical clause, as though dependant upon some verb unexpressed: as,

#ut in pauca cōnferam, testāmentō factō mulier moritur#, Caec. 17, to cut a long story short, the woman makes her will and dies. #sed ut hīc nē īgnōret, quae rēs agātur: dē nātūrā agēbāmus deōrum#, DN. 1, 17, but that our friend here may know what is up: we were just on the nature of the gods. The tense is present, in late writers the perfect, as #ut sīc dīxerim#, Quint. 1, 6, 1. Here may also be mentioned the use of #nēdum# (rarely #nē# or, from Livy on, #nēdum ut#) with the present subjunctive (rarely the imperfect): as, #satrapa numquam sufferre eius sūmptūs queat: nēdum tū possīs#, T. Hau. 452, a prince couldn’t stand her extravagance, much less could you. This is found in Terence and Lucretius once each, in Cicero, and later; not in Caesar. The preceding clause is negative or involves a negative idea. From Livy on, the verb may be omitted: as, #vix clāmōrem eōrum, nēdum impetum tulēre#, L. 34, 20, 7, they hardly stood their war cry, much less their charge.

1963. The subjunctive is used in an assumption or concession with #ut# or #nē#, or if the negation belongs to a single word, with #ut nōn#, #nēmō#, &c.: as,

#ut taceam, quoivīs facile scītū est quam fuerim miser#, T. Hec. 296, even supposing I say nothing, anybody can understand how unhappy I was. #sed ut haec concēdantur, reliqua quī concēdī possunt?# DN. 3, 41, but even supposing this be admitted, how can the rest be admitted? #nē sit summum malum dolor, malum certē est#, TD. 2, 14, grant that suffering is not the chiefest evil, an evil it assuredly is (1553). #vērum ut hoc nōn sit, tamen praeclārum spectāculum mihī̆ prōpōnō#, Att. 2, 15, 2, but suppose this be not the case, still I anticipate a gorgeous show. #ac iam ut omnia contrā opīniōnem acciderent, tamen sē plūrimum nāvibus posse perspiciēbant#, 3, 9, 6, and even supposing everything turned out contrary to expectation, still they saw clearly that they had the advantage by sea. #ut enim nēminem alium nisi T. Patinam rogāsset, scīre potuit prōdī flāminem necesse esse#, Mil. 46, for even supposing he had asked nobody but Patina, he might have known that a priest must be appointed. This use is common in Cicero, not found in Plautus or Sallust.

1964. The subjunctive with #ut# or #nē#, generally with #ita# as a correlative, sometimes has the force of a proviso: as,

#ita probanda est clēmentia, ut adhibeātur sevēritās#, Off. 1, 88, mercy is to be commended, provided that strictness is employed. #satis memoriae meae tribuent, ut maiōribus meīs dignum crēdant#, Ta. 4, 38, they will pay respect enough to my memory, provided they consider me worthy of my ancestors.

(B.) RESULT.

I. COMPLEMENTARY CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES.

1965. The subjunctive with #ut# or #ut nōn# is used in clauses which serve to complete the sense of certain verbs and expressions, chiefly of bringing to pass, happening, and following.

Such are: (a.) #faciō#, #efficiō# (unless they imply purpose, 1951); #fit#, #accidit#, #contingit#, #ēvenit#, #est#, it is the case; similarly #mōs est#, #cōnsuētūdō est#, &c. (b.) #proximum est#, #reliquum est#, #extrēmum est#, #relinquitur#, #restat#, #accēdit#. Or, of logical sequence, #sequitur#, #efficitur#.

(a.) #fēcērunt ut cōnsimilis fugae profectiō vidērētur#, 2, 11, 1, they made their march look exactly like a stampede. #splendor vester facit ut peccāre sine summō perīculō nōn possītis#, V. 1, 22, your conspicuous position makes it impossible for you to do wrong without great peril. #hīs rēbus fīēbat, ut minus lātē vagārentur#, 1, 2, 4, so it came to pass that they did not rove round much. #fit ut nātūrā ipsā ad ōrnātius dīcendī genus excitēmur#, DO. 2, 338, it is sometimes the case that we are roused to a loftier style in oratory by sheer circumstance. #potest fierī ut fallar#, Fam. 13, 73, 2, it is possible that I am mistaken. #fierī nōn potest ut eum tū nōn cōgnōverīs#, V. 2, 190, it must be the case that you have made his acquaintance yourself. #eādem nocte accidit, ut esset lūna plēna#, 4, 29, 1, it came to pass on the same night that there was a full moon (1758). #negāvit mōris esse Graecōrum ut in convīviō virōrum accumberent mulierēs#, V. 1, 66, he said it was not etiquette among the Greeks for women to go to men’s dinner parties. #est hōc commūne vitium in līberīs cīvitātibus, ut invidia glōriae comes sit#, N. 12, 3, 3, this is a common trouble in free communities, that envy is the attendant of a great name.

(b.) #proximum est, ut doceam#, DN. 2, 73, my next task is to prove. #relinquēbātur ut neque longius ab āgmine legiōnum discēdī Caesar paterētur#, 5, 19, 3, the consequence was that Caesar could not allow any very distant excursion from the main line of march. #restat ut doceam omnia hominum causā facta esse#, DN. 2, 154, lastly, I must prove that everything is made for man. #accēdēbat ut tempestātem ferrent#, 3, 13, 9, then, too, they could stand the gale. #accēdit ut# is not found in old Latin; for #accēdit quod#, see 1845. #ita efficitur ut omne corpus mortāle sit#, DN. 3, 30, thus it follows that every bodily substance is mortal. #sequitur# and #efficitur#, it follows, often have the accusative with the infinitive (2207). For the subjunctive with #quam ut# after a comparative of disproportion, see 1896. For #fore# and #futūrum esse ut# as the periphrasis for the future infinitive, see 2233.

1966. Verbs of happening may often be rendered best by compacter expressions: thus, #hīs rēbus fīēbat ut#, consequently; #fit ut#, once in a while, sometimes, often; #fierī potest ut#, possibly; #accidit ut#, accidentally, unfortunately.

1967. #faciō ut#, or with a negative, commonly #committō ut#, is used in circumlocutions for emphasis: as,

#faciundum mihī̆ putāvī, ut tuīs litterīs brevī respondērem#, Fam. 3, 8, 1, I thought I ought to take hold and write a few lines in answer to your letter. #ego vērō nōn committam, ut tibī̆ causam recūsandī dem#, DO. 2, 233, no, no, sir, I will not be guilty, not I, of giving you an excuse to back out. So particularly with #invītus#, #libenter#, #prope#: as, #invītus fēcī ut L. Flāminīnum ē senātū ēicerem#, CM. 42, it was with great reluctance that I expelled Flamininus from the senate.

1968. A subjunctive clause with #ut# is often used to define a preceding idea indicated in a general way by a neuter pronoun: as,

#post eius mortem nihilō minus Helvētiī id, quod cōnstituerant, facere cōnantur, ut ē fīnibus suīs exeant#, 1, 5, 1, after his death the Helvetians attempted just the same to carry out their resolution of moving out of their abodes (1752). #omnibus Gallīs idem esse faciendum, quod Helvētiī fēcerint, ut domō ēmigrent#, 1, 31, 14, that all the Gauls must do just as the Helvetians had done and move away from home. #Helvētiī, cum id, quod ipsī diēbus XX aegerrimē cōnfēcerant, ut flūmen trānsīrent, illum ūnō diē fēcisse intellegerent, lēgātōs mittunt#, 1, 13, 2, when the Helvetians learned that the Roman commander had done in a single day what they had found it hard themselves to do in twenty, namely cross the river, they sent deputies (1752). #id aliquot dē causīs acciderat, ut subitō Gallī bellī renovandi cōnsilium caperent#, 3, 2, 2, it was due to a variety of reasons that the Gauls suddenly conceived the idea of making war again (1758). #hocine bonī esse officium servī exīstumas, ut erī suī corrumpat et rem et fīlium?# Pl. Most. 27, is this what you think the duty of a good slave, to waste his own master’s property and corrupt his son?

1969. #tantum abest#, so far from, is sometimes followed by a double #ut#, the first introducing an unreal, and the second a real action: as,

#tantum abest ut haec bēstiārum causā parāta sint, ut ipsās bēstiās hominum grātiā generātās esse videāmus#, DN. 2, 158, so far from these things being made for brutes, we see that brutes themselves were created for man. This use, very rarely personal, begins with Cicero, and is common in his writings and in Livy. Not in Caesar, Sallust, or Tacitus. Sometimes instead of #ut# the second sentence is coordinated (1700): #tantum abfuit ut īnflammārēs nostrōs animōs, somnum vix tenēbāmus#, Br. 278, so far from your firing our heart, we could hardly keep awake. Or, the idea is expressed by #ita nōn . . . ut#: as, #erat ita nōn timidus ad mortem, ut in aciē sit ob rem pūblicam interfectus#, Fin. 2, 63, so far from being afraid of death, he fell in battle for his country.

[Erratum: 1965a ... splendor vester facit ut word may be “voster”: major blot over text]

II. PURE CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES.

1970. The subjunctive is used with #ut# or #ut nōn# to denote result.

The result may be the result of an action or of a thing named in the main sentence. The main sentence often has a correlative to #ut#, expressing (a.) degree: as, #tantus#, so great, #tam#, so (with adjectives or adverbs), #adeō#, #tantopere#. (b.) quality: as, #is# (#hīc#, #ille#, #iste#), such, #tālis#, #ita#, #sīc#.

#mōns altissimus impendēbat, ut facile perpaucī prohibēre possent#, 1, 6, 1, an exceeding high mountain hung over, so that a very few could block the way. #dictitābant sē domō expulsōs, omnibus necessāriīs egēre rēbus, ut honestā praescrīptiōne rem turpissimam tegerent#, Caes. C. 3, 32, 4, they stoutly declared that they were driven out of house and home, and lacked the necessaries of life, thus veiling dishonour under the name of respectability.

(a.) #Ariovistus tantōs sibī̆ spīritūs sūmpserat, ut ferendus nōn vidērētur#, 1, 33, 5, Ariovistus had put on such high and mighty airs as to seem intolerable. #adeō angustō marī cōnflīxit, ut eius multitūdō nāvium explicārī nōn potuerit#, N. 2, 4, 5, he went into action in such cramped sea-room, that his armada could not deploy, of Xerxes (1757).

(b.) #eōs dēdūxī testēs ut dē istīus factō dubium esse nēminī possit#, V. 4, 91, I have brought such witnesses that nobody can entertain a doubt of the defendant’s guilt. #ita sē recipiēbat ut nihil nisi dē perniciē populī Rōmānī cōgitāret#, Ph. 4, 4, he retreated, it is true, but retreated with his mind running on nothing but how to ruin the country. #illa, ex tūribulīs quae ēvellerat, ita scītē in aureīs pōculīs inligābat, ut ea ad illam rem nāta esse dīcerēs#, V. 4, 54, what he had torn from the censers he attached to golden cups so cunningly that you would have said it was just made for that very purpose (1731, 1559).

For the imperfect subjunctive connected with a main general present, see 1751; for the independent present or perfect subjunctive with a main secondary tense, see 1757.

#ubī̆.#

1971. #ubī̆#, in the sense of where (709), has the ordinary construction of a relative (1812-1831). For #ubī̆#, when, see 1923-1926 and 1932-1934; as a synonym of #sī#, if, see 2110.

#quō# or #quī#.

1972. #quō#, #whereby#, #wherewith#, or in old Latin sometimes #quī# (689), is the instrumental ablative from the relative and interrogative stem #qui-#. Combined with #minus#, the less, not, #quō# gives #quōminus#.

WITH THE INDICATIVE.

1973. The indicative is used with #quō# and a comparative in the protasis of a comparative period, with #eō# or #hōc# and a comparative as correlative (1393): as,

#quō dēlictum maius est, eō poena est tardior#, Caec. 7, the greater the sin is, the slower is the punishment. The #eō# or #hōc# is sometimes omitted: as, #quō plūrēs sumus, plūribus rēbus egēbimus#, L. 34, 34, 6, the more numerous we are, the more things we shall need. In late writers, the comparative is sometimes omitted in the main clause, very rarely in the subordinate clause. #quantō . . . tantō# are also used like #quō . . . eō#: as, #quantō diūtius cōnsīderō, tantō mihī̆ rēs vidētur obscūrior#, DN. 1, 60, the longer I puzzle over it, the more incomprehensible the question seems to me. #quantō magis extergeō, tenuius fit#, Pl. R. 1301, the more I polish, the slimmer it gets. This form is sometimes used with #quisque# or #quis# of indefinite persons, instead of the commoner #ut . . . ita# or #sīc# (1939): as, #quō quisque est sollertior, hōc docet labōriōsius#, RC. 31, the brighter a man is, the more wearisome he finds teaching. #quō quisque est maior, magis est plācābilis īrae#, O. Tr. 3, 5, 31, the greater be the man, the easier ’tis his anger to appease.

WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

1974. The subjunctive is used with #quō# to express purpose.

#quō# differs but little in meaning from #ut# of purpose. It is used (a.) particularly in clauses containing a comparative expression, or (b.) in solemn law language.

(a.) #equitēs omnibus in locīs pugnant, quō sē legiōnāriīs mīlitibus praeferrent#, 2, 27, 2, the troopers fought on every kind of ground, hoping to outshine the regular infantry thereby. #medicō putō aliquid dandum esse, quō sit studiōsior#, Fam. 16, 4, 2, I think it would be well to fee your medical man, to make him more attentive. #id amābō adiūtā mē quō id fīat facilius#, T. Eu. 150, help me in that, I pray, that it may be the easier done. #sublāta erat celebritās virōrum ac mulierum, quō lāmentātiō minuerētur#, Leg. 2, 65, the large attendance of both sexes was done away with, to make the weeping and wailing less harrowing. (b.) #hominī mortuō nē ossa legitō, quō pos fūnus faciat#, Twelve Tables in Leg. 2, 60, he shall not gather up the bones of a dead man, with intent to celebrate the funeral a second time (1586). #quī eōrum coiīt, coierit, quō quis iūdiciō pūblicō condemnārētur#, law in Clu. 148, whosoever of that number conspired or shall have conspired to have anybody condemned in a criminal court. Otherwise rarely used without a comparative expression, yet occasionally found thus in Plautus, Terence, Sallust, and Ovid: as, #hanc simulant parere quō Chremētem absterreant#, T. Andr. 472, they’re pretending that she’s lying in, to frighten Chremes off. So often in Tacitus.

1975. #quō nē#, in a negative clause of purpose, is found in a disputed passage in Horace, but not again until late Latin. For #nōn quō#, #nōn eō quō#, introducing an untenable reason, see 1855.

1976. In old Latin #quī#, whereby, wherewith, withal, is partly felt as a live relative pronoun in the ablative, and partly as a mere conjunction of purpose; as a pronoun it may even take a preposition; as a conjunction, it may refer to a plural antecedent (689): as, #quasi patriciīs puerīs aut monērulae aut anitēs aut cōturnīcēs dantur, quīcum lūsitent: itidem mī haec upupa, quī mē dēlectem datast#, Pl. Cap. 1002, as to the sons of gentlemen or daws or ducks or quails are given, wherewith to play; just so to me this crow is given, to entertain myself withal. #enim mihi quidem aequomst dari vehicla quī vehar#, Pl. Aul. 500, in sooth ‘t were fair that carriages be given me, to ride withal. The indicative occurs where the subjunctive would be used in classical Latin: as, #multa concurrunt simul, quī coniectūram hanc faciō#, T. Andr. 511, a thousand things combine whereby I come to this conjecture.

[Erratum: 1974 ... (b.) . invisible]

#quōminus.#

1977. The subjunctive with #quōminus# (1972) is used to complete the sense of verbs of hindering or resisting.

Such verbs are: #impediō#, #teneō#, hinder, #interclūdō#, #dēterreō#, #obstō#, #obsistō#, #resistō#, #repugnō#, #nōn recūsō#; these verbs often have a subjunctive with #nē# (1960). Cicero rarely and Caesar never uses #quōminus# with #impediō# or #prohibeō#. For the accusative and infinitive with these verbs, see 2203. #quōminus# is also used with #moveor#, am influenced, #fit#, it is owing to, #stat per aliquem#, somebody is responsible, or indeed any expression implying hindrance. When the verb of hindering has a negative with it, #quīn# is often used; see 1986.

#nōn dēterret sapientem mors, quōminus rē̆ī pūblicae suīsque cōnsulat#, TD. 1, 91, death does not hinder the wise man from working for country and friends. #quid obstat, quōminus sit beātus?# DN. 1, 95, what is to hinder his being happy? #neque recūsāvit quōminus lēgis poenam subīret#, N. 15, 8, 2, and he did not decline to submit to the penalty of the law. #Caesar, ubī̆ cōgnōvit per Āfrānium stāre quōminus proeliō dīmicārētur, castra facere cōnstituit#, Caes. C. 1, 41, 3, when Caesar learned that owing to Afranius there was no battle, he resolved to build a camp. #sī tē dolor corporis tenuit, quōminus ad lūdōs venīrēs, fortūnae magis tribuō quam sapientiae tuae#, Fam. 7, 1, 1, if it was bodily suffering that kept you from coming to the performances, I think more highly of your luck than of your sense. Terence first uses #quōminus# thus, but only rarely. He also sometimes uses the parts separately so that the true relative and negative forces appear: as, #sī sēnserō quicquam in hīs tē nūptiīs fallāciae cōnārī, quō fīant minus#, T. Andr. 196, if I catch you trying on any trick in the matter of this marriage through which it may not come off (1451).

1978. In Tacitus, #quōminus# is sometimes found where #quīn# would be used in classical Latin (1986): as, #nec dubitātum quōminus pācem concēderent#, Ta. H. 2, 45, there was no hesitation in granting peace.

1979. It may be mentioned here that #quō sētius# with the subjunctive, instead of #quōminus#, is found twice in Cicero’s earliest extant prose, and twice in older Latin.

#quīn.#

1980. #quīn# is composed of #quī#, the ablative or locative of the interrogative and relative stem #qui-# (689), and #-ne#, not. It is used in simple sentences and as a conjunctive particle.

1981. For the use of #quīn#, why not, in questions with the indicative, see 1526. Such questions have the sense of an affirmative command or exhortation (1531): as, #quīn abīs#, Pl. MG. 1087, why won’t you begone? or get you gone. #quīn cōnscendimus equōs#, L. 1, 57, 7, why not mount, or to horse, to horse. For the use of #quīn# without interrogative force, see 1527.

1982. #quīn# is found occasionally with the subjunctive in a direct question in Plautus, Terence, Lucilius, Lucretius, Cicero, and Tacitus: thus, #quīn ego hōc rogem?# Pl. MG. 426, why shouldn’t I ask this? (1563).

1983. The subjunctive with the conjunctive particle #quīn# is used, particularly in old Latin, in connection with the common formula #nūlla causa est# or its equivalents.

Such a subjunctive may be regarded as original (1786) or as due to the indirect form of question (1773).

#nūlla causast quīn mē condōnēs crucī#, Pl. R. 1070, there’s no reason why you shouldn’t deliver me up to execution. #quīn dēcēdam, nūlla causa est#, Fam. 2, 17, 1, there is no reason why I should not retire. #quid causaest quīn in pistrīnum rēctā proficīscar viā?# T. Andr. 600, what’s the reason I don’t march straight into the mill? #haud causificor quīn eam habeam#, Pl. Aul. 755, I don’t quibble against keeping her.

1984. #mīrum quīn# with the subjunctive is used by Plautus in sarcastic expressions where #mīrum# is ironical: as, #mīrum quīn tū illō tēcum dīvitiās ferās#, Pl. Tri. 495, strange enough, how you can’t take your money there with you, that is to Hades.

1985. The subjunctive with #quīn# (or #ut nōn#) is used after #nōn possum#, or #nōn possum# with an infinitive, usually #facere#, and with #fierī nōn potest#: as,

#nōn enim possum quīn exclāmem, eugē, eugē, Lȳsitelēs, πάλιν#, Pl. Tri. 705, upon my word I must cry bravo, bravo, Lysiteles; encore! #facere nōn potuī quīn tibī̆ sententiam dēclārārem#, Fam. 6, 13, 1, I could not help giving you my views. #fierī nūllō modō poterat, quīn Cleomenī parcerētur#, V. 5, 104, it was impossible not to spare Cleomenes. #ēheu, nequeō quīn fleam, quom abs tē abeam#, Pl. MG. 1342, O well-a-day, I needs must weep, for that from thee I part. #nōn potuistī ūllō modō facere, ut mihī̆ illam epistulam nōn mitterēs#, Att. 11, 21, 1, you could not get along at all without writing me that letter (1965).

1986. The subjunctive with quīn is used in clauses which complete the sense of verbs of restraining, abstaining, delaying, or doubting, when such verbs have a negative, expressed or implied.

Such verbs are (a.) restraining: #temperō mihī̆#, #teneō#, restrain, #retineō#, #contineō#, #dēterreō#, #reprimō#. abstaining: #praetermittō#, #intermittō#. delaying: #cunctor#, #differō#, #exspectō#, #recūsō#; #nōn multum#, #nihil#, #paulum abest#. (b.) doubting: #dubitō#, #dubium est#; a doubt may also be implied in other words, or forms of words: as, #nōn metuō#, #nōn abest suspīciō#, &c.

(a.) #neque sibī̆ hominēs barbarōs temperātūrōs exīstimābat, quīn in prōvinciam exīrent#, 1, 33, 4, and he thought, as they were savages, they would not restrain themselves, but would sally out into the province. #vix mē contineō quīn involem mōnstrō in capillum#, T. Eu. 859, I scarce can keep from flying at the caitiff’s hair. #nihil praetermīsī, quīn Pompēium ā Caesaris coniūnctiōne āvocārem#, Ph. 2, 23, I left no stone unturned to prevent Pompey from joining Caesar. #abstinēre quīn attingās nōn queās#, Pl. B. 915, you can’t keep from touching it. (b.) #nōn dubitat, quīn tē ductūrum negēs#, T. Andr. 405, he doesn’t doubt that you’ll refuse to marry. #quis dubitet, quīn in virtūte dīvitiae sint?# Par. 48, who can doubt that there is money in virtue? #neque abest suspīciō quīn ipse sibī̆ mortem cōnscīverit#, 1, 4, 4, and ground is not wanting for the belief that he made away with himself.

1987. #nōn dubitō# has other constructions: (a.) Indirect question. (#b.#) Accusative with the infinitive (in some authors: chiefly Nepos and Livy and later writers). (c.) Meaning not hesitate, the infinitive alone (2169). #quīn# seldom follows this meaning.

(a.) #nōn dubitō, quid nōbīs agendum putēs#, Att. 10, 1, 2, I have no doubt about what you think is our duty to do. (b.) #neque enim dubitābant hostem ventūrum#, L. 22. 55, 2, for they firmly believed the enemy would come. (c.) #quid dubitāmus pultāre?# Pl. B. 1117, why do we hesitate to knock? #nōlīte dubitāre quīn huic crēdātis omnia#, IP. 68, do not hesitate to trust all to him.

1988. The subjunctive with #quīn# is often used after general negative assertions, or questions implying a negative: as,

#nēmō fuit omnīnō mīlitum quīn vulnerārētur#, Caes. C. 3, 53, 3, there was absolutely not a single soldier but was wounded. #nūllust Ephesī quīn sciat#, Pl. B. 336, there’s not a soul at Ephesus but knows. #quis in circum vēnit, quīn is ūnōquōque gradū dē avāritiā tuā commonērētur?# V. 1, 154, who came to the circus without being reminded of your avarice at each and every step? #nūlla fuit cīvitās quīn partem senātūs Cordubam mitteret, nōn cīvis Rōmānus quīn convenīret#, Caes. C. 2, 19, 2, there was not a community but sent a part of its local senate to Corduba, not a Roman citizen, but went to the meeting. For #quī nōn# after such expressions, see 1821. The main sentence often has #tam#, #ita#, #sīc#, or #tantus#: as, #nēmō est tam fortis, quīn rē̆ī novitāte perturbētur#, 6, 39, 3, there was nobody so brave but was demoralized by the strangeness of the situation. #nīl tam difficilest quīn quaerendō investīgārī possiet#, T. Hau. 675, there’s naught so hard but may by searching be tracked out. Instead of #quīn#, #ut nōn# or #quī nōn# is often used in such combinations (1821).

1989. The subjunctive in an untenable reason, negatively put, is sometimes introduced by #nōn quīn# instead of #nōn quod nōn# or #nōn quō nōn# (1855): as, #nōn quīn parī virtūte aliī fuerint#, Ph. 7, 6, not that others may not have been his peers in virtue.

1990. #quīn# is used very rarely instead of #quōminus# to introduce clauses completing the sense of verbs which have no negative expressed or implied: as, once each in the Bellum Alexandrīnum, in Tacitus, and in Seneca’s prose.

#dum#, #dōnec#, #quoad#, #quamdiū#.

1991. With the temporal particles #dum#, while, until, and #dōnec#, until (in old Latin #dōnicum# and in Lucretius #dōnique#), may be conveniently treated the relative #quaad# or #quoad# (that is #quā# or #quō# combined with #ad#), while, until, and the comparative #quamdiū#, as long as.

1992. #dum#, while, means originally a while (1151): as, #circumspice dum#, Pl. Tri. 146, look round you a while, a minute, just look round (1573). #dum servī meī perplacet mihi cōnsilium, dum haud placet#, Pl. Merc. 348, one while my slave’s plan suits me completely, another while it doesn’t suit. #dum . . . dum#, Accius in DN. 2, 89, one while . . . another.

1993. As a pure conjunctive particle, #dum#, while, means either (A.) in the time while, or (B.) all the time while; in the latter sense #quoad# and #quamdiū# are also used. From all the time while, #dum# comes to mean (C.) as long as, provided; and (D.) until; in this sense #quoad# and #dōnec# are also used.

1994. The indicative is used in a protasis introduced by #dum#, #quoad#, or #quamdiū#, while; and the subjunctive in a protasis introduced by #dum#, provided, or until.

The subjunctive is also used for special reasons, as in indirect discourse (1725), by attraction (1728), of action conceivable (1731), or by late writers to express repeated past action (1730). See also 1997 and 2009, end.