Part Second: SENTENCES, 1023-2299
Definitions, 1023-1061. The Simple Sentence, 1023-1025. The Subject, 1026-1034. The Predicate, 1035-1036. Enlargements of the Subject, 1038-1047. Enlargements of the Predicate, 1048-1054. Combination of Sentences, 1055. The Compound Sentence, 1056-1057. The Complex Sentence, 1058-1061. Agreement, 1062-1098. Of the Verb, 1062-1076. Of the Substantive, 1077-1081. Of the Adjective, 1082-1098.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE, 1099-1635.
(A.) USE OF THE NOUN, 1099-1468.
Number and Gender, 1099-1110. Case, 1111-1437. NOMINATIVE, 1113-1123. Nominative of Title, 1114-1116. Of Exclamation, 1117. Vocative Nominative and Vocative Proper, 1118-1123. ACCUSATIVE, 1124-1174. Of the Object, 1132-1139. Emphasizing or Defining, 1140-1146. Of the Part Concerned, 1147. Of the Thing Put On, 1148. Of Exclamation, 1149-1150. Of Space and Time, 1151-1156. Of the Aim of Motion, 1157-1166. Two Accusatives Combined, 1167-1174. DATIVE, 1175-1225. I. The Complementary Dative: (1.) The Essential Complement: With Verbs, 1180-1199. With Adjectives, 1200-1204. (2.) The Optional Complement: Of the person or thing interested, 1205-1210. The Emotional Dative, 1211. The Dative of the Possessor, 1212-1216. Of Relation, 1217-1218. II. The Predicative Dative: Of Tendency or Result, 1219-1222. Of Purpose or Intention, 1223-1225. GENITIVE, 1226-1295. I. With Substantives: In General, 1227-1231. Of the Subject, Cause, Origin, or Owner, 1232-1238. Of Quality, 1239-1240. Partitive, 1241-1254. Of Definition, 1255-1259. Objective, 1260-1262. II. With Adjectives, 1263-1270. III. With Verbs: Of Valuing, 1271-1275. With rēfert and interest, 1276-1279. With Judicial Verbs, 1280-1282. With Impersonals of Mental Distress, 1283-1286. With Verbs of Memory, 1287-1291. Of Participation and Mastery, 1292. Of Fulness and Want, 1293-1294. IV. The Genitive of Exclamation, 1295. ABLATIVE, 1296-1400. I. The Ablative Proper: Of Separation and Want, and of Departure, 1302-1311. Of Source, Stuff, or Material, 1312-1315. Of Cause, Influence, or Motive, 1316-1319. Of Comparison, 1320-1330. II. The Locative Ablative: The Locative Proper, 1331-1341. The Ablative used as Locative: Of Place in, on, or at which, 1342-1349. Of Time at which or within which, 1350-1355. III. The Instrumental Ablative: (1.) The Ablative of Attendance: Of Accompaniment, 1356-1357. Of Manner, 1358-1361. Ablative Absolute, 1362-1374. Ablative of Quality, 1375. Of the Route Taken, 1376. (2.) The Instrumental Proper: Of Instrument or Means, 1377-1384. Of Specification, 1385. Of Fulness, 1386-1387. Of Measure, Exchange, and Price, 1388-1392. Of the Amount of Difference, 1393-1399. Two or more Ablatives Combined, 1400. Use of Cases with Prepositions, 1401-1437. In General, 1401-1409. With the Accusative, 1410-1416. With the Ablative, 1417-1421. With the Accusative or the Ablative, 1422-1425. Combination of Substantives by a Preposition, 1426-1428. Repetition or Omission of a Preposition, 1429-1430. Two Prepositions with one Substantive, 1431-1432. Position of Prepositions, 1433-1437. Use of Adverbs, 1438-1453. Use of Degrees of Comparison, 1454-1468.
(B.) USE OF THE VERB, 1469-1635.
Voice, 1469-1492. Active, 1469-1471. Passive, 1472-1485. Deponents, 1486-1492. Mood, 1493-1586. THE INDICATIVE, 1493-1533. In Declarations, 1493-1498. In Questions, 1499-1533. Yes or No Questions, 1502-1510. Positive and Negative Answers, 1511-1514. Alternative Questions, 1515-1525. Pronoun Questions, 1526-1530. Some Applications of Questions, 1531-1533. THE INFINITIVE OF INTIMATION, 1534-1539. THE SUBJUNCTIVE, 1540-1570. The Subjunctive in Declarations: I. Of Desire: Of Wish, 1540-1546. Of Exhortation, Direction, Statement of Propriety, 1547-1552. Of Willingness, Assumption, Concession, 1553. II. Of Action Conceivable, 1554-1562. The Subjunctive in Questions, 1563-1570. THE IMPERATIVE, 1571-1586. Of Command, 1571-1580. Of Prohibition, 1581-1586. Tense, 1587-1635. OF THE INDICATIVE, 1587-1633. Present, 1587-1593. Imperfect, 1594-1601. Perfect, 1602-1613. Pluperfect, 1614-1618. Future, 1619-1625. Future Perfect, 1626-1632. The Future Active Participle with sum, 1633. OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE, 1634-1635.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE, OR COORDINATION, 1636-1713.
Without a Connective, 1637-1642. With a Connective, 1643-1692. Conjunctions, 1643. Copulative, 1644-1666. Disjunctive, 1667-1675. Adversative, 1676-1686. Other Words as Connectives, 1687-1692. The Intermediate Coordinate Sentence, 1693-1713. The Subordinate Idea unindicated by the Mood, 1695-1704. The Subordinate Idea indicated by the Subjunctive, 1705-1713.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE, OR SUBORDINATION, 1714-2299.
Definitions and Classifications, 1714-1716. Primary and Secondary Tenses, 1717. Virtual Futures, 1718. Mood of the Subordinate Sentence, 1720-1731. The Indicative, 1721. The Subjunctive: In Indirect Discourse, and in cases of Attraction, 1722-1729. Of Repeated Action, 1730. As in the Simple Sentence, 1731. Tense of the Subordinate Sentence, 1732-1772. Of the Indicative, 1732-1739. Of the Subjunctive, 1740-1772. Sequence of Tenses, 1745-1772. Tense subordinate to an Indicative, 1746-1761. Tense subordinate to a Subjunctive, 1762-1765. Tense subordinate to a Noun of the Verb, 1766-1769. Subjunctive due to another Subjunctive or to an Infinitive, 1770-1772. The Indirect Question, 1773-1791. In General, 1773-1774. Yes or No Questions, 1775-1777. Alternative Questions, 1778-1784. Pronoun Questions, 1785. Original Subjunctives, 1786. Indicative Questions apparently Indirect, 1787-1791. The Relative Sentence, 1792-1837. Agreement of the Relative, 1801-1811. Moods in the Relative Sentence, 1812-1830. Relative Sentences of Purpose, 1817. Of Characteristic or Result, 1818-1823. Of Cause or Concession, 1824-1830. Correlative Sentences, 1831. Relative Sentences Combined, 1832-1834. The Relative introducing a main Sentence, 1835-1837. The Conjunctive Particle Sentence, 1838-2122. Introduced by #quod#, 1838-1855. #quia#, 1856-1858. #quom# or #cum#, 1859-1881. quoniam#, 1882-1884. #quotiēns#, #quotiēnscumque#, 1885-1887. quam#, 1888-1898. #quamquam#, 1899-1902. #quamvīs#, 1903-1907. #tamquam#, 1908-1910. #antequam#, #priusquam#, 1911-1922. #postquam#, #ubī̆#, ut#, #cum prīmum#, #simul atque#, 1923-1934. #ut#, 1935-1970. #ubī̆#, 1971. quō#, 1972-1976. #quōminus#, 1977-1979. #quīn#, 1980-1990. #dum#, #dōnec#, quoad#, #quamdiū#, 1991-2009. #quandō#, 2010-2014. #sī#, 2015-2115. #etsī#, tametsī#, #etiamsī#, 2116. #quasi#, #tamquam sī#, #ut# or #velut sī#, 2117-2122. Connection of Separate Sentences or Periods, 2123-2159. Without a Connective, 2124-2127. With a Connective, 2128-2158. Affirmative Coordination, 2159. Nouns of the Verb, 2160-2299. THE INFINITIVE, 2160-2236. Definitions, 2160-2163. The Infinitive of Purpose, 2164-2165. With Adjectives, 2166. The Infinitive as Object: The Complementary Infinitive, 2168-2171. The Accusative with the Infinitive, 2172-2206. The Infinitive as Subject, 2207-2215. The Infinitive of Exclamation, 2216. Tenses of the Infinitive, 2218. Present, 2219-2222. Perfect, 2223-2231. Future, 2232-2236. THE GERUNDIVE AND GERUND, 2237-2268. Definitions, 2237-2242. Nominative, 2243-2249. Accusative, 2250-2253. Dative, 2254-2257. Genitive, 2258-2264. Ablative, 2265-2268. THE SUPINE, 2269-2277. Definitions, 2269. Supine in #-um#, 2270-2273. Supine in #-ū#, 2274-2277. THE PARTICIPLE, 2278-2299. Definition, 2278. Time of the Participle, 2279-2281. The Attributive Participle, 2282-2286. The Substantive Participle, 2287-2292. The Appositive Participle, 2293-2296. The Predicative Participle, 2297-2299.
APPENDIX, 2300-2745.
Some Occasional Peculiarities of Verbs, 2300-2307. The Conative Use, 2301-2303. The Causative Use, 2304. The Potential Use, 2305. The Obligatory Use, 2306. The Permissive Use, 2307. Indirect Discourse, 2308-2334. Definitions, 2308-2311. Mood, 2312-2320. Tense, 2321-2324. Pronoun, 2325. Conditional Periods in Indirect Discourse, 2326-2334. Use of Pronouns, 2335-2403. Personal, 2335. Reflexive, 2336-2343. Equivalents for a Reciprocal Pronoun, 2344-2345. Possessive, 2346. Demonstrative, 2347-2364. Determinative, 2365-2370. Pronoun of Identity, 2371-2373. Intensive, 2374-2384. Interrogative, 2385-2386. Relative, 2387. Indefinite, 2388-2403. Numerals, 2404-2428. Classification, 2404. List of Numerals, 2405. Notation, 2406-2411. Some forms of Numerals, 2412-2418. Some uses of Numerals, 2419-2422 Other Numerals, 2423. Fractions, 2424-2428. Prosody, 2429-2739. RULES OF QUANTITY, 2429-2472. In Classical Latin, 2429-2457. Position, 2458. Hidden Quantity, 2459-2463. Peculiarities of Quantity in Old Latin, 2464-2469. Iambic Shortening, 2470-2472. FIGURES OF PROSODY, 2473-2510. Hiatus, 2473-2480. Elision, 2481-2492. Ecthlipsis, 2493-2496. Semi-Hiatus or Semi-Elision, 2497. Synaloepha, 2498. Synizesis, 2499. Synaeresis, 2500. Dialysis, 2501. Diaeresis, 2502. Hardening, 2503. Softening, 2504. Diastolé, 2505-2506. Systolé, 2507. Syncopé, 2508. Tmesis, 2509. Synapheia, 2510. VERSIFICATION, 2511-2739. Definitions, 2511-2548. Numeri Italici, 2549. The Saturnian, 2550-2554. Dactylic Rhythms, 2555-2580. Iambic Rhythms, 2581-2627. Trochaic Rhythms, 2628-2649. Logaoedic Rhythms, 2650-2074. Dactylo-Trochaic Rhythms, 2675-2681. Anapaestic Rhythms, 2682-2690. Cretic Rhythms, 2691-2697. Bacchiac Rhythms, 2698-2706. Choriambic Rhythms, 2707. Ionic Rhythms, 2708-2717. Lyric Metres of Horace, 2718-2737. Lyric Strophes of Catullus, 2738. Index of Horatian Odes and their metres, 2739. Abbreviations used in citing the Authors, 2740-2745.
Index of Subjects.
Index of Latin Words.
LATIN GRAMMAR
1. Latin Grammar has two parts. I. The first part treats of words: (A.) their sound; (B.) their formation; (C.) their inflection. II. The second part shows how words are joined together in sentences.
PART FIRST [decoration] WORDS
PARTS OF SPEECH.
2. The principal kinds of words or PARTS OF SPEECH are Nouns, Verbs, and Conjunctions.
3. I. NOUNS are Substantive or Adjective.
4. (A.) NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE, otherwise called Substantives, are divided, as to meaning, into Concrete and Abstract.
5. (1.) CONCRETE SUBSTANTIVES denote persons or things. Concrete Substantives are subdivided into Proper Names, which denote individual persons or things: as, #Cicerō#, Cicero; #Rōma#, Rome; and Common Names, otherwise called Appellatives, which denote one or more of a class: as, #homo#, man; #taurus#, bull.
6. Appellatives which denote a collection of single things are called Collectives: as, #turba#, crowd; #exercitus#, army. Appellatives which denote stuff, quantity, material, things not counted, but having measure or weight, are called Material Substantives: as, #vīnum#, wine; #ferrum#, iron; #faba#, horsebeans.
7. (2.) ABSTRACT SUBSTANTIVES denote qualities, states, conditions: as, #rubor#, redness; #aequitās#, fairness; #sōlitūdō#, loneliness.
8. (B.) NOUNS ADJECTIVE, otherwise called Adjectives, attached to substantives, describe persons or things: as, #ruber#, red; #aequus#, fair; #sōlus#, alone.
9. PRONOUNS are words of universal application which serve as substitutes for nouns.
Thus, #taurus#, bull, names, and #ruber#, red, describes, particular things; but #ego#, I, is universally applicable to any speaker, and #meus#, mine, to anything belonging to any speaker.
10. ADVERBS are mostly cases of nouns used to denote manner, place, time or degree: as, #subitō#, suddenly; #forās#, out of doors; #diū#, long; #valdē#, mightily, very.
11. PREPOSITIONS are adverbs which are used to modify as prefixes the meaning of verbs, or to define more nicely the meaning of cases: as, #vocō#, I call, #ēvocō#, I call out; #ex urbe#, from town.
12. II. VERBS are words which denote action, including existence or condition: as, #regit#, he guides; #est#, he is; #latet#, he is hid.
13. III. CONJUNCTIONS connect sentences, nouns, or verbs: as, #et#, and; #sed#, but.
14. INTERJECTIONS are cries which express feeling, and are not usually a part of the sentence: as, #ā#, ah; #heu#, alas.
15. There is no ARTICLE in Latin: thus, #mēnsa# may denote table, a table, or the table.
[Erratum: 2 ... Nouns, Verbs, and Conjunctions. Nouns Verbs,]
A. SOUND.
ALPHABET.
16. In Cicero’s time, the sounds of the Latin language were denoted by twenty-one letters (DN. 2, 93).
Character Name pronounced #A# a ah #B# be bay #C# ce kay #D# de day #E# e eh #F# ef ef #G# ge gay #H# ha hah #I# i ee #K# ka kah #L# el el #M# em em #N# en en #O# o o #P# pe pay #Q# qu koo #R# er air #S# es ess #T# te tay #V# u oo #X# ix eex
The names given above are those employed by Roman grammarians. The sound indicated by -ay is only approximate; the true sound is that of the French ê in fête; see 39. The names of the letters are indeclinable; for their gender, see 412.
17. Two other letters were also in use to represent Greek sounds in Greek words; these were always called by their Greek names, and were placed at the end of the alphabet; they are #Y#, named ü (42), and #Z#, named #zēta# (71).
18. ORIGIN OF THE ALPHABET. The Latin alphabet, which originally consisted of capitals only, was adapted from the alphabet of Chalcidian colonies in Italy.
19. SPELLING. The signs for the Greek sounds denoted by φ and χ, and perhaps also that for θ, these three sounds being unknown in Latin, were used as numerals (2407). In words borrowed from the Greek the Romans at first represented θ by #t#, φ by #p#, and χ by #c#: as, #tūs#, incense, for θύος; #Poenī#, Punians, for Φοίνικες; #calx#, chalk, for χάλιξ. Occasionally also the Latin mute was doubled: as, #struppus#, strap, for στρόφος. Later, about the middle of the second century B.C., #th#, #ph#, and #ch# begin to be used: as, #cothurnus#, boot, for κόθορνος; #amphora#, jar, for ἀμφόρα; #Achaea# for Ἀχαιά. In some instances these aspirates were next introduced even into words purely Latin: as, #chommodus#, affable, for #commodus#, an affectation ridiculed by Catullus (Cat. 84) and disapproved by Quintilian (1, 5, 20). But #pulcher#, pretty, is the usual spelling for #pulcer# (formed by the suffix #-cro-# from the stem of the verb #poliō#, I polish). Even Cicero (O. 160) aspirated the #c# in this word as a concession to popular usage, as he did the #t# in #Cethēgus#, #Karthāgō#, and the #p# in #triumphus#, while he retained the unaspirated explosive in the proper names #Orcīvius#, name of a ‘gens,’ #Matō#, #Otō#, #Caepiō#, and in #sepulcrum#, tomb; #corōna#, crown; and #lacrima#, tear. In a similar manner Greek ρ was at first transcribed by #r#: as, #rumpia#, a kind of weapon, for ῥομφαία; but later by #rh#: as, #rhētor#, rhetorician, for ῥητωρ.
20. The letters #C# (first written #<#) and #K# were at an early period used promiscuously, and #C# stood for both unvoiced #k# and voiced #g#: as, VIRCO, #virgō#, virgin. Afterwards #K# dropped out of general use except in the abbreviations #K.# or #Kal.# for #kalendae#, first of the month, and #K.# for the proper name #Kaesō# (Quint. 1, 7, 10). About 300 B.C. the sign #<# or #C# was used for the unvoiced k alone, while a separate sign, which became #G#, was set apart for the voiced g. But #C# continued to be used for g in the abbreviations #C# for #Gāius#, #Ↄ# for #Gāia#, and #Cn.# for #Gnaeus#. Occasionally #q# is written for #c#, almost always before the vowels #o# and #u#: as, #qum# for #cum#, with; #qolunt# for #colunt#, they cultivate; #peqūnia#, money. But ordinarily #q# is found before unsyllabic (consonantal) #u# (#v#) only (22).
21. Before the introduction of #Y# and #Z# (17), #u# was used for the Greek υ: as, #Burrus#, later #Pyrrhus# (Cic. O. 160); and #s#, or, as a medial, #ss#, for ζ: as, #sōna#, belt, later #zōna#; #massa#, lump, for μᾶζα; #malacissō#, I soften, for μαλακίζω. By a blunder, #y# was occasionally introduced in words of Latin origin: as, #lacryma#, tear, for #lacrima#, which was wrongly supposed to be derived from Greek δάκρυ.
22. The characters #I# and #V# represent not only the two vowels #i# and #u#, but also their cognate semivowels (52) #i̭# and #ṷ# (83), called commonly consonant #i# and #u#, but with less ambiguity unsyllabic #i# and #u# (82; 83). They are equivalent to the English y and w respectively.
23. In words like #maior#, simple #i# was commonly written for the sound of #i̭i̭# (153, 2; 82; 83). But Cicero in such cases wrote #ii#: as, #aiiō#, I say, #Maiia#, #Troiia# (Quint. 1, 4, 11). In the same way Lucretius spelled #Graiiugenārum#, of Greek-born men, and EIIVS, of him, CVIIVS, whose, occur in inscriptions. Sometimes the same sound is represented by a taller letter, ‘i longa,’ especially in the imperial age: as, MAIOR, greater. There are also cases in which the two designations were confounded, a double #i# being written, and one or the other letter made taller: as, EIIVS or EIIVS, of him.
24. The tall #i#, #I longa#, was used not only to represent unsyllabic #i# (22), but, beginning with Sulla’s time, also for long vowel #i# (29, 2, b): as, SIGNA, signs; QVINQVE, five. It also represents sometimes double #i#: as, VIS for VIĪS, in the roads. At the beginning of words it occurs without reference to quantity for both short and long #i#, and, by mistake, #I# is elsewhere found for short #i#.
25. The emperor Claudius (A.D. 41-54) introduced a separate sign for unsyllabic #u# (22), restricting the sign #v# to the vowel #u# (Quint. 1, 7, 26; Ta. 11, 14); but it did not become current.
26. In schoolbooks and most texts of the authors, the vowel #u# is printed #U#, #u#, and the consonant #V#, #v#. A character, #J#, #j#, was introduced in the 17th century, to indicate the consonant #i#. But this character is no longer usual in editions of the authors or in schoolbooks.
27. The distinction between #u# and #v# is not always made very consistently: #q# has regularly, and #g# and #s# have sometimes, an aftersound of w, best represented by #v#; but the usual practice is to write #u#, as in the following disyllables: #quōrum#, of whom; #anguis#, snake; #suāvis#, sweet. #qu# is always counted as a single sound (177). See also 2504.
28. For the intermediate sound (103) between #i# and #u#, as in the first syllable of #lubet#, #libet#, it pleases, and in the second syllable of #optimus#, #optumus#, best (Quint. 1, 4, 8; 7, 21), the emperor Claudius invented a separate character. It failed of acceptance, as did also the sign which he attempted to introduce for #ps#.
29. The same characters were ordinarily used to denote both long and short vowels. But at different periods long vowels were sometimes indicated in inscriptions thus:
(1.) Long #a#, #e#, or #u# was sometimes doubled: as, AARA, altar; PAASTORES, shepherds; LEEGE, by law; IVVS, right. This doubling, which was never frequent, seems to have been introduced into Latin from the Oscan by the poet Accius. It occurs most frequently in inscriptions about the year 150 B.C., but sporadically much later: as, CONVENTVVS, of the assembly; ARBITRATVV, by the decree; and in other stems in #-u-# (593).
(2.) Long #i# was often denoted (a.) By the spelling #ei# (after the pronunciation of this diphthong had been changed to #ī#, 98): as, DAREI, be given; REDIEIT, hath come back; INTERIEISTI, hast died. Some Roman grammarians prescribed this spelling for every long #i#; others tried to regulate the use of #ei# for #ī# by special rules. At the end of the republic, the spelling EI had given way to uniform I. (b.) Since the time of Sulla, by a taller letter (‘i longa’): as, FIXA, fastened (23, 24).
(3.) A mark called an apex ([illustration]) was often put over a long vowel: as, FE͆CIT, made; HORTE͆NSIVS; DVV͆MVIRATVS, duumvirate. The apex was written ´ in the imperial age; the form -, which occurs in an inscription, was adopted by the grammarians, and is still in use to mark the long vowels. It may be mentioned that inscriptions which employ the apex are by no means consistent in its use, and that late inscriptions have it over short and long vowels, apparently for decorative purposes. Quintilian 1, 7, 2 prescribes it only for cases which otherwise might be ambiguous: as, MÁLVS (#mālus#), mast, to distinguish it from MALVS (#malus#), bad.
30. In schoolbooks, a long vowel is indicated by a horizontal line over it: as, #āra#, altar; #mēnsis#, month; #ōrdō#, series. A short vowel is sometimes indicated by a curved mark: as, #pĕr#, through; #dŭx#, leader; but this mark is unnecessary if long vowels are systematically marked. Usually the quantity of the vowels in each word is definitely fixed; but in a few cases the same vowel may be now short, now long, as in English the ee of been is pronounced long by some (bean), short by others (bin). Thus (2446) #mihi#, #ibi# were sometimes pyrrhics (⏑, 2522), sometimes iambi (⏑ -, 2521). See for other cases 134, 2443, 2452, 2453. Such vowels of variable quantity are termed common and marked ⏓ or ⏒: as #mihī̆#, to me (2514).
PRONUNCIATION.
31. The pronunciation of Latin sounds may be approximately determined: (a) from the description of the native grammarians and incidental allusions in other Latin authors; (b) from variations in spelling; (c) from the Greek transliteration of Latin words; (d) from the Latin transliteration of foreign words; (e) from the development of the sounds in languages derived from the Latin.
VOWELS.
32. Vowels are sounds which are produced by the vibrations of the vocal chords (this may be easily felt by placing a finger on the throat at the Adam’s apple) and without any audible friction or any obstruction anywhere in the passage above the vocal chords. The difference in the sound of the vowels is due to the different shape which the position of the tongue and the lips gives in each case to the cavity of the mouth. During the pronunciation of pure vowels no air escapes through the nose.
33. The simple vowels, #a#, #e#, #i#, #o#, #u# (#y#), are either long or short. The sound of a long vowel is considered to be twice the length of that of a short.
34. That a long vowel is equal to two shorts is a rule of metrical theory (see 2515). In actual pronunciation, there were undoubtedly various degrees of length, as in English: e.g., sea, seize (long), cease (half-long).
QUANTITY OF VOWELS.
The quantity of vowels must in general be learned by observation; but some convenient helps for the memory may be found in 2429; and the quantity of many vowels may be ascertained by the general principles given in 35 and 36. Except in the case of Hidden Quantity (2459), the quantity of vowels is in general ascertained from verse. But some information may also be gleaned from such rhetorical prose as exhibits well defined habits in the rhythmical endings selected for sentences (#clausulae#, Cic. O. 191-226).
(A.) SHORT VOWELS.
35. A vowel is short:
(1.) Before another vowel or #h# (124): as, #eōs#, #ēvehō#; compare #taceō# with #tacēre#. For exceptions in classical Latin, see 127; for exceptions in early Latin see 126.
(2.) Before #nt# and #nd# (128) if not the result of contraction: as, #calendae#, #centum#; compare #amant#, #amandus#, with #amāre#.
(3.) Before final #t# and #m#, and, in words of more than one syllable, before final #r# and #l# (132): compare #amat#, #amem#, with #amās# and #amēs#.
(B.) LONG VOWELS.
36. All vowels are long which are:
(1) Weakened from a diphthong (96-101; 108), or which are the result of contraction (118): as, #concīdō# from #caedō#; #cōgō# from #co-agō#.
(2) Lengthened by compensation (121): as, #quīnī# for #*quincnī#.
(3) Before #nf#, #ns#, often before #nc# followed by a consonant, and, in some cases, before #gn# (122).
PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS.
37. The following English sounds come nearest to the Latin pronunciation of the vowels:
38. LONG VOWELS. #ā# had the sound of a in father; #ē# that of a in fate (but see 39); #ī# that of i in machine; #ō# that of o in tone; #ū# that of u in rule.
39. It must be noted, however, that all English long vowels, save a as in father, are more or less diphthongal, that is, they become gradually closer (46); a in fate ends in a vanishing sound of ee (not heard in the ê of French fête), and o in no ends in the sound of oo. Similarly the long e sound in he becomes closer and ends in a sound similar to the y in year. In Latin all long vowels had one sustained sound.
40. SHORT VOWELS. #a# sounded approximately like the English a in the first syllable of aha; #e#, #i#, #o#, and #u# sounded like e in step, i in pit, o in obey, and u in pull respectively.
41. Latin short #a# did not differ, except in quantity, from long #ā#; it never had the ‘flat’ sound of English a in pat. In the case of the other vowels, #i#, #e#, #o#, and #u#, the long vowels were closer (46) than the short ones. This is the same difference which the English shows in keen (long and close) and kin (short and open); pool (long and close) and pull (short and open). For this reason, open #i# is sometimes represented by #e# in inscriptions: as, ANEMA for #anima#, soul; and #vea# was the rustic pronunciation for #via#, road (Varro, R. R. 1, 2, 14).
42. #Y#, which was a sound borrowed from the Greek (17), sounded like German ü. The sound, which is missing in English, is formed with the tongue in position for i (in kin) and the lips rounded as for oo (in moon).
CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS.
43. Vowels are divided according to the position of the tongue. Latin #i# and #e# are called front vowels, because the front part of the tongue is elevated. This elevation is greater for #i# than for #e#. Latin #o# and #u# are called back vowels, because they require an elevation of the rear part of the tongue. This elevation is greater for #u# than for #o#. Latin #a# holds an intermediate position, no part of the tongue being raised, while the front part is depressed.
44. In the formation of #i# and #e#, the tongue approaches the hard palate; hence these two vowels are also called palatal vowels. Similarly, #o# and #u# are called velar or guttural vowels, because in their formation the tongue approaches the soft palate (#vēlum palātī#).
45. #o# and #u# require a rounding of the lips (#labia#); hence they are called labial vowels. The same is true for #y#.
46. Comparing the vowels in English keen and kin, it will be noted that the passage between the tongue and the hard palate is narrower in the former than in the latter case. The ee in keen is therefore said to be a narrow or close vowel, while the i in kin is wide or open. See 41.
DIPHTHONGS.
47. Two unlike (43-46) vowels pronounced under one stress and as one syllable form a Diphthong. All diphthongs are long.
In all diphthongs the transition from one vowel to the other is gradual. A diphthong is, therefore, not formed simply by pronouncing two vowels in succession, but the vocal organs pass through all the intermediate positions and consequently the sound is constantly changing.
48. In their origin diphthongs are of two kinds: (a.) primitive diphthongs: as in #foedus#, treaty; #aurum#, gold; or (b.) secondary diphthongs, the result of vowels meeting in formation, composition, or inflection: see 120.
49. The diphthongs which occur in classical Latin are #au#, #ae#, #oe#, and the rare #ui# and #eu#.
#au# sounded like ou in house. #ae# had the sound of short Latin #a# rapidly combined with the sound of e in English men. But it is the common practice now to give to #ae# the sound of ay or ai in ay, aisle, although the difference between Latin #ae# and the earlier #ai# from which it descended is thus obliterated. #oe# had the sound of short Latin #o# rapidly followed by the sound of e in English men. But it is now customary not to distinguish between Latin #oe# and #oi#, and to give to both the sound of oi in boil. #ui# is pronounced by combining Latin short #u# and #i# (40, 41) with the stress on the #i# like French oui; #eu# by combining Latin short #e# and #u# with stress on the #u#.
50. Besides these, the following diphthongs occur in the older inscriptions: #ai# pronounced as ai in aisle; #ei# as ei in eight; #oi# as oi in boil; and #ou# which sounded very much like the final o in no, go, which is really a diphthong (see 39).
CONSONANTS.
51. Consonants are formed by stopping the breath somewhere in the cavity of the mouth or by squeezing it through a narrow channel or aperture.
52. SEMIVOWELS. There is no sharp line of demarcation between consonants and vowels. Some vowels in unsyllabic function (82, 83) notably #i# (i̭) and #u# (ṷ) (corresponding to English y and w), though usually classed as consonants, are so closely related to the vowels that they are termed semivowels (2504). To these may be added also the liquids #l# and #r#. Contact of the semivowels #i# and #u# with their corresponding vowels #i# and #u# is avoided in classical times. See for #-vu-# 107, c; for #-quu-# 157; and for #-i̭i-# 104, c (on #obi̭iciō#); 458 (#Bōī# for #*Bōi̭ī#). See 153, 3.
[Erratum: 52 ... See for #-vu-# 107, c 107 c]
PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS.
53. Most of the consonants are pronounced as in English. The following points must be noticed:
54. #b# before #a# surd, as #s# or #t#, has the sound of #p#. The spelling #b# is here simply etymological: as, #abs#, pronounced aps (the #b# retained in spelling because of #ab#); #urbs#, pronounced urps (the #b# retained because of the oblique cases #urbis#, #urbī#, etc.); #obterō#, pronounced opterō (Quint. 1, 7, 7), where the spelling of the preposition #ob# was kept (164).
55. #c# has always the sound of English k.
56. #d# before the surd #s# is pronounced #t#; the spelling #d# is preserved for etymological reasons only: as, #adsum#, pronounced atsum.
57. #g# always has the sound of English g in go, never that of g in gentle. #gu#, when it makes one syllable with the following vowel, is pronounced like English gw: as, #sanguine# like sanguine.
58. #h# has a weak sound as h in British English (Southern), and by some was not counted as a consonant. Consequently the same uncertainty existed as to initial #h#. The omission of initial #h# is recognized in classical Latin for #ānser# (originally #*hānser#). Elsewhere the omission of initial #h# in spelling, as #ostia# for #hostia#, is rare until the third century A.D.
Very rarely #h# is written between two vowels to denote that each should be pronounced separately (like our diaeresis in coëxtensive): as, #ahēneus#, bronze, with #aē# separate (116 a); but #aes#, bronze, with diphthongal #ae#.
59. Unsyllabic (22) or consonant #i# has the sound of English y in year.
60. There were two varieties of #l#. One was like the English l, guttural in character, because in its pronunciation not only the blade (front part) of the tongue touched the gums, but in addition to this the rear part of the tongue was elevated toward the soft palate. The other #l# was purely dental, and formed without such back elevation. This second variety appeared in the combination #ll#, or whenever #l# was followed by the front vowels (43) #e# or #i#, or when it was final. Elsewhere #l# was guttural.
61. From the earliest times final m in unaccented syllables had a faint sound or was even inaudible (Quint. 9, 4, 39). Consequently it is often omitted in writing in the older inscriptions both before an initial vowel or consonant: as, POCOLO for #pōcolom#; OINO for #oinom# (#ūnum#), and the grammarian Verrius Flaccus proposed to write only half an #M# for final #m# before a vowel. In prosody, therefore, final #m# did not prevent elision (2493). The same is seen in prose in cases like #animadvertō#, I pay heed to, from #anim^{um} advertō#, I turn my mind toward (395); #vēnīre#, to be sold for #vēn^{um} īre#, to go to sale (1165). But in monosyllables where #m# closes the accented syllable, it did not vanish (2494, 2495), and this difference in the treatment of final #m# is reflected in the Romance languages.
62. #n# stands for two sounds. It represents the dental nasal, as n in English now. But before the gutturals #k#, #c#, #g#, #q#, and the compound #x (= cs)#, it represents the guttural nasal which is written ng in English sing, wrong. This second n is sometimes called #n adulterīnum# or ‘spurious #n#,’ thus: #nc# (in #avunculus#) as in uncle; #ng# (in #angulus#) as in angle; #ngu# (in #sanguine#) as in sanguine; #nqu# (in #inquit#) as inkw in inkwiper; #nx# (in #pīnxit#) as in lynx.
63. Dental #n# before #s# had a reduced sound, and is therefore sometimes omitted in writing: as, CESOR for #cēnsor#; COSOL for #cōnsul#, in older inscriptions; and #fōrmōsus# by the side of #fōrmōnsus#; #vīcēsimus# by the side of #vīcēnsimus#, Cicero omitted the #n# in the adjective suffix #-ēnsis#: as, #forēsia#, of the forum; #hortēsia#, garden plants.
64. #q#, in classical Latin, appears only in the combination #qu#, sounded like English qu or kw (27). #r# was trilled.
65. #s#, in classical Latin was always unvoiced (surd, 75) like English s in so, sin, never voiced (sonant, 75) as English s in ease. #su#, when it makes one syllable with the following vowel, is like sw in sweet (27).
66. In old Latin, final #s# after a short vowel and before a consonant seems to have been reduced in sound or to have disappeared altogether. In the older inscriptions it is often omitted in the ending of the nominative singular #-us#, and in the pre-Ciceronian poets final #s# often does not make position (2468). But such omission was considered vulgar in Cicero’s time (Cic. O. 161; Quint. 9, 4, 38).
67. In the archaic period Latin #s# stood also for the voiced sibilant (English s in ease, z in zeal), as in ASA, altar (154).
68. #t# is always sounded as in time, never as in nation. The pronunciation of #ci# and #ti# with the #c# and #t# as sibilants (as in English cinder, nation) is very late.
69. #v# is like the English w.
70. #x# is a compound consonant, standing for #cs#, and so sounded, never as English gs or gz.
71. z, being a Greek sound, should have retained its Greek pronunciation. This differed in the different dialects; in the Attic of the fourth century B.C. it was approximately that of English z in zeal, while its earlier value was zd. The Romans had great difficulty in pronouncing this sound (Quint. 12, 10, 27 f.), but the grammarian Velius Longus expressly states that it should not be pronounced as a compound sound (zd).
72. About 100 B.C. the combinations #ch#, #ph#, and #th# were introduced in Greek words to represent χ, φ, and θ; as #Philippus#, for the older PILIPVS. Somewhat later these combinations were in general use in some Latin words (19). #ch# is thought to have been pronounced like kh in blockhead, #ph# as in uphill, and #th# as in hothouse. But in practice #ch# is usually sounded as in the German machen or ich, #ph# as in graphic, and #th# as in pathos.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS.
73. EXPLOSIVES. Consonants which are formed by stopping the breath in the oral cavity and then suddenly removing the obstruction are called explosives. They cannot be prolonged in sound. They are: #c#, #k#, #q#, #g#; #t#, #d#; #p#, #b#. These are often called mutes.
74. CONTINUANTS. Consonants which may be prolonged in sound are called continuants. They are: unsyllabic (83) #i# (59) and #u# (66); #l# (60), #r#; #l#, #s#, #f#; #n# (62), #m#.
75. VOICED and UNVOICED. If during the emission of breath the vocal chords vibrate (32), the consonant is said to be voiced or sonant: #g#; #d#; #b#; #n# (62), #m#; #l# (60), #r#; unsyllabic (83) #i# (59) and #u# (69); otherwise it is said to be unvoiced or surd: #c#, #k#, #q#; #t#; #p#; #h#, #s#, #f#.
76. NASALS. In the majority of consonants, the breath escapes through the cavity of the mouth, and the cavity of the nose is closed in the rear by means of the raised soft palate. Those consonants in which the breath escapes through the nose, while the oral cavity is closed, are called nasals: as, #n#, #m#, #n adulterīnum# (see 62).
77. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PLACE OF FORMATION. Consonants are further divided according to the place where the breath is stopped or squeezed. (1.) If the breath is stopped by the lips, as in #p#, #b#, #m#, or squeezed through the lips, as in #v# (English w), we speak of labials. (2.) If the breath is forced through an opening between the upper teeth and the lower lip, as in #f#, we speak of a labiodental. (3.) Sounds which are produced by the point of the tongue touching the upper gums and teeth, as #t#, #d#, #n#, #r#, or by the formation of a narrow median channel in the same place, like #s#, or of a lateral channel, like #l# (60), are called dentals. (4.) Palatals are formed by an elevation of the front part of the tongue against the forward section of the palate, like #i# consonant (English y). (5.) If the back of the tongue touches or approaches the rear part of the palate as in #k#, #q#, #c#, #g#, #n adulterīnum# (English ng in sing), and #l# (60), we speak of gutturals (velars); see 44.
78. SPIRANTS. Sounds which are produced by friction of the breath are called spirants: as, #s#, #f#, and #h#.
79. SIBILANTS. On account of its hissing sound, #s# is called a sibilant. English s, z, th are sibilants.
80. DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS. In English, double consonants as the tt, nn, pp, mm in motto, Anna, tapping, grammar, are sounded exactly like the corresponding single consonants in cot, pan, tap, ram. In Latin, on the other hand, double consonants (#geminātae#) were pronounced as they are in modern Italian. In the case of explosives (73), as in #mitto#, after the tongue had come in contact with the roof of the mouth (= first #t#) a short pause ensued before the explosion took place (= second #t#). In the case of continuants (74), as in #summus#, #Apollo#, the #mm# or #ll# was sounded appreciably longer than a single #m# or #l#, and at the beginning of the second half of the long continuant there was a slight increase of force.
81. Consonants were not doubled in writing till after 200 B.C.: as, FVISE for #fuisse#, to have been, and for more than a century afterward the usage is variable: as, in the same inscription, ESSENT, they might be, by the side of SVPERASES, thou mayest have conquered; but it must not be inferred that they were pronounced as single consonants.
[Errata: 77. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PLACE OF FORMATION. final . invisible 77 ... (5.) If the back of the tongue . invisible]
SYLLABIC AND UNSYLLABIC FUNCTION.
82. Whenever two or more sounds are combined in a syllable, one of them excels in acoustic prominence: as, a in English pat; n in the group pnd in opnd (opened); l in the group tld in bottld (bottled); and s in the group pst. This sound is said to have syllabic function or to be syllabic; in the examples given, a, n, l, and s are respectively syllabic. All the other members of each group are termed unsyllabic.
83. Vowels are almost always used in syllabic function. When, in rare cases, they are unsyllabic, this fact is usually indicated in phonetic works by an inverted half-circle, ̭, placed under the vowel; so in the case of diphthongs to indicate the subordinate member: as #ai̭#, #oḙ#, #ṷi# (49). Latin #omnia# and English glorious, when pronounced as words of two syllables, would be written #omni̭a# (2503), glori̭ous. When sounds other than vowels have, in rare cases, syllabic function, this fact is noted in phonetic works by a point, . , or circle, ˳ , under the letter: as, Latin #*agṛs#, #*agr̥s# (111, b), English opṇd, opn̥d.
ACCENT.
84. The relative force with which the different syllables of a word are uttered varies. Such variation in emphasis is called stress accentuation.
The degrees of stress are really infinite, but for practical purposes it is sufficient to distinguish between (1.) the strongest stress (chief accent); (2.) a weaker stress (secondary accent); and (3.) absence of stress (atonic syllable). In the English contradict, the last syllable has the chief accent, a secondary accent falls on the first, and the second syllable is unstressed.
85. It is not customary to indicate the place of accents in Latin by special signs. When, for special reasons, signs are used, ´ denotes the chief accent, ` the secondary accent, while the unstressed syllables are left unmarked.
THE CLASSICAL ACCENT.
86. In classical Latin the place of the chief accent may be determined by the following rules.
(1.) Words of two syllables have the accent on the penult (175): as,
#hómo#; #ā́cer#.
(2.) Words of more than two syllables have the accent on the penult when that syllable is long (177); otherwise on the antepenult: as,
#palū́ster#, #onústus# (177); #mulíebris#, #génetrīx# (178); #árborēs#, #árbutus#, #gladíolus#.
87. A short penult retains the accent in the genitive and vocative with a single #ī# from stems in #-io-# (456, 459): as, genitive, #cōnsílī#; #impérī#; genitive or vocative, #Vergílī#; #Valérī#; #Mercúrī#. For #calefácis#, &c., see 394.
88. In a few words which have lost a syllable the accent is retained on the last syllable; such are (1.) compounds of the imperatives #dīc# and #dūc# (113): as, #ēdū́c#; (2.) nominatives of proper names in #-ās# and #-īs# for #-ātis# and #-ītis#: as, #Arpīnā́s#, for #Arpīnā́tis#; #Laenā́s#; #Maecēnā́s#; #Quirī́s#; #Samnī́s#; also #nostrā́s#, #vostrā́s#; (3.) words compounded with the abbreviated (113) enclitics #-c# for #-ce# and #-n# for #-ne#: as, #illī́c#; #tantṓn#; #audīstī́n# (for the shortening of the final syllable: as, #vidén#, dost see?, see 129); (4.) #audī́t#, contracted from #audīvit# (154, 893). The Latin grammarians prescribe the circumflex (90) for all these long syllables.
EARLIER RECESSIVE ACCENT.
89. In the preliterary period of the Latin language, the accent tended to go as far from the end of the word as possible (recessive accent). Thus, while the classical accentuation is #inimī́cus#, the older period accented #ínimīcus#. In literary Latin this early recessive accent has survived, only in Plautus’s accentuation of words of the form ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ ⏓ (proceleusmatic or fourth paeon, see 2521), in which he stresses the first syllable: as, #fácilius# (classical #facílius#); #vóluerat# (classical #volúerat#). But in many instances the early recessive accent may be traced in literary Latin by the phonetic changes which it produced (102 ff.).
90. MUSICAL ELEMENT. The native Latin grammarians slight the stress accentuation and pay much attention instead to the variations in pitch. But they are so greatly dependent on their Greek models that they are unsafe guides in this matter. It is, however, probable that a stressed vowel was uttered on a higher key (acute) than an unstressed vowel (grave), and that in certain syllables the long, accented vowel showed a rise and fall (circumflex): as, #illîc# (88).
91. The force of the Latin stress accent must have varied at different periods and in different localities, as it now varies in the Romance countries. The early recessive accent seems to have been fairly emphatic; but the stress in classical Latin was probably weak and the difference between accented and unaccented syllables was much less marked than it is in English.
PROCLITICS AND ENCLITICS.
92. #Proclitics# are unaccented words which are pronounced as a part of the following word; they are: (1.) The relative and indefinite pronouns and their derivatives; (2.) Prepositions.
(a.) Thus, #quō diē#, pronounced #quōdíē#; #quī vīxit#, #quīvī́xit#; #genus unde Latīnum#, #génus undeLatī́num#. Similarly #quamdíū#, as long as; #iamdíū#, this long time. A distinction is thus made between the interrogative #quālis# (1526), which is accented, and the relative #quālis# (1831) which is proclitic (Quint. 1, 5, 26); cf. the English who, which is accented when interrogative, and proclitic when relative. (b.) #circum lītora#, pronounced #circumlī́tora#; #ab ōrīs#, pronounced #abōrīs# (Quint. 1, 5, 27); in inscriptions and manuscripts prepositions are often united in writing with the following word. Phrases like #extemplō#, suddenly, #invicem# (94), in turn, are commonly written and accented as one word. But the preposition is accented when it is followed by a monosyllabic unemphatic (and therefore enclitic) personal pronoun: as, #ín mē#; #ábs tē# (but #abs tḗ#, if #tē# is emphatic). All prepositions used as adverbs (1402) have an independent accent.
93. ENCLITICS are words which have no accent of their own, but are pronounced as a part of the word preceding. This increase of the number of syllables produced certain accentual changes, all the details of which are not clear. When the enclitic was monosyllabic the place of the accent seems to have been determined as in 86; thus #vídēs#, but #vidḗsne#; #Látiō#, but #Latiṓque#. Again, when by the addition of a monosyllabic enclitic the accent falls on the fourth syllable from the end, a secondary (84, 85) accent was probably placed on the penult: as, #perī́cula#, but #perī́culàque#. The Roman grammarians agree, however, in demanding that everywhere the syllable preceding the enclitics #-que#, #-ne#, #-ve#, and #-ce# should be accented. In #deinde# and #subinde# there is authority for placing the accent on the first syllable.
Enclitics are: (1.) Unemphatic personal and indefinite pronouns: as, #in mē#, pronounced, #ínmē#; #dā mihi#, #dā́mihi#; #sīc tibi#, #sī́ctibi#; #sī quis#, #sī́quis#; #nē quid#, #nḗquid#. (2.) Verbs when used as auxiliaries: as, #possum# for #pót(e) sum# (752); #quī́ libet# (2401); #vidḗlicet#, #īlicet#, #scīlicet# (712); #quámvīs# (1903); the forms of #esse# in compound tenses (719), so that #est# is frequently combined, even in writing, with the preceding past participle (747). (3.) The particles #-ne# (#-n#), #-ve#, and #-ce# (#-c#): as, #satísne# or shortened #satín#; #Hyrcānīsve Arabī́sve#; #istī́ce# or shortened #istîc# (90), #adhûc# (90). (4.) The copulative conjunction #-que#: as, #Latiṓque#, #līmináque#. (5.) The preposition #cum# when it follows (1435) its case. (6.) The particle #quidem#: as, #sī quidem#, #síquidem# (131). (7.) Other enclitics are: #-met# (650): as, #egómet#; #-dem#: as, #ibídem#; #-nam#: as, #ubínam#; #-dum# (1573): as, #agédum#; #-inde#: as, #déinde#, #próinde# (which are disyllabic in verse), and #súbinde#; #-tum#; as, #etiámtum#; #-per#: as, #parúmper#; the vocative when it was closely joined to the preceding word, e.g. an imperative: as, #dī́c puer# (106).
94. Two words expressing what is really one single idea are often bound together by one accent, one of them acting the part of either a proclitic or enclitic.
Thus, with the earlier recessive accent (89), #Iū́piter# (133; 389; originally a vocative which came to be used as nominative; for the change of #pater# to #piter# see 104); #ínvicem#, in turn; #dḗnuō# for #dḗ nóvō# (106); with the later, classical accent, #lēgislā́tor#, #paterfamíliās#, #orbisterrā́rum#, #extémplō#, #imprī́mīs#. When unemphatic #ille# and #iste# preceded their noun and had practically the value of our definite article they formed a unit with the following noun and thus the accent might fall on their last syllable: as, #illé pater#, #isté canis#. This use is particularly common in vulgar and late Latin (see 112).
[Erratum: 92a ... and proclitic when relative. final . missing]
CHANGE OF SOUND.
(A.) VOWEL CHANGE.
CHANGE OF DIPHTHONGS IN ACCENTED SYLLABLES.
95. Of the six original diphthongs #au#, #ou#, #eu#, and #ai#, #oi#, #ei#, the only one which preserved its original sound in the classical period is #au#. Of the rest only #ae# (for older #ai#) and, in a few words, #oe# (for older #oi#) remained diphthongs; all the others had become monophthongs.
96. CHANGE OF #ai#. #ai# is common in inscriptions: as, AIDILIS, PRAITOR. Toward the end of the republic the two elements of the diphthong had been partially assimilated to #ae# (49): as, #aedīlis# (Quint. 1, 7, 18). This is its pronunciation in the classical period. Between 130 and 100 B.C. #ai# is displaced by #ae# in public documents; but the old-fashioned #ai# was often retained in private inscriptions. Still later the two elements completely converged to #ē#. In provincial Latin #ē# is found as early as 200 B.C.: as, CESVLA for CAESVLLA; in Rome itself the pronunciation ‘Cēcilius’ for #Caecilius#, and ‘#prētor#’ for #praetor# was derided as boorish; but by 71 A.D. #ae# was verging toward #ē# even in the court language: the coins of Vespasian have IVDEA as well as IVDAEA. In the 3d and 4th century A.D. #ē# became the prevalent sound.
97. CHANGE OF #au#. The diphthong #au#, which was preserved in educated speech, was changed to #ō# in rustic and colloquial pronunciation (see the anecdote related by Suetonius, Vesp. 22): as, #cōpō#, innkeeper, for #caupō#; #plōstrum# for #plaustrum# (barge), cart: #Clōdius# for #Claudius#. Some of these gained literary currency: as, #cōdex#, book, #caudex#, block; #fōcāle#, neckcloth, #faucēs#, throat. The form #sōdēs# (1572) for #si̭ audēs# = #sī audēs# (Cic. O. 154) is a colloquialism.
98. CHANGE OF #ei#. #ei# as a genuine diphthong is common in old inscriptions: as, SEI; SEIVE; ADEITVR; DEIXERVNT; FEIDA. In classical Latin it has passed into #ī#: thus, #sī#, if; #sīve#, either; #adītur#, is approached; #dīxērunt#, they said; fīda, faithful. An intermediate stage between the old diphthong #ei# and the classical #ī# was a very close (46) #ē#: as, PLOIRVME (465) for #plūrimī#; IOVRE (501, 507) for #iūrī#. For the orthographical use of #ei# as a spelling for the long #ī#-sound, see 29.
99. CHANGE OF #oi#. The development of #oi# was parallel to that of #ai#. It first passed into #oe#: as, COIRAVERVNT and COERAVERVNT, they cared; OITILE, useful, and OETI, to use; LOIDOS and LOEDOS, play,--all in old Latin. In classical Latin it has further been changed in accented syllables to #ū#: as, #cūrāvērunt#, #ūtile#, #ūtī#, #lūdus#. But #oe# was retained in classical Latin (1.) when a secondary diphthong (48), the result of contraction (120), and (2.) in a few words like #foedus#, treaty, perhaps as an archaizing, legal term; #foedus#, ugly; #poena#, penalty, perhaps through the influence of Greek ποινή (in the verb #pūnīre#, to punish, the regular #ū# appears); #proelium#, skirmish; #foetor#, stench; and #moenia#, walls, perhaps because there was a word #mūnia#, services. The connection of #nōn#, not, with #noenum# (455; 1444; 699) is difficult because of the unusual development of #oe# to #o#, for which the Praenestine form CORAVERONT is the only parallel.
100. CHANGE of #ou#. #ou#, found in inscriptions down to about 90 B.C., passed, in classical Latin, into #ū#: as, POVBLICOM, NOVNTIATA, IOVDEX; later #pūblicum#, public, #nūntiāta#, notified, #iūdex#, judge.
101. CHANGE OF #eu#. Primitive (48) #eu# appears in classical Latin only in the interjections #eu#, #heu#, #ē̆heu#, #heus#. Every other original #eu# had, even in old Latin, passed into #ou# and developed like the latter: as, #*neumen# (Greek νεῦμα) became first #*noumen#, then (100) #nūmen#. With the exceptions noted above, the diphthong #eu#, as it appears in Latin, is always of secondary origin (48), the result of the two vowels #e# and #u# meeting in composition: as, #neu#, neither, from #nē-ve#; #neutiquam#, from #nē# and #utiquam# (124).
WEAKENING IN UNACCENTED SYLLABLES.
102. The vowel of an unstressed (atonic) syllable is often weakened, changing its quantity or quality or both. This is especially the case in syllables immediately preceded by the chief accent (posttonic syllables). The following changes took place at an early period when Latin still possessed the old, recessive accent (89).
WEAKENING OF SIMPLE VOWELS IN MEDIAL SYLLABLES.
103. (a.) ATONIC MEDIAL #e# before a single consonant was weakened (with the exceptions given under b.) to #i#: as, #cólligō#, collect, from #legō#; #óbsideō#, besiege, from #sedeō#; #cértāminis#, of the contest, from #certāmen# (224); #flāminis#, from #flāmen# (470). And so probably #hic# (664) arose from #*hec# or #*hoc# (105, g) when used as proclitic (92). Before the labials #p#, #b#, #f#, and #m# this weakened sound was intermediate between #i# and #u# (28), and both spellings occur: as, #quadripēs# and #quadrupēs#, four-footed; #alimentum#, nourishment; #monumentum#, monument. The choice of #i# or #u# was probably governed by the quality of the stressed vowel in the preceding syllable: viz., #u# after #o# and #u#, and #i# after #a#, #e#, and #i#. But such distinction is only imperfectly maintained in classical Latin.
(b.) But before two consonants, before #r#, before vowels, and after #i#, atonic #e# does not change: as, #lévāmentum# (224), but #lévāminis#, of consolation; #óbsessus# (but #óbsideō#), possessed; #sócietās#, society, from the stem #socie-# (but #nóvitās# from the stem #nove-#); #géneris#, of the kind; #ádeunt#, they approach.
104. (c.) Atonic medial #a#, except in the cases mentioned below under (d.), (e.), and (f.), was first weakened to #e# and then underwent the same changes as atonic medial #e# (103): as (before single consonants), #cṓnficiō#, accomplish, from #faciō#; #ī́nsiliō#, jump in, from #saliō# (1019); #rédditus#, restored, from #datus#; #trícipitem#, three-headed, from #*trícapitem# (#caput#), Cic. O. 159; #occiput#, back of the head, and #sinciput#, jole (478). In compounds of #iaciō# (940), #-iaciō# is weakened in early Latin to #-ieciō# (as, #conieciō#, 940), but later to #-iciō# (as, #subiciō#). This last form may be due to syncope (111, a) of the radical #a#. The spelling #-iiciō# (as, #subiiciō#) is late and faulty (52). It does not occur in republican inscriptions and owes its origin to a confusion of the two forms #conieciō# and #coniciō#. (On the quantity of the vowel of the prepositions in these compounds of #iaciō#, see 122 e); (before #p#, #b#, #f#, #m#) #áccipiō#, accept, and #óccupō#, occupy, from #capiō#; #cóntubernālis#, room-mate, from #taberna#; #ábripiō#, to snatch away, from #rapiō#; (before two consonants) #pépercī#, I have spared, from #parcō#; #áccentus#, accent, from #cantus#; (before #r#) #péperī#, I brought forth, from #pariō#.
(d.) But an #a# in the preceding syllable may protect the atonic #a#: as, #ádagiō#, #ádagium#, proverb, but #prṓdigium#, miracle (144).
(e.) Atonic medial #a# before the guttural nasal (62) #n# followed by #g# changed to #i# (138): as, #áttingō#, touch, from #tangō#.
(f.) Atonic medial #a# before #l# followed by any consonant save #l# changed to #u# (both #l# and #u# being guttural, 60, 44): as, #éxsultāre#, to leap up, from #saltāre#; but #féfellī#, I deceived, from #fallō#.
105. (g.) ATONIC MEDIAL #o#, when followed by a single consonant, first changed to #e# and then underwent all further changes of medial atonic #e#: as, #hóminis#, from #*homon-is# (485); #ímāginis#, for #*imāgonis#, 226 (nominative #imāgō#, 485); #cúpīdinis#, for #*cupīdonis#, 225, (nominative #cupīdō#, 485); #vírginis#, for #*virgonis# (nominative #virgō#, 470); #ī́licō#, from #*in-slocō#, on the spot (169, 4).
(h.) Before two consonants or before guttural #l# (60) atonic medial #o# changed to #u#: as, #éuntis#, from #*éontis# (Greek ἴοντος); #sēdulō#, from #sē dolō# (1417). But a preceding #v# or #u# protects #o# (107, c).
(i.) Before #r#, atonic medial #o# was retained: as, #témporis#, of time; except when #u# in the preceding syllable induced a change to #u#: as, #fúlguris#, of lightning (for the #-r# in the nominative singular #fulgur# instead of #-s#, see 154).
106. (k.) Medial #-av-#, #-ov-#, and #-iv-# in posttonic syllables were weakened to #u#: as, #dḗnuō# from #dḗnovō# (94); #ábluō# from #ablavō#. The form #puer#, boy, arose from the older POVER in enclitic vocatives (93, 7) and was thence transferred to the nominative like #piter# in #Iūpiter# (94).
[Erratum: 105g ... #ī́licō#, from #*in-slocō#, on the spot (169, 4) (169, 6)]
WEAKENING OF SIMPLE VOWELS IN FINAL SYLLABLES.
107. (a.) In final syllables unaccented original #e# before #s# and #t# was weakened to #i#: as, #salūtis#, of safety, from older #salūtes# (507).
(b.) Final #i# became #e#: as, #ante# for #*anti# (Greek ἀντί and #anti-cipāre#); nominative singular #mare#, from the stem #mari-# (526).
(c.) In final syllables #o# before consonants changed to #u# except when preceded by #u# or #v#: as, #fīlius#, son, for old Latin #fīlios# (452); #ferunt#, they carry, for older #feront#; #femur#, thigh, nomin. sg. from the stem #femor-# (489); #genus#, kind, for #*genos#, Greek γένος; but #vīvont#, they live; #salvom#, safe. Not long before the beginning of our era #o# here also changed to #u# and appears to have coalesced with the preceding #v# (Quint. 1, 7, 26): as, in inscriptions: INGENVS (nomin. sg.) for #ingenuos#; SERVM, slave (acc. sg.), for #servom#; NOVM for #novom#, something new; so also #boum#, oxen (gen. pl.), for #bovom# (494). But inasmuch as the majority of forms in the paradigms of these words retained their #v#, it was restored in most cases, by analogy, to the forms which had lost it: as, #servum# for #serum#, because of #servī#, #servō#, etc.; #vīvunt# for #vīunt#, because of #vīvō#, #vīvis#, #vīvit#, etc.
(d.) When the stems #fac-# (#facere#, do), #cap-# (#capere#, take) appear as second members of compounds, their #a# changes in final syllables to #e#: as, #artifex#, artisan; #auceps#, bird-catcher. After the analogy of these words, compounds with #dīcere# and #īre# have #e# in the nom. sg.: as, #iūdex#, #iūdicis#, judge (from #iūs# and #dīcere#); #comes#, companion (from #com#, with, and #īre#); see 136, 2.
[Errata: 107 (b.) Final #i# became #e# (b) 107c ... INGENVS (nomin. sg.) for #ingenuos# . after sg. invisible]
WEAKENING OF DIPHTHONGS IN UNACCENTED SYLLABLES.
108. Diphthongs, whether medial or final, are treated alike in atonic syllables.
(a.) Atonic #ei#, #oi#, and #ai# (#ae#) became #ī#: as, #lupī#, wolves (nom. pl.), for #*lupoi# (Gr. λύκοι); #bellī#, in war (loc. sg., 460, 1338), for #*bellei# (Greek οἴκει) or #*belloi# (Greek οἴκοι); #éxīstimō#, I consider, from #aestimō#; #cóncīdō#, I strike down, from #caedō#; Cicero, O. 159, mentions #inīcum#, unfair, for #*ínaecum#, and #concīsum# for #*cóncaesum#; so also, probably, #hīc#, this, arose from #hoic# (662) when used as a proclitic (92).
(b.) Atonic #ou# and #au# became #ū#: as, #ínclūdō#, I include, from #claudō#; #áccūsāre#, to accuse, from #causa#.
109. There are not a few cases in which the atonic vowel does not conform to the rules given above (102-108). These are usually compounds which show the vowel of the simple verb. Some of these were formed at a time when the early recessive accent was no longer in force and consequently there was no cause for weakening; in others the vowel of the simple verb was by analogy substituted for the weakened vowel of the compound: as, #appetō#, I strive after, from #petō#, which ought to have #i# like #colligō#, collect, from #legō#; #intermedius#, intermediate, but #dīmidius#, half; #dēfraudāre#, to cheat, by the side of #dēfrūdāre# from #fraudāre#; instead of the common #redarguō#, I refute, Scipio Africanus minor Pauli filius (185-129 B.C.) said #rederguō#, and #pertīsum# for #pertaesum#, but both Cicero (O. 159) and Lucilius discountenance #pertīsum# as the sign of a pedantic prig. In a few cases the reverse process took place, and the weakened vowel which arose in the compound was transferred to the simple verb: as, #clūdō#, I close (958), for #claudō#, which owes its #ū# to compounds like #occlūdō#. For a case where the vowel of the preceding syllable acted as a stay to the expected change, see 104, d.
LOSS IN UNACCENTED SYLLABLES.
110. Only vowels which are short and atonic may be lost. The loss of a medial vowel is called Syncope; of an initial vowel, Aphaeresis; of a final vowel Apocope.
111. SYNCOPE. (a.) Loss of a posttonic vowel, entailing the loss of a syllable, occurs in #ardus# (Lucil.; for #ă# see 128) for the common #āridus#, dry; #caldus# by the side of #calidus#, warm (Quint. 1, 6, 19); #reppulī#, I pushed back, and #rettulī#, I carried back, stand for #*répepulī# and #*rétetulī# (861); #pergō#, I proceed, stands for #*perregō# from #regō# (cf. #cor-rigō#, #ē-rigō#, where the #e# is weakened, 103, and #porrigō#, #porgō#, where it is either weakened or lost), hence it forms its perfect #perrēxī# (953): #pōnō#, I place, is for #*posnō# (170, 2) from #*po-sinō# (112), hence it forms its past participle #positus# (972); for #iūrgō#, I blame. Plautus has #iūrigō#; #*ūsūripō# (from #ūsus# and #rapere#) yields #ūsurpō#, I utilize; #*gāvideō#, hence #gāvīsus# (801), gives #gaudeo#, I rejoice, converting #āṷ# to #aṷ# before the following #d# (128); in a similar way #auceps#, bird-catcher, is formed from #*aviceps# (#avis#, bird, and #capere#, catch); #claudere#, lock, from #*clāvidere# (#clāvis#, key); #aetās#, age, for #áevitās# (262); #praecō#, herald, for #*práevicō# (105, g) #prae-vocō# (211); also with change of #ou# to #ū# (100), #prūdēns#, prudent, for #*proudēns# from #providēns#, foreseeing; #nūper#, lately, from #*noviper#; #nūntius#, messenger, from #*noventius# (333); #iūcundus#, joyful, from #iuvicundus# (Cic. Fin. 2, 14). But forms like #pōclum#, cup, #saeclum#, age, do not belong here, as they are original and not derived by syncope from #pōculum#, #saeculum#; cf. 172.
(b.) Where, through the loss of a vowel, #l# or #r# would come to stand between two consonants, or where they would be final and preceded by a consonant, #l# and #r# become syllabic (83) and the syllable is thus maintained. Syllabic #l# is represented by #ul#, syllabic #r# by #er# (172, 3). The development of such intercalary vowels as #u# before #l# and #e# before #r# is called Anaptyxis (172). Thus, #*sacri-dōts# (cf. #sacri-legium#) became first #*sacr̥dōts# by syncope, then #sacerdōs#, priest, by anaptyxis; #*ācribus# (cf. #ācri-mōnia#, pungency) first became #*ācr̥bus# then #ācerbus#, pungent; #*agrilos# (267, cf. #agri-cola#, farmer) became first #*agr̥los#, then #*agerlos#, and finally, by assimilation of the #r# to #l# (166, 7), #agellus#, small field; from #*dis-ficilter# (adverb from #dis-# and #facilis#) arose #*difficl̥ter# and #difficulter#, with difficulty. The nominative sg. of the following words is to be explained thus. #ager# (451) was originally #*agros# (cf. Greek ἄγρος), which changed successively to #*agr̥s#, #*agers#, and #ager# (for the loss of #-s# see 171, 1 and 3). Similarly #*ācris#, passing through the stages of #*ācr̥s#, #*ācers#, became #ācer# (627), and #*famlos# by way of #*faml̥s#, #*famuls#, became #famul# (455), to which later the common ending of nouns of the #o-#declension was added, giving #famulus#.
112. APHAERESIS. Aphaeresis hardly occurs in literary Latin. In the pronoun #iste# the initial #i# is sometimes dropped (667); this loss implies an accented ultima (94). A trace of prehistoric aphaeresis is found in the prefix #po-# for #*apo# (Greek ἀπό) in #pōnō#, I place, for #po-s(i)nō# (111, a).
113. APOCOPE. Under the same conditions under which a medial vowel was syncopated, the final vowel of a word which stood in close union with the following word, as a preposition with its noun, was lost. In this way #*peri# (Greek περί) became #per#; #*apo# (Greek ἀπό) became #ap#, #ab# (164, 2); #*eti# (Greek ἔτι) became #et#. Similarly the final #-e# of the enclitics #-ce#, #-ne#, not, and #-ne# interrogative was lost: #*sī-ce# became #sīc#, so; #*quī-ne#, #quīn#, why not; #habēsne#, #haben#, hast thou; the imperatives #dīc#, say, #dūc#, lead, and #fac#, do, stand for earlier #dīce#, #dūce#, #face# (846); the shortened form #em# for #eme# (imperative of #emere#, take) has been turned into an interjection (1149). In the same way #nec# arose by the side of #neque#; #ac# by the side of #atque# (158). Final #-e# has also been dropped in the nominative sg. of a number of polysyllabic neuter stems in #-āli# and #-āri# (546): as, #animal#, animal, for #*animāle#, #exemplar#, pattern, for #*exemplāre#. See 536, 537. It must, however, be remembered that in most of the cases given the loss of a final vowel would also result from elision (119) before the initial vowel of the following word.
COMBINATION OF ADJACENT VOWELS.
114. HIATUS. A succession of two vowel sounds not making a diphthong is called Hiatus.
When in the formation of words by means of suffixes or prefixes or through the loss of an intervening consonant, two vowels come into contact within a word we speak of internal hiatus; the term external hiatus comprises those cases where, in connected discourse, the final vowel of one word comes into contact with the initial vowel of the following word. For the latter kind, see 2474.
115. The treatment of vowels in internal hiatus is four-fold: (1.) The hiatus may remain; (2.) the two vowels may be fused into one (Contraction); (3.) one of the two vowels may be dropped (Elision); and (4.) the two vowels may be combined into a diphthong.
116. HIATUS is maintained (a.) between two adjacent vowels the second of which is long and accented (according to the classical accentuation): as, #coḗgi#, I forced, and #coā́ctus#, forced (937); but #cōgō# (118, 3). For #coepi#, instead of #coḗpī#, I began, see 120.
(b.) In many prepositional compounds when the members were still felt to be independent: as, #praeesse# (the contracted form #praesse# is found in inscriptions); #dēerunt#, they will be wanting, by the side of #dērunt#; #coalēscō#, grow together (the contracted form #cōlēscō# appears in Varro); #cooptāre#, coöpt, #cooperiō#, I cover up (by the side of rare #cōptāre#, #cōperīre#); #coïtus#, meeting, by the side of #coetus# (120).
(c.) A comparatively large number of vowel combinations remain unchanged: as #ea# and #eā# in #eam#, her, and #meā#, by my (fem. sing.); #ia# and #iā# in #māria#, seas, #viātōris#, of the traveller; #ua# and #uā# in #bēlua#, monster, #suā#, through her (fem. sg.); #iē# in #quiēs#, quiet; #uē# in #luēs#, pestilence; #eī# in #meī#, of me; #uī# in #tuī#, of thee; #eō# in #meō#, by my (masc. sing.).
117. SYNIZESIS. In these combinations the first vowel is sometimes made unsyllabic (83). This is called synizesis (2499) and is not rare in poets, being often the only means of adapting a word to the requirements of certain metres. Thus, #fortuītus# (- ⏑ - ⏓) must appear in a hexameter as #fortvītus# (#fortṷītus#). See 2499, 2503.
118. CONTRACTION. (1.) Two like vowels may unite in one long vowel; rapidity of utterance was favourable to such fusion. In compounds, the desire to keep the members distinct often prevented it. So always #nēmō#, nobody, for #*neemō# from #*ne-hemō#, no man (for the loss of #h#, see 58, 150; for #e# in #*hemō#, see 144); and by the side of the open forms, #nīl# from #nihil#, nothing; #vēmēns# from #vehemēns#, rapid (connected with the verb #vehō#); rarely #dērunt#, they will be wanting, and #dēsse#, to be wanting, for #dēerunt#, #dēesse#; #dēlēram#, I had destroyed, from #*dēlēeram# for #dēlēveram# (for the loss of #v#, see 153), see 890; #passūm#, of paces, for #passuum# (591).
(2.) A diphthong absorbs the following vowel: as, #praetor#, older #praitor#, praetor, from #*prai-itor#, who goes before; inscriptions show #praerunt# for #praeerunt#, they will be before; for #praebēre#, to furnish, the open form #praehibēre# occurs in Plautus (1004).
(3.) If two unlike vowels are contracted at all, they usually unite in the long sound of the first vowel. Thus, #o# and #a# yield #ō#: as, #cōgō#, I force, from #co-agō#; #cōgitō#, I think, from #co-agitō#. Similarly Varro has #cōlēscat#, it may combine, for #co-alēscat#. #o# and #e# yield #ō#: as, #prōmō#, bring out, #cōmō#, put up, for #pro-emō#, #co-emō# (953). #ē# and #a# yield #ē#: as, #dēgō#, I pass away, from #dē-agō# (937). #i# and #e# in the termination of the vocative of #-io-# stems probably contracted to #-ī#; as #fīlī# from #*fīlie#, 459. But in denominative (365) and other verbs of the first conjugation #ā# and #ō# contract into #ō#: as, #amō#, I love, from #*amā-ō# (cf. Greek τιμά·ω); and #ā# and #ē# into #ē#: as, #amēs#, thou mayest love, for #*amā-ēs#.
119. ELISION. Only rarely the first of two successive vowels is dropped: as, #nūllus#, no, for #*ne-ūllus#; likewise the final vowel of the first member of nominal compounds: as, #multangulus#, with many corners, for #*multi-angulus# (cf. #multi-cavus#, with many holes); #flexanimus#, heart-rending, for #*flexi-animus# (cf. #flexi-pēs#, with bent feet).
120. COMBINATION INTO DIPHTHONGS. The union of two successive vowels into a diphthong is equally rare: #o# and #i# are combined to #oi#, #oe#, in #coetus#, meeting, by the side of the open form #coïtus# (116, b); the perfect #coepī# (812), I began, owes its diphthong #oe# to forms in which the #e# was short and unaccented, such as the rare present forms #coepiō# for #có-ĕpiō# (813); for #coḗpi# (813, 863) would have remained unchanged (116, a). #neuter#, with the accent on the #e#, was pronounced as three syllables, later #eu# became diphthongal; #neutiquam# with synizesis (117) of #e#. #e# and #ī̆# sometimes contract to #e͡i# in #rēi# (601, 602) and in #de͡inde#, #dēin# in the classic poets.
LENGTHENING.
121. COMPENSATIVE LENGTHENING. When certain groups of consonants are simplified by the dropping of a consonant, its time is absorbed by a preceding short vowel, which thereby becomes long. This is called Compensation. In many cases compensative lengthening is due to the loss of a preliterary sonant #s# (170, 2): as,
#cānus#, gray, from #*casnus# (cf. #cas-cus#, very old). See for other cases of this lengthening, 170, 5, #quīnī#, for #*quincnī#; 170, 6, #īgnōscō#, for #*in-gnōscō#.
122. INDUCED LENGTHENING. Before certain groups of consonants short vowels have a tendency to become long: as,
(a.) The prefixes #in-# and #con-# before #s# or #f# lengthened their vowels in classical Latin (Cic. O. 159): as, #īnsānus#, mad; #īnfēlīx#, unhappy; #cōnsuēvit#, he grew used to; #cōnfēcit#, he accomplished. Elsewhere also the vowel before #ns# and #nf# appears to have been lengthened: as, #fōns#, fountain; #pēnsus#, weighty (Gell. 9, 6); #forēnsis#, forensic; #cēnsor#, censor; #mēnsa#, table; #mēnsis#, mouth; #Valēns#; #Clēmēns#; the #o# of #īnsons#, guiltless, however, is marked as short by the grammarian Probus.
(b.) A similar lengthening of the vowel before #nc# followed by #t# or #s# appears: as, #ūnctus#, anointed, from #unguō# (Gell. 9, 6); #iūnctus#, joined, from #iungō# (954), #coniūnx#, spouse, genit. #coniugis# (472); #quīnctus#, fifth, whence #quīntus# (170, 4) and #quīnque#, five, derive their #ī#; #sānctus#, hallowed.
(c.) Spellings like SIGNVM, sign (well supported in inscriptions), and DIGNE, worthily (less well supported) show that #i# was at times lengthened before #gn#. The grammarian Priscian demands this lengthening for all vowels preceding the ending #-gnus#, #-gna#, #-gnum#.
(d.) A lengthened vowel before #r# followed by a consonant is also certain for some words like #ōrdō#, order; #fōrma#, shape.
(e.) Some speakers appear to have lengthened the vowel of prepositions like #con-#, #sub-#, #ob-#, in the compounds of #iaciō# (104, c); as #ōbicit#. This practice, which is disapproved by Gellius (4, 17), probably arose from the transfer by analogy of the quantity of the first syllable in forms like #conieciant# (940) to that of the shortened form. In the same way the occasional spelling CÓNIV́NX, spouse, for #coniūnx#, may owe its long #ō# to the analogy of #cōiunx#, CÓIVGI (170, 6).
(f.) Many verb stems ending in #-g# have a long vowel in the past participle before the suffix #-to-#: as, #tēctus#, covered, from #tego# (916); #tāctus#, touched, from #tangō# (925); #pāctus#, fixed, from #pangō# (925); #fīctus#, moulded, from #fingō# (954); #pīctus#, painted, from #pingō#. The evidence for #ā# in #maximus# is very scanty: one case of A with the apex (29, 3) in a faulty inscription.
(g.) Of the induced lengthenings enumerated above, only those given in (a.) (b.) (f.) seem to have been universal in classical Latin. The rest appear to have been local peculiarities, which, while making inroads upon the literary language, never gained full recognition.
123. (1.) ANALOGICAL LENGTHENING. In noun stems in #-o# the stem vowel is lengthened in the genitive plural #-ōrum# (449, 462), by analogy to the stems in #-ā# (435): as, #servōrum#, of slaves, like #mēnsārum#, of tables. For other cases see 122, e.
(2.) METRICAL LENGTHENING. On the lengthening of a vowel (or a syllable) under the influence of verse-ictus, see 2505.
SHORTENING.
124. A vowel originally long is regularly shortened in classical Latin before another vowel, even though an #h# intervene: as,
#taceō#, I am silent, from the stem #tacē-# (365); #seorsum#, apart, #deorsum#, downward, from #sē(v)orsum#, #dē(v)orsum# (153).
125. In simple words a diphthong occurs before a vowel only in one or two proper names: as, #Gnaeus#, #Annaeus#, in which it remains long, and in Greek words. But the diphthong #ae# of the prefix #prae# is sometimes shortened before a vowel: as, #pra͝eacūtus#; #pra͝eeunt#; #pra͝ehibeō#; hence #prehendō# for #*prae-hendō#. Sometimes it coalesces with a following vowel: as, #pra͡e͡optāvīstī#.
126. An increased tendency to shorten a long vowel before another vowel can be traced in the history of the language: thus, classical #fuī#, I was, for Plautus’s #fūī# (750); #clueō#, I am called, for Plautus’s #clūeō#; perfect #pluit#, it rained, for Varro’s #plūit# (cf. #plūvit#, 823, 947); #pius#, pious, for Ennius’s #pīus#; see also 765.
127. But even in classical Latin there are cases where a vowel before another vowel remains long: thus,
(1.) Regularly, the #ī# of #fīō#, I am made, except before #-er-#, as in #fierem# (788, 789).
(2.) In #dīus#, godly, for #dīvus# (153), and the old ablatives #dīū#, #dīō#, open sky (used only in the expression #sub dīū#, #sub dīō#, i.e. #sub dīvō#).
(3.) In the ending #ēī# of the genitive and dative sg. of stems in #-ē-# (601) when an #i# precedes: as, #diēī#, of a day, #aciēī#, of the battle line, but #reī#, of the thing, for older #rēī#.
(4.) It may be mentioned here that #rēī# is said to occur in verse 6 times (Plaut. G. 2, Lucr. G. 2, D. 2); #reī# 9 times (Plaut. G. 2, Ter. G. 4, D. 1, Juv. G. 1, Sulp. Apoll. G. 1); #re͞i# 27 times (Plaut. G. 2, D. 3, Enn. D. 1, Ter. G. 9, D. 8, Lucil. G. 1, D. 1, Lucr. G. 2). #fidēī# G. 3 times (Plaut., Enn., Lucr.); #fideī# 11 times (Enn. D. 1, Man. G. 2, D. 1, Sil. G. 4, D. 1, Juv. G. 2); #fidēi# 5 times (Ter. G. 1, D. 3, Hor. 1). #ēī# 35 times (Plaut. 18, Ter. 8, Lucr. 9); #eī# some 17 times (Plaut. 12, Ter. 2, German. 1, Ter. Maur. 2); #ēi# 23 times (Plaut. 11, Ter. 8, Lucil. 3, Cat. 1).
(5.) #Gāius# retains its #ā# before the vowel #i#: thus, #Gāius# (trisyllabic).
(6.) In the pronominal genitives in #-ī̆us# (618), the quantity of #i# varied. The older dramatists use #ī#; later, #ī# was shortened, but variations in its quantity seem to have continued until long after the end of the republic; Cicero, DO. 3, 183, measures #illius#; Quintilian 1, 5, 18 #ūnīus#; the grammarian Priscian prescribes #-īus# for all except #alterius#, which should always have #i#, and #utrius#, in which the #i# is common (30). In verse the #i# is often short, except in #neutrīus#; #utriusque# has always short #i#.
(7.) The penult is long in the endings #-āī#, #-āīs#, #-ōī#, #-ōīs#, and #-ēī#, #-ēīs#, from stems in #-āio-#, #-ōio-#, and #-ēio-# (458) or #-iā-# (437): as, #Gāī#, #Bōī#, #Pōmpēī#, #plēbēī#: #Gāīs#, #Bōīs#, #Pompēīs#, #plēbēīs#, #Bāīs#; #aulāī#, #pictāī#.
(8.) #Dī̆ana# has #ĭ# as often as #ī#. #ohē# has #ŏ̄#; #ē̆heu# has #ĕ# in comedy, otherwise #ē#.
(9.) In many Greek words a long vowel comes before another vowel; as, #āēr#, #Aenēās#, #Mēdēa#. But early importations from Greek followed the general rule and shortened the vowel: as, #platĕa# (πλατεῖα), #balinĕum#, #balnĕum# (βαλανεῖον).
128. A long vowel preceding unsyllabic #i̭# or #ṷ# followed by a consonant is shortened: as, #gaudeō# for #*gāudeō# (cf. #gāvīsus#, 111); #claudo# for #clāudō# (cf. #clāṷis#, 111).
Similarly a long vowel (unless long by contraction: as, #nūntius#, 111, a, #cōntiō#) preceding a liquid or nasal followed by a consonant is shortened: as, syncopated #ardus# from #āridus# (111), #habentem#, from the stem #habē-#. For cases of induced lengthening of the vowel before #n# followed by certain consonants, see 122.
129. IAMBIC SHORTENING. The law of iambic shortening (2470) produced a number of important changes: thus,
(1.) In old dramatic verse iambic words (⏑ -) often shorten the long vowel. The poets after Plautus and Terence preserve the long vowel.
(a.) Nouns; G. #eri#, #boni#, #preti#. D. #cani#, #ero#, #malo#. L. #domi#, #heri#. Ab. #levi#, #manu#, #domo#, #bona#, #fide#. Plural: N. #fores#, #viri#. D., Ab. #bonis#. Ac. #foris#, #viros#, #bonas#. (b.) Verbs: #eo#, #volo#, #ago#; #ero#, #dabo#; #vides#; #loces#; #voles#; #dedi#, #dedin#; #roga#, #veni#; later poets sometimes retain #cave#, #vale#, and #vide#. The vowel may also be shortened when #-n# (1503) is added and #s# is dropped before #-n# (170, 2): #rogan#, #abin#; #viden# is also retained by later poets.
(2.) In a few pyrrhic words (⏑ ⏑) in #-i#, which were originally iambic (⏑ -), the poets in all periods retained final #-ī# at pleasure: these are,
#mihī̆#, #tibī̆#, #sibī̆#; #ibī̆#, #ubī̆#; also #alicubī̆#. The #i# of #bi# is always short in #nēcubi# and #sīcubi#, and usually in #ubinam#, #ubivīs#, and #ubicumque#; #ibidem# is used by the dramatists, #ibīdem# in hexameter. #ubīque# has always #ī#.
130. The following instances show that this law operated in prose speech also:
(1.) In iambic words of the #ā-# declension (432) the final #-ā# of the nominative singular was shortened; hence #*equā# became #equa#, mare. From these iambic words short final #-a# spread so that all stems in #-ā-# shorten the final #ā# of the nom. sg. (434).
(2.) The final #-a# in the nominative plural of neuter nouns of the #o-# declension (446), which appears in #trīgintā#, thirty, was likewise shortened, first in iambic words like #iuga#, yokes, #bona#, goods, then everywhere (461).
(3.) This law explains the short final vowel in #homo# (2442) by the side of #sermō# (2437, c) and similar cases, like the adverbs #modo#, #cito# (2442), #bene#, #male# (2440). In the same way arose the short final #o# of the first person in conjugation (2443): as, #volo#, #dabo#, #dīxero# by the side of #scrībō#; so also #viden# for #vidēn# (129, 1; 170, 2).
(4.) Of imperatives only #puta#, used adverbially (2438, c), #ave#, #have# (805; Quint. i, 6, 21; but Martial scans #havē#) as a salutation and #cave#, used as an auxiliary (1711), show the short final vowel in classical Latin. Elsewhere the long vowel has been restored, as #amā#, #monē# (845).
(5.) According to this rule #calēfaciō#, #malēdīcō# changed to #calefaciō#, #maledīcō#.
131. A long final vowel is shortened when an enclitic is added to the word: as #siquidem# from #sī#; #quoque# from #quō#.
132. A long vowel is regularly shortened, in the classical period, before final #-t# and #-m# and, in words of more than one syllable, also before final #r# and #l#.
Thus, #soror#, sister, for Plautus’s #sorōr#, from the stem #sorōr-# (487); #ūtar#, I may use, for Plautus’s #ūtār# (cf. #ūtāris#); #bacchanal# for Plautus’s #bacchanāl#; #animal#, #exemplar# from the stems #animāl-# (530) and #exemplār-# (537); but the long vowel is retained in the monosyllables #fūr#, thief, #sōl#, sun; #pōnēbat#, he placed, for Plautus’s #pōnēbāt# (cf. #pōnēbās#); #iūbet#, he commanded, for Plautus’s #iūbēt#; #eram#, I was, but #erās#; #rēxerim#, I may have ruled, but #rēxerīs# (877); #-um# in the genitive plural of #-o-# stems is for #-ūm# (462); #mēnsam#, table, for #*mēnsām# from the stem #mensā-#; #rem#, from #rē-# (#rēs#), #spem# from #spē-# (#spēs#).
[Errata: 125 ... #pra͡e͡optāvīstī# The vowels “aeo” are joined with a single ligature 132 ... (cf. #ūtāris#) (cf #ūtāris#)]
TRANSFER OF QUANTITY.
133. (1.) In a few cases the length of the vowel has been transferred to the following consonant, the length of which is then indicated by doubling it (81): as, #littera# for #lītera#, LEITERAS; #Iuppiter# for #Iūpiter#; #parricīda# for #pāri-cīda#, murder of a member of the same clan (#*pāro-#, member of a clan, Doric πᾶός, a relative); #cuppa# for #cūpa#, barrel. The legal formula sī pāret, if it appear, was vulgarly pronounced #sī parret# (Festus).
(2.) Since the doubled unsyllabic #i# (#i̭#) between vowels (23; 166, 9; 153, 2) is commonly written single, the vowel preceding it is often erroneously marked long: as, #āiō# wrongly for #aiō#, i.e. #ai̭i̭ō#, I say; #māior# wrongly for #maior#, i.e. #mai̭i̭or#, greater; #pēior# wrongly for #peior#, i.e. #pei̭i̭or#, worse; #ēius#, of him, #cūius#, of whom, #hūius#, of him, all wrongly for #eius#, #cuius#, #huius# i.e. #ei̭i̭us#, #cui̭i̭us#, #huii̭us# (153, 2). In all these words the first syllable was long but not the vowel.
VARIATIONS OF QUANTITY.
134. (1.) In some foreign proper names and in a very few Latin words the quantity of a vowel varied. Vergil has #Sȳchaeus# and #Sychaeus# within six verses; also #Āsia# and #Asia#, #Lavīnium# and #Lāvīnius#; so also #glōmus# (Lucr.), #glomus# (Hor.); #cōturnīx# (Plaut., Lucr.), #coturnīx# (Ov.).
(2.) Sometimes such variations in vowel quantity are only apparent: thus, the occasional long final #-ē# of the active infinitive (#darē#, #prōmerē#) has probably a different origin from the usual #-ĕ#. For metrical lengthening, see 2505.
[Erratum: 134 ... #glomus# (Hor.) (Hor)]
QUANTITATIVE VOWEL GRADATION.
135. The same stem often shows a long vowel in some of its forms and a short vowel in others. In most cases these variations of quantity were not developed on Latin soil but inherited from a much earlier period. Such old inherited differences in vowel quantity are called quantitative vowel gradation.
(1.) Instances of this are #prō# for #*prōd# (149; cf. #prōdesse#) and #pro-# (Greek πρό); #nē# and #ne-# in #nescius#; the couples #regō#, I rule, and #rēxī#; #vehō#, I draw, #vēxī#; #veniō#, I come, #vēnī#, where the long vowel is characteristic of the perfect stem (862); #vocō#, I call, and #vōx#, voice; #regō#, I rule, and #rēx#, ruler; #legō#, I read, and #lēx#, bill; #sedeō#, I sit, and #sēdēs#, seat; #fidēs#, confidence, and #fīdō#, I trust; #dux# (cf. #ducis#), leader, and #dūcō#, I lead, where verb and noun are differentiated by the quantity of the root vowel; and many others.
(2.) Sometimes the reduction of the vowel in certain forms amounts to complete loss, as in the adverbial ending #-is-# in #magis# (346, 363) compared with the comparative suffix #-ios#, #-iōs# (Nom. #-ior#, Genit. #-iōris#); in the oblique cases of the stem #carōn-# (nomin. sg. #carō#, 497), where the suffix becomes #-n-# (545), genitive #car-n-is#; in the suffix #-ter#, which becomes #-tr-# in all cases but the nom. sg. (#pater#, #patris#, etc., 470, 487); in the feminine #-tr-ī-c-# to the suffix #-tor-#; but the nom. sing. #Caecīlis# (465) for #Caecīlios# is probably due to syncope.
QUALITATIVE VOWEL CHANGES.
136. (1.) #i# before an #r# which goes back to an earlier voiced #s# (154) was changed to #e#: as, #cineris#, of ashes, for #*cinisis#, from the stem #cinis# (491); #Faleriī#, for #*Falisiī#, cf. #Falis-cus#; (formed like #Etrūria#, for #*Etrūsia#, cf. #Etrūs-cī#).
(2.) In the nominative singular of compounds like #iūdex#, judge (from #iūs# and #dīcere#), #comes#, companion (from #com#, with, and #īre#, go), the #i# of the second member of the compounds is changed to #e# (470) after the analogy of words like #artifex#, artisan, etc. (107, d).
137. #e# before #-gn-# became #i#: as, #īlignus#, from the stem #īlec-# (cf. #īlex#).
138. #e# before the guttural nasal (62) followed by a guttural mute was changed to #i#: as, #septingentī#, from #septem#; #singulī#, from the stem #sem-# in #semel# (for the assimilation of #m# see 164, 3); #obtingō# (925), I attain, for #*óbtengō# (104, c) from #*ob-tangō# (104, e).
139. A similar change took place in the group #-enl-# which became first #-inl-# and then #-ill-#: as, #*signilum#, diminutive of #sīgnum# (for #ī#, see 122, c), first changed by syncope (111) from #*signilum# to #*sign̥lum#, then to #*sigenlum# (172, 3), then to #*siginlum#, and finally to #sigillum#.
140. #o# before #nc# became #u#: as, #homunculus#, manikin for #*homonculus#, from the stem #homon-# (485); #nūncupāre#, name, for #*nōn-cupāre# (#nōn-# for #nōm-# (164, 3) = syncopated #nōmen#); #hunc#, him, for #*honc#, from #hom-ce# (662).
141. #o# before #l# followed by any consonant save #l# was changed to #u#: as, #cultus#, tilled, for #*coltus#, from #colere#; #multa#, fine, for old Latin #molta#. But #o# before #ll# is retained: as, #collis#, hill.
142. #e# before guttural #l# (60) was changed to #o#: as, #solvō#, I undo, from #*seluō# (#se-#, as in #se-cordia#, #luō# = Greek λύω); #culmen#, top, for #*celmen#, from #*cellō# in #ex-cellō#; #volō#, I wish, for #*velō#; but #e# is preserved before dental #l# (60): as in #velle#, #velim# (773). Before #l# followed by any consonant save #l# this #o# changes to #u# (141): as, #vult#.
143. In a number of words, notably in #voster#, your, #vorsus#, turned, #vortex#, eddy, and #votāre#, forbid, the forms with #o# were replaced, about the second century B.C. by forms with #e#: as, #vester#, #versus#, #vertex#, #vetāre# (Quint. 1, 7, 25).
[Erratum: 136 (2.) In the nominative singular (2)]
ASSIMILATION.
144. In a few cases a vowel is influenced by the vowel of a neighbouring syllable: as,
#nisi#, unless, for #*nesi#; #iīs#, for #eīs#, to them (671, 674); #diī#, #diīs#, gods, for #deī#, #deīs# (450); #nihil#, nothing, for #*nehil#; #homō#, man, for #*hemō# (cf. #nēmō#, from #ne-hemō#, 118); see also 104, d; 105, i.
QUALITATIVE VOWEL GRADATION.
145. The same stem often shows different vowels in different forms. In most of these cases this difference was inherited from a very early period and continued in the Latin. Such old inherited variation of the quality of the stem-vowel is called qualitative vowel gradation. The qualitative variations may be accompanied by quantitative changes (135).
Often the verb and the noun are thus distinguished by different vowels: as, #tegō#, I cover, and #toga#, a garment, toga; #precor#, I beg, and #procus#, suitor, cf. English to sing and a song, to bind, and a bond. The different tenses of some verbs show a like gradation: as, #capiō#, I take, #cēpī#; #faciō#, I make, #fēcī#, cf. English I sing, I sang; I bring, I brought. The same occurs in derivation: as #doceō#, I teach, by the side of #decet#; #noceō#, I harm, by the side of #nex# (#nec-s#). The two vowels which occur most frequently in such gradation are #e# and #o#: as in stems in #-o-#, #domine#, #dominus# (for #dominos#); as variable vowel (824); #genos# (#genus#, 107, c) in the nom. sg. by the side of #*genes-# in the oblique cases (gen. #generis# for #*genesis#, 154); #honōs# by the side of #hones-# in #hones-tus#; #modus#, measure, for #*modos# (originally a neuter #-s-# stem like #genus# (487, 491), but transferred later to the #-o-# declension), by the side of #modes-# in #modes-tus#, seemly. See 187.
(B.) CONSONANT CHANGE.
146. In a number of words which belong more or less clearly to the stem of the pronoun #quo-# (681), #cu-# (157), the initial #c# has disappeared before #u#: as,
#uter#, which of the two, #ubĭ#, where, #unde#, whence (711). For the conjunction #ut#, #utī#, that, connection with this pronominal stem is much more doubtful. The #c-# appears in the compounds with #sī# and #nē̆#: as, #sī-cubī# (cf. #sī-quidem#, #sī-quandō#), #sī-cunde#, #nē-cubi#, #ne-cunde#, #ne-cuter#.
147. #d# varies in a few words with #l#: as old Latin #dacruma#, tear, for later #lacrima#; #dingua#, tongue, for later #lingua#; #odor#, smell, by the side of #oleō#, I smell.
148. Very rarely, before labials, final #d# of the preposition #ad# varies with #r#: as, old Latin #arfuērunt#, they were present, for later #adfuērunt# (2257); #arvorsum#, against, for #advorsum#. The only instances of this in classical Latin are #arbiter#, umpire, and #arcēssō# (970), I summon, which shows #r# before a guttural.
149. (1.) Final d after a long vowel disappeared in classical Latin: thus, in the ablative singular of #-ā-# and #-o-# stems (426), and in the ablative-accusative forms #mēd#, #tēd#, #sēd# (648). The prepositions #prō# and #sē# (1417) originally ended in #-d# which is still seen in #prōdesse#, be of advantage, #prōd-īre#, go forth; #sēd-itiō#, a going-apart, sedition. According to the grammarians, the negative #haud# preserved its #d# before vowels, but lost it before consonants (1450).
(2.) Late inscriptions confuse final #-d# and #-t#: as FECID (729), ALIVT for #aliud#. But in very old Latin #-d# in the third person singular seems to be the remnant of a secondary ending (cf. the Greek distinction of primary -ται and secondary -το).
150. In a number of words #f# varies dialectically with #h#. In some of these #f# appears to have been original, in others #h#: as, old Latin #fordeum#, barley, for classical #hordeum#; old Latin #haba#, bean, for classical #faba#. The word #fīlum#, thread, appears as #*hīlum# in #nihil#, nothing, for #*ne-hīlum#.
151. #h# being a weak sound (58) was often lost between two like vowels, especially in rapid utterance: as, #nīl#, nothing, #prēndere#, take, #vēmēns#, rapid, by the side of #nihil#, #prehendere#, #vehemēns#; and always #nēmō#, nobody, for #*ne-hemō#, no man.
152. In some words #h# between two vowels is not original, but goes back to a guttural aspirate gh. Before consonants this guttural appears: as, #vehō#, I draw, #vectus# (953) from a stem #vegh-#, #trahō#, I drag, #tractus# (953) from a stem #tragh-#.
153. (1.) #v# not infrequently disappeared between two like vowels: as, #dītior#, richer, for #dīvitior#; #sīs# (Cic. O. 154), for #sī vīs# (774); #lātrīna#, for #lavatrīna#; #fīnīsse#, for #fīnīvisse#; #dēlēram#, for #dēlēveram#; and later also in perfect forms in which the preceding and following vowel differed: as, #amāsse#, for #amāvisse#. The abbreviated forms of the perfects in #-vī# (890) were common in Cicero’s (O. 157) and Quintilian’s (1, 6, 17) time. #v# also disappeared before #o# in #deorsum#, #seorsum#.
(2.) Old and original unsyllabic #i# (82; 83) disappeared everywhere between vowels. Wherever unsyllabic #i# appears between vowels it represents double #i̭i̭#, and is the result of the assimilation of #g# to #i̭# (166, 9), or #d# to #i̭# (166, 9), or of the combination of two #i̭#’s: as in #ei-i̭us#, #quoi̭-i̭us# (#eius#, #quoius# = #cuius#, 688). See 23; 166, 9. In all these cases the first #i̭# joined to the preceding vowel (83) formed with it a diphthong, and the syllable is thus long (133, 2).
(3.) The combinations of unsyllabic (83) #ṷ# with the vowel #u# and of unsyllabic #i̭# with the vowel #i# were avoided in classical Latin; see 52.
(4.) In composition, unsyllabic (82) #i̭# after a consonant became syllabic in #quoniam#, since, for #quomi̭am# (164, 5), and #etiam#, also, for #eti̭am# (both compounds with #iam#).
154. In early Latin #s# between two vowels was voiced (75), and in the fourth century B.C. this voiced #s# changed into #r#. According to Cicero (Fam. 9, 21, 2) L. Papīrius Crassus, consul in 336 B.C., changed his family name #Papīsius# to #Papīrius#. Old inscriptions show frequently #s# for #r#: as, ASA, altar, AVSELII. This change of intervocalic #s# to #r# plays an important part in declension, conjugation, and derivation: as,
Nominative #iūs#, right, genitive #iūris#; #spērō#, I hope, derived from #spēs#; #nefārius#, wicked, from #nefās#; #gerō#, I carry, from a stem #ges-# which appears in #ges-sī#, #ges-tus# (953); #erō#, I shall be, from the stem #es-# in #esse#; the subjunctive ending #-sem# in #es-sem# appears as #-rem# after vowels: as, #stārem#; the infinitive ending (894, 895) #-se# in #es-se# appears as #-re# after vowels: as, #legere#, for #*legese#, to read, #stāre#, for #*stāse#, to stand. Where all oblique cases show #-r-# and only the nominative singular #-s#, the latter is sometimes changed to #-r# by analogy: as, #arbor#, tree, #honor#, honour, for original #arbōs#, #honōs#, by analogy to the oblique cases #arboris#, #arborī#, #honōris#, #honōrī#, etc. (487, 488). The final #-s# of the prefix #dis-# follows this rule: as, #dir-imō#, I take apart, for #*dis-emō#; but an initial #s-# of the second member of a compound remains unchanged: as, #dē-sinō#, I stop.
155. Wherever intervocalic #s# is found in classical Latin it is not original, but the result (a.) of earlier #-ns-#: as, #formōsus#, handsome, for #formōnsus# (63); (b.) of earlier #-ss-# (170, 7): as, #ūsus# for #*ūssus#, use (159); #causa#, thing, for #caussa# (Quint. 1, 7, 20); or (c.) it occurs in borrowed words like #asinus#, ass. (d.) There are a few words in which an #r# in a neighbouring syllable seems to have prevented the change: as #miser#, miserable (173).
156. Before the #o# described in 142 #qu# changed to #c#: as, #incola#, inhabitant, for #*inquola#, from #*inquela#; the stem #quel-# appears in #in-quil-īnus#, lodger.
157. As #v# before #u# (107, c), so #qu# was not tolerated before #u#, but changed to #c#.
Hence when, about the beginning of our era, the #o# of #quom#, when, #sequontur#, they followed, changed to #u# (107, c), they became #cum#, #secuntur#; thus #equos# but #ecus#, horse (452); #reliquom# but RELICVM, the rest; #loquor#, I speak, but #locūtus# (978). Much later, in the second century of our era, the grammarians restored the #qu# before #u# by analogy to those forms in the paradigm in which #qu# came before other vowels: as, #sequuntur# for #secuntur# by analogy to #sequor#, #sequeris#, #sequitur#, #sequimur#, #sequimini#, etc.; #equus#, #equum#, for #ecus#, #ecum#, by analogy to #equī#, #equō#, #eque#, #equōrum#, #equīs#, #equōs#.
158. #qu# before consonants or when final changed to #c#: as, #relictus# from the stem #liqu-#, leave (present, #linquō#, 938); #ac#, and, for #*atc#, by apocope from #atque#; #nec#, nor, by apocope from #neque#. See also #*torctus# (170, 3), #quīnctus# (170, 4).
159. When in the process of early word formation a #t# was followed by another #t#, the combination #tt#, unless followed by #r#, changed to #ss#: as, #obsessus#, besieged, sat upon, for #*obsettus#, from #*obsed-tus# (cf. #sedeō#). After long vowels, nasals, and liquids this double #ss# was simplified to #s# (170, 7): as, #ūsus# from #*ūt-tus#, used (cf. #ūtor#); #scānsus#, climbed, from #*scant-tus# for #*scandtus# (cf. #scandō#).
In this way arose a suffix #-sus# (906, 912) for the past participle of verbs ending in a dental, and this spread to other verbs (912): as #mānsus#, stayed, from #maneō# (1000), #pulsus#, pushed, from #pellō# (932). The regular participles of these two verbs still appear in the derivative verbs #mantāre# and #pultāre#, which presuppose the past participles #*mantus# and #*pultus# (371). If the double #tt# was followed by #r# it changed to #st#: as, #assestrīx# from #*assettrīx#, while #*assettor# changed to #assessor#.
160. But wherever the combination #tt# arose in historical times it remained unchanged: as, #attineō#; #cette#, syncopated for #cé-d(i)te#, i.e. the particle #ce# (93, 3) which is here proclitic, and the imperative #date#, give.
161. Initial #dv# (dṷ) changed to #b#, unless the #v# (ṷ) was converted into the corresponding vowel: as, #bis#, twice, for #*dṷis# (cf. #duo#); #bidēns# for #*dṷidens#, by the side of old Latin #duidēns# with vocalic #u#; #bonus#, good, for #dṷonus#, by the side of trisyllabic #duonus#; #bellum#, war, for #*dṷellum#, by the side of #duellum# with vocalic #u#; #bēs#, two thirds, for #*dṷēs# (2427). Cicero (O. 153) notes that the change of #duellum# to #bellum# affected even the proper name #Duellius# (name of the admiral who won the naval victory over the Carthaginians in 260 B.C.) which was changed to #Bellius#. Plautus always scans #dṷellum# disyllabic with synizesis (2503).
[Erratum: 161 ... won the naval victory over the Carthaginians in 260 B.C. B C.]
CHANGES OF CONSONANT GROUPS.
162. Many groups of consonants undergo changes in order to facilitate their pronunciation in rapid speech. These changes involve (a.) Assimilation of consonants; (b.) the development of consonantal glides; (c.) the loss of one member of the group; and (d.) the development of a vowel between the consonants.
ASSIMILATION.
163. Of two successive consonants belonging to different syllables (175), the first is, as a rule, assimilated to the second (regressive assimilation), rarely the second to the first (progressive assimilation). A consonant may be assimilated, either entirely or partially, to another consonant.
Assimilation is very common in prepositions prefixed to a verb.
164. PARTIAL ASSIMILATION. (1.) A voiced mute before an unvoiced consonant became unvoiced: as, #rēx#, king, for #*rēgs# (cf. #rēgis#); #rēxī#, I guided, for #*rēgsī# (cf. #regō#); #rēctus#, guided, for #*rēgtus#; #scrīpsī#, I wrote, for #*scrībsī# (cf. #scribō#); #scrīptus#, written, for #*scribtus#; #trāxī#, I dragged, for #*trāghsī#; #tractus#, dragged, for #*traghtus# (152). The spelling did not always conform to this pronunciation: as, #urbs#, city, pronounced #urps# (54) but spelled with #b# by analogy to the oblique cases #urbis#, #urbem#, etc.; #obtineō#, I get, pronounced #optineō#.
(2.) An unvoiced mute before a voiced consonant became voiced. The prepositions #ob#, #ab#, #sub#, for #*op#, #*ap#, #*sup#, owe their final #b# to their frequent position before voiced mutes: as, #obdūcō#, #abdīcō#, #sub dīvō#. The forms #*op# (still preserved in #op-eriō#, I close, 1019) #*ap# (preserved in #ap-erio#, I open, 1019; cf. Greek ἀπό) and #*sup# (preserved in the adjective #supīnus#, supine) were then crowded out by #ob#, #ab#, and #sub#.
(3.) Nasals changed their place of articulation to that of the following consonant. Thus, dental #n# before the labials #p# and #b# became labial #m#: as, #imbibō#, I drink in, #impendeō#, I hang over. Labial #m# before the gutturals #c# and #g# became guttural #n# (62): as, #prīnceps#, leader, #singulī#, severally (the original labials appear in #prīmus#, #semel# (138)); #hunc# for #*homce# (662). Labial #m# before the dentals #t#, #d#, #s# became dental #n#: as, #cōnsecrō#, I consecrate, from #com# (#cum#) and #sacrō#; #tantus#, so great, from #tam#; #quondam#, once, from #quom#; #tandem#, at length, from #tam#. But sometimes the etymological spelling was retained: as, #quamdiū#, as long as. But #m# does not change to #n# before #t# or #s# in the inflection of verbs and nouns, where #mt#, #ms# develop into #mpt#, #mps# (167): as, #sūmptus#, #sūmpsī#, from #sūmō#.
(4.) #p# and #b# before #n# changed to #m#: as, #somnus#, sleep, for #*sop-nus# (cf. #sopor#); #omnis#, all, for #*op-nis# (cf. #opēs#); #Samnium#, for #*Sabnium# (cf. #Sabīnī#).
(5.) #m# before unsyllabic #i# (#i̭#) became #n#: as, #quoniam# (with vocalic #i#; 153, 4), since, for #*quoni̭am# from #quom iam# (1882); #coniungō#, I join together, for #*comiungō#.
(6.) #c# between #n# and #l#, and before #m#, changed to #g#: as, #angulus#, corner, with anaptyctical (172) vowel #u# for #*anglus#, from #*anclus# (cf. #ancus#); #segmentum#, section, from the stem #sec-# in #secāre#.
165. It appears that at a very early period the neighbourhood of a nasal changed an unvoiced mute into a voiced one: as, #ē-mungō#, I clean out, by the side of #mūcus#; #pangō#, I fix, by the side of #pāc-# in #pāx#, peace (gen. #pāc-is#).
166. ENTIRE ASSIMILATION. (1.) One mute is assimilated to another: thus #p# or #b# to #c#: as, #suc-currō#, I assist; #t# or #d# to #c#: as, #sic-cus#, dry (cf. #sit-is#, thirst), #accipiō#, I accept; #d# to #g#: as, #agglūtinō#, I glue on; #t# or #d# to #qu#: as, #quicquam#, anything; #t# or #d# to #p#: as, #appellō#, I call; #quippe#, why? (1690).
(2.) A mute is assimilated to a spirant: thus, #p# to #f# in #officīna#, workshop, for #*opficīna#, syncopated form of #*opificīna#; #d# to #f#: as, #afferō#, I bring hither; when #t# is thus assimilated to #s# the result is #ss# after a short vowel, and #s# after a long vowel (170, 7) or when final (171); as, in the #-s-# perfects, #concussī#, I shook, for #*concutsī# (#concutiō#, 961); #messuī#, I mowed, for #*metsuī# (#metō#, 835); #suāsī#, I advised, for #*suātsī# (#suādeō#, 1000); #clausī#, I shut, for #*clautsī# (#claudō#, 958); #haesī#, I stuck, for #haes-sī# (868) from #haerēre#, stem #haes-# (154); in the same way #possum#, I can, for #*potsum# (cf. #pot-est#, 752); #prōsum#, I am of advantage, for #*prōtsum# (cf. #prōd-esse#); #legēns#, reading, for #*legents# (from the stem #legent-#, cf. genitive #legent-is#). An #s# is never assimilated to a following #t#: as, #haustus#, drained (1014), from the stem #haus-#, present #hauriō# (154). Forms like the rare #hausūrus# (Verg.) are made after the analogy of dental stems.
(3.) One spirant, #s#, is assimilated to another, #f#: as, #difficilis#, difficult, #differō#, I am unlike, from #dis# and #facilis#, #ferō#.
(4.) A mute is assimilated to a nasal: thus #d# to #m# in #mamma#, woman’s breast, from the stem #mad-# (cf. #madeō#, 1006); #rāmus#, branch, #rāmentum#, splinter, from the stem #rād-# (cf. #rādō#, 958) with simplification of the double #m# after the long vowel. #d# to #n# in #mercēnārius#, hireling, from the stem #mercēd-#, reward, (for #mercennarius#, see 133, 1); #p# to #m# in #summus#, highest, from the stem #sup-# (cf. #super#). A progressive assimilation of #nd# to #nn# belongs to the Oscan dialect, and occurs only very rarely in Latin: as, #tennitur# (Ter.), #distennite# (Plaut.). See 924; 950.
(5.) One nasal, #n#, is assimilated to another, #m#: as #immōtus#, unmoved. But an #m# before #n# is never assimilated: as, #amnis#, river.
(6.) Mutes or nasals are assimilated to liquids; thus #n# to #l#: as, #homullus#, manikin, for #*homon-lus# (cf. #homun-culus#); #ūllus# (274); #d# to #l#: as, #sella#, seat, for #*sed-la# from the stem #sed-# (cf. #sedeō#); #caelum#, chisel, from the stem #caed-# (cf. #caedō#) with simplification of the double #l# after the diphthong (170, 7); #n# to #r#: as, #irruō#, I rush in; and with progressive assimilation #n# to a preceding #l#: as, #tollō#, I lift, for #*tolnō# (833); #fallō#, I cheat (932); #pellō#, I push (932). But no assimilation is to be assumed for #parricīda#, which does not stand for #patricīda# (133, 1).
(7.) One liquid, #r#, is assimilated to another, #l#: as, #pelliciō#, I lead astray (956), for #*per-liciō#; #agellus#, small field, for #*agerlos#; #pūllus#, clean, from #*pūrlos# (cf. #pūrus#, clean).
(8.) A spirant, #s#, is assimilated to a preceding liquid in #velle#, wish, for #*velse#, #ferre#, carry, for #*ferse# (the infinitive ending #-se# appears in #es-se#, 895); #facillimus#, easiest, for #*facilsimus# (345); #sacerrimus#, holiest, for #*sacersimus# (344). But where #ls# and #rs# are not original but the result of lightening (170, 3; 10) they remain unchanged: as, #arsī#, I burnt, for #*artsī# from the stem #ard-# (cf. #ardeō#, 1000); #alsī#, I felt cold, for #*alcsī# from the stem #alg-# (cf. #algeō#, 1000).
(9.) #g# and #d# were assimilated to a following unsyllabic #i# (#i̭#) the result being (153, 2) #ii# (#i̭i̭#); thus #peiior#, worse, for #*ped-i̭or#, from the stem #ped-# (532), whence also the superlative #pessimus# for #*petsimus# (166, 2); #maiior#, greater, for #*mag-i̭or# (the stem #mag-# appears in #magis#); #aiiō#, I say, for #*ag-i̭ō# (the stem #ag-# appears in #ad-ag-ium#, #prōd-ig-ium#, 219). These forms were pronounced by Cicero with doubled #i̭# (23), and traces of the spelling with double #ii# are still found (23), though in common practice only one #i# is written (153, 2). On the confusion of syllabic quantity with vowel quantity in these words, see 133, 2.
[Errata: 164 ... #scrīptus#, written, for #*scribtus#; writtén #trāxī#, I dragged, for #*trāghsī#; #*trāghsī#, 166(4) ... #distennite# (Plaut.). last . invisible] (6.) Mutes or nasals (6).]
CONSONANTAL GLIDES.
167. Pronunciation of two successive consonants is sometimes facilitated by the insertion of a consonant which serves as a glide. Such insertion is not frequent.
In inflection a #p# was thus developed between #m# and #s#, between #m# and #l#, and between #m# and #t# (elsewhere #mt# changed to #nt#, see 164, 3): as, #sūmpsī#, I took, #sūmptus#, taken, from #sūmere# for #*sūmsī#, #*sūmtus#; and in the corresponding forms of #cōmō#, #dēmō#, #prōmō# (953); #exemplum#, pattern, for #*exemlum# from the stem #em-#, take (cf. #eximere#, 103, #a#).
DISAPPEARANCE.
168. A word may be lightened by the disappearance of an initial, a medial, or a final consonant.
Disappearance of an initial consonant is sometimes called Aphaeresis, of a medial, Syncope, of a final, Apocope.
169. INITIAL DISAPPEARANCE. (1.) Initial #tl# changed to #l#: as, #lātus#, borne, for #*tlātus# from #tollō# (187, 917).
(2.) Initial #gn# changed to #n#: as, #nātus#, born, for earlier GNATVS from the stem #gen-#, #gnā# (187); #nōscō#, I find out, for #gnōscō#, GNOSCIER (897); #nārus#, knowing, for the more frequent #gnārus#, #nāvus#, active, for #gnāvus#. Cf. the compounds #cō-gnātus#, #cō-gnōscō#, #ī-gnārus#, #ī-gnāvus# (170, 6) which preserve the #g#. But #Gnaeus# retained its #G#.
(3.) Initial #d# when followed by consonant #i# (i̭), disappeared: as, #Iovis#, #Iūpiter#, for #*Di̭ovis#, #*Di̭ūpiter#. Where the #i# was vocalic, #d# was retained: as, #dīus#.
(4.) Initial #stl-# first changed to #sl# and then to #l#: as, Old Latin #stlocus#, place, #stlīs#, law-suit (Quint. 1, 4, 16), STLOC, SLIS, classical #locus#, #līs#; also #lātus#, wide, for #*stlātus#. That a form #*slocus# existed is proved by #īlicō# (698, 703) from #*in-slocō#, on the spot (170, 2).
170. MEDIAL DISAPPEARANCE. (1.) #c#, #g#, #p#, and #b# disappear before #s# followed by an unvoiced consonant: as, #sescentī#, six hundred, for #*sexcentī# from #sex#; #illūstris#, resplendent, for #*illūcstris# from #lūceō#; #discō#, I learn, from #*dicscō# for #*di-tc-scō# (834), a reduplicated present from the root #dec-# (cf. #decet#) like #gignō# (from the root #gen-#), and #sīdō# (for #*si-sd-ō#, 170, 2, from the root #sed-#, 829). Sometimes prepositions follow this rule: as, #asportō#, I carry off, for #*absportō#, #suscipiō#, I undertake, for #*subscipiō# (#subs# formed from #sub# like #abs# from #ab#; #sub-cipiō# gives #succipiō#); occasionally also #ecferō#, for #exferō#, I carry out. But more frequently prepositional compounds remain unchanged: as, #obscūrus#, dark; #abscēdō#, I withdraw. In some words the lost consonant has been restored by analogy: as, #sextus#, sixth, for #*sestus# (cf. #Sēstius#) after #sex#; #textor#, weaver, for #*testor# after #texō#.
(2.) #s# before voiced consonants was voiced (75) and is dropped. If a consonant precedes the #s# this is dropped also. In either case the preceding vowel is lengthened. Voiced #s# alone is dropped: as, #prīmus#, first, for #*prīs-mus# (cf. #prīs-cus#); #cānus#, gray, for #*casnus# (cf. #cas-cus#); adverb #pōne#, behind, for #*posne# (cf. #pos#, 1410); #dīlābī#, glide apart, for #*dislābi#; #īdem#, the same, for ISDEM (678); #iūdex#, judge, for #iūsdex#; #trēdecim#, thirteen, for #*trēsdecim#. And with subsequent shortening of the final syllable (130, 3) #abin#, goest thou? for #abisn(e)#; #viden#, seest thou? for #vidēsn(e)#. Voiced #s# with the preceding consonant is dropped: as, #trādūcō#, I lead across, #trānō#, I swim across, for #trānsdūcō#, #trānsnō#; but in these prepositional compounds the #-ns# was often retained: as, #trānsmittō#, I send across; #sēnī#, six each, for #*secsnī#; #sēmēnstris#, every six months, for #secsmēnstris#; #sēvirī#, the Board of Six, for #secsvirī#; #āla#, wing, for #*acsla# (cf. #ax-illa#, Cic. O. 153); #māvolō# (779) for #magsvolō# from #magisvolō#, 396; #tōles# (plural), goiter, for #*tōnsles# (cf. #tōnsillae#, tonsils); #pīlum#, pestle, for #*pīnslum# from #pīnsere#, crush; two consonants and voiced #s# are dropped in #scāla#, stair, for #*scand-sla# (cf. #scandō#).
(3.) #c# falls away when it stands between a liquid and #t#, #s#, #m#, or #n#: as, #ultus#, avenged, for #*ulctus# from #ulc-iscor# (980); #mulsī# for #*mulcsī# from both #mulgeō#, I milk, and #mulceō#, I stroke; similarly other stems in #-c# and #-g# (1000, 1014); #quernus#, oaken, for #*quercnus# from #quercus#; #tortus#, turned, for #*torctus# from #torqueō# (for the change of #qu# to #c#, see 158); for #fortis#, brave, #forctis# is found in old Latin.
(4.) #c# drops out when it stands between #n# and #t#: as, #quīntus#, fifth, for older #quīnctus# (2412), from #quīnque# (for the change of #qu# to #c#, see 158; for the long #ī# in #quīnque#, see 122, b). But verbs having stems in #-nc# or #-ng# retain the #c# in their past participles: as, #vīnctus#, bound, from #vincīre# (1014); #iūnctus#, joined, from #iungere# (954). In #pāstus# (965) #c# has dropped out between #s# and #t#.
(5.) The group #-ncn-# was simplified to simple #-n-#, and the preceding vowel was lengthened: as, #quīnī#, five each, for #*quīnc-nī# (317); #cō-nīveō#, wink and blink, for #con-cnīveō#.
(6.) #n# before #gn# was dropped and the preceding vowel lengthened: as, #ī-gnōscō#, I forgive, for #*in-gnōscō#, #cō-gnōscō#, I know, for #*con-gnōscō#. In this manner (170, 5; 6) arises a form #cō-# by the side of #con-# (122, e): as, #cō-nectō#, #cō-nubium#, #cō-ligātus# (Gell. 2, 17, 8).
(7.) In the imperial age, #ss# after long vowels and diphthongs was regularly changed to #s#: as, #clausī#, I closed; #ūsus#, used (166, 2); but always #ēsse#, to eat (769); #ll# changed to #l# after diphthongs: as, #caelum#, chisel (166, 6); also when preceded by #ī# and followed by #i#: as, #vīlla#, country-place, but #vīlicus# (adject.); #mille#, thousand, but #mīlia# (642). Elsewhere #ll# was retained after long vowels: as, #pūllus# (166, 7), clean; #rāllum#, ploughshare, from #rādō# with suffix #-lo-# (209). In Cicero’s time (Quint. 1, 7, 20) the spelling was still #caussa# (155, b), matter; #cāssus# (930), fallen; #divīssiō# (cf. 912), division. Vergil also, according to Quintilian, retained the doubled consonants, and the best manuscripts of both Vergil and Plautus frequently show #ll# and #ss# for later #l# and #s#, as do inscriptions: as, PROMEISSERIT, he might have promised (49 B.C.); ACCVSSASSE, to have accused.
(8.) After a long vowel #d# was dropped before consonant #u# (#v#): as, #svāvis#, sweet, for #*svādvis# from #svād-# (cf. #svādeō#).
(9.) #r# before #st# was dropped: as, #tostus#, roasted (1004) for #*torstus# from the stem #tors-# (cf. #torreo# with assimilated #-rs-#, 166, 8).
(10.) #-rts-# changed to #-rs#: as, #arsī#, I burnt, for #*artsī# (1000). #-rcsc-# changed to #-sc-#: as, #poscō#, I demand, for #*porcscō# (834).
(11.) In #ipse#, self, for #*is-pse#, an #s# has disappeared before #-ps-#
(12.) #d# (#t#) disappears between #r# and #c#: as, #cor-culum# for #cord(i)-culum# (275).
171. FINAL DISAPPEARANCE. (1.) A word never ends in a doubled consonant: as, #es# for #*es-s#, thou art, which Plautus and Terence still scan as a long syllable; and the following cases of assimilation: #ter# for #*terr# from #*ters# (cf. #terr-uncius#, a quarter of an #ās#, a farthing, 1272, for #*ters-uncius#, 166, 8); #fār#, spelt, for #*farr#, from #*fars# (489); #fel#, gall, for #*fell#, from #*fels# (482); in #mīles#, soldier, for #*mīless# from #*mīlets# (cf. Gen. #mīlitis#, 477) the final syllable is still long in Plautus. #hoc#, this, for #*hocc# from #*hod-c(e)#(the neuter #*hod# from the stem #ho-#, as #istud#, #illud# (107, c) from #isto-#, #illo-#) counts as a long syllable even in classical poetry.
(2.) No Latin word can end in two explosives: thus, final #t# is dropped in #lac#, milk (478); final #d# in #cor#, heart (476).
(3.) When final #s# was preceded by #r# or #l#, it was assimilated to these liquids, and final #rr# and #ll# were then simplified to #r# and #l#. See the examples under (1). Wherever final #-rs# and #-ls# appear they are not original but the result of the disappearance of an intervening consonant: as, #puls#, pottage, for #*pults# (533); #pars#, part, for #*parts# (533); all with syncope (111) of the vowel #i# in the nominative #sg#.
(4.) Original final #ns# was changed to #s# and the preceding vowel was lengthened: as, #sanguīs#, blood (2452), for #*sanguins# from the stem #sanguin-# (486). Wherever final #-ns# appears it is not original but the result of the disappearance of an intervening consonant: as, #ferēns#, carrying, for #*ferents#, from the stem #ferent-#; #frōns#, foliage, for #*fronds#, from the stem #frond-#.
(5.) A dental mute before final #s# is dropped: as, #hērēs#, heir, for #*hērēds# (475); #virtūs#, virtue, for #*virtūts# (477); #nox#, night, for #*nocts# (533); a labial or guttural mute is retained: as, #fornāx# (#x# = #cs#), furnace, from the stem #fornāc-# (531); #lēx#, law, from the stem #leg-# (472); #urbs#, city, from the stem #urb-# (480); #ops# from the stem #op-#, help (480).
[Errata: 170.2 ... #iūdex#, judge, for #iūsdex#; #iūsdex#, #abin#, goest thou? for #abisn(e)#; #abisn(e)#,]
DEVELOPMENT OF AN ANAPTYCTICAL VOWEL.
172. Certain consonant groups, notably those containing a liquid, are sometimes eased by the insertion of a vowel which develops between the consonants. This is called Anaptyxis (Greek ἀναπτύσσειν, unfold). It is the opposite of syncope of vowels (110, 111).
(1.) The suffix #-clo-# (242), changed to #-culo-#, being thus no longer distinguishable from the diminutive suffix #-culo-# (267): as, #pōculum#, cup, for #pōclum# (Plaut.); #vehiculum#, carriage, for #vehiclum# (Plaut.). But #-clo-# is more common in Plautus than #-culo-#, especially after long vowels. The suffixes #-blo-# (245), and #-bli-# (294) always show the anaptyctical vowel. Its colour depends on the nature of the #l# (60): as, #stabulum#, resting-place; #stabilis#, steady. The group #-ngl-# also changes to #-ngul-#: as, #angulus# (164, 6).
(2.) In words borrowed from the Greek an unfamiliar sequence of consonants was so lightened; as, #mina#, mina, for #*mna# (μνᾶ); and in Old Latin #drachuma# (Plaut.) for later #drachma#, drachma (δραχμή); #techina#, trick, from Greek τέχνη; #Tecumēssa# for #Tecmēssa# (Τέκμησσα).
(3.) Before syllabic (83) #l# and #r# a vowel is developed (111, b): as, #íncertus#, uncertain, for #*íncr̥tus#; #fácultās#, capability, for #fácl̥tās#. Likewise before syllabic #n# (139).
DISSIMILATION.
173. (1.) To avoid the repetition of the same liquid in successive syllables #l# is sometimes changed to #r#: as, #caeruleus#, sky-blue, for #*caeluleus#, from #caelum#; #Parīlia#, by the side of #Palīlia#, from #Palēs#; the suffix #-clo-# appears as #-cro-# after an #l#: as, #lavācrum#, bath, #simulācrum#, image (241); the suffix #-āli-# under like conditions changes to #-āri-#; as, #molāre#, of a mill (313), but #augurāle#, of an augur.
(2.) In a few cases repetition is avoided by dropping the sound once: as, #praestīgiae#, jugglery, for #praestrīgiae#. This also applies to the spirant #s# followed by a consonant, a combination which is not tolerated in successive syllables: as in the reduplicated perfects #stetī#, for #*stestī#; #spopondī#, for #*spospondī# (859), where the second syllable, and in #quisquiliae#, sweepings, for #*squisquiliae#, where the first syllable was lightened.
CHANGES WITHIN COMPOUNDS.
174. The final syllable of the first member of compounds (181) sometimes undergoes certain changes by analogy to other compounds:
(1.) The final #-ā# of #ā-#stems, by analogy to the more frequent #-o-#stems, usually changed to #-o#, which in atonic syllables became #-i# (105): as, #āli-ger#, winged, for #*ālo-ger# from #ālā-#.
(2.) Stems in #-on-# substitute #-o-# for #-on-# by analogy to the #-o-#stems: as, #homi-cída#, murderer, for #*homo-cīda# (105) from #homon-# (Nom. #homō#).
(3.) Some stems in #-s# substitute #-o-# by analogy to the #-o-#stems: as, #foedi-fragus#, treaty-breaking, for #*foedo-fragus# from the stem #foedos-# (Nom. #foedus#, Gen. #foederis#; 154).
[In section 174, anomalous forms such as #-o-#stems (without space) are in the original.]
SYLLABLES.
175. A word has as many syllables as it has separate vowels or diphthongs. The last syllable is called the Ultima; the last syllable but one is called the Penult; the last syllable but two is called the Antepenult.
176. The quantity of single sounds (e.g. the quantity of a vowel) must be carefully distinguished from the quantity of the group of sounds or the syllable of which the single sound forms a part.
LENGTH OF SYLLABLES.
177. A syllable is long if its vowel is long, or if its vowel is followed by two consonants or by #x# or #z#: as,
#dūcēbās#; #volvunt#. In #dūcēbās# both the vowels and the syllables are long; in #volvunt# the vowels are short, but the syllables are long; in cases like the last the syllables (not the vowels) are said to be long by position. #h# does not count as a consonant (58) and #qu# (or #qv#, 27) has the value of a single consonant only: thus, in #adhūc# and #aqua# the first syllable is short.
178. In prose or old dramatic verse a syllable with a short vowel before a mute or #f# followed by #l# or #r# is not long: as #tenebrae#. In other verse, however, such syllables are sometimes regarded as long. In compounds such syllables are long in any verse: as #obruit#.
LOSS OF SYLLABLES.
179. The first of two successive syllables which begin with the same sound is sometimes lost. This is called Haplology.
Thus, #sēmodius# for #sēmimodius#, half a bushel; #calamitōsus# for #*calamitātōsus#, from the stem #calamitāt-# (262) and suffix #-oso-# (336); #voluntārius#, for #voluntātārius# (262, 309); #cōnsuētūdō#, for #cōnsuētitūdō# (264). See also 255; 379.
B. FORMATION.
180. FORMATION is the process by which stems are formed from roots or from other stems.
181. A word containing a single stem is called a Simple word: as, #magnus#, great, stem #magno-#; #animus#, soul, stem #animo-#. A word containing two or more stems is called a Compound word: as, #magnanimus#, great-souled, stem #magnanimo-#.
182. Most inflected words consist of two parts: a stem, which is usually a modified root (195), and an inflection ending: thus, in #ductōrī#, for a leader, the root is #duc-#, lead, the stem is #ductōr-#, leader, and #-ī# is the inflection ending, meaning for.
ROOTS.
183. A ROOT is a monosyllable which gives the fundamental meaning to a word or group of words.
184. A root is not a real word; it is neither a noun, naming something, nor a verb, denoting action. Thus #iug-#, yoke, does not mean a yoke nor I yoke; it merely suggests something about yoking. The root becomes a real word only when an inflection ending is added, or, more commonly, both a formative suffix and an inflection ending: as, #iug-u-m#, a yoke.
185. Roots are common to Latin and its cognate languages, such as the Sanskrit and the Greek. When a root is named in this book, the specific Latin form of the root is meant. This often differs somewhat from the form of the root which is assumed as applicable to all the cognate languages.
186. Almost all roots are noun and verb roots; that is, roots with a meaning which may be embodied either in a noun or in a verb, or in both. Besides these there is a small class, less than a dozen in number, of pronoun roots. There are many words which cannot be traced back to their roots.
187. A root sometimes has two or more forms: as, #fīd-# (for #feid-#), #foed-#, #fid-#, trust; #gen-#, #gn-#, sire; #tol#, #tl#, bear; see 135, 145.
Thus, #fīd-# is found in #fīd-us#, trusty, #fīd-ūcia#, confidence, #fīd-ūciō#, I pledge, #fīd-ūciārius#, in trust, #fīd-ere#, put trust in, #fīd-ēns#, courageous, #fīd-entia#, courage; #foed-# in #foed-us#, pledge of faith, #foed-erātus#, bound by a pledge of faith; #fid-# in #fid-ēs#, faith, #fid-ēlis#, faithful, #fid-ēliter#, faithfully, #fid-ēlitās#, faithfulness, #per-fid-us#, faithless, #per-fid-ia#, faithlessness, #per-fid-iōsus#, full of faithlessness, per-fid-iōsē, faithlessly. #gen-# in #gen-itor#, sire, #gn-# in #gi-gn-ere#, beget, #gn-ā-# in #gnā-tus#, son.
188. A root ending in a vowel is called a Vowel Root: as, #da-#, give; a root ending in a consonant is called a Consonant Root: as, #rup-#, break. Roots are conveniently indicated by the sign √: as, √#teg-#, to be read ‘root #teg-#.’
189. A root or a part of a root is sometimes doubled in forming a word; this is called Reduplication: as, #mur-mur#, murmur; #tur-tur#, turtle-dove; #po-pul-us#, people; #ul-ul-āre#, yell.
PRESENT STEMS AS ROOTS.
190. Many nouns are formed from the present stems of verbs, which take the place of roots. Stems thus used are mostly those of verbs in #-āre# and #-īre#.
Thus, from #ōrā-#, stem of #ōrāre#, speak, are formed #ōrā-tor#, speaker, and #ōrā-tiō#, speech; from #audī-#, stem of #audīre#, hear, are formed #audī-tor#, hearer, and #audī-tiō#, hearing.
191. Verbs in #-ēre#, and those in #-āre# and #-īre# in which the #ā# or #ī# is confined to the present system (868, 874) usually have parallel nouns formed directly from a root: as,
#doc-tor#, teacher, #doc-umentum#, lesson, #doc-ilis#, teachable (√#doc-#, #docēre#); #sec-tor#, cutter (√#sec-#, #secāre#); #dom-itor#, tamer, #dom-inus#, master, #dom-itus#, tamed (√#dom-#, #domāre#); #sarc-ina#, package (√#sarc-#, #sarcīre#).
192. But a noun is sometimes exceptionally formed from the present stem of a verb in #-ēre#: as, #monē-ta#, mint (#monēre#); #acē-tum#, vinegar (#acēre#); #virē-tum#, a green (#virēre#); #suādē-la#, persuasion (#suādēre#); #habē-na#, rein (#habēre#); #egē-nus#, needy (#egēre#); #verē-cundus#, shamefast (#verērī#); #valē-tūdō#, health (#valēre#).
193. Verbs in #-ere#, and particularly such as have a present in #-nō#, #-scō#, #-tō# or #-iō# (832), usually have their parallel nouns formed directly from a root: as,
#vic-tor#, conqueror (√#vic-#, #vincere#); #incrē-mentum#, growth (√#crē-#, #crēscere#); #pul-sus#, a push (√#pol-#, #pellere#).
194. Sometimes, however, nouns are formed from such verb stems, and not from roots: as, #lecti-stern-ium#, a couch-spreading (#sternere#, √#ster-#, #strā-#); #vinc-ibilis#, conquerable (#vincere#, √#vīc-#); #pāsc-uum#, pasture (#pāscere#, √#pā-#); #pect-en#, comb (#pectere#, √#pec-#); #fall-āx#, deceitful (#fallere#, √#fal-#).
STEMS.
195. A STEM is that part of a word which contains its meaning, and is either a root alone or more commonly a root with an addition called a Formative Suffix.
Thus, in the word #ducis#, leader’s, the stem, which is identical with the root #duc-#, means leader; a root thus serving as a stem is called a Root Stem; in #ductōris#, leader’s, the stem is formed by the formative suffix #-tōr-#, denoting the agent, attached to the √#duc-#.
196. New stems are formed by adding a suffix to a stem. Thus, from #ōrātōr-#, speaker, is formed by the addition of the suffix #-io-#, a new stem #ōrātōr-io-#, N. #ōrātōrius#, speaker’s.
197. The noun has usually only one form of the stem. The verb has different stems to indicate mood and tense; these stems are all based on two principal tense stems, the present and the perfect active.
PRIMITIVES AND DENOMINATIVES.
198. I. A stem or word formed directly from a root or a verb stem is called a Primitive. II. A stem or word formed from a noun stem is called a Denominative.
(a.) Primitives: from √#rēg-#, #reg-#, guide: #rēx#, stem #rēg-#, king; #rēgnum#, stem #rēg-no-#, kingdom; #rēctus#, stem #rēc-to-#, guided; #regere#, stem #reg-e-#, guide. From #ōrā-#, stem of #ōrāre#, speak: #ōrātor#, stem #ōrā-tōr-#, speaker; #ōrātiō#, stem #ōrā-tiōn-#, speech.
(b.) Denominatives: from noun stem #rēg-#, king: #rēgīna#, stem #rēg-īnā#, queen; #rēgius#, stem #rēg-io-#, #rēgālis#, stem #rēg-āli-#, royal. From #ōrātiōn-#, speech: #ōrātiūncula#, stem #ōrātiūn-culā-#, little speech. From #rēg-no-#, kingdom: #rēgnāre#, stem #rēgnā-#, to rule. From #iūs#, law: #iūrāre#, swear, stem #iūrā# (154).
[Errata: 198a ... #ōrātor#, stem #ōrā-tōr-# #ōrā tōr-# with invisible hyphen 198b ... #iūrāre#, swear, stem #iūrā# stem #iūrā# in italics]
(A.) FORMATION OF THE NOUN.
WITHOUT A FORMATIVE SUFFIX.
199. Some roots are used as noun stems: as, #duc-#, N. #dux#, leader (√#duc-#, lead); #rēg-#, N. #rēx#, king (√#rēg-#, guide); particularly at the end of a compound: as, #con-iug-#, N. #coniūnx#, yoke-fellow, spouse (#com-#, √#jug-#, yoke); #tubi-cin-#, N. #tubicen#, trumpeter (#tubā-#, √#can-#, play).
WITH A FORMATIVE SUFFIX.
200. SIMPLE formative suffixes are vowels: as, #-ā-#, #-o-#, #-i-#, #-u-#; also #-io-#, #-uo-#, (#-vo-#); or such little syllables as #-mo-#, #-min-#; #-ro-#, #-lo-#; #-ōn-#; #-no-#, #-ni-#, #-nu-#; #-to-#, #-ti-#, #-tu-#; #-ter-#, #-tōr-#; #-unt-# (#-nt-#); #-es-# (#-er-#), #-ōr-#; these syllables sometimes have slight modifications of form. COMPOUND suffixes consist of one or more simple suffixes attached to a simple suffix: as, #-tōr-io-#, #-ti-mo-#, &c., &c.
201. The following are examples of noun stems formed from roots or verb stems by simple suffixes added:
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
fug-ā- fuga, flight +fug-+, fly fīd-o- fīdus, trusty +fīd-+, trust ac-u- acus, pin +ac-+, point od-io- odium, hate +od-+, hate pluv-iā- pluvia, rain +plov-+, wet ar-vo- arvom, tilth +ar-+, till al-vo- alvos, belly +al-+, nurture sal-vo- salvos, safe +sal-+, safe fā-mā- fāma, tale +fā-+, tell teg-min- tegmen, cover +teg-+, cover sel-lā- sella, seat +sed-+, sit err-ōn- errō, stroller +errā-+, stroll som-no- somnus, sleep +sop-+, sleep plē-no- plēnus, full +plē-+, fill rēg-no- rēgnum, realm +rēg-+, guide da-to- datus, given +da-+, give lec-to- lectus, bed +leg-+, lie gen-ti- gēns, race +gen-+, beget sta-tu- status, stand +sta-+, stand rēc-tōr- rēctor, ruler +rēg-+, guide e-unt-, iēns, going +i-+, go rege-nt- regēns, guiding +rege-+, guide gen-er- genus, race +gen-+, beget fur-ōr- furor, madness +fur-+, rave
202. Formative suffixes are often preceded by a vowel, which in many instances is a stem vowel, real or presumed; in others, the vowel has come to be regarded as a part of the suffix itself.
Thus, #-lo-#: #fīlio-lo-#, N. #fīlio-lu-s#, little son (#fīlio-#); #hortu-lu-s#, little garden (#horto-#, 105, h); but #-ulo-#: #rēg-ulu-s#, petty king (#rēg-#); #ger-ulu-s#, porter (√#ges-#, bear), #-ci-#: #pugnā-ci-#, N. #pugnā-x#, full of fight (#pugnā-re#); but #-āci-#: #fer-āx#, productive (√#fer-#, bear), #-to-#: #laudā-to-#, N. #laudā-tu-s#, praised (#laudā-re#); but #-āto-#: #dent-ātus#, toothed (#denti-#). #-tu-#: #equitā-tu-#, N. #equitā-tu-s#, cavalry (#equitā-re#); but #-ātu-#: #sen-ātu-s#, senate (#sen-#). #-lā-#: #suādē-lā-#, N. #suādē-la#, persuasion (#suādē-re#, 192); but #-ēlā-#: #loqu-ēla#, talk (√#loqu-#, speak). #-tāt-#: #cīvi-tāt-#, N. #cīvi-tā-s#, citizenship (#cīvi-#); but #-itāt-#: #auctōr-itā-s#, authority (#auctōr-#). #-cio-#: #aedīli-cio-#, N. #aedīli-ciu-s#, of an aedile (#aedīli-#); but #-icio-#: #patr-iciu-s#, patrician (#patr-#). #-timo-#: #fīni-timo-#, N. #fīni-timu-s#, bordering (#fīni-#); but #-itimo-#: #lēg-itimu-s#, of the law (#lēg-#).
203. There are many formative suffixes of nouns. The commonest only can be named, and these may be conveniently grouped as below, by their meanings. Compound suffixes are arranged with reference to the last element of the suffix: thus, under the adjective suffix #-io-# (304) will be found #-c-io-#, #-īc-io-#, #-tōr-io-#, and #-ār-io-#. In many instances it is difficult to distinguish between simple and compound suffixes.
[Errata: 201 (table) ... fā-mā- final - missing or invisible e-unt-, _anomalous comma may be intentional (this and following word are both participles)_]
I. THE SUBSTANTIVE.
(A.) PRIMITIVES.
I. THE AGENT.
204. The suffixes #-tōr-#, #-o-#, #-ā-#, #-lo-#, and #-ōn-#, are used to denote the Agent: as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
lēc-tōr- lēctor, reader √+lēg-+, read scrīb-ā- scrība, writer √+scrīb-+, write fig-ulo- figulus, potter √+fig-+, mould err-ōn- errō, stroller errā-re, stroll
(1.) #-tōr-# (N. #-tor#).
205. #-tōr-#, N. #-tor#, or #-sōr-#, N. #-sor# (159, 202), is the commonest suffix of the agent; the feminine is #-trī-ci-#, N. #-trī-x#. #-tōr-# is sometimes used in a present sense, of action repeated or occurring at any time, and sometimes in a past sense.
206. (a.) #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#), in the present sense, often denotes one who makes a regular business of the action of the root or verb.
#ōrā-tōr-#, N. #ōrā-tor#, spokesman, speaker (#ōrā-re#); #lēc-tor#, reader (√#leg-#, read). Workmen and tradesmen: #arā-tor#, ploughman, #pās-tor#, shepherd, #pīc-tor#, painter, #sū-tor#, shoemaker. Semi-professional: #captā-tor#, legacy-hunter, #dēlā-tor#, professional informer. Government officials: #cēn-sor#, appraiser, censor, #imperā-tor#, commander, #prae-tor#, (leader), praetor, #dictā-tor#, #līc-tor#. Of the law: #āc-tor#, manager, #accūsā-tor#, accuser, #spōn-sor#, bondsman, #tū-tor#, guardian. From presumed verb stems (202): #sen-ātor#, senator (#sen-#); #viā-tor#, wayfarer (#viā-#); #fundi-tor#, slinger (#fundā-#). #-tro-#, N. #-ter#, has the meaning of #-tōr-#: as, #aus-tro-#, N. #aus-ter# (scorcher), south-wester (√#aus-#, burn).
207. In the present sense #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#) is also used to indicate permanent character, quality, capability, tendency, likelihood: as, #bellā-tor#, a man of war, warlike; #dēlīberā-tor#, a man of caution; #cessā-tor#, a loiterer; #dērī-sor#, a mocker, ironical; #cōnsūmp-tor#, apt to destroy, destructive; #aedificā-tor#, building-mad.
208. (b.) #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#), in a perfect sense, is used particularly in old Latin, or to denote an agent who has acquired a permanent name by a single conspicuous action. In this sense it usually has a genitive of the object, or a possessive pronoun: thus,
#castīgā-tor meus#, my mentor, or the man who has upbraided me; #olīvae inven-tor#, the deviser of the olive (Aristaeus); #reper-tor vītis#, the author of the vine (Bacchus); #patriae līberā-tōrēs#, the emancipators of the nation.
(2.) #-o-# (N. #-u-s#), #-ā-# (N. #-a#); #-lo-# (N. #-lu-s#); #-ōn-# (N. #-ō#).
209. #-o-# and #-ā-# stems may denote vocation or class; many are compounds. #-o-#, N. #-u-s#: #coqu-o-#, N. #coqu-o-s# or #coc-u-s#, cook (√#coqu-#, cook); #causidic-u-s#, pleader (#causā-#, √#dic-#, speak). #-ā-#, N. #-a#: #scrīb-ā-#, N. #scrīb-a#, clerk (√#scrīb-#, write); #agricol-a#, husbandman (#agro-#, √#col-#, till).
210. #-u-lo-#, N. #-u-lu-s# (202): #ger-ulo-#, N. #ger-ulu-s#, bearer (√#ges-#, bear); #fig-ulu-s#, potter (√#fig-#, shape, mould).
211. #-ōn-#, N. #-ō-#: #err-ōn-#, N. #err-ō#, stroller (#errā-re#); especially in compounds: #praed-ō#, robber (#praedā-rī#); #praec-ō# for #*praevocō#, herald (#prae-vocā-re#); #combib-ō#, fellow-drinker (#com-#, √#bib-#, drink).
II. THE ACTION.
212. The suffixes #-ā-#, #-io-#, #-iā-#; #-min-#; #-i-ōn-#, #-ti-ōn-#; #-lā-#; #-mā-#, #-nā-#; #-tā-#, #-tu-#; #-er-#, #-or-#, #-ōr-#, are used to denote the Action: as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM. od-io- odium, hate √+od-+, hate āc-tiōn- āctiō, action √+āg-+, do ques-tu- questus, complaint √+ques-+, complain fur-ōr- furor, rage √+fur-+, rave
213. Words denoting action (1470) in a substantive form have a wide range of meaning; they may denote, according to the connection, action intransitive, transitive, or passive, complete or incomplete; if the verb denotes condition or state, the word of action often comes very near to denominatives of quality; furthermore the idea of action is often lost, and passes over to result, concrete effect, means or instrument, or place.
(1.) #-ā-# (N. #-a#); #-io-# (N. #-iu-m#); #-iā-# (N. #-ia#), #-iē-# (N. #-iē-s#).
214. #-ā-#, N. #-a#, is rare in words of action: #fug-ā-#, N. #fug-a#, flight (√#fug-#, fly); most words are concrete: #mol-a#, mill (√#mol-#, grind); #tog-a#, covering (√#teg-#, cover).
215. #-ūr-ā-#, N. #-ūr-a#, is rare: #fig-ūrā-#, N. #fig-ūra#, shape (√#fig-#, shape).
216. #-tūr-ā-#, N. #-tūr-a#, or #-sūr-ā-#, N. #-sūr-a# (159, 202), akin to the agent in #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#): #armā-tūrā-#, N. #armā-tūra#, equipment (#armā-re#); #pīc-tūra#, painting, i.e., act of painting or picture (√#pig-#, paint). Words parallel with official personal names (206) denote office: #cēn-sūra#, taxing, censor’s office (cf. #cēnsōr-#); #prae-tūra#, praetorship (cf. #praetōr-#).
217. #-io-#, N. #-iu-m#, sometimes denotes the effect or the object. The line cannot always be drawn very sharply between these stems in #-io-# (many of which may be formed through a presumed noun stem), and denominatives in #-io-# (249).
218. (a.) #-io-# is rarely suffixed to simple roots or verb stems: #od-io-#, N. #od-iu-m#, hate, hateful thing, hateful conduct (√#od-#, hate); some words become concrete: #lab-iu-m#, lip (√#lab-#, lick).
219. (b.) Most primitives in #-io-# are compounds: as, #adag-iu-m#, proverb (#ad#, √#ag-#, speak); #ingen-iu-m#, disposition (in, √#gen-#, beget); #dīscid-iu-m#, separation, #exscid-iu-m#, destruction (#dī-#, #ex#, √#scid-#, cleave); #incend-iu-m#, conflagration (in, √#cand-#, light); #obsequ-iu-m#, compliance (#ob-#, √#sequ-#, follow); #conloqu-iu-m#, parley (#com-#, √#loqu-#, talk); #obsid-iu-m#, siege (#ob#, √#sed-#, sit).
220. #-t-io-#, N. #-t-iu-m#: #spa-tio-#, N. #spa-tiu-m#, stretch (√#spa-#, span, stretch); #sōlsti-tiu-m#, sun-stand, solstice (#sōl-#, √#sta-#, stand); #ini-tiu-m#, a beginning (#in#, √#i-#, go).
221. #-iā-#, N. #-ia#: #fur-iā-#, N. #fur-iae#, plural, ravings, madness (√#fur-#, rave); #pluvia#, rain (√#pluv-#, rain). Most stems in #-iā-# are compounds, used in the plural only, often with concrete or passive meaning: dēlic-iae, allurements, pet (#dē#, √#lac-#, allure); #excub-iae#, patrol (#ex#, √#cub-#, lie).
222. #-iē-#, N. #-iē-s#, a variation of #-iā-#, usually denotes result (604): #ser-iē-#, N. #ser-iē-s#, row (√#ser-#, string); #spec-iē-s#, sight, looks (√#spec-#, spy, see); #pernic-iē-s#, destruction (#per#, √#nec-#, murder).
223. #-t-iē-#, N. #-t-iē-s#: #permi-tiē-#, N. #permi-tiē-s#, wasting away (#per#, √#mi-#, less).
(2.) #-min-# (103) (N. #-men#); #-din-#, #-gin-# (105, g) (N. #-dō#, #-gō#).
224. #-min-#, N. #-men# (202), usually active, occasionally passive, is very common; it sometimes denotes the means, instrument, or effect.
#certā-min-#, N. #certā-men#, contest (#certā-re#); #crī-men#, charge (√#cer-#, #crī-#, sift); #spec-imen#, what is inspected, sample (√#spec-#, spy, see); #lū-men#, light (√#lūc-#, light); #flū-men#, flood, stream (√#flugṷ-#, flow); #ag-men#, what is led, train (√#ag-#, lead). Words in #-min-# often mean nearly the same as those in #-mento-# (239): as, #levā-men#, #levā-mentu-m#, lightening; #teg-umen#, #teg-umentu-m#, covering.
225. #ē-din-#, #-ī-din-# (202): #-ē-din-#, N. #-ē-dō#: #grav-ēdin-#, N. #grav-ēdō#, (heaviness), catarrh (√#grav-#, heavy), #-ī-din-#, N. #-ī-dō#: #cup-īdin-#, N. #cup-īdō#, desire (√#cup-#, desire); #lib-idō#, whim (√#lib-#, yearn).
226. #-ā-gin-#, #-ī-gin-# (202): #-ā-gin-#, N. #-ā-gō#: #vorā-gin-#, N. #vorā-gō#, gulf (#vorā-re#); #imā-gō#, representation (#*imā-#, cf. #imitārī#). #-ī-gin-#, N. #-ī-gō#: #orī-gin-#, N. #orī-gō#, source (#orī-rī#); #cāl-īgō#, darkness (√#cāl-#, hide). A few denominatives have #-ū-gin-#, N. #-ū-gō#: #aer-ūgin-#, N. #aer-ūgō#, copper rust (#aer-#).
(3.) #-i-ōn-# (N. #-i-ō#); #-ti-ōn-# or #-si-ōn-# (N. #-ti-ō# or #-si-ō#).
227. #-i-ōn-#, N. #-i-ō#: #opīn-iōn-#, N. #opīn-iō#, notion (#opīnā-rī#); #condic-iō#, agreement (#com-#, √#dic-#, say); #contāg-iō#, touch (#com-#, √#tag-#, touch). Some words are concrete: #leg-iō#, pick, legion (√#leg-#, pick). A few are denominatives: #commūn-iō#, mutual participation (#commūni-#).
228. #-ti-ōn-#, N. #-ti-ō#, or #-si-ōn-#, N. #-si-ō# (159, 202), is very common, and may denote action either intransitive, transitive, or passive, or the manner or possibility of action.
#cōgitā-tiōn-#, N. #cōgitā-tiō#, a thinking, a thought (cōgitā-re); #exīstimā-tiō#, judging, reputation (#exīstimā-re#); #coven-tiō#, commonly #cōn-tiō#, meeting, speech (#com-#, √#ven-#, come); #dēpul-siō#, warding off (#dē-#, √#pol-#, push); #oppugnā-tiō#, besieging, method of besieging (#oppugnā-re#); #occultā-tiō#, hiding, chance to hide, possibility of hiding (#occultā-re#). Some words denote the place where: #sta-tiō#, a stand (√#sta-#, stand); some become collectives or concretes: #salūtā-tiō#, greeting, levee, guests at a levee (#salūtā-re#); #mūnī-tiō#, fortification, i.e., act of fortifying or works (#mūnī-re#).
(4.) #-ē-lā-# (N. #-ē-la#), #-tē-lā-# (N. #-tē-la#).
229. #-ē-lā-#, N. #-ē-la# (202): #suādē-lā-#, N. #suādē-la#, persuasion (#suādē-rē#): #loqu-ēla#, talk (√#loqu-#, talk); #quer-ēla# or #quer-ēlla#, complaint (√#ques-#, complain). Some words are concrete: #candē-la#, candle (#candē-re#).
230. #-tē-lā-#, N. #-tē-la-#: #conrup-tēlā-#, N. #conrup-tēla#, a seduction (#com-#, √#rup-#, spoil, ruin); #tū-tēla#, protection (√#tū-#, watch, protect).
(5.) #-mā-# (N. #-ma#), #-nā-# (N. #-na#); #-trī-nā-# (N. #-trī-na#).
231. #-mā-# and #-nā-# are rare, and denote result or something concrete. #-mā-#, N. #-ma#: #fā-mā-#, N. #fā-ma#, tale (√#fā-#, tell); #-nā#, N. #-na#: #ur-na#, pitcher (√#urc-# in #urc-eus#, pitcher, 170, 3); with original suffix #-sna# (170, 2): #lū-na#, moon (√#lūc-#, light); #scāla#, stairs (√#scand-#, mount).
232. #-inā-#, N. #-ina#: #ang-inā-#, N. #ang-ina#, choking (√#ang-#, choke); #pāg-ina#, page (√#pāg-#, fasten); #sarc-ina#, package (√#sarc-#, patch). #-īnā-#, N. #-īna# (202): #ru-īnā-#, N. #ru-īna#, downfall (√#ru-#, tumble); #-īnā-# is very common in denominatives: #pisc-īna#, fish-pond (#pisci-#).
233. #-trī-nā-#, N. #-trī-na#, akin to the agent in #-tōr-#: #doc-trīnā-#, N. #doc-trīna#, teaching, either the act of teaching or what is taught (√#doc-#, teach); #sū-trīna#, shoemaking, shoemaker’s trade, shoemaker’s shop (√#sū-#, sew).
(6.) #-tā-# or #-sā-# (N. #-ta# or #-sa#); #-tu-# or #-su-# (N. #-tu-s# or #-su-s#).
234. #-tā-#, N. #-ta#, or #-sā-#, N. #-sa# (159), is rare, and sometimes denotes result, or something concrete: as, #no-tā-#, N. #no-ta#, mark (√#gno-#, know); #por-ta# (passage), gate (√#por-#, fare); #fos-sa#, ditch (√#fod-#, dig); #repul-sa#, repulse (#re-#, √#pol-#, push); #offēn-sa#, offence (#ob#, √#fend-#, strike).
235. #-tu-#, N. #-tu-s#, or #-su-#, N. #-su-s# (159, 202), denotes the action and its results: #ques-tu-#, N. #ques-tu-s#, complaint (√#ques-#, complain); #gem-itus#, groan (√#gem-#, groan). Stems in #-ā-tu-#, N. #-ā-tu-s#, sometimes denote office or officials: #cōnsul-ātu-#, N. #cōnsul-ātu-s#, being consul, consulship (#cōnsul-#); #sen-ātu-s#, senate (#sen-#). #-tu-# is seldom passive: #vī-su-s#, active, sight, passive, looks (√#vīd-#, see); #apparā-tu-s#, preparation, either a getting ready, or what is got ready (#apparā-re#). The supine (2269) is the accusative or ablative of substantives in #-tu-# (#-su-#). Most words in #-tu-# (#-su-#) are defective in case, and are chiefly used in the ablative (430).
[Erratum: 234 ... as, #no-tā-#, N. #no-ta#, mark #no tā-# with invisible hyphen]
(7.) #-er-# for #-es-# (N. #-us#); #-ōr-# (N. #-or#).
236. Neuter stems in #-er-# (for #-es-#), or in #-or-# (for #-os-#), N. #-us#, denote result, or have a concrete meaning: #gen-er-#, N. #gen-us#, birth, race (√#gen-#, beget); #op-er-#, N. #op-us#, work (√#op-#, work); #frīg-or-#, N. #frīg-us#, cold (√#frīg-#, cold). #-ēs# with lengthened #ē# is sometimes used in the nominative of gender words: as, #nūb-ēs#, cloud (√#nūb-#, veil); #sēd-ēs#, seat (√#sēd-#); #vāt-ēs#, bard. #-n-er-#, #-n-or-#, N. #-n-us#: #vol-ner-#, N. #vol-nus#, wound (√#vol-#, tear); #fac-inor-#, N. #fac-inus#, deed (√#fac-#, do, 202).
237. #-ōr-# (for an older form #-ōs-#, 154), N. #-ōs#, commonly #-or#, masculine, denotes a state. Many substantives in #-ōr-# have a parallel verb, usually in #-ēre# (368), and an adjective in #-ido-# (287).
#od-ōr-#, N. #od-ōs# or #od-or#, smell (√#od-#, smell, cf. #olē-re#); #pall-or#, paleness (cf. #pallē-re#); #cal-or#, warmth (cf. #calē-re#); #ūm-or#, moisture (cf. #ūmē-re#); #am-or#, love (cf. #amā-re#); #ang-or#, choking, anguish (√#ang-#, choke).
[Erratum: 237 ... #od-ōr-#, N. #od-ōs# or #od-or#, smell #od-ōr-# N.]
III. THE INSTRUMENT OR MEANS.
238. The suffixes #-men-to-#, #-tro-#, #-cro-# or #-culo-#, #-lo-#, #-bro-# or #-bulo-#, are used to denote the Instrument or Means: as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
ōrnā-mento- ōrnāmentum, embellishment ōrnā-re, embellish arā-tro- arātrum, plough arā-re, plough pō-culo- pōculum, drinking-cup √+pō-+, drink pā-bulo- pābulum, fodder √+pā-+, feed
239. #-men-to-#, N. #-men-tu-m# (202), is one of the commonest suffixes; it sometimes denotes result of action, rarely action itself.
#pig-mento-#, N. #pig-mentu-m#, paint (√#pīg-#, paint); #experī-mentu-m#, test (#experī-rī#); #ōrnā-mentu-m#, ornament (#ōrnā-re#); #frag-mentu-m#, fragment (√#frag-#, break); #cae-mentu-m#, quarried stone (√#caed-#, cut); #incrē-mentu-m#, growth (#in#, √#crē-#, grow); #al-imentu-m#, nourishment (√#al-#, nurture); #doc-umentu-m#, lesson (√#doc-#, teach). See also #-min-# (224). #-men-tā-#, N. #-men-ta#, F., is rare: #ful-menta#, prop (√#fulc-#, prop); #rā-menta#, scraping (√#rād-#, scrape).
240. #-tro-#, N. #-tru-m# (202): #arā-tro-#, N. #arā-tru-m#, plough (#arā-re#); #fer-etru-m#, bier (√#fer-#, bear); #rōs-tru-m#, beak (√#rōd-#, peck). Sometimes #-stro-#: #mōn-stru-m#, warning (√#mon-#, mind); #lu-stra#, plural, fen, jungle (√#lu-#, wash); #lū-stru-m#, purification (√#lou-#, wash). #-trā-#, N. #-tra#, F.: #mulc-trā-#, N. #mulc-tra# (also #mulc-tru-m#, Ne.), milking-pail (√#mulg-#, milk). #-es-trā-#: #fen-estra#, window.
241. #-cro-#, N. #-cru-m#, used when an #l# precedes: #ful-cro-#, N. #ful-cru-m#, couch-leg (√#fulc-#, prop). #-cro-# sometimes denotes the place where: #ambulā-cru-m#, promenade (#ambulā-re#); sometimes the effect: #simulā-cru-m#, likeness (#simulā-re#).
242. #-culo-#, N. #-culu-m# (202): #pō-culo-#, N. #pō-culu-m#, cup (√#pō-#, drink); #fer-culu-m#, tray (√#fer-#, bear). #-culo-# sometimes denotes the place where: #cub-iculu-m#, sleeping-room (√#cub-#, lie); #cēnā-culu-m#, originally dining-room, usually garret (#cēnā-re#).
243. #-u-lo-#, N. #-u-lu-m-# (202): chiefly after #c# or #g#: #vinc-ulo-#, N. #vinc-ulu-m#, bond (√#vinc-#, bind); #cing-ulu-m#, girdle (√#cing-#, gird). #-u-lā-#, N. #-u-la#, F., #rēg-ula#, rule (√#rēg-#, guide).
244. #-bro-#, N. #-bru-m# (202): #crī-bro-#, N. #crī-bru-m#, sieve (√#cer-#, #crī-#, sift); #lā-bru-m#, wash-basin (√#lav-#, wash). #-brā-#, N. #-bra#, F.: #dolā-bra#, chisel, mattock (#dolā-re#); #late-bra#, hiding-place (√#lat-#, hide).
245. #-bulo-#, N. #-bulu-m# (202): #pā-bulo-#, N. #pā-bulu-m#, fodder (√#pā-#, keep); #vēnā-bulu-m#, hunting-spear (#vēnā-rī#); #pat-ibulu-m#, pillory (√#pat-#, stretch). #-bulo-# sometimes denotes the place where: #sta-bulu-m#, standing-place, stall (√#sta-#, stand). #-bulā-#, N. #-bula#, F., rare: #sū-bula#, awl (√#su-#, sew); #ta-bula#, board (√#ta-#, stretch); #fā-bula#, talk (√#fā-#, talk).
(B.) DENOMINATIVES.
I. THE QUALITY.
246. The suffixes #-io-#, #-iā-#; #-tā-#, #-tāt-#, #-tūt-#, #-tū-din-#, are used to denote the Quality: as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
conlēg-io- conlēgium, colleagueship conlēgā-, N. conlēga, colleague audāc-iā- audācia, boldness audāci-, N. audāx, bold cīvi-tāt- cīvitās, citizenship cīvi-, N. cīvis, citizen magni-tūdin- magnitūdō, greatness magno-, N. magnus, great
247. These abstracts are feminine, and come chiefly from adjectives or participles, except those in #-io-#, which are neuters, and come mostly from substantives. Sometimes the same stem takes two or more of these suffixes: as, #clāri-tāt-# or #clāri-tūdin-#, brightness (#clāro-#); #iuven-tūt-#, in poetry #iuven-tāt-# or #iuven-tā-#, youth (#iuven-#).
(1.) #-io-# (N. #-iu-m#), #-iā-# (N. #-ia#), #-iē-# (N. #-iēs#).
248. #-iē-# sometimes occurs as collateral form to #-iā-# (604); #-io-# or #-iā-# is sometimes attached to other suffixes: thus, #-t-io-#, #-t-iā-# (#-t-iē-#); #-mōn-io-#, #-mōn-iā-#; #-cin-io-#.
249. #-io-#, N. #-iu-m#, chiefly used in compounds, denotes belonging to, with a very wide range of meaning; many of these words are clearly neuter adjectives in #-io-# (305). Suffixed to personal names #-io-# often denotes the condition, action, or employment, which gives rise to the name; this meaning sometimes passes over to that of result, relation of persons, collection of persons, or place.
250. (a.) From simple noun stems: #sen-io-#, N. #sen-iu-m#, feeble old age (#sen-#); #somn-iu-m#, dream (#somno-#); #sāv-iu-m#, love-kiss (#suāvi-#); #silent-iu-m#, silence (#silenti-#); #crepund-ia#, plural, rattle (#*crepundo-#); #mendāc-iu-m#, lie (#mendāci-#); #sōlāc-iu-m#, comfort (#*sōlāci-#, comforting).
251. (b.) Direct compounds (377): #aequinoct-iu-m#, equinox (#aequo-#, #nocti-#); #contubern-iu-m#, companionship (#com-#, #tabernā-#); #prīvilēg-iu-m#, special enactment (#prīvo-#, #lēg-#).
252. (c.) Indirect compounds (377), chiefly from personal names: #cōnsil-iu-m#, deliberating together, faculty of deliberation, conclusion, advice, deliberative body (#cōnsul-#); #auspic-iu-m#, taking auspices, auspices taken (#auspic-#); #rēmig-iu-m#, rowing, oars, oarsmen (#rēmig-#); #conlēg-iu-m#, colleagueship, corporation (#conlēgā-#); #aedific-iu-m#, building (#*aedific-#, builder); #perfug-iu-m#, asylum (#perfugā-#).
253. #-t-io-# N. #-t-iu-m#, rare: #servi-tio-#, N. #servi-tiu-m#, slavery, slaves (#servo-#); #calvi-tiu-m#, baldness (#calvo-#).
254. #-mōn-io-#, N. #-mōn-iu-m# (202): #testi-mōnio-#, N. #testi-mōniu-m#, evidence (#testi-#); #mātr-imōniu-m#, marriage (#mātr-#); #patr-imōniu-m#, patrimony (#patr-#).
255. #-cin-io-#, N. #-cin-iu-m#, rare: #latrō-cinio-#, N. #latrō-ciniu-m#, robbery (#latrōn-#); #patrō-ciniu-m#, protection (#patrōno-#).
256. #-iā-#, N. #-ia#, is very common indeed, forming abstracts from nouns, mostly adjectives or present participles.
#audāc-iā-#, N. #audāc-ia#, boldness (#audāci-#); #miser-ia#, wretchedness (#misero-#); #abundant-ia#, plenty (#abundanti-#); #scient-ia#, knowledge (#scienti-#); #mīlit-ia#, warfare (#mīlit-#); #victōr-ia#, victory (#victōr-#); #māter-ia#, timber (#māter-#); #custōd-ia#, guard (#custōd-#).
257. #-iē-#, N. #-iē-s#: #pauper-iē-#, N. #pauper-iē-s#, moderate means (#pauper-#). Most stems in #-iē-# are primitive (222).
258. #-t-iā-#, N. #-t-ia#, is suffixed to a few adjective stems, chiefly in #-o-#: #iūsti-tiā-#, N. #iūsti-tia#, justice (#iūsto-#); #mali-tia#, wickedness (#malo-#); #pudīci-tia#, shamefastness (#pudīco-#); #trīsti-tia#, sadness (#trīsti-#).
259. #-t-iē-#, N. #-t-iē-s#, particularly as a collateral form of #-t-iā-# in the N., Ac., and Ab. singular (604): #molli-tiē-#, N. #molli-tiē-s#, softness (#molli-#).
260. #-mōn-iā-#, N. #-mōn-ia# (202): #ācri-mōniā-#, N. #ācri-mōnia#, sharpness (#ācri-#); #parsi-mōnia#, economy (#parso-#). Analogously from roots, #quer-imōnia#, complaint (√#ques-#, complain); #al-imōnia#, nurture (√#al-#, nurture).
(2.) #-tā-# (N. #-ta#), #-tāt-# (N. #-tā-s#), #-tūt-# (N. #-tū-s#), #-tū-din-# (N. #-tū-dō#).
261. #-tā-#, N. #-ta#: chiefly poetic: #iuven-tā-#, N. #iuven-ta#, youth (#iuven-#); #senec-ta#, age (#sen-ec-#).
262. #-tāt-#, N. #-tā-s# (202), is one of the very commonest suffixes.
#pie-tāt-#, N. #pie-tā-s#, dutifulness (#pio-#, 105); #fēlīci-tā-s#, happiness (#fēlīci-#); #cīvi-tā-s#, citizenship, the community (#cīvi-#); #facili-tā-s#, easiness, #facul-tā-s#, ability (#facili-#); #cāri-tā-s#, dearness (#cāro-#); #auctōr-itā-s#, authority (#auctōr-#); #līber-tā-s#, freedom (#lībro-#, 111, b); #maies-tā-s#, grandeur (#maiōs-#); #volun-tā-s#, wish (#*volunti-#, 179); #venus-tā-s#, grace (#venusto-#, 179); #ae-tā-s#, age (#aevo-#, 111, a); #tempes-tā-s#, kind of time, weather (#tempes-#).
263. #-tūt-#, N. #-tū-s#, only in #iuven-tūt-#, N. #iuven-tū-s#, youth (#iuven-#), #senec-tū-s#, age (#senec-#), #servi-tū-s#, slavery (#servo-#), and #vir-tū-s#, manhood (#viro-#, 111).
264. #-tū-din-#, N. #-tū-dō#, suffixed to adjective stems: #magni-tūdin-#, N. #magni-tūdō#, greatness (#magno-#); #forti-túdō#, courage (#forti-#); and to a few participles: #cōnsuē-tūdō#, custom (#cōnsuēto-#, 179); #sollici-tūdō#, anxiety (#sollicito-#); analogously #valē-tūdō#, health (#*valēto-#, #valēre#).
II. THE PERSON CONCERNED.
265. The suffixes #-ārio-#, #-ōn-#, #-iōn-#, #-li-#, #-no-#, and some others, are used to denote the Person concerned or occupied with a thing: as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
sīc-ārio- sīcārius, assassin sīcā-, N. sīca, dagger āle-ōn- āleō, gambler āleā-, N. ālea, die lūd-iōn- lūdiō, player lūdo-, N. lūdus, play aedī-li- aedīlis, aedile aedi-, N. aedis, house tribū-no- tribūnus, tribune tribu-, N tribus, tribe
III. THE PLACE.
266. Neuters with the suffixes #-tōrio-#, #-ārio-#, #-īli-#, #-to-#, or #-ēto-# are often used to denote the Place: as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
audī-tōrio- audī-tōrium, lecture-room audītōr-, N. audītor, hearer aer-ārio- aerārium, treasury aer-, N. aes, money ov-īli- ovīle, sheepfold ovi-, N. ovis, sheep murt-ēto- murtēta, myrtlegroves murto-, N. murtus, myrtle
IV. DIMINUTIVES.
267. The suffixes #-lo-#, #-lā-#, or #-cu-lo-#, #-cu-lā-#, are used to form substantives with a Diminutive meaning. Diminutives may denote:
268. (1.) Actual smallness: as, #secūricula#, a little hatchet; #ventulus#, a bit of wind; #spēcula#, a ray of hope.
269. (2.) Imputed smallness: implying, (a.) admiration, affection, or compassion; (b.) contempt or irony. This diminutive, which usually serves to add point to sentences themselves of a playful, patronizing, or slurring character, is very hard to translate; little and small are often inadequate; old or poor will sometimes do; but usually recourse must be had to free translations adapted to the particular context: as,
#ōrātiuncula#, a gem of a speech, an attempt at a speech; #mātercula#, an anxious mother, poor mamma, dear mamma; #lectulus#, one’s own little bed; #ānellus aureolus#, a gay gold ring; #Graeculī#, our Greek cousins, the good people in Greece; #Graeculus#, a regular Greek, your gentleman from Greece; #muliercula#, a pretty girl, a lady gay, one of the gentler sex, a mere woman, an unprotected female, a maiden all forlorn; #lacrimula#, a wee tear, a crocodile tear; #volpēcula#, Master Reynard, dan Russel; #tōnstrīcula#, a common barber girl; #popellus#, rabble; #nummulī#, filthy lucre; #mercēdula#, an apology for pay; #ratiuncula#, a first rate reason; #caupōnula#, a low tavern.
270. Some diminutives have entirely lost the diminutive meaning: as, #puella#, girl, not necessarily little girl; others have changed their original meaning: as, #avunculus#, uncle, originally grandpapa; #anguīlla#, eel, originally little snake. Some words are only found in the diminutive form: as, #stēlla#, star (#*ster-#). Diminutives usually have the gender of their primitives; exceptions are rare: as, #rāna#, frog, #F.#, #rānunculus#, tadpole, #M.#
[Erratum: 270 ... #F.# ... #M.# anomalous boldface in original]
(1.) #-lo-# (N., M. #-lu-s#, Ne. #-lu-m#), #-lā-# (N. #-la#).
271. Stems in #-o-#, #-ā-#, or a mute (#-g-#, #-c-#, #-d-#, or #-t-#), take #-lo-# or #-lā-#, which is usually preceded by #-u-# (202).
#hortu-lo-#, N. #hortu-lu-s#, little garden (#horto-#); #oppidu-lu-m#, hamlet (#oppido-#); #serru-lā-#, N. #serru-la#, little saw (#serrā-#); #rēg-ulu-s#, chieftain (#rēg-#); #vōc-ula#, a bit of a voice (#vōc-#); #calc-ulu-s#, pebble (#calci-#); #nepōt-ulu-s#, a grandson dear (#nepōt-#); #aetāt-ula#, tender age (#aetāt-#).
272. Stems in #-eo-#, #-io-#, or #-vo-#, retain #-o-# before #-lo-#; stems in #-eā-#, #-iā-#, or #-vā-#, also have #-o-# before #-lā-#.
#alveo-lo-#, N. #alveo-lu-s#, little tray (#alveo-#); #gladio-lu-s#, little sword (#gladio-#); #servo-lu-s#, little slave (#servo-#); #nauseo-lā-#, N. #nauseo-la#, a slight squeamishness (#nauseā-#); #bēstio-la#, little animal (#bēstiā-#); #fīlio-la#, little daughter (#fīliā-#).
273. Stems in #-lo-#, #-ro-#, #-no-#, and #-lā-#, #-rā-#, #-nā-#, commonly drop the stem vowel and assimilate #-r-# or #-n-# to #-l-#: thus: #-el-lo-#, #-el-lā-# (111, b; 166, 6, 7).
#catel-lo-#, for #*catululo-#, N. #catel-lu-s#, puppy (#catulo-#); #agel-lu-s#, little field (#agro-#); #asel-lu-s#, donkey (#asino-#); #fābel-lā-#, N. #fābel-la#, short story (#fābulā-#); #umbel-la#, sunshade (#umbrā-#); #pāgel-la#, short page (#pāginā-#). A few words are not thus changed: #pueru-lo-#, N. #pueru-lu-s#, poor boy (#puero-#), as well as #puel-lu-s#.
274. Another vowel than #e# (172, 3) appears in: #Hispāl-lu-s# (#Hispāno-#), #Messāl-la# (#Messānā-#), proper names; #corōl-la#, chaplet (#corōnā-#); #ūl-lu-s#, the least one, any at all (#ūno-#); #Sūl-la# (#Sūrā-#), proper name; #lapil-lu-s#, for #*lapid-lu-s#, pebble (#lapid-#). Also #homul-lu-s#, son of the dust (#homon-#).
[Erratum: 273 ... #-el-lo-#, #-el-lā-# (111, b; 166, 6, 7). 111; b;]
(2.) #-cu-lo-# (N., M. #-cu-lu-s#, Ne. #-cu-lu-m#), #-cu-lā-# (N. #-cu-la#).
275. Stems in a continuous sound (#-l-#, #-n-#, #-r-#, or #-s-#), or in #-i-#, #-u-#, or #-ē-#, usually take #-cu-lo-# or #-cu-lā-#.
#sermūn-culo-#, N. #sermūn-culu-s#, small-talk (#sermōn-#); #virgun-culā-#, N. #virgun-cula#, little maid (#virgon-#); #homun-culu-s#, son of earth (#homon-#); #arbus-cula#, tiny tree (#arbos-#); #cor-culu-m#, heart of hearts (#cord-#, 170, 12); #igni-culu-s#, spark (#igni-#); #ani-cula#, grandam (#anu-#); #diē-cula#, brief day (#diē-#); analogously, #volpē-cula# (vixen), little fox (#*volpē-#). Rarely with #ī#: #canī-cula#, little dog (#can-#).
276. #-un-culo-#, N. #-un-culu-s#: #av-unculo-#, N. #av-unculu-s#, uncle (#avo-#); #rān-unculu-s#, tadpole (#rānā-#). #-un-culā-#, N. #-un-cula#: #dom-unculā-#, N. #dom-uncula#, little house (#domo-#).
277. Diminutives are sometimes formed from other diminutives: #cistel-lu-la#, casket (#cistel-la#, #cistu-la#, #cistā-#).
278. A few other suffixes have a diminutive meaning: as, #-ciōn-#, #-leo-#, #-astro-#, #-ttā-#: #homun-ciō#, manikin, child of dust (#homon-#); #acu-leu-s#, sting (#acu-#); #Antōni-aster#, regular little Antony; #pīn-aster#, bastard pine; #Iūli-tta#, Juliet (#Iūliā-#); #Pōlli-tta#, little Polla (#Pōllā-#).
V. PATRONYMICS.
279. Patronymics, or proper names which denote descent from a father or ancestor, have stems in #-dā-# (N. #-dē-s#), F. #-d-# (N. #-s#). These are chiefly Greek names used in poetry.
#Prīami-dā-#, N. #Prīami-dē-s#, scion of Priam’s house; #Tantali-d-#, N. #Tantali-s#, daughter of Tantalus. #Pēlī-dē-s# (#Pēleu-s#); #Aenea-dē-s# (#Aenēā-#); #Thestia-dē-s# (#Thestio-#); #Lāertia-dē-s# (#Lāertā-#); #Scīpia-dā-s# (#Scīpiōn-#). #F.# sometimes #-īnē# or #-ōnē#: #Neptūnīnē# (#Neptūno-#); #Acrisiōnē# (#Acrisio-#).
II. THE ADJECTIVE.
(A.) PRIMITIVES.
280. Primitive adjectives may usually be divided into active and passive; but the same suffix often has either an active or a passive meaning. Under primitive adjectives belong the participles; but these will be mentioned in connection with the verb.
I. WITH AN ACTIVE MEANING.
281. The suffixes #-o-#, #-uo-#, #-ci-#, #-lo-#, and #-do-#, are used to form adjectives with an Active meaning: as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
vag-o- vagus, wandering √+vag-+, wander contig-uo- contiguus, touching com-, √+tag-+, touch minā-ci- mināx, threatening minā-rī, threaten cali-do- calidus, warm √+cal-+, warm
(1.) #-o-# (N. #-u-s#); #-uo-# (N. #-uu-s#).
282. #-o-# (N. #-u-s#): such words express nature or capacity: #vag-o-#, N. #vag-u-s#, roaming (√#vag-#, roam); #vīv-u-s#, living (√#vīv-#, live); many are compounds: as, #male-dic-u-s#, abusive (#male#, √#dic-#, say); #pro-fug-u-s#, flying on (#prō-#, √#fug-#, fly). Passive: #fīd-u-s#, trustworthy (√#fīd-#, trust).
283. #-uo-#, N. #-uu-s#: #adsid-uo-#, N. #adsid-uu-s#, unremitting (#ad#, √#sed-#, sit); #contig-uu-s#, touching (#com-#, √#tag-#, touch); #perpet-uu-s#, uninterrupted (#per#, √#pet-#, go). Some words are passive: as, #sal-vu-s#, safe (√#sal-#, save); #vac-uu-s#, empty (√#vac-#, empty); #relic-uo-s#, left behind (#re-#, √#liqu-#, leave), later #reliquos#, #relicus#, #reliquus# (157).
(2.) #-ci-# (N. #-x#); #-lo-# (N. #-lu-s#); #-do-# (N. #-du-s#).
284. #-ā-ci-#, N. #-ā-x# (202), denotes capacity, habit, or inclination, often implying censure: #pugnā-ci-#, N. #pugnā-x#, full of fight (#pugnā-re#); #minā-x#, threatening (#minā-ri#); #fer-āx#, productive (√#fer-#, bear); #dic-āx#, full of mother-wit, quick at a joke (√#dic-#, say); #rap-āx#, apt to snatch (√#rap-#, snatch).
285. #-u-lo-#, N. #-u-lu-s# (202), denotes simple action: as, #pat-ulo-#, N. #pat-ulu-s#, spreading (√#pat-#, spread); or inclination: as, #bib-ulu-s#, apt to drink (√#bib-#, drink).
286. The suffixes #-undo-# (#-endo-#), #-bundo-#, and #-cundo-# form a group and are possibly related to the suffix in #-do-#.
287. #-do-#, N. #-du-s# (202), denotes a state, and usually has a parallel verb in #-ēre# (368): #cali-do-#, N. #cali-du-s# warm (cf. #calē-re#); #calli-du-s#, knowing (cf. #callē-re#); #niti-du-s#, shining (cf. #nitē-re#); rarely in #-ere#: #cup-idu-s#, desirous (cf. #cupe-re#); #flui-du-s#, liquid (cf. #flue-re#); #rapi-du-s#, hurried (cf. #rape-re#). #-i-do-# becomes #-i-di-# in #viri-di-s#, green (cf. #virē-re#). #-do-# sometimes occurs in denominatives: #herbi-du-s#, grassy (#herbā-#).
288. #-undo-# (#-endo-#), N. #-undu-s#, (#-endu-s#) is the suffix of the gerundive, which was originally neither active nor passive (2238). In a few words from reflexives, which have become adjectives, it has a reflexive or active meaning: #lāb-undo-#, N. #lāb-undu-s#, gliding, slipping (#lābī#); #ori-undu-s#, arising (#orīrī#); #sec-undu-s#, following (#sequī#); #volv-endu-s#, rolling (volvī). See 899.
289. #-bundo-#, N. #-bundu-s# (202), has the meaning of an exaggerated present participle: #freme-bundo-#, N. #freme-bundu-s#, muttering away (√#frem-#, roar); #treme-bundu-s#, all in a flutter (√#trem-#, quiver); #fur-ibundu-s#, hot with rage (√#fur-#, rave); #cōntiōnā-bundu-s#, speaking a speech (#cōntiōnā-rī#); #minitā-bundu-s#, breathing out threatenings (#minitā-rī#); #vītā-bundu-s#, forever dodging (#vītā-re#).
290. #-cundo-#, N. #-cundu-s#, denotes permanent quality: #fā-cundo-#, N. #fā-cundu-s#, eloquent (√#fā-#, speak); #īrā-cundu-s#, choleric (#īrā-scī#); #iū-cundu-s#, pleasant, interesting (√#iuv-#, help).
II. WITH A PASSIVE MEANING.
291. The suffixes #-li-#, #-ti-li-#, #-bili-#, #-tīvo-#, #-no-#, and #-mino-#, are used to form adjectives with a Passive meaning: as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
fac-ili- facilis, easy to do √+fac-+, do duc-tili- ductilis, ductile √+duc-+, draw amā-bili- amābilis, lovable amā-re, love mag-no- magnus, great √+mag-+, increase
(1.) #-li-#, (N. #-li-s#); #-ti-li-#, #-bili-# (N. #-ti-li-s#, #-bili-s#).
292. #-i-li-#, N. #-i-li-s# (202), denotes passive capability: #fac-ili-#, N. #fac-ili-s#, easy to do (√#fac-#, do); #frag-ili-s#, breakable, frail (√#frag-#, break); #hab-ili-s#, manageable, handy (√#hab-#, hold); #nūb-ili-s#, marriageable (√#nūb-#, veil).
293. #-ti-li-#, N. #-ti-li-s#, or #-si-li-#, N. #-si-li-s# (159), denotes capability or quality: as, #duc-tili#, N. #duc-tili-s#, capable of being drawn out, ductile (√#duc-#, draw); #fis-sili-s#, cleavable (√#fid-#, split); #rā-sili-s#, scraped (√#rād-#, scrape). Rarely active: as, #fer-tili-s#, productive (√#fer-#, bear).
294. #-bili-#, N. #-bili-s# (202), denotes passive capability like #-i-li-#, but is far more common: #horr-ibili-s#, exciting a shudder (cf. #horrē-re#); #amā-bili-s#, lovable (#amā-re#); #flē-bili-s#, lamentable (√#flē-#, weep). Rarely active: as, #sta-bili-s#, that can stand (√#sta-#, stand); #penetrā-bili-s#, piercing (#penetrā-re#). #-ti-bili-# (159), passive, rare: #flexibili-s#, flexible (√#flec-#, bend, 960).
295. #-tīvo-#, N. #-tīvu-s#, denotes the way a thing originated: as, #cap-tīvu-s#, captive (√#cap-#, take); #sta-tīvu-s#, set (√#sta-#, set).
(2.) #-no-# (N. #-nu-s#); #-mino-# (N. #-minu-s#).
296. #-no-#, N. #-nu-s#, an old passive participle suffix, denotes result: #mag-nu-s# (enlarged), great (√#mag-#, great); #plē-nus#, full (√#plē-#, fill). Neuter as substantive: #dō-nu-m#, gift (√#dō-#, give). Sometimes active: #egē-nu-s#, needy (#egē-re#, 192).
297. The suffix #-mino-# (for #-meno-#, 103, a) in its weakest form (135, 2) is found in a few substantives: as, #alu-mnu-s#, nursling (√#al-#, nurse). The endings #-minī# (730) and #-minō# (731) are apparently case forms of the same suffix. #-minō# would seem to be an ablative; #-minī# may be a nominative plural.
(B.) DENOMINATIVES.
298. Denominative adjectives may be divided into such as denote: I. Material or Resemblance. II. Appurtenance: implying sometimes possession, often fitness, conformity, character, or origin. III. Supply. IV. Diminutives. V. Comparatives and Superlatives; a few of these are primitive.
I. MATERIAL OR RESEMBLANCE.
299. The suffixes #-eo-# and #-n-eo-# are used to form adjectives denoting Material or Resemblance: as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
aur-eo- aureus, golden auro-, N. aurum, gold ahē-neo- ahēneus, bronze (58) aes-, N. aes, bronze
300. #-eo-#, N. #-eu-s#: #aur-eo-#, N. #aur-eu-s#, golden, all gold, as good as gold (#auro-#); #ferr-eu-s#, iron (#ferro-#); #pulver-eu-s#, all dust (#pulver-#); #virgin-eu-s#, girlish (#virgin-#).
301. #-n-eo-#, N. #-n-eu-s#: #ahē-neu-s#, bronze (#ahē-#, 58; #aes-#); #quer-neu-s#, oaken (#quercu-#). #-no-# is usually poetical: as, #ebur-nu-s#, ivory (#ebur-#); #quer-nu-s#, oaken (#quercu-#). #-ā-neo-#, N. #-ā-neu-s#: #miscell-āneu-s#, mixed (#miscello-#).
II. APPURTENANCE.
302. The suffixes #-o-#, #-io-#, #-vo-#; #-timo-#, #-li-#, #-no-#; #-bri-#, #-cri-#, #-tri-#; #-co-#, #-ti-#, #-si-#, are used to form adjectives denoting Belonging to: as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
rēg-io- rēgius, kingly rēg-, N. rēx, king mari-timo- maritimus, of the sea mari-, N. mare, sea rēg-āli- rēgālis, of a king rēg-, N. rēx, king can-īno- canīnus, of a dog can-, N. canis, dog mulie-bri- muliebris, womanly mulier-, N. mulier, woman cīvi-co- cīvicus, citizen’s cīvi-, N. cīvis, citizen
(1.) #-o-# (N. #-u-s#), #-io-# (N. #-iu-s#), #-vo-# (N. #-vu-s#).
303. #-o-#, N. #-u-s#: #decōr-o-#, N. #decōr-u-s#, becoming (#decōr-#); #canōr-u-s#, melodious (#canōr-#); #pervius#, passable (#via-#).
304. #-io-# is one of the commonest suffixes, and is often added to other suffixes; thus: #-c-io-#, #-īc-io-#; #-tōr-io-# (#-sōr-io-#); #-ār-io-#.
305. #-io-#, N. #-iu-s#: #rēg-io-#, N. #rēg-iu-s#, of or like a king (#rēg-#); #patr-iu-s#, of a father (#patr-#). Here belong many gentile names: as, #Sēst-iu-s# (#Sexto-#). These are used with substantives as adjectives: as, #lēx Cornēl-ia#, #lēx Iūl-ia#. Furthermore patrial adjectives: as, #Corinth-iu-s#, Corinthian (#Corintho-#). In some, consonant #-io-# is used: #plēbē-iu-s#, of the commons (#plēbē-#). #-io-# is rare in primitives: #exim-iu-s#, select (#ex#, √#em-#, take).
306. #-c-io-#, N. #-c-iu-s# (202): #aedīli-cio#, N. #aedīli-ciu-s#, of an aedile (#aedīli-#); #patr-iciu-s#, of the fathers (#patr-#); #later-iciu-s#, of brick (#later-#).
307. #-īc-io-#, N. #-īc-iu-s#: #nov-īcio-#, N. #nov-īciu-s#, new, new-comer (#novo-#); #nātāl-īciu-s#, birthday’s (#nātāli-#); #caement-īciu-s#, rubble (#caemento-#). Usually suffixed to perfect participles to denote the quality derived from the past act: #conduct-īciu-s#, hired (#conducto-#); #trālāt-īciu-s#, transferred (#trālāto-#).
308. #-tōr-io-#, N. #-tōr-iu-s#, or #-sōr-io-#, N. #-sōr-iu-s#, from the agent (205) in #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#), is the commonest ending with #-io-#: #imperā-tōrio-#, N. #imperā-tōriu-s#, of a commander (#imperātōr-#). The neuter, as substantive, denotes the place where (266): #audī-tōriu-m#, lecture-room (#audītōr-#); #dēvor-sōriu-m#, inn (#dēvorsōr-#).
309. #-ār-io-#, N. #-ār-iu-s#, very common, is chiefly added to substantives: as, #agr-ārio-#, N. #agr-āriu-s#, of land (#agro-#). Often as substantive: #not-āriu-s# (265), stenographer (#notā-#); #aer-āriu-m# (266), treastury (#aer-#); #sēmin-āriu-m#, nursery (#sēmin-#); #bell-āria#, plural, goodies, bonbons (#bello-#).
310. #-ī-vo-#, N. #-ī-vu-s# (202): #tempest-īvu-s#, seasonable (#tempestāt-#, 126); #aest-īvu-s#, summer’s (#aestāt-#). See 179.
(2.) #-timo-# (N. #-timu-s#); #-li-# (N. #-li-s#); #-no-# (N. #-nu-s#).
311. #-timo-#, N. #-timu-s# (202), for an older #-tumo-# (28): #mari-timo-#, N. #mari-timu-s#, of the sea (#mari-#); #fīni-timu-s#, of the border (#fīni-#); #lēg-itimu-s#, lawful (#lēg-#).
312. #-li-# N. #-li-s#: #humi-li-#, N. #humi-li-s#, lowly (#humo-#); but almost always in denominatives #-li-# is preceded by a long vowel (202), usually #-ā-# or #-ī-#, thus: #-ā-li-# (#-ā-ri-#), #-ī-li#; #-ē-li-#, #-ū-li-#.
313. #-ā-li-#, N. #-ā-li-s#: #rēg-āli-#, N. #rēg-āli-s#, kingly (#rēg-#); #decemvir-āli-s#, of a decemvir (#decemviro-#); #fāt-āli-s#, fated (#fāto-#); #t-āli-s#, such (stem #to-#, that); #qu-āli-s#, as (#quo-#), #-ā-ri-#, N. #-ā-ri-s#, is used for #-āli-# if an #l# precedes (173): as, #mol-āri-#, N. #mol-āri-s#, of a mill (#molā-#); #mīlit-āri-s#, of a soldier (#mīlit-#). Neuters in #-āli-# and #-āri-# often become substantives (600): #fōc-āle#, neckcloth (#fauci-#); #anim-al#, breathing thing (#animā-#); #calc-ar#, spur (#calci-#).
314. #-ī-li-#, N. #-ī-li-s#: #cīv-īli-#, N. #cīv-īli-s#, of a citizen (#cīvi-#); #puer-ili-s#, boyish (#puero-#). The neuter, as substantive, sometimes denotes the place where (266): #ov-īle#, sheepfold (#ovi-#).
315. #-ē-li#, N. #-ē-li-s#: #fidē-li-#, N. #fidē-li-s#, faithful (#fidē-#); #crūd-ēli-s#, cruel (#crūdo-#); #patru-ēli-s#, cousin (#patruo-#). #-ū-li-#, N. #-ū-li-s#: #tribū-li-#, N. #tribū-li-s#, tribesman (#tribu-#).
316. The old participle suffix #-no-# (296) is sometimes added at once to noun stems, sometimes to other suffixes: thus, #-ā-no-#, #-ī-no-#; #-ti-no-#, #-tī-no-#; #-er-no-#, #-ur-no-#.
317. #-no-#, N. #-nu-s#, is added to stems formed with the comparative suffix #-ero-# or #-tero-# (347), denoting place: #super-no-#, N. #super-nu-s#, above; #inter-nu-s#, internal (#inter#); #exter-nu-s#, outside; so, also, #alter-nu-s#, every other (#altero-#); and to a very few substantives: as, #pater-nu-s#, fatherly (#patr-#); #frāter-nu-s#, brotherly (#frātr-#); #vēr-nu-s#, of spring (#vēr-#). Also to cardinals, making distributives: as, #bī-nī#, two by two (for #*dṷīnī#, #duo-#, 161).
318. #-ā-no-#, N. #-ā-nu-s# (202): #arcā-no-#, N. #arc-ānu-s#, secret (#arcā-#); #Rōma-nu-s#, of Rome (#Rōmā-#); #mont-ānu-s#, of a mountain (#monti-#); #oppid-ānu-s#, of a town (#oppido-#). #-i-āno-#: #Cicerōn-iāno-#, N. #Cicerōn-iānu-s#, Cicero’s. Rarely #-ā-neo-#: #mediterrā-neu-s#, midland (#medio-#, #terrā-#).
319. #-ī-no-#, N. #-ī-nu-s# (202): #mar-īno-#, N. #mar-īnu-s#, of the sea; #repent-īnu-s#, sudden (#repenti-#); oftenest added to names of living beings: as, #can-īnu-s#, of a dog (#can-#); #dīv-īnu-s#, of a god (#dīvo-#); #-ē-no-#: #lani-ēnu-s#, #ali-ēnu-s#. Also to proper names: as, #Plaut-īno-#, N. #Plaut-īnu-s#, of Plautus (#Plauto-#); #Alp-īnu-s#, Alpine (#Alpi-#).
320. #-ti-no-#, N. #-ti-nu-s#, is used in some adjectives of time: #crās-tinu-s#, to-morrow’s (#crās-#); #diū-tinu-s#, lasting (#diū#); #prīs-tinu-s#, of aforetime (#prī-#, #prae#).
321. #-tī-no-#, N. #-tī-nu-s#, is used in a few words of place and time: #intes-tīno-#, N. #intes-tinu-s#, inward (#intus#); #vesper-tīnu-s#, at eventide (#vespero-#).
322. From words like #frāter-nus# (from #*fratr(i)-nus#, 111, b), #pater-nus#, #exter-nus#, #inter-nus#, arose a new suffix #-terno-#: as, #hes-ternus#, from the stem #hes-# (cf. #her-ī#, 154), and #-erno-# in #hodiernus#. From the adverb #*noctur# (νυκτωρ) was derived #noctur-nus#, by analogy to which #diurnus# was formed. Elsewhere the #-ur# of #-urnus# and the #-tur-# of #-turnus# belong to the stem: as, #ebur-nus#; #tacitur-nus#, from the agent #*taci-tor# (205).
(3.) #-bri-#, #-cri-#, #-tri-# (N. #-ber# or #-bri-s#, &c.).
323. #-bri-#, N. #-ber# or #-bri-s#: #salū-bri-#, N. #salū-ber#, healthy (#salūt-#); #mulie-bri-s#, womanly (#mulier-#).
324. #-cri-#, N. #-cer# or #-cri-s# (202): #volu-cri-#, N. #volu-cer#, winged (#*volo-#, flying); #medio-cri-s#, middling (#medio-#).
325. #-tri-#, N. #-ter# or #-tri-s#: #eques-tri-#, N. #eques-ter#, of horsemen (#equit-#, 152); #sēmēs-tri-s#, of six months (#sex#, #mēns-#). #-es-tri-# is used in a few words: #camp-ester#, of fields (#campo-#); #silv-estri-s#, of woods (#silvā-#).
(4.) #-co-# (N. #-cu-s#); #-ti-#, #-si-# (N. #-s#, #-si-s#).
326. #-co-# is often suffixed to #-ti-#, sometimes to #-es-ti-#; thus: #-ti-co-#, #-es-ti-co-#.
327. #-co-#, N. #-cu-s#: #cīvi-co-#, N. #cīvi-cu-s#, of a citizen (#cīvi-#); #belli-cu-s#, of war (#bello-#); #vīli-cu-s#, bailiff (#vīllā-#). #-ā-co-#, #-ī-co-#, #-ū-co-# (202): #merā-cu-s#, #amī-cu-s#, #antī-cu-s#, #aprī-cu-s#, #postī-cu-s#, #pudī-cu-s#, #cadū-cu-s#. #-ti-co-#, N. #-ti-cu-s#: #rūs-tico-#, N. #rūs-ticu-s#, of the country (#rūs-#). #-es-ti-co-#, N. #-es-ti-cu-s#: #dom-esticu-s#, of a house (#domo-#, #domu-#).
328. #-ti-# or #-si-# denotes belonging to a place; usually #-ā-ti-#, #-ī-ti-#, #-es-ti-#, #-en-ti-#; #-ēn-si-#, or #-i-ēn-si-#.
329. #-ti-#, N. #-s#: #Tībur-ti-#, N. #Tībur-s#, Tiburtine (#Tībur-#). #-ā-ti-#: #quoi-āti-#, N. #quoi-ā-s#, what countryman? (#quoio-#); #Anti-ā-s#, of Antium (#Antio-#); #optim-ātēs#, good men and true (#optimo-#). #-ī-ti-#: #Samn-īti-#, N. #Samn-ī-s#, Samnian (#Samnio-#). #-en-ti-#: #Vēi-enti-#, N. #Vēi-ēn-s#, of Vei (#Vēio-#). #-es-ti-#, N. #-es-ti-s#: #agr-esti-#, N. #agr-esti-s#, of the fields (#agro-#); #cael-esti-s#, heavenly (#caelo-#).
330. #-ēn-si-#, N. #-ēn-si-s# (202), from appellatives of place or proper names of place: #castr-ēnsi-#, N. #castr-ēnsi-s#, of a camp (#castro-#); #circ-ēnsi-s#, of the circus (#circo-#); #Hispāni-ēnsi-s# (temporarily) of Spain. #-i-ēnsi-#: #Karthāgin-iēnsi-s#, of Carthage (#Karthāgin-#).
III. SUPPLY.
331. The suffixes #-to-# or #-ōso-# are used to form adjectives denoting Supplied or Furnished with: as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
barbā-to- barbātus, bearded barbā-, N. barba, beard ann-ōso- annōsus, full of years anno-, N. annus, year
(1.) #-to-# (N. #-tu-s#); #-len-to-# (N. #-len-tu-s#).
332. #-to-#, the perfect participle suffix, is sometimes added at once to a noun stem, sometimes to other suffixes, thus: #-āto-#, #-īto-#, #-ēto-#, #-ūto-#, #-ento-#, #-lento-#.
333. #-to-#, N. #-tu-s#: #onus-to-#, N. #onus-tu-s#, loaded (#onus-#); #vetus-tu-s#, full of years (#*vetus-#, year); #iūs-tu-s#, just (#iūs-#); #hones-tu-s#, honourable (#*hones-#); #fūnes-tu-s#, deadly (#fūnes-#). #-ā-to-#: #barbā-tu-s#, bearded (#barbā-#); #dent-ātu-s#, toothed (#denti-#); #-ī-to-#: #aurī-tu-s#, long-eared (#auri-#); #-ū-to-#: #cornū-tu-s#, horned (#cornu-#). #-en-to-#, N. #-en-tu-s#: #cru-ento-#, N. #cru-entu-s#, all gore (#*cruenti-#, #*cruēre#). As substantive, #arg-entu-m# (white metal), silver; #flu-enta#, plural, streams (#fluenti-#).
334. The neuter of stems in #-to-#, as a substantive, denotes the place where something, generally a plant, is found (266): #arbus-tu-m#, vineyard (#arbos-#); commonly preceded by #-ē-#, forming #-ē-to-# (202), usually plural: #dūm-ēta#, thorn-thickets (#dūmo-#); #murt-ēta#, myrtle-groves (#murto-#).
335. #-len-to-#, N. #-len-tu-s# (202): #vīno-lento-#, N. #vīno-lentu-s#, drunken (#vīno-#); #sanguin-olentu-s#, all blood (#sanguin-#); #lūcu-lentu-s#, bright (#lūci-#, 28); #pulver-ulentu-s#, dusty (#pulver-#). A shorter form #-lenti-# is rare: #vi-olenti-#, N. #vi-olēn-s#, violent (#vi-#); #op-ulēn-s#, rich (#op-#).
(2.) #-ōso-# (N. #-ōsu-s#).
336. #-ōso-# (sometimes #-ōnso-#, #-ōsso-#), N. #-ōsu-s#, full of, is very common indeed, #-ōso-# is sometimes attached to other suffixes, thus: #-c-ōso-#, #-ul-ōso-#, #-ūc-ul-ōso-#.
337. #-ōso-#, N. #-ōsu-s#: #ann-ōso-#, N. #ann-ōsu-s#, full of years; #fōrm-ōnsu-s#, #fōrm-ōssu-s# or #fōrm-ōsu-s#, shapely (#fōrmā-#); #perīcul-ōsu-s#, with danger fraught (#perīculo-#); #mōr-ōsu-s#, priggish, cross (#mōr-#); #calamit-ōsu-s#, full of damage (#calamitāt-#, 179); #superstiti-ōsu-s#, superstitious (#superstitiōn-#, 179); #frūctu-ōsu-s#, fruitful (#frūctu-#, 116, c); #mont-uōsu-s#, full of mountains (#monti-#, 202); #cūri-ōsu-s#, full of care (#cūrā-#); #labōr-iōsu-s#, toilsome (#labōr-#, 202).
338. #-c-ōso-#, N. #-c-ōsu-s#: #belli-cōso-#, N. #belli-cōsu-s#, warlike (#bello-#, #bellico-#). #-ul-ōso-#, N. #-ul-ōsu-s#: #formīd-ulōso-#, N. #formid-ulōsu-s#, terrible (#formīdin-#, 179). #-ūc-ul-ōso-#, N. #-ūc-ul-ōsu-s#: #met-ū-culoso-#, N. #met-ū-culōsu-s#, skittish (#metu-#).
[Erratum: 338 ... #met-ū-culoso-# printed met-/-u- at line break]
IV. DIMINUTIVES.
339. Diminutives are formed from adjectives, as from substantives (267).
#-lo-#, N. #-lu-s#: #aureo-lo-#, N. #aureo-lu-s#, all gold, of precious gold, of red red gold, good as gold (#aureo-#); #ebrio-lu-s#, tipsy (#ebrio-#); #parvo-lu-s#, or #parvu-lu-s#, smallish (#parvo-#); #frīgidu-lu-s#, chilly (#frigido-#); #vet-ulus#, little old (#vet-#); #tenellu-lu-s#, soft and sweet (#tenello-#, #tenero-#); #pulchel-lus#, sweet pretty (#pulchro-#); #bel-lu-s#, bonny (#bono-#); #novel-lu-s#, newborn (#*novolo-#, #novo-#). #-culo-#, N. #-culu-s#: #pauper-culo-#, N. #pauper-culu-s#, poorish (#pauper-#); #levi-culu-s#, somewhat vain (#levi-#).
340. A peculiar class of diminutives is formed by adding #-culo-# to the comparative stem #-ius-# (346): as, #nitidius-culo-#, N. #nitidius-culu-s#, a trifle sleeker (#nitidius-#); #longius-culu-s#, a bit longer (#longius-#).
341. Adverbs sometimes have a diminutive form: as, #bellē#, charmingly; #paullulum#, a little bit; #meliusculē#, a bit better (340).
[Erratum: 339 ... of red red gold text unchanged]
V. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.
342. Comparatives and superlatives are usually formed from the stem of the positive: as, #dignior#, worthier, #dignissimus#, worthiest, from #digno-#, stem of #dignus#. A few are formed directly from roots: thus, #maior#, greater, and #maximus#, greatest, are formed from the √#mag-#, and not from #magno-#, stem of #magnus#.
(1.) COMPARATIVE #-ior#, SUPERLATIVE #-issimus#.
343. The nominative of comparative adjectives ends usually in #-ior#, and that of superlatives in #-issimus#: thus,
COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut. -ior -ior -ius -issimus -issima -issimum
POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
altus, high, altior, higher, altissimus, highest. trīstis, sad, trīstior, sadder, trīstissimus, saddest.
(2.) SUPERLATIVE #-rimus#.
344. Adjectives with the nominative in #-er# have the nominative of the superlative like the nominative of the positive with #-rimus# added (350): as,
POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
pauper, poor, pauperior, poorer, pauperrimus, poorest. ācer, sharp, ācrior, sharper, ācerrimus, sharpest.
#mātūrrimus# occurs once (Tac.), for #mātūrissimus#, positive #mātūrus#, ripe.
(3.) SUPERLATIVE #-limus#.
345.
humilis, difficilis, and facilis, similis, dissimilis, and gracilis,
have the nominative of the superlative in #-limus#, following #l# of the stem (350): as,
POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
humilis, lowly, humilior, lowlier, humillimus, lowliest.
THE COMPARATIVE SUFFIX.
346. The comparative suffix is #-iōs-#, which becomes in the singular, nominative masculine and feminine, #-ior# (154; 132), neuter nominative and accusative, #-ius# (107, c); in all other cases #-iōr-# (154).
347. Other comparative suffixes are #-ro-# or #-ero-#, and #-tro-# or #-tero-#, used in a few words, principally designating place: as, #sup-erī#, the upper ones, #īnferī#, the nether ones; #ex-terī#, outsiders, #posterī#, after-generations; #alter#, the other; #uter#, whether? which of the two? (for #*quo-ter#, 146); #dexter#, right.
348. Some words designating place have a doubled comparative suffix, #-er-iōr-#, or #-ter-iōr-#: as, #sup-er-ior#, upper, #īnferior#, lower. #ci-ter-ior#, hither, #dēterior# (lower), worse, #exterior#, outer, #interior#, inner, #posterior#, hinder, after, #ulterior#, further, #dexterior#, more to the right, #-is-tro-# is used in two words which have become substantives: #min-is-ter# (inferior), servant, and #magister# (superior), master.
THE SUPERLATIVE SUFFIX.
349. The common superlative suffix is #-issimo-#, nominative #-issimus#, with older #-issumo-#, nominative #-issumus# (28).
350. Stems which end in #-ro-#, #-ri-#, or #-li-# (344, 345) take the suffix #-issimo-# (cf. #-simo-#, 351) with syncope of its initial #i# (111) and assimilation of the final #l# or #r# (166, 8).
351. The suffix #-timo-# is further used in a few root superlatives: #ci-timus#, #dextimus#, #extimus#, #intimus#, #optimus#, #postumus#, and #ultimus#; and #-simo-# in #maximus#, #pessimus#, and #proximus#.
352. The suffix #-mo-# or #-imo-# is used in #sum-mo-#, N. #summus#, highest (#sub#); #min-imo-#, N. #minimus#, least; #prīmus#, first, #septimus#, seventh, #decimus#, tenth. #-mo-# or #-imo-# is attached to #-is-# (135, 2) in #plūrimus# for #*plō-is-imo-s# (fullest), most (99); and to #-rē-# or #-trē-#, possibly an adverbial form (705), in #suprēmus#, #extrēmus#, and #postrēmus#.
PECULIARITIES OF COMPARISON.
353. Some positives have a comparative or superlative, or both, from a different form of the stem: such are,
frūgī, thrifty, frūgālior, frūgālissimus. nēquam, naughty, nēquior, nēquissimus. iuvenis, young, iūnior, (nātū minimus). senex, old, senior, (nātū maximus). magnus, great, maior, maximus (351). beneficus, kindly, beneficentior, beneficentissimus. honōrificus, complimentary, honōrificentior, honōrificentissimus. magnificus, grand, magnificentior, magnificentissimus.
354. #iuvenior#, younger, is late (Sen., Plin., Tac.). #benevolēns#, kindly, #benevolentior#, #benevolentissimus#, and #maledīcēns#, abusive, #maledīcentior# (once each, Plaut.), #maledīcentissimus#, have usually as positive #benevolus# and #maledicus# respectively.
355. Some positives have a comparative or superlative, or both, from a wholly different stem: such are,
bonus, good, melior, optimus (351). malus, bad, peior, pessimus (351). multus, much, plūs (sing. Ne. only), plūrimus (352). parvus, little, minor, minimus (352).
#parvus# has rarely #parvissimus#.
356. Four comparatives in #-erior# or #-terior#, denoting place (348), have two forms of the superlative; the nominative masculine singular of the positive is not in common use:
exterior, extimus (351), or extrēmus (352), outermost. īnferior, īnfimus, or īmus, lowest. posterior, postumus (351), lastborn, or postrēmus (352), last. superior, summus (352), or suprēmus (352), highest.
357. Six, denoting place, have the positive only as an adverb or preposition:
cis, this side, citerior (348), citimus (351), hitherest. dē, down, dēterior (348), dēterrimus, lowest, worst. in, in, interior (348), intimus, inmost. prae, before, prior, prīmus (352), first. prope, near, propior, proximus (351), nearest. uls, beyond, ulterior (348), ultimus (351), furthest.
#ōcior#, swifter, #ōcissimus#, has no positive.
358. These have a superlative, but no comparative: #bellus#, pretty, #falsus#, false, #inclutus#, famed, #invictus#, unconquered, #invītus#, unwilling, #meritus#, deserving, #novus#, new; #vetus#, #veterrimus#, old, #sacer#, #sacerrimus#, sacred, #vafer#, #vaferrimus#, sly; #malevolus#, #malevolentissimus# (twice, Cic.), spiteful; #maleficus#, #maleficentissimus# (once, Suet.), wicked, #mūnificus#, #mūnificentissimus# (inscrr.; Cic. once), generous, #mīrificus#, #mīrificissimus# (twice, Acc., Ter.), strange. Plautus has #ipsissumus#, his very self.
359. Most primitives in #-ilis# and #-bilis# (292, 294), have a comparative, but no superlative; but these have a superlative: #facilis# and #difficilis# (345), easy and hard, #ūtilis#, useful; also #fertilis#, productive, #amābilis#, lovable, #mōbilis#, movable, #nōbilis#, well known.
360. Many adjectives have no suffixes of comparison, and supply the place of these by #magis#, more, and #maximē#, most: as, #mīrus#, strange, #magis mīrus#, #maximē mīrus#. Many adjectives, from their meaning, do not admit of comparison.
[Erratum: 358 ... (inscrr.; Cic. once), generous, generous.]
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADVERBS.
361. Adverbs derived from adjectives have as their comparative the accusative singular neuter of the comparative adjective; the superlative is formed like that of the adjective, but ends in #-ē#: as,
altē, on high, altius, altissimē. ācriter, sharply, ācrius, ācerrimē. facile, easily, facilius, facillimē.
362. An older superlative ending, #-ēd# for #-ē#, occurs in an inscription of 186 B.C.: FACILVMED, i.e. #facillimē#. A few adverbs have superlatives in #-ō# or #-um#: as, #meritissimō#, most deservedly; #prīmō#, at first, #prīmum#, first; #postrēmō#, at last, #postrēmum#, for the last time.
363. If the comparison of the adjective has peculiarities, they are retained in the adverb likewise: as, #bene#, well, #melius#, #optimē#; #male#, ill, #peius#, #pessimē#; #multum#, much, #plūs#, #plūrimum#; #mātūrē#, betimes, #mātūrius#, #mātūrissimē# (Cic., Plin.), or #mātūrrimē# (Cic., Caes., Sall., Tac.). #ōcius#, swifter, no positive, #ōcissimē#. #minus#, less, is formed by the nominal suffix #-es-# (236), from √#min-# (#minuō#); for #magis#, more, see 135, 2. In poetry #magis# sometimes becomes #mage#, as if neuter of an adjective in #-i-#.
364. A few adverbs not derived from adjectives are compared: as, #diū#, long, #diūtius#, #diūtissimē#; #saepe#, often, #saepius#, #saepissimē#; #nūper#, lately, no comparative, #nūperrimē#; #secus#, otherwise, #sētius#, the less; #temperī#, betimes, #temperius#, earlier, no superlative.
[Erratum: 363 ... #ōcius#, swifter, no positive; #ōcissimē#. positive.]
(B.) FORMATION OF DENOMINATIVE VERBS.
365. Denominative verb stems have present infinitives in #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre# (#-ārī#, #-ērī#, or #-īrī#), and are formed from noun stems of all endings: as,
VERB. FROM NOUN.
fugā-re, rout fugā-, N. fuga locā-re, place loco-, N. locus nōminā-re, name nōmin-, N. nōmen levā-re, lighten levi-, N. levis sinuā-re, bend sinu-, N. sinus albē-re, be white albo-, N. albus miserē-rī, pity misero-, N. miser flōrē-re, blossom flōr-, N. flōs sordē-re, be dirty sordi-, N. sordēs pūnī-re, punish poenā-, N. poena condī-re, season condo-, N. condus custōdī-re, guard custōd-, N. custōs vestī-re, dress vesti-, N. vestis gestī-re, flutter gestu-, N. gestus
366. These present verb stems are formed by adding the suffix #-i̭o-#, #-i̭e-# to the noun stem: as #*fugā-i̭ō#, I flee; the #i̭# between two vowels was dropped (153, 2) and the final vowel of noun stem was often contracted with the ending (118, 3). The noun stem ending is often slightly modified.
367. In a half a dozen denominatives from stems in #-u-# the #u# of the noun stem remains without modification, and is not contracted with the variable vowel (116, c): these are, #acuere#, sharpen (#acu-#), #metuere#, fear, #statuere#, set, #tribuere#, assign; #arguere#, make clear, #bātuere#, beat.
368. Verbs in #-āre# are by far the most numerous class of denominatives; they are usually transitive; but deponents often express condition, sometimes occupation: as, #dominārī#, lord it, play the lord; #aquārī#, get oneself water. Most verbs in #-īre# also are transitive; those in #-ēre# usually denote a state: as, #calēre#, be warm; but some are causative: as, #monēre#, remind.
369. Many denominative verbs in #-āre# contain a noun suffix which is not actually found in the noun itself; such suffixes are: #-co-#, #-cin-#, #-lo-#, #-er-#, #-ro-#, #-to-#, &c.: as,
#-co-#: #albi-cāre#, be white (#*albi-co-#); #velli-cāre#, pluck (#*velli-co-#, plucker). #-cin-#: #latrō-cinārī#, be a robber (#latrōn-#); #sermō-cinārī#, discourse (#sermōn-#). #-lo-#: #grātu-lārī#, give one joy (#*grātu-lo-#); #vi-olāre#, harm (#*vi-olo-#); #heiu-lāri#, cry ‘#heia#’ (#*heiu-lo-#). #-er-#: #mod-erārī#, check (#*mod-es-#, 236). #-ro-#: #tole-rāre#, endure (#*tole-ro-#); #flag-rāre#, blaze (#*flag-ro-#). #-to-#: #dēbili-tāre#, lame (#*dēbili-to-#); #dubi-tāre#, doubt (#*dubi-to-#).
370. Many denominatives in #-āre# are indirect compounds (377), often from compound noun stems which are not actually found. So, particularly, when the first part is a preposition, or the second is from the root #fac-#, make, #ag-#, drive, do, or #cap-#, take: as,
#opi-tul-ārī#, bear help (#opitulo-#); #suf-fōc-āre#, suffocate (#*suf-fōc-o-#, #fauci-#); #aedi-fic-āre# (housebuild), build (#*aedific-# or #*aedifico-#, housebuilder); #sīgni-fic-āre#, give token (#*sīgnifico-#); #fūm-ig-āre#, make smoke (#*fūmigo-#, smoker, #fūmo-#, √#ag-#); #nāv-ig-āre#, sail, and #rēm-ig-āre#, row (#nāvi-#, ship, and #rēmo-#, oar); #mīt-ig-āre#, make mild (#mīti-#); #iūr-ig-āre#, commonly #iūr-g-āre#, quarrel (#iūr-#); #pūr-ig-āre#, commonly #pūr-g-āre#, clean (#pūro-#); #gnār-ig-āre#, tell (#gnāro-#, #narrāre#, 169, 2; 133, 1); #anti-cip-āre#, take beforehand (#*anticipo-#, #ante#, √#cap-#); #oc-cup-āre#, seize (#*occupo-#); #re-cup-er-āre#, get back (#*recupero-#).
371. Many verbs in #-tāre# (#-sāre#), or #-tārī# (#-sārī#), express frequent, intense, or sometimes attempted action. These are called Frequentatives or Intensives; they are formed from perfect participle stems; but stems in #-ā-to-# become #-i-to-#: as,
#cant-āre#, sing (#canto-#); #cess-āre#, loiter (#cesso-#); #amplex-ārī#, embrace (#amplexo-#); #habit-āre#, live (#habito-#); #pollicit-āri#, make overtures (#pollicito-#); #dormīt-āre#, be sleepy (#dormīto-#); #neg-itāre#, keep denying (for #*negā-tāre#, with suffix #-i-tāre#, 910).
372. Some frequentatives in #-tāre# are formed from the present stem of a verb in #-ere#; the formative vowel before #-tāre# becomes #i#: as,
#agi-tāre#, shake (#age-re#); #flui-tāre#, float (#flue-re#); #nōsci-tāre#, recognize (#nōsce-re#); #quaeri-tāre#, keep seeking (#quaere-re#); #scīsci-tārī#, enquire (#scīsce-re#); #vēndi-tāre#, try to sell (#vēnde-re#).
373. A few frequentatives add #-tā-# to the perfect participle stem: as,
#ācti-tāre#, act often (#ācto-#); #facti-tāre#, do repeatedly (#facto-#); #lēcti-tāre#, read again and again (#lēcto-#); #ūncti-tāre#, anoint often (#ūncto-#). From a frequentative another frequentative is sometimes derived: as, #dict-āre#, dictate, #dicti-tāre#, keep asserting (#dicto-#).
374. Some verbs are found only as frequentatives: as, #gust-āre#, taste (#*gusto-#, √#gus-#, taste); #put-āre#, think (#puto-#, √#pu-#, clean); #aegrōt-āre#, be ill (#aegrōto-#).
375. A few verbs in #-uriō#, #-urīre#, express desire; such are called Desideratives: as, #ēss-urīre# or #ēs-urīre#, want to eat (#edere#, #ēsse#). A few in #-ssō#, #-ssere#, express earnest action; such are called Meditatives: as, #lacē-ssō#, #lacē-ssere#, provoke.
[Erratum: 365 (table) ... albē-re, be white albo-, N. albus N albus]
COMPOSITION.
376. In compounds, the fundamental word is usually the second, which has its meaning qualified by the first.
377. A DIRECT COMPOUND is one formed directly from two parts: as, #con-iug-#, N. #coniūnx#, yoke-fellow (#com-#, together, √#iug-#, yoke); #con-iungere#, join together (#com-#, #iungere#); an INDIRECT COMPOUND is one formed by the addition of a suffix to a direct compound: as, #iūdic-io-#, N. #iūudicium#, trial (#iūdic-#): #iūdicā-re#, judge (#iūdic-#).
378. A REAL COMPOUND is a word whose stem is formed from two stems, or an inseparable prefix and a stem, fused into one stem; an APPARENT COMPOUND is formed by the juxtaposition of an inflected word with another inflected word, a preposition, or an adverb.
I. COMPOSITION OF NOUNS.
(A.) REAL COMPOUNDS.
FORM OF COMPOUNDS.
379. If the first part is a noun, its stem is taken: as, #Ahēno-barbus#, Redbeard, Barbarossa; usually with weakening of a stem vowel (103-105): as, #aurifex#, jeweller (#auro-#). On other changes of the final vowel in the first member of compounds, see 174. Sometimes with disappearance of a syllable (179); as, #*venēni-ficus#, #venē-ficus#, poisoner (#venēno-#); or of a vowel (111): as, #man-ceps#, contractor (#manu-#); particularly before a vowel (119): as, #magn-animus#, great-souled (#magno-#). Consonant stems are often extended by #i# before a consonant: as, #mōri-gerus#, complaisant (#mōr-#).
380. Stems in #-s-#, including those in #-er-#, #-or-# and #-ōr-# (236), are sometimes compounded as above (379): as, #nemori-vagus#, woodranger; #honōri-ficus#, complimentary; but usually they drop the suffix and take #i#: as, #opi-fex#, work-man (#oper-#); #foedi-fragus#, truce-breaker (#foeder-#); #volni-ficus#, wounding (#volner-#); #mūni-ficus#, generous (#mūner-#); #terri-ficus#, awe-inspiring (#terrōr-#); #horri-fer#, dreadful, #horri-sonus#, awful-sounding (#horrōr-#).
381. The second part, which often has weakening of the vowel (102), is sometimes a bare root used as a stem (199), oftener a root with a formative suffix; or a noun stem, sometimes with its stem ending modified: as, #iū-dic-#, N. #iūdex#, juror (√#dic-#, declare); #causi-dic-o-#, N. #causidicus#, pleader (209); #in-gen-io-#, N. #ingenium#, disposition (√#gen-#, beget, 219); #con-tāg-iōn-#, N. #contāgiō#, touching together (√#tag-#, touch, 227); #im-berb-i-#, N. #imberbis#, beardless (#barbā-#).
MEANING OF COMPOUNDS.
382. DETERMINATIVES are compounds in which the second part keeps its original meaning, though determined or modified by the first part. The meaning of a determinative may often be best expressed by two words.
383. (1.) The first part of a determinative may be an adjective, an adverb, a preposition, or an inseparable prefix; the second part is a noun: as,
#lāti-fundium#, i.e. #lātī fundī#, broad acres; #prīvi-lēgium#, i.e. #prīva lēx#, special act; #alti-sonāns#, i.e. #altē sonāns#, high-sounding; #con-discipulus#, i.e. #cum alterō discipulus#, fellow-pupil; #per-magnus#, i.e. #valdē magnus#, very great; #in-dignus#, i.e. #nōn dignus#, unworthy.
384. (2.) The first part of a determinative may represent the oblique case of a noun, generally a substantive; the second part is a noun or verb stem. These compounds are called Objectives: as,
Accusative of direct object (1132), #armi-ger#, i.e. #quī arma gerit#, armour-bearer; dative of indirect object (1208), #man-tēle#, i.e. #manibus tēla#, handkerchief, napkin; genitive (1227), #sōl-stitium#, i.e. #sōlis statiō#, solstice; ablative instrumental (1300), #tubi-cen#, i.e. #quī tubā canit#, trumpeter; locative (1331), #Troiu-gena#, i.e. #Troiae nātus#, Troy-born; ablative locative (1350), #nocti-vagus#, night-wandering; #monti-vagus#, mountain-ranging.
385. POSSESSIVES are adjective compounds in which the meaning of the second part is changed. The second part of a possessive is always formed from a substantive, qualified by the noun, adverb, or inseparable prefix of the first part, and the whole expresses an attribute which something has: as,
#longi-manus#, longarms, long-armed; #miseri-cors#, tender-hearted; #bi-linguis#, two-tongued; #magn-animus#, greatheart, great-hearted; #im-berbis#, beardless.
(B.) APPARENT COMPOUNDS.
386. Apparent Compounds are formed:
387. (1.) By two nouns combined, one with an unchanging case ending, the other with full inflections: as, #aquae-ductus#, aqueduct; #senātūs-cōnsultum#, decree of the senate; #pater-familiās#, father of a family; #vērī-similis#, like the truth; in these words, #aquae#, #senātūs#, #familiās#, and #vērī# are genitives, and remain genitives, while the other part of the compound is declinable.
388. (2.) By a substantive with an adjective habitually agreeing with it, both parts being declined: as, #rēs pūblica#, the common-weal; #rēs gestae#, exploits; #iūs iūrandum#, oath; #pecūniae repetundae#, money claim.
389. (3.) By nouns, chiefly substantives, in the same case placed loosely side by side and making one idea. The two words may be used: (a.) Copulatively: as, #ūsus-frūctus#, use and enjoyment; #pactum-conventum#, bargain and covenant; #duo-decim#, two and ten, twelve; or (b.) Appositively: one word explaining the other (1045): as, #Iuppiter#, Jove the Father (94; 133); #Mārspiter#, Mars the Father, for #Mārs pater#.
390. (4.) From an original combination of an oblique case with a preposition: as, #prōcōnsul#, proconsul, from #prō cōnsule#, for a consul; #ēgregius#, select, from #ē grege#, out of the herd; #dēlīrus#, astray, mad, from #dē līrā#, out of the furrow.
II. COMPOSITION OF VERBS.
(A.) REAL COMPOUNDS.
391. Real Compounds are direct compounds of a verb with a preposition; the root vowel or diphthong of the verb is often weakened (102): as,
#per-agere#, put through, accomplish; #ab-igere#, drive away; #ex-quīrere#, seek out. The prefix, which was originally a separate adverb modifying the verb, is in poetry sometimes separated from the verb by another word; the disyllabic prepositions in particular often remain as juxtaposed adverbs (396).
392. Some prepositions are inseparable, that is, used only in composition: #ambi-#, round, #an-#, up, #dis-#, in two, apart, #por-#, towards, #red-#, #re-#, back, #sēd-#, #sē-#, by oneself, away: as, #amb-īre#, go round to; #an-hēlāre#, breathe up; #dis-pellere#, drive apart; #por-rigere#, stretch forth; #red-dere#, give back; #sē-iungere#, separate.
(B.) APPARENT COMPOUNDS.
393. Apparent Compounds are formed by the juxtaposition of:
394. (1.) A verb with a verb: #faciō# and #fīō# are added to present stems, mostly of intransitive verbs in #-ēre#; the #-e-# of the first verb is sometimes long, and sometimes short (130, 5): as, #calē̆-facere#, make warm (#calēre#); #excandē̆-facere#, make blaze (#candēre#); #madē̆-facere#, make wet (#madēre#). In these apparent compounds, the accent of #faciō# remains the same as in the simple verb: as, #calē̆fácis#.
395. (2.) A substantive with a verb: as, #anim-advertere#, pay heed to, #animum advertere#; #vēnum-dare#, or #vēndere#, sell, #vēnum dare#; #vēn-īre#, be sold, #vēnum īre#; #lucrī-facere#, make gain, #lucrī facere#; #manū-mittere#, set free.
396. (3.) An adverb with a verb: as, #circum-dare#, put round; #satis-facere#, #satis-dare#, give satisfaction; #intro-īre#, go inside; #mālle#, prefer, for #magis velle# (170, 2); #nōlō#, be unwilling, for #ne volō#; #ne-scīre#, #hau-scīre#, not know.
[Erratum: 396. (3.) (2)]
C. INFLECTION.
397. INFLECTION is the change which nouns, pronouns, and verbs undergo, to indicate their relation in a sentence.
The inflection of a noun or pronoun is often called Declension, and that of a verb, Conjugation.
(A.) INFLECTION OF THE NOUN.
398. The noun or pronoun is inflected by attaching case endings to the stem.
The endings, which are called case endings for brevity, indicate number as well as case, and serve also to distinguish gender words from neuters in the nominative and accusative singular of some stems, and of all plurals. These endings are nearly the same for stems of all kinds.
THE STEM.
399. The stem contains the meaning of the noun. Noun stems are arranged in the following order: (1.) stems in #-ā-#, in #-o-#, in a consonant, or in #-i-#; these are substantive, including proper names, or adjective; (2.) stems in #-u-# or #-ē-#; these are substantive only, and include no proper names.
400. In some instances, a final stem vowel is retained before a case ending which begins with a vowel: as, #urbi-um#, #ācri-a#, #cornu-a#, #portu-ī#, #portu-um# (116, c); in others the stem vowel blends inseparably with the vowel of the case ending: as, #mēnsīs#, #dominīs# (108, a).
401. Some nouns have more than one form of the stem: as,
#sēdēs# (476); #femur#, #iecur# (489); #vās#, #mēnsis# (492); #vīrus#, #volgus# (493); #iter#, #nix#, #senex#, &c. (500); #vīs# (518); #caedēs# (523); #famēs#, #plēbēs# (524); #domus# (594); #angiportus#, &c. (595). Many nouns have a consonant stem in the singular, and an #-i-# stem in the plural: see 516; most substantives in #-iē-# or #-tiē-# have a collateral form in #-iā-# or #-tiā-# (604). Some adjectives have two different stems: as, #hilarus#, #hilara#, #hilarum#, and #hilaris#, #hilare#; #exanimus# and #exanimis#.
GENDER.
402. There are two genders, Masculine and Feminine. Masculine and feminine nouns are called Gender nouns. Nouns without gender are called Neuter.
403. Gender is, properly speaking, the distinction of sex. In Latin, a great many things without life have gender in grammar, and are masculine or feminine.
404. Some classes of substantives may be brought under general heads of signification, as below, like the names of rivers and winds (405), which are usually of the masculine gender, or of plants (407), which are usually of the feminine. When the gender cannot be determined thus, it must be learned from the special rules for the several stems and their nominatives.
GENDER OF SOME CLASSES OF SUBSTANTIVES.
MASCULINES.
405. Names of male beings, rivers, winds, and mountains, are masculine: as,
#Caesar#, #Gāius#, #Sūlla#, men’s names; #pater#, father; #erus#, master; #scrība#, scrivener; #Tiberis#, the Tiber; #Aquilō#, a Norther; #Lūcrētilis#, Mt. Lucretilis.
406. The river names: #Allia#, #Dūria#, #Sagra#, #Lēthē#, and #Styx# are feminine. Also the mountain names #Alpēs#, plural, the Alps, and some Greek names of mountains in #-a# or #-ē#: as, #Aetna#, Mt. Etna; #Rhodopē#, a Thracian range. A few are neuter, as #Sōracte#.
FEMININES.
407. Names of female beings, plants, flowers, shrubs, and trees, are feminine: as,
#Gāia#, #Glycerium#, women’s names; #mālus#, apple-tree; #quercus#, oak; #īlex#, holm-oak; #abiēs#, fir.
408. Masculine are: #bōlētus#, mushroom, #carduus#, thistle, #dūmī#, plural, brambles, #intibus#, endive, #iuncus#, rush, #oleaster#, bastard olive, #rubus#, bramble, #rumex#, sorrel, #scirpus#, bulrush, and rarely #fīcus#, fig. Also some of Greek origin: as, #acanthus#, #amāracus#, #asparagus#, and #crocus#. Neuter are: #apium#, parsley, #balsamum#, balsam-tree, #rōbur#, heart of oak, and some names with stems in #-er-# (573).
MOBILE, COMMON, AND EPICENE NOUNS.
409. MOBILE NOUNS have different forms to distinguish sex: as, #Iūlius#, a man, Julius, #Iūlia#, a woman, Julia; #cervus#, stag, #cerva#, hind; #socer#, father-in-law, #socrus#, mother-in-law; #victor#, conqueror, #victrīx#, conqueress. Adjectives ‘of three endings’ (611), belong to this class.
410. Some nouns have one ending, but are applicable to either sex. Such are said, to be of Common Gender: as, #adulēscēns#, young man or young woman; #dux#, leader; #īnfāns#, baby, child; and many other consonant stems or stems in #-i-#, denoting persons. Adjectives ‘of two endings’ or ‘of one ending’ (611), belong to this class.
411. EPICENES have one ending and one grammatical gender, though applicable to animals of either sex. Thus, #aquila#, eagle, is feminine, though it may denote a he-eagle as well as a she-eagle; #anatēs#, ducks, feminine, includes drakes.
[Erratum: 411 ... as well as a she-eagle; she-eagle:]
NEUTERS.
412. Infinitives, words and expressions quoted or explained, and letters of the alphabet, are neuter: as,
#vīvere ipsum#, mere living; #istūc ‘taceō,’# your ‘I won’t mention;’ #longum vale#, a long goodbye; #o Graecum#, Greek O. But the letters have sometimes a feminine adjective, agreeing with #littera# understood.
VARIABLE GENDER.
413. Some substantives have different genders in the two numbers; the different gender is sometimes indicated by a difference of stem: as, #epulum#, neuter, #epulae#, feminine, feast. See #balneum#, #frēnum#, #jocus#, #locus#, #margarīta#, #ostrea#, #rāstrum#, in the dictionary.
NUMBER.
414. There are two numbers, the Singular used of one, the Plural of more than one.
415. #ambō#, both, and #duo#, two, nominative and accusative masculine and neuter, are the only remnants of an old Dual number, denoting two.
416. Some substantives, from their meaning, have no plural.
Such are: proper names: as, #Cicerō#, Cicero; #Rōma#, Rome; material and abstract substantives: as, #oleum#, oil, #vīnum#, wine, #iūstitia#, justice; and gerunds: as, #regendī#, of guiding. For the occasional use of the plural, 1105-1110.
417. Some substantives, from their meaning, have no singular.
Such are: names of persons of a class: as, #maiōrēs#, ancestors; #superī#, the beings above; #mānēs#, ghosts; of feasts, sacrifices, days: as, #Sāturnālia#, festival of Saturn; #kalendae#, first of the month; of things made of parts or consisting of a series of acts: as, #arma#, arms; #artūs#, joints; #quadrīgae#, four-in-hand; #exsequiae#, funeral rites; of some places: as, #Faleriī#; #Vēī#; #Pompēī#; #Athēnae#, Athens; #Alpēs#, the Alps.
418. Some substantives have different meanings in the two numbers: as,
#aedis#, temple, #aedēs#, house; #auxilium#, aid, #auxilia#, auxiliaries; #carcer#, jail, #carcerēs#, race-barriers; #Castrum#, Castle, #castra#, camp; #comitium#, meeting-place, #comitia#, election; #cōpia#, abundance, #cōpiae#, troops; #facultās#, ability, #facultātēs#, wealth; #fīnis#, end, #fīnēs#, boundaries; #grātia#, favour, #grātiae#, thanks; #impedīmentum#, hindrance, #impedīmenta#, baggage; #littera#, letter (of the alphabet), #litterae#, epistle; #rōstrum#, beak, #rōstra#, speakers stand. See also #aqua#, #bonum#, #fortūna#, #lūdus#, #opera#, #pars#, in the dictionary.
CASE.
419. Nouns have five cases, the Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative.
The nominative represents a noun as subject, the accusative as object; the genitive denotes the relation of of, the dative of to or for, and the ablative of from, with, in, or by. But the meanings of the cases are best learnt from reading. All cases but the nominative and vocative (420) are called Oblique Cases.
420. Town names and a few appellatives have also a case denoting the place where, called the Locative. Masculine stems in #-o-# and some Greek stems with other endings have still another form used in addressing a person or thing, called the Vocative.
421. The stem of a noun is best seen in the genitive; in the genitive plural it is preserved without change, except that #o# of #-o-# stems is lengthened (123). In dictionaries the stem ending is indicated by the genitive singular, thus: #-ae#, #-ī#, #-is#, #-ūs# (#-ĕī#), indicate respectively stems in #-ā-#, #-o-#, a consonant or #-i-#, #-u-#, and #-ē-#, as follows:
GENITIVE SINGULAR. GENITIVE PLURAL. STEMS IN.
-ae, mēnsae, table -ārum, mēnsā-rum -ā-, mēnsā-, N. mēnsa -ī, dominī, master -ōrum, dominō-rum -o-, domino-, N. dominus -is, rēgis, king -cons. um, rēg-um -consonant, rēg-, N. rēx -is, cīvis, citizen -ium, cīvi-um -i-, cīvi-, N. cīvis -ūs, portus, port -uum, portu-um -u-, portu-, N. portus (ĕ̄ī, rĕ̄ī), thing (-ērum, rē-rum) -ē, rē-, N. rēs
422. Gender nominatives usually add #-s# to the stem: as, #servo-s# or #servu-s#, slave, #rēx# (164, 1), #cīvi-s#, #portu-s#, #rē-s#. But stems in #-ā-# or in a continuous consonant (#-l-#, #-n-#, #-r-#, or #-s-#) have no #-s#: as, #mēnsa#, #cōnsul#, consul, #flāmen#, special priest, #pater#, father, #flōs#, flower.
423. Neuters have the nominative and accusative alike; in the singular the stem is used: as #nōmen#, name; or a shortened stem: as, #exemplar#, pattern; but stems in #-o-# take #-m#: as, #aevo-m# or #aevu-m#, age. In the plural #-a# is always used: as, #rēgna#, kingdoms, #nōmina#, #cornua#, horns. For #-s# in adjectives ‘of one ending,’ see 612.
424. Gender accusatives singular add #-m# to the stem: as, #mēnsa-m#, #servo-m# or #servu-m#, #nāvi-m#, ship, #portu-m#, #die-m#. The consonant stems have the ending #-em#: as, #rēg-em#; most substantive stems in #-i-# and all adjectives also drop #-i-# and take #-em#: as, NĀV-EM, #trīst-em#, sad. In the plural, gender stems add #-s# before which the vowel is long: as, #mēnsā-s#, #servō-s#, #rēgē-s#, #nāvī-s# or #nāvē-s#, #portū-s#, #rē-s#.
425. The ablative singular usually ends in the long vowel of the stem: as, #mēnsā#, #dominō#, #nāvī#, #portū#, #rē#. The ablative of consonant stems usually has #-e# (rarely #-ī-#, see 502): as, #patre#, father; and that of substantive #-i-# stems has #-e# more commonly than #-ī#: as, #nāve#.
426. The ablative singular of #-ā-# and #-o-# stems ended anciently in #-ād# and #-ōd# respectively: as, PRAIDAD, PREIVATOD; that of consonant stems in #-īd#: as, AIRID, COVENTIONID. But #-d# is almost entirely confined to inscriptions and disappeared early (149).
427. The genitive plural adds #-rum# to #-ā-#, #-o-#, and #-ē-# stems: as, #mēnsā-rum#, #dominō-rum#, #rē-rum#; and #-um# to consonant stems, #-i-# stems, and #-u-# stems: as, #rēg-um#, #cīvi-um#, #portu-um#.
428. The dative and ablative plural are always alike: stems in #-ā-# and #-o-# take #-is#, which blends with the stem vowel (400): as, #mēnsīs#, #dominīs#; other stems have #-bus#, before which consonant stems are extended by #i#: as, #rēgi-bus#, #nāvi-bus#, #portu-bus# or #porti-bus#, #rē-bus#.
429. Some pronouns and a few adjectives have some peculiar case endings; see 618-694.
430. Many nouns are defective in case.
Thus, many monosyllables have no genitive plural: as, #aes#, copper, #cor#, heart, #cōs#, whetstone, #dōs#, dowry, #ōs#, face, #pāx#, peace, #pix#, pitch, #rōs#, dew, #sāl#, salt, #lūx#, light; many words have no genitive, dative, or ablative plural: as, #hiemps#, winter; especially neuters: as, #fār#, spelt, #fel#, gall, #mel#, honey, #pūs#, matter, #rūs#, country, #tūs#, frankincense. Many words in #-tu-# (#-su-#) have only the ablative (235). For #-ē-# stems, see 600. Other words more or less defective are #exlēx#, #exspēs#, #fās# and #nefās#, #īnfitiās#, #inquiēs#, #īnstar#, #luēs#, #nēmō#, #opis# and #vicis# genitives, #pondō# and #sponte# ablatives, #secus#, #vīs#. Many adjectives ‘of one ending’ want the nominative and accusative neuter plural and genitive plural.
431. Some adjectives are altogether indeclinable: as, #frūgī#, thrifty, an old dative; #nēquam#, naughty, an old accusative; #quot#, how many; #tot#, so many; and most numerals (637). These adjectives are attached to any case of a substantive without varying their own forms.
THE SUBSTANTIVE
STEMS IN #-ā-#.
The First Declension.
Genitive singular #-ae#, genitive plural #-ā-rum#.
432. Stems in #-ā-# include substantives and adjectives; both substantives and adjectives are feminine.
433. Names of males are masculine (405): as, #scrība#, writer; also #Hadria#, the Adriatic, and rarely #damma#, deer, and #talpa#, mole.
434. The nominative of stems in #-ā-# ends in the shortened stem vowel #-a#.
435. Stems in #-ā-# are declined as follows:
+----------+-------------------------------------------+----------+ | Example | mēnsa, table, mēnsā-, F. | Stem and | | | | case | | Stem | | endings | +----------+-------------------------------------------+----------+ | Singular | | | | Nom. | mēnsa table, a (or the) table | -a | | Gen. | mēnsae a table’s, of a table | -ae | | Dat. | mēnsae to or for a table | -ae | | Acc. | mēnsam a table | -am | | Abl. | mēnsā from, with, or by a table | -ā | +----------+-------------------------------------------+----------+ | Plural | | | | Nom. | mēnsae tables (or the) tables | -ae | | Gen. | mēnsārum tables’, of tables | -ārum | | Dat. | mēnsīs to or for tables | -īs | | Acc. | mēnsās tables | -ās | | Abl. | mēnsīs from, with, or by tables | -īs | +----------+-------------------------------------------+----------+
[Erratum: THE SUBSTANTIVE header supplied from Table of Contents]
SINGULAR CASES.
436. #-ā-# of the stem was shortened in the nominative and accusative singular at an early period (130, 132). A few apparent examples of the nominative in #-ā#, found in the oldest writers, seem due to metrical causes: as, #aquilā́# (Enn.). But #-ā# occurs in Greek proper names (445). A couple of old masculine nominatives in #-ās# are quoted (422): #pāricīdās#, murderer, and #hosticapās#, taker of enemies. In the accusative singular #-ām# occurs once: #inimīcitiā́m# (Enn.).
437. The genitive sometimes ends (1.) in #-āī# in poetry: as, #aulāī#, of the hall; #pīctāī#, embroidered; (2.) in #-ās#: as, #molās#, of a mill. This genitive is rare, but was always kept up in the word #familiās# with #pater# or #māter#, sometimes with #fīlius# or #fīlia#: #pater familiās#, the goodman, #māter familiās#, the housewife. But #pater familiae#, or in the plural #patrēs familiārum#, is equally common.
438. Town names and a few appellatives have a locative case in #-ae#: as, #Rōmae#, at Rome, in Rome; #mīlitiae#, in war, in the field, in the army.
PLURAL CASES.
439. Compounds ending with #-cola#, inhabiting, and #-gena#, born, and patronymics, sometimes have the genitive plural in #-ū̆m# in poetry: as, #caelicolū̆m#, of occupants of heaven; #Graiugenū̆m#, of Greek-born men; #Aeneadū̆m#, of Aeneas’s sons; also names of peoples: as, #Lapithū̆m#, of the Lapithae. With these last #-ū̆m# occurs even in prose: as, #Crotōniātū̆m#, of the Crotona people. Others in #-ŭm# are #drachmŭm#, #amphorū̆m#.
440. In the dative and ablative plural, #-eis# sometimes occurs (443): as, #tueis ingrātieis#, against your will (Plaut.). Nouns in #-ia# have rarely a single #ī#: as, #pecūnīs#, by moneys (Cic.); #taenīs#, with fillets (Verg.); #nōnīs Iūnīs#, on the fifth of June (Cic.). See 24.
441. In the dative and ablative plural, words in #-āia#, or plural #-āiae#, have #-āīs#, and those in #-ēia# have #-ēīs# (127, 7): as KAL. MAIS, on the calends of May (inscr.); #Bāīs#, at Bajae (Hor.); #plēbēīs#, plebeian.
442. The dative and ablative plural sometimes end in #-ābus#, particularly in #deābus#, goddesses, and #fīliābus#, daughters, to distinguish them from #deīs#, gods, and #fīliīs#, sons. #ambae#, both, and #duae#, two, regularly have #ambābus# and #duābus#.
443. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows:
G. #-ai#, which may be monosyllabic or disyllabic in pronunciation: PVLCHRAI; LAVERNAI; #-āēs#, after 80 B.C., chiefly in proper names, mostly Greek: HERAES; rarely in appellatives: DOMINAES; #-ēs#: MINERVES; #-ā#, VESTA; COIRA, i.e. #Cūrae#. D. #-ai#, in all periods (96): FILIAI; #-ā#: FORTVNA; #-ē# (96): FORTVNE. Ac. #-a# (61): TAVRASIA; MAGNA SAPIENTIA. Ab. #-ād# (426): PRAIDAD. Loc. #-ai#: ROMAI. Plural: N. #-ai# (96): TABELAI DATAI; #-ā#, rare: MATRONA; #-ē#, rare and provincial (96): MVSTE, i.e. #mystae#. D. and Ab. #-eis#, very often (98): SCRIBEIS; D. #-ās#, once: DEVAS CORNISCAS, i.e. #dīvīs Cornīscīs#. Ab. #-ēs# once (98): NVGES, i.e. #nūgīs#.
[Erratum: 443 ... TABELAI DATAI; #-ā#, rare DATAI:]
GREEK NOUNS.
444. Greek appellatives always take a Latin form in the dative singular and in the plural, and usually throughout: thus, #poēta#, M., poet, and #aula#, F., court, are declined like #mēnsa#. Masculines have sometimes a nominative #-ēs# and accusative #-ēn#: as, #anagnōstēs#, reader, #anagnōstēn#; rarely an ablative #-ē#: as, #sophistē#, sophist. Greek feminines in #-ē# sometimes have Greek forms in late writers: as, N. #grammaticē#, philology, G. #grammaticēs#, Ac. #grammaticēn#, Ab. #grammaticē# (Quintil.).
445. Greek proper names sometimes have the following forms. Nominative masculine #-ās#, #-ēs#: as, #Prūsiās#, #Atrīdēs#; feminine #-ā#: as, #Gelā#, #Phaedrā#; #-ē#: as, #Circē#. Genitive feminine #-ēs#: as, #Circēs#. Accusative masculine #-ān#, #-dēn#: as, #Aenēān#, #Pēlīdēn#; feminine #-ēn#: as, #Circēn#. Ablative feminine #-ē#: as, #Tīsiphonē#. Vocative #-ā# or #-a#: as, #Atrīdā#, #Atrīda#, #Thyesta#; #-tē#: as, #Boōtē#; #-dē#: as, #Aeacidē#.
STEMS IN #-o-#.
The Second Declension.
Genitive singular #-ī#, genitive plural #-ō-rum#.
446. Stems in #-o-# include substantives and adjectives, masculine or neuter.
447. Most names of plants in #-us# are feminine (407); also the following: #alvos# or #alvus#, belly, #colus#, distaff, #domus#, house, #humus#, ground, #vannus#, fan.
448. The nominative of masculines ends, including the stem vowel, in #-o-s#, or usually #-u-s#; some end in #-r#; neuters end in #-o-m#, or usually #-u-m#.
449. (1.) Stems in #-o-# with the nominative in #-us# or #-um# are declined as follows:
+--------+----------------------------+------------+--------------+ |Examples| dominus, master, |rēgnum, | Stem | | | domino-, M. | kingdom,| and case | | Stems | |rēgno-, Ne. | endings | +--------+----------------------------+------------+------+-------+ |Singular| | | M. | Ne. | | Nom. | dominus, a (or the) | rēgnum | -us | -um | | | master | | | | | Gen. | dominī, a master’s | rēgnī | -ī | -ī | | Dat. | dominō, to | | | | | | or for a master | rēgnō | -ō | -ō | | Acc. | dominum, a master | rēgnum | -um | -um | | Abl. | dominō, from, with, | rēgnō | -ō | -ō | | | or by a master | | | | | Voc. | domine, master | | -e | | +--------+----------------------------+------------+------+-------+ | Plural | | | | | | Nom. | dominī, (the) masters | rēgna | -ī | -a | | Gen. | dominōrum, of masters | rēgnōrum | -ōrum| -ōrum | | Dat. | dominīs, to or | | | | | | for masters | rēgnīs | -īs | -īs | | Acc. | dominōs, masters | rēgna | -ōs | -a | | Abl. | dominīs, from, with, | rēgnīs | -īs | -īs | | | or by masters | | | | +--------+----------------------------+------------+------+-------+
450. #deus#, god, is declined as follows: N. #deus#, G. #deī#, D. and Ab. #deō#, Ac. #deum#. Plural: N. #deī#, #di͡i#, commonly #dī#, G. #deōrum# or #deŭm#, D. and Ab. #deīs#, #di͡is#, commonly #dīs#, Ac. #deōs#.
451. (2.) Stems in #-o-# with the nominative in #-r# or in #-āius#, #-ēius#, or #-ōius# are declined as follows:
+--------+------------------------+-----------+----------------+ |Examples| puer, boy, |ager, | Pompēius, | | | puero-, M. | field,| Pompey, | | Stems | | agro-, M.| Pompēio-, M. | +--------+------------------------+-----------+----------------+ |Singular| | | | | Nom. | puer, a (or the) | ager | Pompēius | | | boy | | | | Gen. | puerī, a boy’s, | agrī | Pompēī | | | of a boy | | | | Dat. | puerō, to or | agrō | Pompēiō | | | for a boy | | | | Acc. | puerum, a boy | agrum | Pompēium | | Abl. | puerō, from, with, | agrō | Pompēiō | | | or by a boy | | | | Voc. | | | Pompēī, Pompe͡i | +--------+------------------------+-----------+----------------+ | Plural | | | | | Nom. | puerī, (the) boys | agrī | Pompēī | | Gen. | puerōrum, boys’, | agrōrum | Pompēiōrum | | | of boys | | | | Dat. | puerīs, to or | agrīs | Pompēīs | | | for boys | | | | Acc. | puerōs, boys | agrōs | Pompēiōs | | Abl. | puerīs, from, | agrīs | Pompēīs | | | with, or by boys | | | +--------+------------------------+-----------+----------------+
SINGULAR CASES.
452. #-us# and #-um# were originally #-os# and #-om#. But #-us# was used in the earliest times, #-um# somewhat later, and both became prevalent between 218 and 55 B.C. (107, c). After #u# or #v#, however, the #-os# and #-om# were retained till toward 50 A.D. (107, c); also after #qu#; but #-cus# and #-cum# often displaced #-quos# and #-quom# (157): as, #equos#, #equom#, or #ecus#, #ecum#, horse; #antīquos#, #antīquom#, or #antīcus#, #antīcum#, ancient. In the vocative #-e# was always used, and is retained by Plautus in #puere#, thou boy.
453. Words in #-rus# with a long penult, as, #sevērus#, stern, and the following substantives with a short penult are declined like #domimus# (449):
erus, master iūniperus, juniper numerus, number umerus, shoulder uterus, womb
For adjective stems in #-ro-# with nominative #-rus#, see 615.
454. Masculine stems in #-ro-# preceded by a short vowel or a mute, except those above (453), drop #-os# in the nominative, and have no vocative: as, stem #puero-#, N. #puer#, boy (111, b). Most masculines in #-ro-# have a vowel before #r# only in the nominative #-er# (111, b): as #agro-#, N. #ager#. But in compounds ending in #-fer# and #-ger#, carrying, having, and the following, the vowel before #-r# is a part of the stem, and is found in all the cases:
adulter, Līber, paramour, Liber gener, socer, son-in-law, father-in-law puer, vir, boy, man līberī, vesper, children, evening
For #Mulciber#, #Hibēr#, and #Celtibē̆r#, see the dictionary; for adjective stems in #-ro-# with nominative #-r#, see 616. Once #socerus# (Pl.).
455. #nihilum#, nothing, usually drops #-um# in the nominative and accusative, becoming #nihil# or #nīl#, and similarly #nōn#, not, may be for #noenum#, naught (99). #famul# is used for #famulus#, slave, by Ennius and Lucretius, once each (111, b).
456. Substantives ending in #-ius# or #-ium# (but never adjectives), have commonly a single #-ī# in the genitive singular: as,
#Vergilius#, G. #Vergílī# (87); #fīlius#, son, G. #fīlī#; #cōnūbium#, marriage, G. #cōnūbī#.
457. Vergil has once a genitive #-iī#, #fluviī#, river’s. Propertius has #-iī# two or three times; with Ovid, Seneca, and later writers, #-iī# is common: as, #gladiī#, of a sword; even in proper names, which were the last to take #-iī#: as, #Tarquiniī#; but family names almost always retain a single #-ī#. Locatives have #-iī#: as, #Iconiī# (Cic.).
458. Proper names ending in #-āius#, #-ēius#, or #-ōius# have #-āī#, #-ēī#, or #-ōī# in the genitive and vocative singular and nominative plural, and #-āīs#, #-ēīs#, or #-ōīs# in the dative and ablative plural (127, 7): as,
#Gāius#, G., V., and N. Pl. #Gāī#, D. and Ab. Pl. #Gāīs#; #Pompēī#, #Pompēīs#; #Bōī#, #Bōīs#. In verse #-ēī# of the vocative is sometimes made one syllable (120): as, #Pompe͡i#; #Volte͡i# (Hor.).
459. Latin proper names in #-ius# have the vocative in #-ī# only: as,
#Vergilius#, V. #Vergílī#; #Mercurius#, V. #Mercúrī# (87). So, also, #fīlius#, #fīlī#, son; #genius#, #genī#, good angel; #volturius#, #volturī#, vulture; #meus#, #mī#, my.
460. Town names and a few appellatives have a locative case in #-ī#: as, #Ephesī#, in Ephesus; #humī#, on the ground; #bellī#, in war.
[Erratum: 455 ... #noenum#, naught (99). final . invisible]
PLURAL CASES.
461. In the nominative plural masculine, #-ei# sometimes occurs (465): as, #nātei geminei#, twins born (Plaut.); #-eis# or #-īs# is rare (465): as, #Sardeis#, Sardians; #oculīs#, eyes; not infrequently #hīsce#, these here (Plaut.); masculine stems in #-io-# have rarely a single #-ī#: as, #fīlī#, sons. For #-āī#, #-ēī#, or #-ōī#, see 458. The nominative and accusative plural of neuters ended anciently in #-ā# (130, 2). But #-ā# was shortened at an early period.
462. In the common genitive plural #-ōrum#, the #-o-# of the stem is lengthened (123). A genitive plural in #-ū̆m# (or, after #v#, in #-ŏ̄m#) is common from #dīvos#, #dīvus#, and #deus#, god; from #dēnārius#, denar, #modius#, peck, #nummus#, money, #sēstertius#, sesterce, and #talentum#, talent, with numerals; and from cardinals and distributives (641): as, #dīvŏ̄m#, #divū̆m#, #deū̆m#; #mīlle sēstertiŭm#; #ducentū̆m#; #bīnŭm#. The #u# was originally long (132); but it was shortened before 100 A.D.
463. Other masculine substantives have occasionally this genitive: as, #līberū̆m#, of children; particularly in set phrases and in verse: as, #centuria fabrū̆m#, century of mechanics; #Graiū̆m#, of Greeks. With neuter substantives, as #oppidū̆m#, for #oppidōrum#, of towns, and with adjectives it is rare.
464. In the dative and ablative plural, #-eis# is rare (98): as, #Epidamnieis# (Plaut.). Stems in #-io-# have rarely a single #ī#: as, #fīlīs#, for sons. For #-āīs#, #-ēīs#, or #-ōīs#, see 458. #ambō#, both, and #duo#, two, have #ambōbus# and #duōbus# (640).
465. Other case forms are found in inscriptions as follows:
N. #-os#, #-om#, with #o# retained (107, c): FILIOS, TRIBVNOS; POCOLOM; in proper names #-o# (66): CORNELIO; #-u#, rare: LECTV; #-is#, or #-i#, for #-ius# (135, 2): CAECILIS; CLAVDI; neuter #-o# (61): POCOLO. G. oldest form #-ī#: VRBANI; #-ei#, from 146 B.C. to Augustus: POPVLEI; CONLEGEI; #-iī# from stems in #-io-# not before Tiberius: COLLEGII. Ac. #-om# (107, c): VOLCANOM; #-o# (61): OPTVMO VIRO; #-u#: GREMIV. Ab. #-od#, not after 186 B.C. (426): POPLICOD, PREIVATOD. Plural: N. #-ei#, always common (98): VIREI; FILEI; -ēs, #-eis#, #-īs# (461): ATILIES; COQVES; LEIBEREIS, i.e. #līnerī#; MAGISTREIS; MAGISTRIS; #-ē#, rare: PLOIRVME, i.e. #plūrumī#. G. #-ōm# or #-ō# (61) ROMANOM; ROMANO; #-ōro# (61): DVONORO. D. and Ab. #-eis#, the only form down to about 130 B.C. (98): ANTIQVEIS; PROXSVMEIS; #-ēs#, twice: CAVATVRINES.
[Erratum: 465 ... COLLEGII. Ac. #-om# (107, c): VOLCANOM (107 c)]
GREEK NOUNS.
466. Greek stems in #-o-# are generally declined like Latin nouns, but in the singular sometimes have #-os# in the nominative, #-on# in the nominative or accusative neuter, rarely #-ū# in the genitive, or #-ō# in the feminine ablative. Plural, nominative sometimes #-oe#, masculine or feminine, and genitive, chiefly in book-titles, #-ōn#: as,
Nominative #Īlios#; #Īlion# or #Īlium#. Genitive #Menandrū#, of Menander. Ablative feminine adjective #lectīcā octōphorō#, in a sedan with eight bearers. Plural: nominative #Adelphoe#, the Brothers; #canēphoroe#, basket-bearers, feminine. Genitive #Geōrgicōn liber#, book of Husbandry. For #Androgeōs#, #Athŏ̄s# and #Panthūs#, see the dictionary.
CONSONANT STEMS.
The Third Declension.
Genitive singular #-is#, genitive plural #-um#.
467. Consonant stems are mostly substantive, and include both gender words and neuters.
Comparatives and a few other words are adjective. For the gender of substantives, see 570.
468. The nominative of consonant stems ends in #-s# (or #-x#); or in #-n# (#-ō#), #-l#, #-r#, or #-s# of the stem, rarely in #-c# or #-t#.
469. Most consonant stems have one syllable less in the nominative than in the genitive.
Such words are called Imparisyllabic words or Imparisyllables: as, nominative #rēx#, king, one syllable; genitive #rēgis#, of a king, two syllables.
470. Many consonant stems have a double form: one form used in the nominative singular (neuters have this form in the accusative also), another form in the other cases: as,
#iūdex#, juror, stem of nominative #iūdec-# (136, 2), of other cases #iūdic-#; #flāmen# (103, a), special priest, #flāmin-# (103, a); #virgō#, maid, #virgin-# (105, g); #auceps# (107, d), fowler, #aucup-# (104, c); #ebur# (107, c), ivory, #ebor-#; #genus#, race, #gener-# (145; 107, c); #trīstius# (346), sadder, #trīstiōr-# (346); #corpus# (107, c), body, #corpor-# (105, i); #pater# (135, 2), father, #patr-#. In such instances the stem of the oblique cases is taken for brevity to represent both forms of the stem.
I. MUTE STEMS.
471. (1.) Stems in a guttural mute, #-g-# or #-c-#, are declined as follows:
+--------+-------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+ |Examples| |dux, | iūdex, | | | | rēx, king, |leader,| juror,| Case | | Stems | rēg-, M. | duc-, M.| iūdic-, | endings | | | | | M., F. | | +--------+-------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+ |Singular| | | | | | Nom. | rēx, a (or the) | dux | iūdex | -s (-x) | | | king | | | | | Gen. | rēgis, a king’s, _of | ducis | iūdicis | -is | | | a king_ | | | | | Dat. | rēgī, to or _for | ducī | iūdicī | -ī | | | a king_ | | | | | Acc. | rēgem, a king | ducem | iūdicem | -em | | Abl. | rēge, from, with, | duce | iūdice | -e | | | or by a king | | | | +--------+-------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+ | Plural | | | | | | Nom. | rēgēs, (the) kings | ducēs | iūdicēs | -ēs | | Gen. | rēgum, kings’, _of | ducum | iūdicum | -um | | | kings_ | | | | | Dat. | rēgibus, to or _for | ducibus | iūdicibus | -ibus | | | kings_ | | | | | Acc. | rēgēs, kings | ducēs | iūdicēs | -ēs | | Abl. | rēgibus, from, | ducibus | iūdicibus | -ibus | | | with, or by kings | | | | +--------+-------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+
In the nominative and accusative, neuters have no case ending in the singular, and #-a# in the plural. In the other cases they have the same case endings as gender stems.
472. (a.) Examples of stems in #-g-#, with nominative #-x#, genitive #-gis#, are:
#-ex#, #-egis# #grex#, M., (F.), herd; #aquilex#, M., spring-hunter, hydraulic engineer. #-ēx#, #-ēgis# #rēx#, M., king; #interrēx#, regent; #lēx#, F., law; and N. and Ac. #exlēx#, #exlēgem#, beyond the law, adjective. #-ex#, #-igis# #rēmex#, M., oarsman. #-ī̆x#, #-ī̆gis# #strī̆x#, F., screech-owl. #-ūnx#, #-ūgis# #coniūnx# (122, e) or #coniux#, M., F., spouse. #-ūx#, #-ūgis# #frūx#, F., fruit.
473. (b.) Examples of stems in #-c-#, with nominative #-x#, genitive #-cis#, are:
#-ax#, #-acis# #fax#, F., torch, no G. Pl. in good writers (430). #-āx#, #-ācis# #pāx#, F., peace, Pl. only N. and Ac. #pācēs#; #līmāx#, F., snail. #-ex#, #-ecis# #faenisex#, M., haycutter; #nex#, F., murder; #precī#, D., F., prayer, no N., usually plural. #-ēx#, #-ēcis# #vervēx#, M., wether; #allēx#, F., fish-pickle, also #allēc#, Ne. #-ex#, #-icis# Masculines mostly: #apex#, point; #cārex#, F., rush; #caudex# or #cōdex#, block, book; #cīmex#, bug; #cortex#, M., F., bark; #culex#, gnat; #forfex#, M., F., shears; #frutex#, shrub; #īlex#, F., holm-oak; #illex#, M., F., seducer; #imbrex#, tile; #latex#, fluid; #mūrex#, purple-shell; #obice#, Ab., M., F., bar, no N.; #paelex#, F., concubine, #pollex#, thumb; #pūlex#, flea; #pūmex#, pumice-slone; #rāmex#, blood-vessel; #rumex#, sorrel; #silex#, M., F., flint; #sōrex#, shrew-mouse; #vortex# or #vertex#, whirl; #vītex#, F., a shrub. Also some compounds: as, #iūdex#, juror; #artifex#, artisan; #auspex#, bird-viewer. #-ix#, #-icis# Feminines mostly: #appendix#, addition; #calix#, M., cup; #filix#, fern; #fulix#, gull; #fornix#, M., arch; #larix#, larch; #pix#, pitch, no G. Pl. (430); #salix#, willow; #vārix#, swollen vein; #vicis#, G., change, no N., D., or G. Pl. (430). #-īx#, #-īcis# Feminines: #cervīx#, neck; #cicātrīx#, scar; #cornīx#, crow; #cŏ̄turnīx# (62), quail; #lōdīx#, blanket; #rādīx#, root; #struīx#, heap. Also #coxendīx#, hip, later #coxendix#, #coxendicis#. #-ōx#, #-ōcis# #vōx#, F., voice. #-ux#, #-ucis# #crux#, F., cross; #dux#, M., F., leader; #nux#, F., nut-tree, nut; #trādux#, M., vinelayer.
474. (2.) Stems in a dental mute, #-d-# or #-t-#, are declined as follows:
+----------+------------+-----------+------------+-------------+ | Examples | custōs, | aetās, | virtūs, | mīles, | | | keeper,| age, | virtue,| soldier,| | Stems | custōd-, M.| aetāt-, F.| virtūt-, F.| mīlit-, M. | +----------+------------+-----------+------------+-------------+ | Singular | | | | | | Nom. | custōs | aetās | virtūs | mīles | | Gen. | custōdis | aetātis | virtūtis | mīlitis | | Dat. | custōdī | aetātī | virtūtī | mīlitī | | Acc. | custōdem | aetātem | virtūtem | mīlitem | | Abl. | custōde | aetāte | virtūte | mīlite | +----------+------------+-----------+------------+-------------+ | Plural | | | | | | Nom. | custōdēs | aetātēs | virtūtēs | mīlitēs | | Gen. | custōdum | aetātum | virtūtum | mīlitum | | Dat. | custōdibus | aetātibus | virtūtibus | mīlitibus | | Acc. | custōdēs | aetātēs | virtūtēs | mīlitēs | | Abl. | custōdibus | aetātibus | virtūtibus | mīlitibus | +----------+------------+-----------+------------+-------------+
475. (a.) Examples of stems in #-d-#, with nominative #-s#, genitive #-dis#, are:
#-as#, #-adis# #vas#, M., F., personal surety, no G. Pl. (430). #-aes#, #-aedis# #praes#, M., bondsman. #-es#, #-idis# #obses#, M., F., hostage; #praeses#, M., F., overseer. #*dēses#, slothful, adjective. #-ēs#, #-edis# #pēs#, M., foot. #-ēs#, #-ēdis# #hērēs#, M., F., heir; #exhērēs#, disinherited, adjective; #mercēs#, F., reward. #-is#, #-idis# Feminines: #capis#, cup; #cassis#, helmet; #cuspis#, spear-point; #prōmulsis#, appetizer; #lapis#, M., stone. #-ōs#, #-ōdis# #custōs#, M., F., guard. #-aus#, #-audis# #laus#, F., praise. #-us#, #-udis# #pecus#, F., beast, head of cattle. #-ūs#, #-ūdis# Feminines: #incūs#, anvil; #palūs#, swamp, nominative once in Horace #palus#, as from an #-o-# stem; #subscūs#, dovetail.
476. #sēdēs#, F., seat, has an #-s-# stem, namely #-ēs# (236), in the nominative, and #sēd-# in the other cases (401); G. Pl. #sēdum#, once #sēdium# (Vell. Pat.). The only example of a neuter stem in #-d-#, with nominative #-r#, genitive #-dis#, is #cor# (171, 2), heart, #cordis#, no G. Pl. (430).
477. (b.) Examples of stems in #-t-#, with nominative #-s#, genitive #-tis#, are:
#-as#, #-atis# #anas#, F., duck; G. Pl. also #anitum# (Cic.), and Ac. Pl. #anitēs# (Plaut.). #-ās#, #-ātis# #aetās#, F., age; also numerous other feminines in #-tās# (262). #-es#, #-etis# #interpres#, M., F., go-between; #seges#, F., crop; #teges#, F., mat. #-es#, #-itis# Masculines mostly: #ames#, net-pole; #antistes#, M., F., overseer; #caespes#, sod; #comes#, M., F., companion; #eques#, horseman; #fōmes#, tinder; #gurges#, whirlpool; #hospes#, M., F., guest-friend; #līmes#, path; #merges#, F., sheaf; #mīles#, M., F., soldier; #palmes#, vine-sprout; #pedes#, man afoot, infantry; #poples#, hough; #stīpes#, trunk; #termes#, bough; #trāmes#, by-path; #dīves#, rich; #sōspes#, safe; #superstes#, surviving; #caelite#, Ab., occupant of heaven, no N., adjectives. #-ēs#, #-etis# #abiēs#, F., fir; #ariēs#, M., ram; #pariēs#, M., wall. #-ēs#, #-ētis# Feminines: #quiēs# and #requiēs#, rest, no D., Ac. often #requiem#, Ab. usually #requiē# (603); #inquiēs#, unrest, N. only. #-os#, #-otis# #compos#, master of, adjective. #-ōs#, #-ōtis# #nepōs#, M., grandson, profligate; #sacerdōs#, M., priest; #cōs#, F., whetstone, no G. Pl. (130); #dōs#, F., dowry, no G. Pl. in good writers (430); #dōtum# once (Val. Max.), and #dōtium# in the jurists. #-ūs#, #-ūtis# Feminines: #iuventūs#, youth; #salūs#, existence; #senectūs#, old age; #servitūs#, slavery, all singular only; and #virtūs#, virtue, with a plural.
478. #vātēs#, bard, has an #-s-# stem, namely #-ēs# (236), in the nominative, and #vāt-# in the other cases (401); G. Pl. #vātum#, but thrice #vātium# (Cic.). The only example of a neuter stem in #-t-#, with nominative #-t#, genitive #-tis#, is #caput#, head, #capitis#, and its compounds #occiput#, back of the head and #sinciput#, jole. #lac#, Ne., milk, #lactis#, has in old and late Latin nominative and accusative #lacte#, #lact# once in Varro (171, 2); acc. #lactem# occurs in Petronius once and later.
479. (3.) Stems in a labial mute, #-b-# or #-p-#, are declined as follows:
mūniceps, burgess, stem mūnicip-, M., F.
Singular: N. #mūniceps#, G. #mūnicipis#, D. #mūnicipī#, Ac. #mūnicipem#, Ab. #mūnicipe#. Plural: N. #mūnicipēs#, G. #mūnicipum#, D. #mūnicipibus#, Ac. #mūnicipēs#, Ab. #mūnicipibus#.
480. Examples of stems in #-b-# or #-p-#, with nominative #-s#, genitive #-bis# or #-pis#, are:
#-ebs#, #-ibis# #caelebs#, unmarried, adjective, the only stem in #-b-#. #----#, #-apis# #dapis#, G., F., feast, N. and D. S., and G. Pl. not used (430). #-eps#, #-ipis# #adeps# or #adips#, M., F., fat, no G. Pl; #forceps#, M., F., pincers; #mūniceps#, burgher. #particeps#, sharing, and #prīnceps#, first, adjectives. #-eps#, #-upis# #auceps#, fowler; #manceps#, contractor, #mancupis# or #mancipis#. #----#, #-ipis# #stipis#, G., F., small change, no N. #-ops#, #-opis# #Ops#, F., old #Opis# (Plaut.), goddess of power; #opis#, G., F., help, no N., D. once only, Pl. #opēs#, means (418).
[Errata: 472 ... #-ūx#, #-ūgis# #-ux# 473b ... #cōdex#, block, book; book: 477b ... #trāmes#, by-path; by-path.]
II. STEMS IN A CONTINUOUS CONSONANT.
481. (1.) Stems in #-l-# and #-n-# are declined as follows:
+----------+-------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+ | Examples |cōnsul, |leō, |imāgō, |nōmen, | | | consul, | lion, | likeness,| name, | | Stems | cōnsul-, M.| leōn-, M. | imāgin-, F. | nōmin-, Ne. | +----------+-------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+ | Singular | | | | | | Nom. | cōnsul | leō | imāgō | nōmen | | Gen. | cōnsulis | leōnis | imāginis | nōminis | | Dat. | cōnsulī | leōnī | imāginī | nōminī | | Acc. | cōnsulem | leōnem | imāginem | nōmen | | Abl. | cōnsule | leōne | imāgine | nōmine | +----------+-------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+ | Plural | | | | | | Nom. | cōnsulēs | leōnēs | imāginēs | nōmina | | Gen. | cōnsulum | leōnum | imāginum | nōminum | | Dat. | cōnsulibus | leōnibus | imāginibus | nōminibus | | Acc. | cōnsulēs | leōnēs | imāginēs | nōmina | | Abl. | cōnsulibus | leōnibus | imāginibus | nōminibus | +----------+-------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+
482. Examples of stems in #-l-#, with nominative #-l#, genitive #-lis#, are:
#-āl#, #-alis# #sāl#, M., salt, sometimes Ne. in the singular; no G. Pl. (430). #-el#, #-ellis# #fel# (171, 1), Ne., gall; #mel#, Ne., honey; plural only #fella#, #mella#. #-il#, #-ilis# #mūgil#, M., mullet; #pūgil#, M., boxer; #vigil#, M., watchman. #-ōl#, #-ōlis# #sōl#, M., sun, no G. Pl. (430). #-ul#, #-ulis# #cōnsul#, consul; #praesul#, head dancer; #exsul#, exile.
483. (a.) Examples of stems in #-n-#, with nominative #-en#, genitive #-inis#, are:
#flāmen#, M., priest; #pecten#, M., comb; #tībīcen#, M., piper; #tubicen#, M., trumpeter; #sanguen#, Ne., blood. Many neuters in #-men# (224): as, #certāmen#, contest.
484. (b.) Examples of stems in #-n-#, with nominative #-ō#, genitive #-ōnis#, are:
Many masculine concretes: as, #pugiō#, dagger; words of the agent (211): as, #praedō#, robber; and family names: as, #Cicerō#. Feminine abstracts in #-iō# (227), and many in #-tiō# or #-siō# (228): as, #opīniō#, notion; #cōgitātiō#, thought.
485. (c.) Examples of stems in #-n-#, with nominative #-ō#, genitive #-inis#, are:
Masculines: #Apollō#; #cardō#, hinge; #ōrdō#, rank; #turbō#, whirlwind. #homo#, M., F., human being; #nēmō#, nobody; for G. and Ab., #nūllī̆us# and #nūllō# are generally used; #margō#, M., F., brink. Feminines: #grandō#, hail; #harundō#, reed; #hirundō#, swallow; #hirūdō#, leech; #testūdō#, tortoise; #virgō#, maiden. Many in #-dō#, #-dinis# (225), #-gō#, #-ginis# (226), and #-tūdō#, #-tūdinis# (264): as, #cupīdō#, also M., desire; #imāgō#, likeness; #sōlitūdō#, loneliness.
486. #sanguī̆s#, M., blood, stem #sanguin-#, takes #-s# in the nominative (171, 4). #canis#, M., F., dog, stem #can-#, and #īuvenis#, M., F., young person, stem #iuven-#, have the nominative formed like that of #-i-# stems. For #senex#, old man, see 500.
487. (2.) Stems in #-r-# and #-s-# are declined as follows:
+--------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+ |Examples| pater, | dolor, | flōs, | genus, | | | father, | pain, | flower, | race, | | Stems | patr-, M. | dolōr-, M. | flōr-, M. | gener-, Ne. | +--------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+ |Singular| | | | | | Nom. | pater | dolor | flōs | genus | | Gen. | patris | dolōris | flōris | generis | | Dat. | patrī | dolōrī | flōrī | generī | | Acc. | patrem | dolōrem | flōrem | genus | | Abl. | patre | dolōre | flōre | genere | +--------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+ | Plural | | | | | | Nom. | patrēs | dolōrēs | flōrēs | genera | | Gen. | patrum | dolōrum | flōrum | generum | | Dat. | patribus | dolōribus | flōribus | generibus | | Acc. | patrēs | dolōrēs | flōrēs | genera | | Abl. | patribus | dolōribus | flōribus | generibus | +--------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
488. Many stems in #-r-# ended originally in #-s-#, which became #-r-# between two vowels, and in some words in the nominative also (154): as, #flōs#, M., flower, G. #*flōsis#, #flōris#; #honōs#, M., honour, G. #honōris#, N. #honor#.
489. (a.) Examples of stems in #-r-#, with nominative #-r#, genitive #-ris#, are:
#-ar#, #-aris# #baccar#, Ne., a plant; #iūbar#, Ne., rarely M., bright sky, no Pl. #-ār#, #-aris# #lār#, M., household god; G. Pl. #larum#; two or three times #larium#. #-ār#, #-arris# #fār# (171, 1), Ne., spelt; Pl. only N. and Ac. #farra#. #-er#, #-eris# Masculines: #acipēnser#, sturgeon; #agger#, mound; #ānser#, rarely F., goose; #asser#, pole; #carcer#, jail; #later#, brick; #mulier#, F., woman; #passer#, sparrow; #vōmer#, ploughshare. Neuters: #cadāver#, corpse; #tūber#, swelling; #ūber#, breast; #verberis#, G., lash, no N., generally Pl.; #acer#, maple, and some other plant names: see 573. #pauper#, poor, adjective. #-ter#, #-tris# #accipiter#, M., hawk; #frāter#, M., brother; #māter#, F., mother; #pater#, M., father. #-ēr#, #-ēris# #vēr#, Ne.; no Pl. #-or#, #-oris# #aequor#, Ne., sea; #marmor#, Ne., marble; #arbor#, F., tree. #-or#, #-ōris# #olor#, M., swan; #soror#, F., sister; #uxor#, F., wife. Many masculines in #-or# for #-ōs# (237): as, #odor#, smell; and in #-tor#, #-tōris# (205): as, #amātor#, lover. Also gender comparatives of adjectives: as, #trīstior# (346), M., F., sadder. #-ur#, #-oris# Neuters: #ebur#, ivory; Pl. only #ebora#; #rōbur#, heart of oak; Pl. #rōbora# common, #rōborum# and #rōboribus# twice each. Also #femur#,thigh, #femoris# or #feminis#, and #iecur#, liver, #iecoris#, #iecineris#, or #iocineris#. #-ur#, #-uris# #augur#, M., F., augur; #furfur#, M., bran; #turtur#, M., F., turtle-dove; #voltur# or #vultur#, M., vulture. Neuters: #fulgur#, lightning; #guttur#, rarely M., throat; #murmur#, murmur; #sulpur#, sulphur. #cicur#, tame, adjective. #-ūr#, #-ūris# #fūr#, M., thief.
490. #volucris#, F., bird, stem #volucr-#, has its nominative formed like that of #-i-# stems.
491. (b.) Examples of stems in #-s-#, or #-r-# for #-s-#, with nominative #-s#, genitive #-ris#, are:
#-aes#, #-aeris# #aes#, Ne., copper, bronze; in the Pl. only #aera# and #aerum# are usual. #-ēs#, #-eris# #Cerēs#. #pūbēs#, mangrown; #impūbēs#, immature, adjectives; for the last more commonly #impūbis#, like #brevis# (630). #-is#, #-eris# #cinis#, M., ashes; #cucumis#, M., cucumber, also with #-i-# stem; #pulvis#, M., dust; #vōmis#, M., ploughshare. #-ōs#, #-oris# #arbōs#, F., tree. #-ōs#, #-ōris# Masculines: #flōs#, flower; #mōs#, custom; #rōs#, dew, no G. Pl. (430); #lepōs#, grace; #honōs# or #honor#, honour, and some old Latin words for later #-or#: as, #odōs# or #odor#, smell (489). #ōs#, Ne., mouth, face, no G. Pl. (430). #-us#, #-eris# Neuters: #acus#, husk; #foedus#, treaty; #fūnus#, funeral; #genus#, race; #glŏ̄mus# (134), clew; #holus#, green stuff; #latus#, side; #mūnus#, gift; #onus#, burden; #opus#, work; #pondus#, weight; #raudus# or #rūdus#, piece of copper; #scelus#, crime; #sīdus#, constellation; #ulcus#, sore; #vellus#, fleece; #vīscus#, bowel, usually plural; #volnus# or #vulnus#, wound. Also #Venus#, F., and #vetus#, old, adjective. #-us#, #-oris# Neuters: #corpus#, body; #decus#, grace; #dēdecus#, disgrace; #facinus#, deed; #faenus#, interest; #frīgus#, cold; #lītus#, shore; #nemus#, grove; #pectus#, breast; #pecus#, flock; #penus#, store; #pignus#, pledge; #stercus#, dung; #tempus#, time; #tergus#, back. Also #lepus#, M., hare. #-us#, #-ōris# Neuter comparatives of adjectives: as, #trīstius# (346), sadder. #-ūs#, #-ūris# Neuters: #crūs#, leg; #iūs#, right, Pl. #iūra#, G. Pl. twice only (Plaut.; Cato), no D. or Ab. Pl.; #iūs#, broth, #pūs#, pus, #rūs#, country, #tūs#, frankincense, Pl. only N. and Ac. #iūra#, &c. #tellūs#, F., earth.
492. #vās#, Ne., vessel, utensil, retains the #s# between two vowels: G. #vāsis#, D. #vāsī#, Ab. #vāse#, plural N. and Ac. #vāsa#; the G. #vāsōrum#, and D. and Ab. #vāsis#, are formed from an #-o-# stem, #vāso-# (401). #mēnsis#, M., month, #mēnsis#, has its nominative formed like that of #-i-# stems; G. Pl. #mēnsum#, sometimes #mēnsuum# or #mēnsium#. #os# (171, 1) Ne., bone, #ossis#, has no G. Pl. in good writers (430): #ossium# late.
493. The two neuters #vīrus#, gall, poison, and #volgus# or #vulgus#, the crowd, have #-o-# stems, except in the nominative and accusative (401), and no plural: thus, N. and Ac. #volgus#, G. #volgī#, D. and Ab. #volgō#. A masculine accusative #volgum# is sometimes found. The Greek neuter #pelagus#, the deep, has also G. #pelagī#, D. and Ab. #pelagō#, Pl. N. and Ac. #pelagē# (508).
[Erratum: 489a ... Also #femur#, thigh #femur# thigh]
III. STEMS IN #-u-# OR #-v-#.
494. Four substantives with stems in #-ū-# or #-v-#, #grūs#, F., crane, #gruis#; #sūs#, M., F., sow, swine, #suis#; #bōs#, M., F., ox, cow, #bovis#; and #nix#, F., snow, #nivis#, follow the consonant declension; also the genitive #Iovis#, and the other oblique cases of #Iuppiter# (500). But #sūs# has in the plural dative and ablative #suibus#, #sūbus#, or #subus#; #bōs# has in the plural genitive #boum# or #bovum#, rarely #bovom# (107, c), and in the dative and ablative #bōbus#, or oftener #būbus#; #nix# has no genitive plural in good writers (430): #nivium# late, once #nivum#.
SINGULAR CASES.
495. (1.) The nominative singular of gender stems in a mute is formed by adding #-s# to the stem (422): as,
#rēg-#, king, N. #rēx# (164, 1); #duc-#, leader, N. #dux# (135, 1); #custōd-#, guard, N. #custōs# (171, 5); #aetāt-#, age, N. #aetās# (171, 5); #caelib-#, unmarried, N. #caelebs# (54); #mūnicip-#, burgher, N. #mūniceps#. #hiem-#, winter, the only stem in #-m-#, N. #hiemps# (167) or #hiems#, also takes #-s#.
496. (2.) Stems in a continuous consonant, #-l-#, #-n-#, #-r-#, or #-s-#, and neuters have no nominative suffix (422, 423): as,
#cōnsul-#, consul, N. cōnsul; #flāmin-#, special priest, N. #flāmen#; #agger-#, mound, N. #agger#; #iūr-# for #iūs-#, right, N. #iūs#.
For #cor#, heart, see 476; #lacte#, #lac#, milk, 478; #sanguī̆s#, blood, 486; #-s# in neuter adjectives, 612.
497. (a.) Stems in #-ōn-# drop #-n-# in the nominative; stems in #-in-# for #-on-# drop #-n-#, and end in #-ō#: as,
#leōn-#, lion, N. #leō#; #imāgin-# for #imāgon-#, likeness, N. #imāgō#.
498. (b.) Stems of one syllable in #-r-# for #-s-# usually retain #-s# in the nominative: as, #flōr-# for #flōs-#, M., flower, N. #flōs#; #iūr-# for #iūs-#, Ne., right, N. #iūs#. Some of more than one syllable also retain #-s#: see 491; but in others #-s# is changed to #-r#, and in masculines a preceding #ō# is shortened: as, #odōs#, smell, #odor#. #lepōs#, grace, retains #-ōs#.
499. (c.) Four stems in #-er-# for #-is-# have the nominative singular in #-is#: #cinis#, ashes, #cineris#; #cucumis#, cucumber, #cucumeris# or #cucumis#; #pulvī̆s#, dust, #pulveris#; and #vōmis#, oftener #vōmer#, ploughshare, #vōmeris#.
500. The following have the nominative singular formed from a different stem from that of the other cases (401):
#iter#, journey, #itineris#, stems #iter-#, #itiner-#; #Iuppiter# (389) #Iovis#; #supellēx#, furniture, #supellēctilis# (545); #senex#, old man, man of forty or more, #senis#, stems #senec-#, #sen-#. For #sēdēs#, seat, see 476; #vātēs#, bard, 478. #canis#, dog, N. also #canēs# (Plaut. Enn., Lucil.), #iuvenis#, young or middle-aged person (486), #volucris#, bird (490), and #mēnsis#, month (492), have their nominatives formed like those of #-i-# stems.
501. An old dative in #-ē# is sometimes retained in set phrases (507): as, #aerē#, money; #iūrē#, right. See 98.
502. Substantives have rarely an ablative in #-ī# or #-ei# like #-i-# stems: as, #capitī# (Catull.), head, for #capite#; #dōtei# (Plaut.), dowry, for #dōte#. Substantives used as adjectives have sometimes #-ī#: as #artificī manū#, with artist hand; but often #-e#: as, #ālite lāpsū#, with winged glide. For #-ē# in old Latin there is no certain evidence.
503. Adjectives in the comparative degree have sometimes an ablative in #-ī#: as, #meliōrī#, better, for #meliōre#. Adjectives ‘of one ending’ with consonant stems (624) have always #-e#, except #vetus#, old, which has sometimes #veterī#.
504. Town names and a few appellatives have a locative case in #-ī#: as, #Karthāginī#, at Carthage; #rūrī#, a-field, in the country.
[Erratum: 502 ... as, #ālite lāpsū#, with winged glide as.]
PLURAL CASES.
505. The nominative and accusative plural masculine and feminine have rarely #-īs#, like stems in #-i-#: as #sacerdōtīs#, priests; #meliōrīs#, better. For #-ā# in neuters in old Latin, see 130, 2.
506. The genitive plural of stems in #-tāt-# (262) is sometimes #-ium#, like that of #-ī-# stems: as, #cīvitātium#, communities; #voluptātium#, pleasures (Cic.); but chiefly in or after the Augustan age. #mēnsis#, month, has #mēnsum#, but often #mēnsuum#, sometimes #mēnsium#. #āles#, bird, has sometimes #ālituum# in hexameter verse. For the dative and ablative #-būs#, see 2505.
507. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows:
N. MVNICIPES; #-ō# for #-ōs# (66): MAIO, i.e. #maiōs# or #maior#. G. #-es#, as early as 218 B.C.: SALVTES; #-us#, from 186 to 100 B.C.: NOMINVS; #-u# (66): CAESARV. D. #-ei#: VIRTVTEI, soon after 290 B.C.; HEREDEI, 45 B.C.; #-ē#, disappeared sooner than #-ei# except in set phrases (501), but is equally old: IVNONE; IOVRE. Ac. #-e# (61): APICE. Ab. #-īd# (426): CONVENTIONID, i.e. #cōntiōne#; #-ei#: VIRTVTEI; #-ī#: HEREDI. Plural: N. #-īs#: IOVDICIS. G. #-om#: POVMILIONOM; #-ium#: MVNICIPIVM. D. #-ebus#: TEMPESTATEBVS. Ac. #-īs#: MVNICIPIS.
GREEK NOUNS.
508. Greek appellatives of the consonant declension occasionally retain Greek case endings: as, #lampas#, torch, G. #lampados#, Ac. #lampada#. Plural: N. #lampades#, Ac. #lampadas#. #āēr#, air, has usually the accusative #āera#, and #aethēr#, upper air, always has #aethera#. In the plural nominative and accusative, #cētus#, swimming monster, #melos#, strain of music, and #pelagus# (493), the deep, have #-ē#: as, #cētē#. Genitive #-ōn#, rare: as, #epigrammatōn#, epigrams. Dative and ablative #-matīs# from words in #-ma#, #-matis#: as, #poēmatīs#, poems (401).
509. Greek proper names of the consonant declension are usually declined like Latin ones in old Latin and prose. From Vergil and Propertius on, Greek case endings grow more and more frequent, especially in poetry; they are best learned for every name from the dictionary; the commonest forms are:
Genitive #-os#: as, #Pān#, #Pānos#; #-ūs#, with nominative #-ō#: as, #Mantō#, #Mantūs#. Dative #-i#, rare: as, #Mīnōidi#. Accusative #-a#, common with names of persons in poetry, not in prose, more common with those of places, and even in prose: as, #Acheronta#; always #Pāna#; #-ō#, with feminines in #-ō#, #-ūs#: as, #Dīdō#. Vocative: #Pallās#, #Pallā#; in old Latin the nominative is commonly used instead of the vocative. Plural: Nominative #-es#: as, #Arcades#. Dative #-sin#, rare: as, #Lēmniasin#. Accusative #-as#, very common: as, #Lelegas#; in prose, #Macedonas#; also in words not Greek: as, #Allobrogas# (Caes.).
510. Names in #-eus#, like #Orpheus#, are usually declined like #-o-# stems (449). They have less frequently Greek forms: as, G. #Orpheos#, D. #Orphei# or #Orphī#, Ac. #Orphea#. Accusative rarely #-ēa#: as, #Ī̆lonēa#.
511. Some names in #-ēs# have the genitive in #-is# or #-ī# and the accusative in #-em# or #-ēn# (401): as, #Sōcratēs#, G. #Sōcratis# or #Sōcratī#, Ac. usually #Sōcratem#, also #Sōcratēn#. #Achillēs# and #Ulixēs# have in the genitive #-eī#, #-e͡i#, or #-ī#. Names in #-clēs# have rarely the accusative #-clea#: as, #Periclea#.
512. Some names in #-is# have forms either from a stem in #-id-#, or from one in #-i-#: as, #Paris#, G. #Paridis#, D. #Paridī#, Ac. #Paridem#, #Parim# or #Parin#, V. #Pari#.
STEMS IN -i- AND MIXED STEMS.
The Third Declension.
Genitive singular #-is#, genitive plural #-i-um#.
513. Stems in #-i-# include both substantives and adjectives, gender words and neuters.
For the gender of substantives, see 570.
514. The nominative of gender stems in #-i-# ends usually in #-s# (or #-x#), sometimes in #-l# or #-r#; that of neuter substantives has no suffix, and ends usually in #-e#, sometimes in #-l# or #-r#.
515. Most stems in #-i-# have as many syllables in the nominative as in the genitive.
Such words are called Parisyllabic words, or Parisyllables: as, nominative #cīvis#, citizen, two syllables; genitive #cīvis#, of a citizen, also two syllables.
516. Stems in #-i-# are declined in the main like consonant stems, but have #-im# in the accusative of some substantives, and #-ī# in the ablative of adjectives, of some gender substantives, and of neuters; in the plural they have #-ium# in the genitive, #-īs# often in the accusative of gender words, and #-ia# in the nominative and accusative neuter.
I. PARISYLLABLES.
517. (1.) Parisyllabic gender stems in #-i-# with the nominative in #-is# are declined as follows:
+--------+-----------+------------+----------+----------+----------+ |Examples|tussis, |turris, |amnis, |hostis, | Stem | | | cough, | tower, | river,| enemy,| and case | | Stems | tussi-, | turri-, | amni-, | hosti-, | endings | | | F. | F. | M. | M., F. | | +--------+-----------+------------+----------+----------+----------+ |Singular| | | | | | | Nom. | tussis | turris | amnis | hostis | -is | | Gen. | tussis | turris | amnis | hostis | -is | | Dat. | tussī | turrī | amnī | hostī | -ī | | Acc. | tussim | turrim, -em| amnem | hostem | -im, -em | | Abl. | tussī | turrī, -e | amne, -ī | hoste | -ī, -e | +--------+-----------+------------+----------+----------+----------+ | Plural | | | | | | | Nom. | tussēs | turrēs | amnēs | hostēs | -ēs | | Gen. | | turrium | amnium | hostium | -ium | | Dat. | | turribus | amnibus | hostibus | -ibus | | Acc. | tussīs, | turrīs, | amnīs, | hostīs, | -īs, | | | -ēs | -ēs | -ēs | -ēs | -ēs | | Abl. | | turribus | amnibus | hostibus | -ibus | +--------+-----------+------------+----------+----------+----------+
518. (a.) Like the singular of #tussis# are declined parisyllabic names of rivers and places, like #Tiberis#, #Hispalis#. Also #cucumis#, M., cucumber (but see 491), and the defectives #sitis#, F., thirst, Ac. #sitim#, Ab. #sitī#, no plural; and #vīs#, F., power, Ac. #vim#, Ab. #vī#. Plural (401): N. #vīrēs#, G. #vīrium#, D. and Ab. #vīribus#, Ac. #vīrīs# or #vīrēs#. (The D. #vī# is only found twice; a N. and Ac. Pl. #vīs# is very rare.)
519. (b.) The following feminines are declined like #turris#, with #-im# or #-em# in the accusative, and #-ī# or #-e# in the ablative:
clāvis, key febris, fever nāvis, vessel puppis, stern sēmentis, planting strigilis, skin-scraper
So also in the oblique cases, #Liger#, the Liger. #Arar#, the Arar, has in the accusative #-im#, in the ablative #-e# or #-ī#.
520. #secūris#, axe, #messis#, crop, and #restis#, rope, also have #-im# or #-em# in the accusative, but only #secūrī#, #messe#, and #reste# in the ablative. #canālis#, conduit, has only #-em# in the accusative, and only #-ī# in the ablative.
521. (c.) The following are declined like #amnis#, with #-em# in the accusative, and #-ī# or #-e# in the ablative:
avis, bird bīlis, bile cīvis, citizen classis, fleet fūstis, club ignis, fire
522. (d.) Most parisyllabic stems in #-i-#, with the nominative in #-is#, are declined like #hostis#: as,
#ēnsis#, M., glaive; #piscis#, M., fish; #aedis#, F., temple, Pl. house (418); #vītis#, F., vine; and a great many others. Also gender forms of adjectives in #-i-# ‘of two endings’ (630), except the ablative singular, which ends in #-ī#.
523. (2.) Parisyllables in #-i-# with the nominative in #-ēs# have their other cases like those of #hostis#: such are:
#caedēs#, bloodshed; #cautēs#, rock; #clādēs#, disaster; #indolēs#, native disposition, no Pl.; #lābēs#, fall; #mōlēs#, pile; #nūbēs#, cloud; #prōlēs#, offspring, no Pl.; #pūbēs#, young population, no Pl.; #rūpēs#, crag; #saepēs#, hedge; #strāgēs#, slaughter; #subolēs#, offspring; #tābēs#, wasting, no Pl., feminines; and some others. Masculine: #verrēs#, boar; #volpēs# or #vulpēs#, fox.
524. #famēs#, hunger, has G. twice #famī# (Cato, Lucil.), Ab. always #famē# (603), no Pl.; #plēbēs#, commons, N. also #plēbs# or #plēps#, has G. #plēbe͡i# (603), #plēbī# or #plēbis#, no Pl.
525. (3.) A few stems in #-bri-#, #-cri-#, or #-tri-#, are declined as follows:
imber, shower, stem imbri-, M.
Singular: N. #imber#, G. #imbris#, D. #imbrī#, Ac. #imbrem#, Ab. #imbrī#, oftener #imbre#. Plural: N. #imbrēs#, G. #imbrium#, D. #imbribus#, Ac. #imbrīs# or #imbrēs#, Ab. #imbribus#. So also #lunter# or #linter#, F. (M.), tub, boat, #ūter#, M., leather bag, and #venter#, M., belly, but with only #-e# in the Ab.; and the masculine of adjectives in #-bri-#, #-cri-#, #-tri-#, N. #-er# (628); these last have in the Ab. always #-ī#.
526. (4.) Parisyllabic neuters in #-i-# with the nominative in #-e# are declined as follows:
+--------+----------------------+-------------------+-------------+ |Examples| sedīle, seat, | mare, sea, | Stem and | | Stems | sedīli-, Ne. | mari-, Ne. | case endings| +--------+----------+-----------+----------+--------+-----+-------+ | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | S. | Pl. | | +----------+-----------+----------+--------+-----+-------+ | Nom. | sedīle | sedīlia | mare | maria | -e | -ia | | Gen. | sedīlis | sedīlium | maris | | -is | -ium | | Dat. | sedīlī | sedīlibus | marī | | -ī | -ibus | | Acc. | sedīle | sedīlia | mare | maria | -e | -ia | | Abl. | sedīlī | sedīlibus | marī | | -ī | -ibus | +--------+----------+-----------+----------+--------+-----+-------+
527. #mare# has rarely the ablative #mare# in verse: in the plural only the nominative and accusative are usual; but a genitive #marum# is once quoted (Naev.), and the ablative #maribus# is once used by Caesar.
528. Examples of parisyllabic neuters in #-i-#, with the nominative in #-e#, genitive #-is#, are:
#ancīle#, sacred shield; #aplustre#, ancient; #conclāve#, suite of rooms; #īnsīgne#, ensign; #praesaepe#, stall; #rēte#, net, Ab. #rēte#. Also the neuter of adjectives in #-i-# ‘of two endings’ (630), and some words in #-īle#, #-āle#, #-āre#, originally adjectives (313, 314): as, #būbīle#, ox-stall; #fōcāle#, neckcloth; #cocleāre#, spoon.
[Erratum: 522. (d.) (d)]
II. IMPARISYLLABLES.
529. Sometimes a plural stem in #-i-# is combined, in the singular, with a stem in a mute, in #-l#, or #-r#, or rarely in #-s#. These mixed stems thus become imparisyllables. Gender stems of this class are like consonant stems in the singular, except the ablative of adjectives, which has usually #-ī#.
530. Imparisyllabic stems in #-i-# are declined as follows:
+----------+-------------+-------------+------------+---------------+ | Examples | arx, | pars, | urbs, | animal, | | | citadel, | part, | city, | animal | | Stems | arci-, F. | parti-, F. | urbi-, F. | animāli-, Ne. | +----------+-------------+-------------+------------+---------------+ | Singular | | | | | | Nom. | arx | pars | urbs | animal | | Gen. | arcis | partis | urbis | animālis | | Dat. | arcī | partī | urbī | animālī | | Acc. | arcem | partem | urbem | animal | | Abl. | arce | parte | urbe | animālī | +----------+-------------+-------------+------------+---------------+ | Plural | | | | | | Nom. | arcēs | partēs | urbēs | animālia | | Gen. | arcium | partium | urbium | animālium | | Dat. | arcibus | partibus | urbibus | animālibus | | Acc. | arcīs, -ēs | partīs, -ēs | urbīs, -ēs | animālia | | Abl. | arcibus | partibus | urbibus | animālibus | +----------+-------------+-------------+------------+---------------+
531. Examples of stems in #-ci-#, with nominative #-x#, genitive #-cis#, are:
#-āx#, #-ācis# #fornāx#, F., furnace. Many adjectives (284): as, #audāx#, daring. #-aex#, #-aecis# #faex#, F., dregs, no G. Pl. (430). #-ex#, #-icis# #supplex#, suppliant, Ab. #-ī#, sometimes #-e#, G. Pl. #supplicum#. Adjectives: #duplex#, twofold; #multiplex#, manifold; #quadruplex#, fourfold; #septemplex#, sevenfold; #simplex#, simple; #triplex#, threefold. The foregoing have Ab. #-ī#: as, #duplicī#; #duplice# once (Hor.), #septemplice# twice (Ov.; Stat.); G. Pl. #-ium#, Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. #-ia#. #-īx#, #-īcis# #fēlīx#, happy; #pernīx#, nimble, adjectives. Also many feminines of the agent in #-trīx# (205): as, #victrīx#, victorious; these sometimes have a Ne. Pl. N. and Ac.: as, #victrīcia#; in the G. Pl. they have #-ium#, or, as substantives, #-um#: as, #nūtrīcum#, nurses. #-lx#, #-lcis# #calx#, F. (M.), heel; #calx#, M., F., limestone, no G. Pl. (430); #falx#, F., sickle. #-nx#, #-ncis# #lanx#, F., platter, no G. Pl. (430); #deūnx#, M., _eleven twelfths_; #quīncunx#, M., five twelfths. #-ox#, #-ocis# #praecox#, over-ripe, older stem #praecoqui-#: as, G. #praecoquis#; rarely with #-o-# stem (401): as, #praecoquam#. #-ōx#, #-ōcis# #celōx#, F., clipper. #atrōx#, savage; #ferōx#, wild; #vēlōx#, swift, adjectives. #-rx#, #-rcis# #arx#, F., citadel, G. Pl. rare and late; #merx#, F., ware, N. in old Latin sometimes #mercēs# or #mers#. #-ux#, #-ucis# Adjectives: #trux#, savage, Ab. #-ī# or #-e#, G. Pl. #-ium#; #redux#, returning, Ab. #-ī# or #-e# (558); no G. Pl. and no Ne. N. or Ac. (430). #-aux#, #----# #fauce#, F., Ab., throat, N. #faux# once only and late, generally Pl. #-ūx#, #-ūcis# #lūx#, F. (581), light, Ab. sometimes #-ī#, no G. Pl. (430).
532. (a.) Examples of stems in #-di-#, with nominative #-s#, genitive #-dis#, are:
#-ēs#, #-edis# Compounds of #pēs#, foot: #compede#, F., Ab., fetter, no N., G. Pl. #compedium#; adjectives: as, #ālipēs#, wing-footed, #bipēs#, two-legged, #quadrupēs#, four-footed, &c., Ab. #-ī#, Pl. G. #-um# only (563), Ne. N. and Ac. #-ia#, rare and late. #-ns#, #-ndis# Feminines: #frōns#, foliage; #glāns#, acorn; #iūglāns#, walnut. #-rs#, #-rdis# #concors#, like-minded, adjective, and other compounds of #cor#, Ab. #-ī# (559) Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. #-ia#, G. Pl. not usual: #discordium#, at variance, and #vēcordium#, frantic, once each. #-aus#, #-audis# #fraus#, F., deceit, G. Pl. #fraudium#, later #fraudum#.
533. (b.) Examples of stems in #-ti-#, with nominative #-s# (#-x#), genitive #-tis#, are:
#-ās#, #-ātis# #Arpīnās#, of Arpinum, and adjectives from other town names; #optimātēs#, good men and true, G. Pl. #-ium#, less often #-um#; #penātēs#, gods of the household store. #-es#, #-etis# Adjectives: #hebes#, dull; #teres#, cylindrical, Ab. #-ī# (559), no G. Pl., Ne. Pl. #hebetia#, #teretia#, late and rare; #perpes#, lasting through, Ab. #perpetī#, late only; #praepes#, swift-winged, Ab. #-ī# or #-e#, G. Pl. #-um#, no Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. #-ēs#, #-ētis# #locuplēs#, rich, adjective, Ab. usually #-e# of a person, #-ī# often of a thing, G. Pl. #locuplētium#, sometimes #locuplētum#, Ne. Pl. #locuplētia# once. #-īs#, #-ītis# #līs#, contention; #dīs#, rich, adjective, Ab. always #-ī# (559), Pl. G. #-ium#, once #-um# (Sen.), Ne. N. and Ac. #-ia#. #Quirīs#, #Samnīs#. #-ls#, #-ltis# #puls#, pottage, no G. Pl. (430). #-ns#, #-ntis# Masculines: #dēns#, tooth: #fōns#, fountain; #pōns#, bridge; #mōns#, mountain, N. once #montis# (Enn.); factors of twelve: #sextāns#, one sixth; #quadrāns#, #triēns#, #dōdrāns#, #dēxtāns#. Feminines: #frōns#, forehead; #gēns#, clan; #mēns#, mind. Present participles: as, #regēns#, guiding. Many adjectives: as, #ingēns#, gigantic, Ab. #-ī# (559); #Vēiēns#, of Vei; compounds of #mēns#: as, #āmēns#, out of one’s head; of #dēns#: as, #tridēns#, Ab. #-ī#, as substantive usually #-e#. #-eps#, #-ipitis# Adjective compounds of #caput#, head: #anceps# (543), two-headed, once older #ancipēs# (Plaut.); #biceps#, two-headed; #triceps#, three-headed; #praeceps#, head-first, old #praecipēs# (Plaut.; Enn.), Ab. #-ī# (559), no G. Pl., Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. #-ia#. #-rs#, #-rtis# Feminines: #ars#, art; #cohors#, cohort; #fors#, chance; #mors#, death; #pars#, part; #sors#, lot, N. twice #sortis# (Plaut.; Ter.). Adjectives: #cōnsors#, sharing, #exsors#, _not sharing_, no G. Pl.; #expers#, without part; #iners#, unskilled, #sollers#, all-skilled, Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. #-ia#. #-x#, #-ctis# #nox#, F., night; Ab. also #noctū# (401); an old adverb form is #nox#, nights.
534. (a.) Stems in #-bi-#, with nominative #-bs# (149), genitive #-bis#, are:
#trabs#, F., beam, older N. #trabēs# (Enn.); #plēbs#, F., commons, N. sometimes #plēps#, for the older #plēbēs# (603), no Pl.; #urbs#, F., city.
535. (b.) Stems in #-pi-#, with nominative #-ps#, genitive #-pis#, are:
#inops#, poor, adjective, Ab. #-ī# (559), G. Pl. #-um#, no Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. (430); #stirps#, F. (M.), trunk.
536. Examples of stems in #-li-#, with nominative #-l#, genitive #-lis#, are:
#-al#, #-ālis# Neuters, originally adjective (546): #animal#, animal; #bacchānal#, shrine or feast of Bacchus; #cervīcal#, bolster; #puteal#, well-curb; #toral#, valance; #tribūnal#, tribunal; #vectīgal#, indirect tax. Only N. or Ac.: #cubital#, elbow-cushion; #minūtal#, minced-fish; #capital#, #capitālia#, death, capital crime. #-il#, #-ilis# #vigil#, wide-awake, adjective, Ab. #-ī#, as substantive #-e# (561), G. Pl. #vigilum# (563), no Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. (430).
537. (a.) Examples of stems in #-ri-#, with nominative #-r#, genitive #-ris#, are:
#-ar#, #-āris# Neuters, originally adjective (546): #calcar#, spur; #columbar#, dove-cote; #exemplar#, pattern; #lacūnar#, panel-ceiling; #pulvīnar#, couch; #subligar#, tights; #torcular#, wine-press. #-ār#, #-aris# Adjectives: #pār#, equal; #dispār#, #impār#, unequal, for Ab., see 561; G. Pl. #-ium#, Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. #-ia#; #compār#, co-mate, as substantive has G. Pl. #-um#. #-er#, #-eris# Adjectives: #dēgener#, degenerate, Ab. #-ī# (559), no Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. (430); #ūber#, fruitful, Ab. #-ī#, late #-e#, Ne. Pl. #ūbera# once only (Acc.). #-or#, #-oris# Adjectives: #memor#, remembering; #immemor#, forgetful, Ab. #-ī# (559), G. Pl. #memorum# (636) once only (Verg.), no Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. (430). #-or#, #-ōris# Adjective compounds of #color#: as, #concolor#, of like shade, #discolor#, of different shade, both with Ab. #-ī# only; #versicolor#, pied, Ab. #-ī#, rarely #-e#, Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. #-ia#; the G. Pl. of these words is not usual, but #versicōlorum# once.
538. (b.) Stems in #-ri-#, with nominative #-s# of the stem, genitive #-ris#, are #glīs#, F., dormouse, #glīris#; #mās#, M., male, #maris#; #mūs#, F., mouse, #mūris#.
539. The only imparisyllabic stem in #-si-# is #ās# (171, 1), M., unit, an as, G. #assis#, with its compounds #bēs#, two thirds, G. #bessis#, and #sēmis#, half an as, half, G. #sēmissis#.
[Erratum: 537 ... #dēgener#, degenerate, Ab. #-ī# (559) Ab.,]
SINGULAR CASES.
540. (1.) The nominative singular of gender stems in #-i-# is usually formed by adding #-s# to the stem (422). But many gender substantives have the nominative in #-ēs# (236, 401): as,
#amni-#, river, N. #amnis#; #aedi-#, temple, N. #aedis#; #brevi-#, short, N. #brevis#. With N. #-ēs#: #nūbi-#, cloud, N. #nūbēs#; for other examples, see 523.
541. Some substantives form the nominative in both these ways: as, #vallēs# and #vallis#, valley, equally common; #aedis#, temple, later #aedēs#; for #caedēs#, slaughter, #clādēs#, disaster, and #mōlēs#, pile, #caedis#, &c., occur exceptionally.
542. A few stems in #-bri-#, #-cri-#, or #-tri-#, drop #-i-# in the nominative. The endings #brs#, #crs#, #trs#, then change to #-ber#, #-cer#, #-ter# (111, b): as, #imbrī-#, shower, N. #imber# (525).
543. Of gender imparisyllables, some have lost #-i-# of the stem before #-s# in the nominative; others have originally a consonant stem in the nominative (529-535).
Thus, #monti-#, mountain, and #sorti-#, lot, have N. #mōns# and #sors# for an older #montis# and #sortis#; but #dēns#, tooth, and #regēns#, ruling, have as original stems #dent-# and #regent-#. Adjectives in #-cipiti-# have N. #-ceps# (533).
544. A few adjective stems in #-li-# or #-ri-# drop #-i-# in the nominative without taking #-s# (536, 537): as, #vigili-#, wide-awake, N. #vigil#; #pari-#, equal, N. #pār#; so also #Arar# and #Liger#. Three substantives in #-ri-# for #-si-# likewise drop #-i-#, and end in the original #-s# (538): #glīri-# for #glīsi-#, dormouse, N. #glīs#; #mās#, male; #mūs#, mouse.
545. For #carō#, F., flesh, #carnis# (Ab. #-ī#, usually #-e#, no G. Pl.) see 135, 2. #supellēx#, F., furniture, #supellēctilis# (Ab. #-ī# or #-e#, no Pl.), has the nominative formed from a different stem from that of the other cases (401).
546. (2) Neuter stems in #-i-# have no nominative suffix, and end in #-e# for #-i-# of the stem (107, b): as,
#mari-#, sea, N. #mare#; #brevi-#, short, N. #breve#. In some words, originally neuter adjectives in #-āle# and #-āre#, the #-e# is dropped and the #ā# shortened: as, #animāle#, living thing, #animal# (536); #exemplāre# (Lucr.), pattern, #exemplar# (537). Some neuter adjectives end in #-l# or #-r# (536, 537); and some ‘of one ending’ end in #-s# (612).
547. The accusative singular of gender substantives usually has #-em#, like consonant stems (424); but a few substantives with the nominative in #-is# have #-im# only, and some have either #-im# or #-em#.
548. (a.) Accusatives in #-im#
Are sitim, tussim, vim, thirst, cough, strength And būrim, cucumim. ploughtail, cucumber
549. The accusative in #-im# is found in many adverbs (700): as, #partim#, in part; in some adverbial expressions: as, #adamussim#, #examussim#, to a #T#, #adfatim#, to satiety, #ad ravim#, to hoarseness; in some names of rivers and cities: as, #Tiberim#, #Hispalim#; and in some Greek words (565).
550. (b.) Six have the accusative commonly in #-im#, sometimes in #-em#:
febrim, -em, fever pelvim, -em, basin puppim, -em, stern restim, -em, rope secūrim, -em, axe turrim, -em, tower
551. Six have the accusative commonly in #-em#, sometimes in #-im#:
bipennem, -im, two-edged axe clāvem, -im, key messem, -im, crop nāvem, -im, ship sēmentem, -im, planting strigilem, -im, skin-scraper
552. In the ablative, gender substantives have usually #-e#, and neuters and adjectives have #-ī#: as,
#hoste#, enemy; #marī#, sea; #ācrī#, sharp, #brevī#, short, #audācī#, daring.
553. (1.) Of gender substantives with the nominative in #-is#, a few have only #-ī# in the ablative, and many have either #-ī# or #-e#.
554. (a.) These ablatives have only #-ī#:
secūrī, sitī, tussī, vī, axe, thirst, cough, strength canālī, cucumī, conduit, cucumber
Some names of rivers and cities have only #-ī#: as, #Tiberī#, #Hispalī#. The locative also ends in #-ī#: as, #Neāpolī#, at Neapolis.
555. (b.) These ablatives of gender substantives with the nominative in #-is# have #-ī# or #-e#:
amne, -ī, river ave, -ī, bird bīle, -ī, bile cīvī, -e, citizen classe, -ī, fleet clāvī, -e, key febrī, -e, fever fūstī, -e, club ignī, -e, fire nāvī, -e, ship orbī, -e, circle puppī, -e, stern sēmentī, -e, planting strigilī, -e, skin-scraper turrī, -e, tower
556. A few other words in #-is# have occasionally an ablative in #-ī#: as, #anguis#, snake, #collis#, hill, #fīnis#, end, #postis#, post, #unguis#, nail, &c. #sors#, lot, #imber#, shower, and #lūx#, light, have also #-e# or #-ī#; #supellēx#, furniture, has #supellēctilī# or #-e#; #Arar# has #-e# or #-ī#; #Liger#, #-ī# or #-e#.
557. Neuter names of towns with the nominative in #-e# have #-e# in the ablative: as, #Praeneste#. #rēte#, net, has only #rēte#; #mare#, sea, has rarely #mare# (527).
558. (2.) Adjectives ‘of two endings’ with stems in #-i-# (630) often have #-e# in the ablative when they are used as substantives, and sometimes in verse, when a short vowel is needed: as,
#adfīnī#, #-e#, connection by marriage; #aedīle#, #-ī#, aedile; #familiārī#, #-e#, friend. But some, even as substantives, have #-ī#: as, #aequālī#, of the same age, #cōnsulārī#, ex-consul, #gentīlī#, tribesman. Adjectives of place in #-ēnsis# (330) usually have #-ī#, but sometimes #-e#: as, #Tarquiniēnse#. Proper names have usually #-e#: as, #Iuvenāle#.
559. Adjectives ‘of one ending’ with stems in #-i-# (632), have commonly #-ī# in the ablative. The following ablatives have only #-ī#:
#āmentī#, frenzied, #ancipitī#, two-headed, #praecipitī#, head-first, #concolōrī#, of like hue, #concordī#, harmonious, #discordī#, at variance, #sōcordī#, imperceptive, #dēgenerī#, degenerate, #dītī#, rich, #teretī#, rounded, #ingentī#, huge, #inopī#, without means, #memorī#, remembering, #immemorī#, forgetful.
560. Present participles, when used as adjectives, have #-ī# in the ablative, otherwise #-e#: as,
#ā sapientī virō#, by a wise man; #adulēscente#, youth, substantive; #Rōmulō rēgnante#, in the reign of Romulus, ablative absolute (1362).
561. Other adjectives ‘of one ending’ occasionally have #-e# in the ablative when used as substantives or as epithets of persons, or in verse when a short syllable is needed: as,
#cōnsortī#, sharing, #parī#, equal, #vigilī#, wide-awake, #fēlīcī#, happy, as adjectives; but #cōnsorte#, &c., as substantives; in prose, #imparī#, #disparī#, unequal; in verse, #impare#, #dispare#. Proper names have #-e#: as, #Fēlīce#.
PLURAL CASES.
562. In the plural, gender nominatives have #-ēs#, rarely #-īs# or #-eīs#, and gender accusatives have #-īs# or #-ēs# indifferently, sometimes #-eis#; after about 50 A.D., #-ēs# was the prevalent ending for both cases. Neuters add #-a# to the stem, making #-ia#; for #-iā́# in old Latin, cf. 2505.
563. In the genitive plural, present participles, some substantive stems in #-nt(i)-#, and some adjectives ‘of two endings’ (631) have occasionally #-um#: as,
#amantum#, lovers; #rudentum#, rigging; #agrestum#, country folk; #caelestum#, heaven’s tenantry. #apis#, bee, has commonly #-um#; #caedēs#, slaughter, and #fraus#, deceit, have rarely #-um#. For #-um# in some adjectives ‘of one ending,’ see 636; for #-bū́s# in the dative and ablative in old Latin, see 2505.
564. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows:
N. without #-is#: VECTIGAL, i.e. #vectīgālis#, adjective; #-e# for #-is# (66, 41): MILITARE, i.e. #mīlitāris#, adjective; #-ēs# (540): AIDILES, i.e. #aedīlis#; CIVES, i.e. #cīvis#. G. #-us#, from 186 to 100 B.C.: PARTVS, i.e. #partis#. D. #-ei#: VRBEI. Ac. #-i# (61): PARTI, i.e. #partem#; #-e#: AIDE, i.e. #aedem#. Ab. #-ei#: FONTEI; #-e#: SERVILE, i.e. #servīlī#. Plural: N. #-ēs#: FINES; #-eis#: FINEIS; #-īs#: FINIS.
GREEK NOUNS.
565. Greek stems in #-i-# are usually declined like Latin ones, with the accusative in #-im#, and ablative in #-ī#. But the accusative sometimes has #-n#: as, #poēsin#, poetry, #Charybdin#; similarly #Capyn#; and a vocative occurs: as, #Charybdi#. The plural genitive #Metamorphōseōn#, and as ablative #Metamorphōsesin#, occur as titles of books.
CHARACTERISTICS OF STEMS IN #-i-#.
566. Parisyllables with nominatives in #-is#, #-ēs#, or #-e#, and a few in #-er#; and imparisyllables with nominatives in #-al#, and in #-ar# for #-āre#, have stems in #-i-#.
But #canis#, #iuvenis# (486), #volucris# (490), #mēnsis# (492), #sēdēs# (476), and #vātēs# (478), have consonant stems.
567. Under #-i-# stems may also conveniently be grouped the following classes, which have usually a consonant form in the singular, and an #-i-# form in the plural:
568. (a.) Imparisyllabic adjectives with the genitive in #-is#, except comparatives and the dozen with consonant stems (624), and imparisyllables with a nominative in #-s# or #-x# preceded by any consonant except #p#. But #cōniūnx# (472) and #caelebs# (480) have consonant stems.
569. (b.) The following monosyllables: #ās#, unit, an as, #faex#, dregs, #fraus#, deceit, #glīs#, dormouse, #līs#, strife, #lūx#, light, #mās#, male, #mūs#, mouse, #nox#, night, #stirps#, trunk, #vīs#, strength. Also #fauce#, throat, and #compede#, fetter, both Ab., no N., and #fornāx#, furnace.
GENDER OF CONSONANT STEMS AND #-i-# STEMS.
570. The gender of many of these substantives is determined by their meaning (404-412); that of participles used as substantives follows the gender of the substantive understood; Greek substantives follow the Greek gender. The gender of other words may be conveniently arranged for the memory according to the nominative endings as follows.
MASCULINE.
571. Imparisyllables in #-es# or #-ēs# and substantives in #-er#, #-ō#, #-or#, and #-ōs# are masculine: as,
#caespes#, sod; #pēs#, foot; #agger#, mound; #sermō#, speech; #pallor#, paleness; #flōs#, flower.
572. These imparisyllables in #-es# or #-ēs# are feminine: #merges#, sheaf, #seges#, crop, #teges#, mat; #requiēs# and #quiēs#, rest; #compedēs#, plural, fetters; #mercēs#, reward. #aes#, copper, bronze, is neuter.
573. These substantives in #-er# are neuter: #cadāver#, corpse, #iter#, way, #tūber#, swelling, truffle, #ūber#, udder, #verberis#, lash, genitive, no nominative; also names of plants in #-er#: as, #acer#, maple, #cicer#, chickpea, #papāver#, poppy, #piper#, pepper, #siler#, osier, #siser#, skirret, #sūber#, corktree. #linter#, tub, boat, is feminine, once masculine. #vēr#, spring, is neuter.
574. Substantives in #-ō#, with genitive #-inis# (485), are feminine; as, #imāgō#, #imāginis#, likeness; also #carō#, #carnis#, flesh, and words of action in #-iō# and #-tiō# (227, 228). But #cardō#, hinge, #ōrdō#, rank, and #turbō#, whirlwind, are masculine. #margō#, brink, and #cupīdō#, desire, are sometimes masculine.
575. These substantives in #-or# are neuter: #ador#, spelt, #aequor#, sea, #marmor#, marble, #cor#, heart. #arbor#, tree, is feminine.
576. These substantives in #-ōs# are feminine: #cōs#, whetstone, #arbōs#, tree, #dōs#, dowry. #ōs#, #ōris#, mouth, face, is neuter, also #os#, #ossis#, bone.
[Erratum: 575 ... #cor#, heart. . missing]
FEMININE.
577. Parisyllables in #-ēs#, and substantives in #-ās#, #-aus#, #-is#, #-s# preceded by a consonant, and #-x#, are feminine: as,
#nūbēs#, cloud; #aetās#, age; #laus#, praise; #nāvis#, ship; #urbs#, city; #pāx#, peace.
578. #ās#, #assis#, penny, is masculine. #vās#, vessel, utensil, and the defectives #fās#, right, and #nefās#, wrong, are neuter.
579. Substantives in #-nis# are masculine; also twenty-nine others in #-is#, as follows:
axis, callis, caulis, anguis, axle, path, cabbage, snake fascis, fūstis, lapis, sanguī̆s, bundle, club, stone, blood piscis, postis, pulvī̆s, ēnsis, fish, post, dust, glaive torquis, torris, unguis, mēnsis, twisted collar, firebrand, nail, month vectis, vermis, vōmis, collis, lever, worm, ploughshare, hill glīs, canālis, also follis, dormouse, conduit, ball cassēs, sentēs, veprēs, orbis, nets, brambles, thorns, plurals, circle cucumis, and sometimes corbis. cucumber, basket
#būrim#, ploughtail, accusative only, is also masculine. A few of the above are sometimes feminine: as, #amnis#, #anguis#, #callis#, #canālis#, #cinis#, #fīnis#, #fūnis#, #torquis#, #veprēs#, &c.
580. Four in #-s# preceded by a consonant are masculine: #dēns#, tooth, #fōns#, fountain, #pōns#, bridge, #mōns#, mountain; also factors of twelve: #sextāns#, one sixth, #quadrāns#, #triēns#, #dōdrāns#, #dēxtāns#; #rudēns#, rope, once. #adeps#, fat, and #forceps#, pincers, are masculine or feminine. #stirps#, stock, is sometimes masculine.
581. #calix#, cup, #fornix#, arch, and #trādux#, vinelayer, are masculine; also substantives in #-ūnx# and #-ex#; except #nex#, murder, and #precī#, prayer, dative, no nominative, which are feminine; also rarely #grex#, herd. #cortex#, bark, #forfex#, scissors, #silex#, flint, and #obice#, barrier, ablative, no nominative, are either masculine or feminine. #calx#, heel, and #calx#, lime, are sometimes masculine, also #lūx#, light, in the ablative in old Latin.
[Erratum: 577 ... substantives in #-ās#, #-aus# #-ās# #-aus#]
NEUTER.
582. Substantives in #-c#, #-e#, #-l#, #-n#, #-t#, in #-ar#, #-ur#, #-us#, and #-ūs#, are neuter: as,
#lac#, milk; #mare#, sea; #animal#, animal; #carmen#, song; #caput#, head; #calcar#, spur; #fulgur#, lightning; #corpus#, body; #iūs#, right.
583. #sōl#, sun, #pecten#, comb, #liēn#, spleen, #rēnēs#, kidneys, plural, and #furfur#, bran, are masculine. So usually #sāl#, salt, but sometimes neuter in the singular. #fār#, spelt, is neuter.
584. #pecus#, beast, is feminine; also #tellūs#, earth, and the substantives in #-ūs# which have #-ūdis# (475) or #-ūtis# (477) in the genitive: as, #palūs#, marsh; #iuventūs#, youth.
STEMS IN #-u-#.
The Fourth Declension.
Genitive singular #-ūs#, genitive plural #-u-um#.
585. Stems in #-u-# are substantive only, and mostly masculine.
586. There are only three neuters in common use, #cornū#, horn, #genū#, knee, and #verū#, a spit. But some cases of other neuters are used: as, ablative #pecū#, flock; plural nominative and accusative #artua#, limbs (Plaut.); OSSVA, bones (inscr.).
587. The nominative of stems in #-u-# ends, including the stem vowel, in #-u-s# in gender words, and in lengthened #-ū# of the stem in neuters.
588. Most substantives in #-u-# are masculines in #-tu-# or #-su-#, often defective in case (235). The following words are feminine: #acus#, pin, needle, #domus#, house, #manus#, hand, #porticus#, colonnade; #tribus#, tribe; and the plurals #īdūs#, ides, and #quīnquātrūs#, feast of Minerva; rarely #penus#, store, and #specus#, cave.
589. Stems in #-u-# are declined as follows:
+--------+-------------------------+-------------+---------------+ |Examples| flūctus, wave, | cornū, | Stem and | | | | horn, | case | | Stems | flūctu-, M. | cornu-, Ne. | endings | +--------+-------------------------+-------------+-------+-------+ |Singular| | | M. | Ne. | | Nom. | flūctus, a (or | cornū | -us | -ū | | | the) wave | | | | | Gen. | flūctūs, a wave’s, | cornūs | -ūs | -ūs | | | of a wave | | | | | Dat. | flūctuī, -ū, to | cornū | -uī, | -ū | | | or for a wave | | -ū | | | Acc. | flūctum, a wave | cornū | -um | -ū | | Abl. | flūctū, from, with, | cornū | -ū | -ū | | | or by a wave | | | | +--------+-------------------------+-------------+-------+-------+ | Plural | | | | | | Nom. | flūctūs, (the) | cornua | -ūs | -ua | | | waves | | | | | Gen. | flūctuum, waves’, | cornuum | -uum | -uum | | | of waves | | | | | Dat. | flūctibus, to or | cornibus | -ibus | -ibus | | | for waves | | | | | Acc. | flūctūs, waves | cornua | -ūs | -ua | | Abl. | flūctibus, from, | cornibus | -ibus | -ibus | | | with, or by waves | | | | +--------+-------------------------+-------------+-------+-------+
SINGULAR CASES.
590. In the genitive, the uncontracted form #-uis# sometimes occurs: as, #anuis#, old woman (Ter.). A genitive in #-tī# is rather common: as, #adventī#, arrival; #ōrnātī#, embellishment (Ter.); #senātī#, senate. In the dative, #-ū# is regularly found for #-uī# in neuters and often in gender words.
PLURAL CASES.
591. In the genitive plural, a shorter form in #-um# is occasionally found: as, #passum#, steps (Plaut., Mart.); #currum#, chariots (Verg.); EXERCITVM. The quantity of the #u# and the origin of this ending are uncertain.
592. In the dative and ablative plural, the following retain #-u-bus#: #acus#, pin, needle, #arcus#, bow, #partus#, birth, #tribus#, tribe. The following have #-u-bus# or #-i-bus# (28): #artūs#, plural, joints, #lacus#, lake, #portus#, haven, #specus#, cave, #genū#, knee, #verū#, a spit. All other words have #-i-bus# only.
593. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows:
G. #-uos#: SENATVOS; #-ū# (66) SENATV; #-uus#, in the imperial age (29, 1): EXERCITVVS. D. #-uei# (29, 2): SENATVEI. Ac. #-u# (61): MANV. Ab. #-uu# (29, 1): ARBITRATVV; #-uō#, once, by some thought to be for #-ūd# (426); MAGISTRATVO. Plural: N. #-uus# (29, 1): MAGISTRATVVS.
594. #domus#, house, F., has stems of two forms, #domu-# and #domo-# (401); it is declined as follows: N. #domus#, G. #domūs#, rarely #domī#, D. #domuī# or #domō#, Ac. #domum#, Ab. #domō# or #domū#, Locative #domī#, rarely #domuī#. Plural: N. #domūs#, G. #domuum#, later #domōrum#, D. and Ab. #domibus#, Ac. #domōs#, less commonly #domūs#.
595. Some other substantives have an #-u-# stem in some of their cases, and an #-o-# stem in others: see #angiportus#, #arcus#, #caestus#, #colus#, #cornū#, #cornus#, #cupressus#, #fīcus#, #fretus#, #gelus#, #laurus#, #murtus#, #penus#, #pīnus#, #quercus#, #rīctus#, #tonitrus#, in the dictionary.
STEMS IN #-ē-#.
The Fifth Declension.
Genitive singular #-ē̆ī#, genitive plural #-ē-rum#.
596. Stems in #-ē-# are substantive only, and feminine.
597. #diēs#, day, is always masculine in the plural, and commonly in the singular; but the feminine is common when #diēs# denotes length of time or a set day. #merīdiēs#, midday, is masculine and singular only.
598. The nominative of stems in #-ē-# ends, including the stem vowel, in #-ē-s#.
599. Stems in #-ē-# are of two classes:
600. (1.) Stems of the first class have one or two syllables; there are four of them: #rēs#, thing, #spēs#, hope, #diēs#, day, and #fidēs#, faith.
Of this class, #rēs# and #diēs# have a plural throughout; #spēs# has only the nominative and accusative plural, and #fidēs# has no plural.
601. Stems in #-ē-# of the first class are declined as follows:
+--------+------------------------+--------------+---------------+ |Examples| rēs, thing, | diēs, day, | Stem and | | Stems | rē-, F. | diē-, M. | case endings | +--------+------------------------+--------------+---------------+ |Singular| | | | | Nom. | rēs, a (or the) | diēs | -es | | | thing | | | | Gen. | rĕ̄i, re͡i, a thing’s, | diēī, | -ē̆ī, -ēī, -e͡i | | | of a thing | die͡i | | | Dat. | rĕ̄i, re͡i, to | diēī, | -ē̆ī, -ēī, -e͡i | | | or for a thing | die͡i | | | Acc. | rem, a thing | diem | -em | | Abl. | rē, from, with, | diē | -ē | | | or by a thing | | | +--------+------------------------+--------------+---------------+ | Plural | | | | | Nom. | rēs, (the) things | diēs | -ēs | | Gen. | rērum, things’, | diērum | -ērum | | | of things | | | | Dat. | rēbus, to or | diēbus | -ēbus | | | for things | | | | Acc. | rēs, things | diēs | -ēs | | Abl. | rēbus, from, with, | diēbus | -ēbus | | | or by things | | | +--------+------------------------+--------------+---------------+
602. #fidēs# is declined like #rēs#; it has once a genitive #fidēs# (Plaut.). For #rēī#, #reī#, or #re͡i#, and #fidēī#, #fideī#, or #fide͡i#, see 127, 4. #diēs# has rarely a genitive #diēs# (Enn.) or #diī# (Verg.). #spēs# has only the genitive and dative #spe͡i# in verse. A genitive or dative in #-ē# is sometimes found: as, #rē#, #diē#, #fidē#.
603. A few cases of other words sometimes follow this class (401): as, #plēbēs# (524), commons, G. #plēbe͡i# or #plēbī#; #famēs# (524), hunger, Ab. always #famē#; #requiēs# (477), rest, G. #requiē# (Sall.), Ac. #requiem#, Ab. #requiē#; #tābēs# (523), waste, Ab. #tābē#, #*contāgēs#, contact, Ab. #contāgē# (Lucr.), &c.
604. (2.) Stems of the second class are formed by the suffix #-iē-# or #-tiē-#, and have three or more syllables.
This class, which is parallel to stems in #-iā-#, has usually no genitive, dative, or plural. Many stems, especially those in #-tiē-#, have also a collateral form in #-iā-#, and the genitive and dative, when used at all, are commonly from a stem in #-iā-#.
605. Stems in #-ē-# of the second class are declined as follows:
lūxuriēs, extravagance, stem lūxuriē-, F. Nom. lūxuriēs, Acc. lūxuriem, Abl. lūxuriē.
606. A few examples of the genitive of these stems are found: as, #perniciī#, #perniciēs#, or #perniciē#, ruin (Cic.); #rabiēs#, fury (Lucr.); #aciē#, edge of battle (Sall., Caes., auct. B. Afr.), #faciē#, make (Plaut., Lucil.), #speciē#, looks (Caes.); #aciēī# (auct. B. Afr.). And a very few of the dative: as, #aciēī# twice (Caes.); #perniciēī#, #perniciī# (Nep.); #perniciē# (Liv.).
607. #ēluviēs#, offscouring, wash, has the nominative of the plural, and #glaciēs#, ice, has the accusative of the plural. Five words only have the nominative and accusative plural:
seriēs, aciēs, row, edge, speciēs, faciēs, look, make, effigiēs, likeness.
[Erratum: 601 (table) ... rēs, (the) things rēs (the)]
THE ADJECTIVE.
608. Adjectives are declined like substantives, and it has been shown already how their cases are formed. But they differ from substantives in having different forms in some of their cases to denote different genders; it is convenient therefore to put their complete declension together.
609. Adjective stems end in #-o-# and #-ā-#, in a consonant, or in #-i-#.
610. An accusative plural of a stem in #-u-#, #anguimanūs#, with a serpent for a hand, is once used (Lucr.). There are no adjective stems in #-ē-#.
611. Adjectives are often conveniently said to be ‘of three endings,’ ‘of two endings,’ or ‘of one ending.’
By the ‘ending’ is meant the ending of the nominative singular: thus, #bonus#, #bona#, #bonum#, good, and #ācer#, #ācris#, #ācre#, sharp, are ‘of three endings’ (409); #brevis#, #breve#, short, is ‘of two endings’ (410); and #audāx#, bold, is ‘of one ending’ (410).
612. Adjectives ‘of one ending’ which form a gender nominative in #-s#, retain the #-s# irrationally in the nominative and accusative neuter singular: as, N. M. and F. #audāx#, N. and Ac. Ne. also #audāx#.
STEMS IN #-o-# AND #-ā-#.
613. Most adjectives with stems in #-o-# and #-ā-# are declined as follows:
+--------+-------------------------------------------------+ | Example| M. bonus, F. bona, Ne. bonum, good | | Stems | bono-, bonā-. | +--------+---------------------+---------------------------+ | | Singular. | Plural. | | +---------------------+---------------------------+ | | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | | +---------------------+---------------------------+ | Nom. | bonus bona bonum | boni bonae bona | | Gen. | bonī bonae bonī | bonōrum bonārum bonōrum | | Dat. | bonō bonae bonō | bonīs bonīs bonīs | | Acc. | bonum bonam bonum | bonōs bonās bona | | Abl. | bonō bonā bonō | bonīs bonīs bonīs | | Voc. | bone | | +--------+---------------------+---------------------------+
614. Stems in #-io-# and #-iā-# have no consonant #i# in cases ending in #-i# or #-īs# (153, 3): as #plēbēius#, plebeian, G. S. M. and Ne., and N. Pl. M. #plēbēī#, D. and Ab. Pl. #plēbēīs#.
615. Stems in #-ro-# preceded by a long vowel retain #-us# in the nominative singular masculine and are declined like #bonus# (453): as, #sevērus#, stern; also
ferus, merus, wild, unmixed mōrigerus, complaisant praeposterus, reversed properus, hasty prōsperus, lucky triquetrus, three-cornered
616. (1.) Some stems in #-ro-# preceded by a short vowel end in #-r# in the nominative singular masculine and have no vocative (454); they are declined as follows:
+--------+---------------------------------------------------------+ | Example| M. līber, F. lībera, Ne. līberum, free, | | Stems | lībero-, līberā-. | +--------+-------------------------+-------------------------------+ | | Singular. | Plural. | | +-------------------------+-------------------------------+ | | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | | Nom. | līber lībera līberum | līberī līberae lībera | | Gen. | līberī līberae līberī | līberōrum līberārum līberōrum | | Dat. | līberō līberae līberō | līberīs līberīs līberīs | | Acc. | līberum līberam līberum | līberōs līberās lībera | | Abl. | līberō līberā līberō | līberīs līberīs līberīs | +--------+-------------------------+-------------------------------+
Such are: compounds, chiefly poetical, ending in #-fer# and #-ger#, bearing, carrying, having: as, #caelifer#, heaven-upholding; #corniger#, horned; also the following:
(alter, 618), asper, other, rough lacer, līber, torn, free gibber, miser, hump-backed, forlorn satur, sēmifer, full, half-beast tener, Trēver, tender, Treveran
#dexter#, right, has #dextera#, #dexterum#, or #dextra#, #dextrum#, G. #dexterī#, or #dextrī#, &c. #sinister#, left, has usually #sinistra#, &c., rarely #sinisteram# (Plaut., Ter.). #asper# has a plural accusative #asprōs# (Stat.), and ablative #asprīs# (Verg.).
617. (2.) Other stems in #-ro-# have a vowel before #r# only in the nominative singular masculine #-er# (454); they are declined as follows:
+--------+-------------------------------------------------------+ | Example| M. aeger, F. aegra, Ne. aegrum, ill, | | Stems | aegro-, aegrā-. | +--------+------------------------+------------------------------+ | | Singular. | Plural. | | +------------------------+------------------------------+ | | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | | Nom. | aeger aegra aegrum | aegrī aegrae aegra | | Gen. | aegrī aegrae aegrī | aegrōrum aegrārum aegrōrum | | Dat. | aegrō aegrae aegrō | aegrīs aegrīs aegrīs | | Acc. | aegrum aegram aegrum | aegrōs aegrās aegra | | Abl. | aegrō aegrā aegrō | aegrīs aegrīs aegrīs | +--------+------------------------+------------------------------+
618. Nine adjectives or adjective pronouns have the pronoun form #-ī̆us# in the genitive singular and #-ī# in the dative singular, for masculine, feminine, and neuter alike; they are the following:
alius, another sōlus, alone tōtus, whole ūnus, one ūllus, any at all nūllus, no alter, the other uter, which of the two neuter, neither
619. Of the above words, those with the nominative in #-us# are declined like #ūnus# (638). But #alius# has N. and Ac. Ne. #aliud# (659); for the G., #alterī̆us# is mostly used, except in the combination #alīus modī#, of another sort; the N. M. is rarely #alis#, Ne. #alid#, D. rarely #alī#. #alter# is declined like #līber# (616), except in the genitive singular #alterī̆us# (127, 6) and dative #alterī#. For #uter# and its derivatives, see 693.
620. The ordinary genitive and dative of #-o-# and #-ā-# stems, from some of the above words, is sometimes found: G. and D. #aliae#, #sōlae#, #alterae#, D. #aliō#, #alterae#, &c.
CONSONANT STEMS.
OF TWO ENDINGS.
621. The only consonant stems of two endings are comparatives (346); they are declined as follows:
+--------+-----------------------------------------------------------+ | Example| M. and F. trīstior, Ne. trīstius, sadder, | | Stems | trīstiōr-, trīstius-. | +--------+----------------------------+------------------------------+ | | Singular. | Plural. | | +----------------------------+------------------------------+ | | MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. | MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. | | Nom. | trīstior trīstius | trīstiōrēs trīstiōra | | Gen. | trīstiōris trīstiōris | trīstiōrum trīstiōrum | | Dat. | trīstiōrī trīstiōrī | trīstiōribus trīstiōribus | | Acc. | trīstiōrem trīstius | trīstiōres trīstiōra | | Abl. | trīstiōre trīstiōre | trīstiōribus trīstiōribus | +--------+----------------------------+------------------------------+
622. The ablative rarely has #-ī# for #-e#: as, #meliōrī# (503); the accusative plural masculine and feminine rarely have #-īs#: as, #meliōrīs# (505).
623. #plūs#, more, has in the singular only Ne. N. and Ac. #plūs#, G. #plūris#, and Ab. #plūre#. Plural: N. M. and F. #plūrēs#, Ne. #plūra#, G. #plūrium#, D. and Ab. #plūribus#, Ac. M. and F. #plūrēs# or #plūrīs#, Ne. #plūra#. #complūrēs#, a good many, plural only, has N. M. and F. #complūrēs#, Ne. N. and Ac. #complūria# or #complūra#, G. #complūrium#, D. and Ab. #complūribus#, Ac. M. and F. #complūrēs# or #complūrīs#.
OF ONE ENDING.
624. A dozen adjectives ‘of one ending,’ mostly words applying to persons, with consonant stems throughout, have no nominative or accusative neuter plural; they are:
caelebs, compos, unmarried, master of *dēses, dīves, lazy, rich particeps, prīnceps, sharing, first pūbēs, impūbēs, mangrown, immature sōspes, superstes, safe, surviving pauper, cicur, poor, tame
625. When these adjectives have a neuter, it is the same as the gender forms, except in the accusative singular; they are declined as follows:
M. F. and Ne. #dīves#, rich, stem #dīvit-#.
Singular: N. #dīves#, G. #dīvitis#, D. #dīvitī#, Ac. M. and F. #dīvitem#, Ne. #dīves#, Ab. #dīvite#. Plural: N. and Ac. M. and F. #dīvitēs#, G. #dīvitum#, D. and Ab. #dīvitibus#.
626. The plural #caelitēs#, heavenly, occupants of heaven, is also declined like the plural of #dīves#; the singular Ab. #caelite# occurs a couple of times. #vetus#, old, G. veteris, is also declined like #dīves#, but has a Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. #vetera#; the Ab. S. is regularly #vetere#, but #veterī# is sometimes used.
STEMS IN #-i-#.
OF THREE ENDINGS.
627. A dozen adjectives with stems in #-bri-#, #-cri-#, or #-tri-#, have a distinctive form in #-er# for the masculine nominative singular; they are:
celeber, thronged salūber, healthy ācer, keen alacer, lively volucer, winged campester, of a plain equester, cavalry- palūster, of a swamp pedester, foot- puter, rotten silvester, woody terrester, land-
So also #celer#, swift. The names of months, #September#, #Octōber#, #November#, #December#, are also adjectives with stems in #-bri-#, but are not used in the neuter. Other adjectives with stems in #-bri-#, #-cri-#, or #-tri-#, have no distinctive form for the masculine nominative singular: as, #muliebris#, #mediocris#, #inlūstris#.
628. These adjectives are declined as follows:
+--------+---------------------+---------------------------------+ | Example| M. ācer, F. ācris, Ne. ācre, sharp | | Stem | ācri-. | +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------+ | | Singular. | Plural. | | +---------------------+---------------------------------+ | | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | | Nom. | ācer ācris ācre | ācres ācres ācria | | Gen. | ācris ācris ācris | ācrium ācrium ācrium | | Dat. | ācrī ācrī ācrī | ācribus ācribus ācribus | | Acc. | ācrem ācrem ācre | ācrīs, -ēs acrīs, -ēs ācria | | Abl. | ācrī ācrī ācrī | ācribus ācribus ācribus | +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------+
629. In all cases but the masculine nominative singular these adjectives are just like those in #-i-# ‘of two endings’ (630). But the ablative always has #-ī#, never #-e#, and the genitive plural always has #-ium#, never #-um#. In #celer# the second #e# belongs to the stem: M. #celer#, F. #celeris#, Ne. #celere#; the genitive plural, which is #celerum#, is found only as a substantive. Most of these adjectives have now and then a masculine in #-is#, like adjectives ‘of two endings’ (630), and in old Latin the nominative #-er# is rarely feminine.
OF TWO ENDINGS.
630. Adjectives ‘of two endings’ with stems in #-i-# are declined as follows:
+--------+-------------------------------------------+ | Example| M. and F. brevis, Ne. breve, short | | Stem | brevi-. | +--------+------------------+------------------------+ | | Singular. | Plural. | | +------------------+------------------------+ | | MASC. NEUT. | MASC. NEUT. | | | AND FEM. | AND FEM. | | +------------------+------------------------+ | Nom. | brevis breve | brevēs brevia | | Gen. | brevis brevis | brevium brevium | | Dat. | brevī brevī | brevibus brevibus | | Acc. | brevem breve | brevīs, -ēs brevia | | Abl. | brevī brevī | brevibus brevibus | +--------+------------------+------------------------+
631. The ablative is sometimes #-e# when these adjectives are used substantively or in verse (558). The genitive plural is rarely #-um# for #-ium# (563).
OF ONE ENDING.
632. Most adjectives ‘of one ending’ have a consonant form of the stem in the singular, except usually in the ablative (633), and an #-i-# stem in the plural; they are declined as follows:
+--------+-------------------------+-----------------------------+ | Example| M. F. and Ne. audāx, | M. F. Ne. regēns, ruling, | | | bold, | | | Stems | audāc(i)- | regent(i)- | +--------+-------------------------+-----------------------------+ |Singular| MASC. & FEM. NEUT. | MASC. & FEM. NEUT. | | Nom. | audāx audāx | regēns regēns | | Gen. | audācis audācis | regentis regentis | | Dat. | audācī audācī | regentī regentī | | Acc. | audācem audāx | regentem regēns | | Abl. | audācī audācī | regente, -ī regente, -ī | +--------+-------------------------+-----------------------------+ | Plural | MASC. & FEM. NEUT. | MASC. & FEM. NEUT. | | Nom. | audācēs audācia | regentēs regentia | | Gen. | audācium audācium | regentium regentium | | Dat. | audācibus audācibus | regentibus regentibus | | Acc. | audācīs, -ēs audācia | regentīs, -ēs regentia | | Abl. | audācibus audācibus | regentibus regentibus | +--------+-------------------------+-----------------------------+
633. Present participles have #-ī# in the ablative, when they are used as adjectives, otherwise #-e# (560). For #-ī# or #-e# in other words, see 559, 561. For #-ium# or #-um# in the genitive plural, 563.
634. Most adjectives ‘of one ending’ in #-i-# are declined as above (632); some of them have peculiarities in some of their cases, as follows:
635. (1.) #trux# (531), savage, has Ab. #-ī# or #-e#, G. Pl. #-ium#, no Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. #redux# (531), returning, has Ab. #-ī# or #-e#, no G. Pl. or Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. #hebes#, dull, #teres#, cylindrical (533), and compounds of #caput#, head, as #anceps#, (533), two-headed, have Ab. #-ī#, no G. Pl.; a Ne. Pl. N. or Ac. #-ia# is rare. For #locuplēs#, rich, see 533.
636. (2.) The following have #-ī# in the ablative, but #-um# of consonant stems in the genitive plural, and no nominative or accusative neuter plural: #inops# (535), without means, #vigil# (536), wide-awake, #memor# (537), remembering, #dēgener#, degenerate, ūber (537), prolific, has Ab. #-ī#, twice #-e#, Ne. Pl. once #-a# (Acc.). Compounds of #pēs#, as, #bipēs# (532), two-legged, have a late and rare Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. #-ia#.
THE NUMERAL ADJECTIVE.
637. Of the cardinals, #ūnus#, #duo#, #trēs#, and the hundreds except #centum# are declined. The other cardinals are not declined.
638. #ūnus#, one, is declined as follows:
+--------+---------------------+------------------------+ | | Singular. | Plural. | +--------+---------------------+------------------------+ | | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | | Nom. | ūnus ūna ūnum | ūnī ūnae ūna | | Gen. | ūnīus ūnīus ūnīus | ūnōrum ūnārum ūnōrum | | Dat. | ūnī ūnī ūnī | ūnīs ūnīs ūnīs | | Acc. | ūnum ūnam ūnum | ūnōs ūnās ūna | | Abl. | ūnō ūnā ūnō | ūnīs ūnīs ūnīs | | Voc. | ūne | | +--------+---------------------+------------------------+
In verse, the genitive singular is often #ūnius#.
639. #duo#, two, and #trēs#, three, are declined as follows:
+--------+-----------------------------+----------------------+ | | MASC FEM. NEUT. | MASC. & FEM. NEUT. | | Nom. | duo duae duo | trēs tria | | Gen. | duōrum duārum duōrum | trium trium | | Dat. | duōbus duābus duōbus | tribus tribus | | Acc. | duo or duōs duās duo | trēs or trīs tria | | Abl. | duōbus duābus duōbus | tribus tribus | +--------+-----------------------------+----------------------+
640. In dramatic verse, #du͡o#, &c., is common. In the genitive plural, #duo# sometimes has #duū̆m# (462). #ambō#, both, is declined like #duo#, but has #-ō# in the nominative and accusative, and only #ambōrum# and #ambārum# in the genitive plural. For the forms #duo#, #ambō#, see 415; #duōbus#, #duābus#, 464, 442.
641. Hundreds are declined like the plural of #bonus# (613): as, #ducentī#, #ducentae#, #ducenta#, two hundred, G. #ducentōrum# or #ducentū̆m# (462), &c.
642. The adjective #mīlle#, thousand, is not declined. The substantive has in the singular only N. Ac. Ab. #mīlle#, or Ab. #mīllī#; plural: N. and Ac. #mīllia# (#mīlia#), G. #mīllium# (#mīlium#), D. and Ab. #mīllibus# (#mīlibus#).
643. Ordinals, as #prīmus#, first, and distributives, as #bīnī#, two each, are declined like #bonus# (613). But distributives seldom have a singular, and often have the genitive plural #-ū̆m# (462): as, #bīnū̆m#.
THE PRONOUN.
(A.) THE PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUN.
644. The pronoun of the first person, #ego#, I, of the second person, #tū#, thou, and the reflexive pronoun, #suī#, #sē#, himself, herself, itself, themselves, are declined as follows:
+--------+--------------------------+-----------------------+-------+ | | ego, I | tu, thou | sui, | | | | |self | +--------+----------+---------------+-------+---------------+-------+ | | Sing. | Plur. | Sing. |Plur. | Sing. | | | | | | |& Plur.| +--------+----------+---------------+-------+---------------+-------+ | Nom. | ego | nōs | tū | vōs | | | Gen. | meī | nostrŭ̄m, -trī | tuī | vestrū̆m, -trī | suī | | Dat. | mihĭ̄, mi | nōbīs | tibĭ̄ | vōbīs | sibī̆ | | Acc. | mē | nōs | tē | vōs | sē | | Abl. | mē | nōbīs | tē | vōbīs | sē | +--------+----------+---------------+-------+---------------+-------+
645. The nominatives #ego# and #tū#, and the accusatives #mē#, #tē# and #sē#, have no case ending. The last vowel of #ego# is rarely long in Plautus, long or short in Lucilius. The nominative ego has a different stem from that of its other cases, and the plurals of #ego# and #tū# have a different stem from that of the singular.
646. #meī#, #tuī#, and #suī#, which are often monosyllables in old verse, were originally the genitive of the neuter possessives, used substantively. An old genitive #mīs# is quoted, and #tīs# occurs rarely in Plautus.
647. The relation of the ending #-bīs# in #vōbīs# to #-bī̆# in #tibī̆# may be due to analogy with #illīs, illī#. #nōbīs# is formed after #vōbīs#.
648. In old Latin, the ablative is #mēd, tēd, sēd# (426), which forms are also used irrationally for the accusative. But by Terence’s time the #-d# was no longer used (143).
649. Older forms for #vestrū̆m# and #vestrī# are #vostrūm# and #vostrī#. The genitive plural was originally a genitive of the possessive: that in #-ī# being the neuter singular, that in #-ū̆m# the masculine or feminine plural. In old Latin, #nostrōrum#, #nostrārum#, #vostrōrum#, #vostrārum# also occur.
650. Emphasis is given (1.) by reduplication (189): Ac. and Ab. #mēmē#, #tētē#, rare; #sēsē#, very common. (2.) by #-te# added to the N. of #tū#: #tūte#. (3.) by #-met# added to any case but the genitive plural: as, #egomet#; but #tū# has only #tūtemet# or #tūtimet#.
651. In inscriptions, the datives MIHEI, TIBEI, and SIBEI occur, so written in verse sometimes even when the last syllable is short; and MIHE, TIBE. Plural: D. and Ab. VOBEIS. Ac. ENOS in an old hymn; SEESE (29, 1).
THE PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE POSSESSIVE.
652. The possessives of #ego#, #tū#, and #suī#, are #meus#, mine, #tuus#, thine, and #suus#, his, her, its, their (own), declined like #bonus# (613), except that #meus# has #mī# in the vocative singular masculine (459); those of #nōs# and #vōs# are #noster#, our, and #voster#, later #vester#, your, declined like #aeger# (617).
653. Old forms are #tuos#, #tuom#, and #suos#, #suom# (452). In old verse #me͡us#, #me͡i#, &c., #tu͡os#, #tu͡i#, &c., #su͡os#, #su͡i#, &c., often occur. #sōs# for #suōs#, #sās# for #suās#, and #sīs# for #suīs#, are old and rare.
654. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows:
MEEIS, MIEIS, monosyllable; TOVAM; SVEI, SOVOM, SOVO, SVVO, SOVEIS, SVEIS, SVIEIS.
655. Emphasis is given (1.) by #-met# added to #suō#, #suā#, #suōs#, and to #mea# and #sua#, neuter plural: as, #suōmet#; (2.) by #-pte#, which is oftenest found with the ablative: as, #suōpte#.
(B.) OTHER PRONOUNS.
656. Some pronouns have a peculiar genitive singular in #-ī̆us# and dative singular in #-ī#, for masculine, feminine, and neuter alike.
These are: #iste#, #ille#, #ipse#, #uter#, and their derivatives. Some other words of a pronoun character also have this form of the genitive and dative: see 618.
657. In verse, the #-ī-# of the genitive is often shortened, and always in #utriusque#; but #neutrīus# is not found with short i. In dramatic verse, the genitive singular of #iste#, #ille#, or #ipse#, is often two syllables.
658. #hīc#, is, #quī# or #quis#, and their derivatives have the genitive singular in #-ius#, thus: #huius#, #eius#, and #quoius# or #cuius#; in dramatic verse, these genitives are often one syllable. Their datives are #huic# for #hoice#, #ē̆ī# or #e͡i#, and #quoi# or #cui#.
659. Six words have a peculiar neuter nominative and accusative singular in #-d#: #id#, #illud#, #istud#, #quid#, #quod#, #aliud#, and derivatives. In manuscripts, #-t# is sometimes found for #-d#: as, #it#, #illut#, #istut#, &c.; sometimes also in inscriptions of the empire. In #hoc# for #*hod-ce# and in #istuc# and #illuc# for #*istud-ce#, #*illud-ce#, the #d# has vanished (166, 1; 171, 1).
THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN.
660. The demonstrative pronouns are #hīc#, this, this near me; #iste#, #istic#, that, that near you; and #ille#, #illic#, yonder, that.
661. The demonstrative pronoun #hīc#, this, this near me, is declined as follows:
+--------+---------------------+---------------------+ | | Singular. | Plural. | +--------+---------------------+---------------------+ | | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | | Nom. | hīc haec hoc | hī hae haec | | Gen. | huius huius huius | hōrum hārum hōrum | | Dat. | huic huic huic | hīs hīs hīs | | Acc. | hunc hanc hoc | hōs hās haec | | Abl. | hōc hāc hōc | hīs hīs hīs | +--------+---------------------+---------------------+
662. The stem of #hīc# is #ho-#, #hā-#; to most of its cases a demonstrative #-c# for #-ce# is attached. The masculine and feminine nominative singular and nominative and accusative neuter plural take an #-i-#: #hīc# for #*ho-i-ce# (108, a); #haec# for #ha-i-ce# (96). #hunc#, #hanc#, are for #*hom-ce#, #*ham-ce#. For the quantity of the first syllable of #huius#, see 153, 2; of #hoc#, 171, 1.
663. Old forms with the full ending #-ce# are rare except after #-s#: Plural Ne. Acc. #haece# (Enn.); G. F. #hārumce# (Cato); also G. #hōrunc#, #hārunc# (Pl., T.); #hōsce#, D. and Ab. #hīsce# (Pl., T.). After 100 B.C., the full form #-ce# is not found, except occasionally after #-s#: #huiusce#, #hōsce#, #hāsce#, #hīsce#. Before #-ne# interrogative it is retained in the weakened form #-ci-#: as, #hīcine#. But #hīcne#, #hocne#, #huicne#, &c., are found, though rarely.
664. The nominative #hic# or #hicine# found in the dramatists and rarely later is probably for #*ho-c#, #*he-c# (103, a). A nominative plural feminine #haec# is found in writers of all ages. Other and rare forms are: Pl. N. M. #hīsce# (461), D. or Ab. #hībus#.
665. Other case forms of #hīc# are found in inscriptions, as follows:
N. M. HEC, HIC. G. HOIVS, HVIIVS (23), HVIVS, HOIVSCE, HOIVSQVE, HVIVSQVE. D. HOICE, HOIC, HOI, HVIC, HVI. Ac. M. HONC, HOC; F. HANCE; Ne. HOCE, HVC. Ab. M. and Ne. HOCE; F. HACE, oftener than HAC in republican inscriptions; HAACE (29, 1). Loc. HEICE, HEIC. Plural: N. M. HEISCE, HEIS, or HEI, HISCE or HIS; HI, not before Augustus; Ne. N. and Ac. HAICE, HAECE. G. HORVNC. D. and Ab. HEISCE, HIBVS. Ac. F. HASCE.
666. The demonstrative pronouns #iste#, that, that near you, and #ille#, yonder, are declined alike, as follows:
+--------+------------------------+---------------------------+ | | Singular. | Plural. | +--------+------------------------+---------------------------+ | | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | | Nom. | ille illa illud | illī illae illa | | Gen. | illī̆us illī̆us illī̆us | illōrum illārum illōrum | | Dat. | illī illī illī | illīs illīs illīs | | Acc. | illum illam illud | illōs illās illa | | Abl. | illō illā illō | illīs illīs illīs | +--------+------------------------+---------------------------+
667. The first syllable of #iste# and #ille# is often short in the dramatists. Old forms of #iste# are: N. #istus#, G. #istī#, in #istīmodī#, D. F. #istae#. The initial #i# of #iste# and of #istic# (669), is sometimes not written: as, #sta rēs# (Cic.), #stūc perīculum# (Ter.). Old forms of #ille# are: N. #olus# (81); #ollus# or #olle#, &c.: as, D. S. or N. Pl. #ollī#, D. Pl. #ollīs#. G. #illī#, in #illīmodī#, D. F. #illae#. The dramatists have #eccistam#, #eccilla#, #eccillud#, #eccillum#, #eccillam#, for #ecce istam#, &c., and #ellum#, #ellam#, for #em illum#, &c.
668. Other case forms of ille are found in inscriptions, as follows:
D. F. ILLAE. Plural: N. M. ILLEI. G. OLORVM (81). D. and Ab. OLLEIS, ILLEIS.
669. #istic# and #illic#, compounded of #iste#, #ille#, and #-ce# or #-c#, are declined alike, as follows:
+--------+------------------------+---------------------------+ | | Singular. | Plural. | +--------+------------------------+---------------------------+ | | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | | Nom. | illic illaec illuc | illīc illaec illaec | | Acc. | illunc illanc illuc | illōsce illāsce illaec | | Abl. | illōc illāc illōc | illīsce illīsce illīsce | +--------+------------------------+---------------------------+
670. Rare forms are: N. and Ac. Ne. #istoc#, #illoc#, G. #illīusce#, D. #illīc#, Ab. F. #istāce#, #illāce#. Plural: N. M. #illīsce# (461), #illīc#, Ac. #illōsce#, #illāsce#. Before #-ne# interrogative, #-ce# becomes #-ci-#: N. #illicine#, #istucine#, Ac. #illancine#, Ab. #istōcine#, #istācinē#. Pl. Ac. #istōscine#.
THE DETERMINATIVE PRONOUN.
671. The determinative pronoun #is#, that, the aforesaid, the one, is declined as follows:
+--------+-------------------+---------------------------------+ | | Singular. | Plural. | +--------+-------------------+---------------------------------+ | | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | | Nom. | is ea id | eī, iī, eae ea | | | | or ī | | Gen. | eius eius eius | eōrum eārum eōrum | | Dat. | ē̆ī ē̆ī ē̆ī | eīs, iīs, eīs, iīs, eīs, iīs, | | | | or īs or īs or īs | | Acc. | eum eam id | eōs eās ea | | Abl. | eō eā eō | eīs, iīs, eīs, iīs, eīs, iīs, | | | | or īs or īs or īs | +--------+-------------------+---------------------------------+
672. #is# and #id# (659) are formed from a stem #-i-#, and the other parts from a stem #eo-#, #eā-#. The genitive is sometimes written in Cicero and Plautus #eiius#; for the quantity of the first syllable of #eius#, see 153, 2; for #ĕ̄i#, see 127, 3, and 127, 4.
673. In old verse, the genitive singular rarely has the first syllable short. Old and rare forms are: D. F. #eae#, Ac. M. #im# or #em#. Pl. D, and Ab. #ī̆bus#, F. #eābus# (442). In dramatic verse, #e͡um#, #e͡am#, #e͡i#, #e͡o#, #e͡a#, and #e͡i#, #e͡orum#, #e͡arum#, #e͡os#, #e͡as#, #e͡is#, are often found; also #eccum#, #eccam#, #eccōs#, #eccās#, #ecca#, for #ecce eum#, &c.
674. Other case forms of #is# are found in inscriptions, as follows:
N. EIS, 124 B.C. G. EIVS, EIIVS, EIIVS or EIIVS (23). D. EIEI, 123 B.C.; EEI, IEI; EI, 123 B.C., and common in all periods. Plural: N. EEIS, EIS, IEIS, till about 50 B.C.; EEI, EI, IEI. D. and Ab. EEIS, EIEIS, IEIS, IS; after the republic, IIS, IIS.
675. A rare and old pronoun equivalent to #is# is #sum#, #sam#, accusative singular, #sōs#, accusative plural, and #sīs#, dative plural.
THE PRONOUN OF IDENTITY.
676. The pronoun of identity, #īdem#, the same, is declined as follows:
+--------+-------------------------+-------------------------------+ | | Singular. | Plural. | +--------+-------------------------+-------------------------------+ | | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | | | | | | Nom. | īdem eadem idem | eīdem } eaedem eadem | | | | or īdem } | | | | | | Gen. | eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem | eōrundem eārundem eōrundem | | | | | | Dat. | eīdem eīdem eīdem | eīsdem } eīsdem } eīsdem } | | | | or īsdem} or īsdem} or īsdem} | | | | | | Acc. | eundem eandem idem | eōsdem eāsdem eadem | | | | | | Abl. | eōdem eādem eōdem | eīsdem } eīsdem } eīsdem } | | | | or īsdem} or īsdem} or īsdem} | +--------+-------------------------+-------------------------------+
677. In manuscripts and editions, the plural nominative masculine is often written #iīdem#, and the dative and ablative #iīsdem#. The singular nominative masculine is rarely #eisdem# or #isdem# (Plaut., Enn.), #eidem# (Cic., Varr.), neuter #īdem# (Plaut.). In verse, #eundem#, #e͡andem#, #e͡idem#, #e͡odem#, #e͡adem#, and #e͡idem#, #e͡aedem#, #e͡orundem#, #e͡osdem#, #e͡asdem#, are often found.
678. Other case forms of #īdem# are found in inscriptions, as follows:
N. M. EISDEM, 123 B.C., ISDEM, 59 B.C., both common till Caesar’s time; EIDEM; Ne. EIDEM, 71 B.C. D. IDEM. Plural: N. M. EISDEM, ISDEM, EIDEM, till Caesar’s time; IIDEM, once only. D. and Ab. ISDEM, very rarely IISDEM.
THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN.
679. The intensive pronoun #ipse#, himself, stems #ipso-#, #ipsā-#, is declined like #ille# (666), but has the nominative and accusative neuter singular #ipsum#.
680. In dramatic verse, #ipse# has rarely the first syllable short, and often has the older form #ipsus#. Plautus has these forms: N. F. #eapse#, Ac. #eumpse#, #eampse#, Ab. #eōpse#, #eāpse#, equivalent to #ipsa#, &c. So #reāpse# for #rē ipsā#.
THE RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE PRONOUN.
(1.) #quī# AND #quis#.
681. The stem #qui-#, or #quo-#, #quā-#, is used in three ways: as a relative, who, which; as an interrogative, who? which? what? as an indefinite, any.
682. (a.) The relative #quī#, who, which, is declined as follows:
+--------+---------------------+------------------------+ | | Singular. | Plural. | +--------+---------------------+------------------------+ | | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | MASC. FEM. NEUT. | | Nom. | quī quae quod | quī quae quae | | Gen. | cuius cuius cuius | quōrum quārum quōrum | | Dat. | cui cui cui | quibus quibus quibus | | Acc. | quem quam quod | quōs quās quae | | Abl. | quō quā quō | quibus quibus quibus | +--------+---------------------+------------------------+
683. (b.) The interrogative adjective #quī#, #quae#, #quod#, which? what? is declined like the relative #quī# (682).
684. The interrogative substantive has in the nominative singular #quis#, #quid#, who? what? the rest is like #quī# (682).
In old Latin, #quis# is both masculine and feminine, but a separate feminine form #quae# is used three or four times.
685. #quis# interrogative is sometimes used adjectively with appellatives: as, #quis senātor?# what senator? And #quī# is sometimes used substantively: as, #quī prīmus Ameriam nūntiat?# who is the first to bring the tidings to Ameria?
686. (c.) The indefinite #quis# or #quī#, one, any, has the following forms:
#quis# and #quid# masculine and neuter substantives, #quī# and #quod# adjectives; feminine singular nominative and neuter plural nominative and accusative commonly #qua#, also #quae#. The rest is like #quī# (682).
687. #quis#, #quem#, #quid#, and #quibus# come from the stem #qui-#; the other parts come from #quo-#, #quā-#. #quae# stands for an older #quai# (690). For #quid# and #quod#, see 659.
688. Old forms of the genitive singular are #quoius#, and of the dative #quoiei#, #quoiī#, or #quoi#, also in derivatives of #quī# or #quis#. A genitive plural #quōiūm# is old and rare. The dative and ablative plural is sometimes #quīs# from #quo-#, #quā-#. A nominative plural interrogative and indefinite #quēs# is rare (Pacuv.).
689. The ablative or locative is sometimes #quī#, from the stem #qui-#: as an interrogative, how? as a relative, wherewith, whereby, masculine, feminine, or neuter, in old Latin sometimes with a plural antecedent; especially referring to an indefinite person, and with #cum# attached, #quīcum#; and as an indefinite, somehow.
690. Other case forms of #quī# or #quis# and their derivatives are found in inscriptions, as follows:
N. QVEI, prevalent in republican inscriptions; also QVI; once QVE. G. QVOIVS, regularly in republican inscriptions; CVIIVS, CVIIVS, CVIIVS (23), once QVIVS (20). D. QVOIEI, QVOI; once F. QVAI. Ab. QVEI. Plural: N. M. QVEI, but after 120 B.C., occasionally QVI; QVES, indefinite; F. and Ne. QVAI. G. QVOIVM.
DERIVATIVES OF #quī# AND #quis#.
691. The derivatives of #quī# and #quis# have commonly #quis# and #quid# as substantives, and #quī# and #quod# as adjectives. Forms requiring special mention are named below:
692. #quisquis#, whoever, whatever, everybody who, everything which, an indefinite relative, has only these forms in common use: N. M. #quisquis#, sometimes F. in old Latin, Ne. N. and Ac. #quicquid# or #quidquid#, Ab. M. and Ne. as adjective #quōquō#.
Rare forms are: N. M. #quīquī#, Ac. #quemquem#, once Ab. F. #quāquā#, as adverb #quīquī#, once D. #quibusquibus#. A short form of the genitive occurs in #quoiquoimodī# or #cuicuimodī#, of whatsoever sort.
#aliquis# or #aliquī#, #aliqua#, once #aliquae# (Lucr.), #aliquid# or #aliquod#, some one, some; Ab. M. sometimes, Ne. often #aliquī# (689). Pl. Ne. N. and Ac. only #aliqua#; D. and Ab. sometimes #aliquīs# (668).
#ecquis# or #ecquī#, #ecqua# or #ecquae#, #ecquid# or #ecquod#, any? Besides the nominative only these forms are found: D. eccui, Ac. #ecquem#, #ecquam#, #ecquid#, Ab. M. and Ne. #ecquō#. Pl. N. #ecquī#, Ac. M. #ecquōs#, F. #ecquās#.
#quīcumque#, #quaecumque#, #quodcumque#, whoever, whichever, everybody who, everything which. The #cumque# is sometimes separated from #quī# by an intervening word. An older form is #quīquomque#, &c.
#quīdam#, #quaedam#, #quiddam# or #quoddam#, a, a certain, some one, so and so; Ac. #quendam#, #quandam#. Pl. G. #quōrundam#, #quārundam#.
#quīlibet#, #quaelibet#, #quidlibet# or #quodlibet#, any you please.
#quisnam#, rarely #quīnam#, #quaenam#, #quidnam# or #quodnam#, who ever? who in the world? Sometimes #nam quis#, &c.
#quispiam#, #quaepiam#, #quippiam#, #quidpiam# or #quodpiam#, any, any one; Ab. also #quīpiam# (689), sometimes as adverb, in any way.
#quisquam#, #quicquam# or #quidquam#, anybody at all, anything at all, generally a substantive, less frequently an adjective, any at all. There is no distinctive feminine form, and #quisquam# and #quemquam# are rarely, and in old Latin, used as a feminine adjective. Ab. also #quīquam# (689), sometimes as adverb, in any way at all. No plural.
#quisque#, #quaeque#, #quicque#, #quidque# or #quodque#, each. Sometimes #ūnus# is prefixed: #ūnusquisque#; both parts are declined. #quisque# and #quemque# are sometimes feminine. Ab. S. #quīque# (689) rare, Ab. Pl. #quīsque# (688) once (Lucr.).
#quīvīs#, #quaevīs#, #quidvīs# or #quodvīs#, which you will; Ab. also #quīvīs# (689).
(2.) #uter#.
693. #uter#, #utra#, #utrum#, whether? which of the two? has the genitive singular #utrīus#, and the dative singular #utrī#.
The rest is like #aeger# (617). #uter# is sometimes relative, whichsoever, or indefinite, either of the two.
DERIVATIVES OF #uter#.
694. The derivatives of #uter# are declined like #uter#; they are:
#neuter#, neither of the two, genitive #neutrīus#, always with #ī# (657). When used as a grammatical term, neuter, the genitive is always #neutrī#: as, #generis neutrī#, of neither gender.
#utercumque#, #utracumque#, #utrumcumque#, whichever of the two, either of the two.
#uterlibet#, whichever you please.
#uterque#, whichsoever, both. G. always #utriusque# (657).
#utervīs#, whichever you wish.
#alteruter#, F. #altera utra#, Ne. #alterutrum# or #alterum utrum#, one or the other, G. #alterīus utrīus#, once late #alterutrīus#, D. #alterutrī#, Ac. M. #alterutrum# or #alterum utrum#, F. #alterutram# once (Plin.) or #alteram utram#, Ab. #alterutrō# or #alterō utrō#, F. #alterā utrā#. No Pl., except D. #alterutrīs# once (Plin.).
CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS.
695. Pronouns often correspond with each other in meaning and form; some of the commonest correlatives are the following:
Int. Interrogative Indef. Indefinite Dem., Det. Demonstrative, Determinative, &c. Rel. Relative.
+----------+---------------+-------------+------------+-----------+ | Kind. | Int. | Indef. | Dem., Det. | Rel. | +----------+---------------+-------------+------------+-----------+ | Simple | quis, quī, | quis, quī, | hīc, iste, | quī | | Simple | who? | aliquis | ille, is, | | | | | | quisque | | +----------+---------------+-------------+------------+-----------+ | Alter- | uter, _which | uter, | uterque | uter, quī | | native | of the two?_ | alteruter | | | +----------+---------------+-------------+------------+-----------+ | Number | quot, _how | aliquot | tot | quot | | | many?_ (431) | | | | +----------+---------------+-------------+------------+-----------+ | Quantity | quantus, _how | aliquantus, | tantus | quantus | | | large?_ (613)| quantusvīs | | | +----------+---------------+-------------+------------+-----------+ | Quality |quālis, | quālislibet | tālis | quālis | | | _of what | | | | | | sort?_ (630) | | | | +----------+---------------+-------------+------------+-----------+
THE ADVERB, THE CONJUNCTION, AND THE PREPOSITION.
I. NOUNS AS ADVERBS.
696. Adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions are chiefly noun or pronoun cases which have become fixed in a specific form and with a specific meaning. Many of these words were still felt to be live cases, even in the developed period of the language; with others the consciousness of their noun character was lost.
697. Three cases are used adverbially: the accusative, the ablative, and the locative.
698. The rather indeterminate meaning of the accusative and the ablative is sometimes more exactly defined by a preposition. The preposition may either accompany its usual case: as, #adamussim, admodum, īlicō#; or it may be loosely prefixed, with more of the nature of an adverb than of a preposition, to a case with which it is not ordinarily used: as, #examussim, intereā#. Sometimes it stands after the noun: as, #parumper#, a little while. Besides the three cases named above, other forms occur, some of which are undoubtedly old case endings, though they can no longer be recognized as such: see 710.
[Erratum: 698. . invisible]
(1.) ACCUSATIVE.
(a.) ACCUSATIVE OF SUBSTANTIVES.
699. #domum#, homeward, home; #rūs#, afield; #forās#, out of doors #(*forā-); vicem#, instead; #partim#, in part; old #noenum# or #noenu#, common #nōn#, for #ne-oenum#, i.e. #ūnum#, not one, naught, not; #admodum#, to a degree, very; #adamussim, examussim#, to a #T#; #adfatim#, to satiety; #invicem#, in turn, each other.
700. Many adverbs in #-tim# and #-sim# denote manner (549): as, #cautim#, warily, #statim#, at once, #sēnsim#, perceptibly, gradually; #ōstiātim#, door by door, #virītim#, man by man, #fūrtim#, stealthily.
(b.) ACCUSATIVE OF ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS.
701. Neuters: all comparative adverbs in #-ius# (361): as, #doctius#, more learnedly; so #minus#, less, #magis#, more (363). #prīmum#, first, #secundum#, secondly, &c.; #tum#, then (#to-#, that): #commodum#, just in time; #minimum#, at least, #potissimum#, in preference, #postrēmum#, at last, #summum#, at most; #versum#, toward, #rursum, russum, rūsum#, back; #facile#, easily, #impūne#, scotfree, #recēns#, lately, #semel#, once (#simili-#), #simul#, together (#simili-#). Plural: #cētera#, for the rest; #quia#, because (#qui-#); in old Latin #frūstra#, in vain (#fraud-#).
702. Feminines: #bifāriam#, twofold; #cōram#, face to face (#com-# or #co-, *ōrā-#); #tam#, so (#tā-#, that); #quam#, as, how. Plural: #aliās#, on other occasions.
(2.) ABLATIVE.
(a.) ABLATIVE OF SUBSTANTIVES.
703. #domō#, from home, #rūre#, from the country; #hodiē#, to-day (#ho-#, #diē-#), #volgō#, publicly, #vespere#, by twilight, #noctū#, by nights, nights, #lūce#, by light, #tempore#, in times, betimes; #sponte#, voluntarily, #forte#, by chance; #quotannīs#, yearly; #grātiīs# or #grātīs#, for nothing, #ingrātiīs# or #ingrātīs#, against one’s will; #īlicō#, on the spot (169, 4; 170, 2), #forīs#, out of doors (#*forā-#).
(b.) ABLATIVE OF ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS.
704. Many adverbs in #-ō# are formed from adjectives of time: as, #perpetuō#, to the end, #crēbrō#, frequently, #rārō#, seldom, #repentīnō#, suddenly, #sērō#, late, #prīmō#, at first. Many denote manner: as, #arcānō#, privily, #sēriō#, in earnest. Some are formed from participles: as, #auspicātō#, with auspices taken; #compositō#, by agreement. A plural is rare: #alternīs#, alternately.
705. Instead of #-ō#, neuter ablatives commonly have #-ē#: as, #longē#, far, #doctē#, wisely. So also superlatives: #facillimē#, most easily, anciently FACILVMED (362). Consonant stems have #-e#: as, #repente#, suddenly.
706. From pronouns some end in #-ī# (689): as, #quī#, how? indefinite, #quī#, somehow; #atquī#, but somehow; #quī-quam#, in any way at all.
707. Feminines: many in #-ā#: #ūnā#, together; #circā#, around; #contrā#, against (#com-#, 347); #extrā#, outside (#ex#, 347); in classical Latin, #frūstrā#, in vain (#fraud-#). So, especially, adverbs denoting the ‘route by which:’ #hāc#, this way; #rēctā#, straightway.
(3.) LOCATIVE.
708. In #-ī#, from names of towns and a few other words: #Karthāginī#, at Carthage; #Rōmae#, for #Rōmāī#, at Rome; #domī#, at home; #illī#, commonly #illī-c#, there (#illo-#), #istī#, commonly #istī-c#, where you are, #hī-c#, here (#ho-#); old #sei#, common #sī#, at that, in that case, so, if; #sīc#, so (#sī#, #-ce#).
709. In #-bī̆#, from some pronouns: #ibī̆#, there (#i-#); #ubī̆# (for #*quobī̆#, 146), where; #alicubī̆#, somewhere; #sī-cubi#, if anywhere, #nē-cubi#, lest anywhere.
[Erratum: 708 ... #domī#, at home; ; missing]
OTHER ENDINGS.
710. Besides the above, other endings are also found in words of this class: as,
#-s# in #abs#, from, #ex#, out of; similarly #us-que#, in every case, ever, #us-quam#, anywhere at all. #-tus# has the meaning of an ablative: as, #intus#, from within, within; #antīquitus#, from old times, anciently; #funditus#, from the bottom, entirely. #-ō# denotes the ‘place to which’ in adverbs from pronoun stems: as, #eō#, thither; #quō#, whither; #illō#, or #illūc#, for #illoi-ce#, thither, after #hūc#; #hōc#, commonly #hūc#, perhaps for #hoi-ce# (99) hither. #-im# denotes the ‘place from which:’ as, #istim#, commonly #istinc#, from where you are; #illim#, commonly #illinc#, from yonder; #hinc#, hence; #exim#, thereupon; also #-de#: as, #unde#, whence (#quo-#, 146), #sī-cunde#, if from any place, #nē-cunde#, lest from anywhere. #-ter#: as comparative (347): #praeter#, further, beyond, #inter#, between; denoting manner: #ācriter#, sharply; #amanter#, affectionately; rarely from #-o-# stems: as, #firmiter#, steadfastly.
CORRELATIVE ADVERBS.
711. Adverbs derived from pronoun stems often correspond with each other in meaning and form; some of the commonest correlatives are the following:
Int. Interrogative Indef. Indefinite Dem., Det. Demonstrative, Determinative, &c. Rel. Relative.
+--------+---------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | | Int. | Indef. | Dem., Det. | Rel. | +--------+---------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | | ubī̆, where? | alicubī̆ | hīc, istīc | ubī̆ | | | | usquam | illīc | | | | | uspiam | ibī̆, | | | | | ubivīs | ibī̆dem | | | +---------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Place | quō, | aliquō | hūc, istūc, | quō | | | whither? | quōlibet | illūc | | | | | quōvīs | eō, eōdem | | | | quorsum, | aliquō- | horsum, | quorsum | | | _whither- | vorsum | istorsum | | | | ward?_ | | | | | +---------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | | unde, | alicunde | hinc, | unde | | | whence? | undelibet | istinc, | | | | | | illinc | | | | | | inde, | | | | | | indidem | | +--------+---------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | | quandō, | aliquandō | nunc, tum, | quom or cum | | | when? | umquam | tunc | | | Time | | | | | | | quotiēns, | aliquotiēns | totiēns | quotiēns | | | how often? | | | | +--------+---------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Way | quā, _by | aliquā | hāc, istāc, | quā | | | what way?_ | quāvīs | illāc | | | | | | eā, eādem | | +--------+---------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Manner | utī or ut, | aliquā | ita, sīc | utī or ut | | | how? | | | (146) | +--------+---------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Degree | quam, how? | aliquam | tam | quam | +--------+---------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
II. SENTENCES AS ADVERBS.
712. Some adverbs are condensed sentences: as,
#īlicet#, you may go, straightway (#īre licet#); #scīlicet#, you may know, obviously, of course (#scīre licet#); #vidē̆licet#, you can see, plainly (#vidēre licet#); #nūdiustertius#, now is the third day, day before yesterday (#num dius#, i.e. #diēs#, #tertius#); #forsitan#, maybe (#fors sit an#); #mīrum quantum#, strange how much, astonishingly; #nesciō quō pactō#, #nesciō quōmodo#, somehow or other, unfortunately.
(B.) INFLECTION OF THE VERB.
713. The verb is inflected by attaching person endings to the several stems.
THE STEM.
714. The stem contains the meaning of the verb, and also denotes the mode (mood) and the time (tense) of the action as viewed by the speaker.
715. There are three MOODS, Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative.
716. There are six TENSES in the indicative, three of the present system, Present, Imperfect, and Future; and three of the perfect system, Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect. The subjunctive lacks the futures; the imperative has only the present.
717. The meanings of the moods and tenses are best learnt from reading. No satisfactory translation can be given in the paradigms, especially of the subjunctive, which requires a variety of translations for its various uses.
718. The verb has two principal stems: I. The Present stem, which is the base of the present system; II. The Perfect stem, which is the base of the perfect active system.
719. The perfect system has no passive; its place is supplied by the perfect participle with a form of #sum#, am, or less frequently of #fuī#, am become.
720. Many verbs have only the present system: as, #maereō#, mourn; some have only the perfect system: as, #meminī#, remember. Some verbs have a present and perfect system made up of two separate roots or stems: as, present indicative #ferō#, carry, perfect indicative #tulī#, and perfect participle #lātus#; present #possum#, can, perfect #potuī#.
THE PERSON ENDING.
721. The person ending limits the meaning of the stem by pointing out the person of the subject. There are three PERSONS, the First, used of the speaker, the Second, of what is spoken to, and the Third, of what is spoken of. The person ending furthermore indicates number and voice.
722. There are two NUMBERS: the Singular, used of one, and the Plural, used of more than one.
723. There are two VOICES: the Active, indicating that the subject acts, and the Passive, indicating that the subject acts on himself, or more commonly is acted on by another.
724. Only transitive verbs have all persons of the passive. Intransitive verbs have in the passive only the third person singular, used impersonally; the participle in this construction is neuter.
725. Some verbs have only the passive person endings, but with a reflexive or an active meaning; such are called Deponents: see 798.
726. The person endings are as follows:
ACTIVE VOICE.
+------------------+---------------+--------------------------+ | Mood. | IND. & SUB. | IMPERATIVE. | +------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+ | Number. | SING. | PLUR. | SING. | PLUR. | +------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+ | First person. | -m | -mus | not used | not used | +------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+ | Second person. | -s | -tis | none, -tō | -te, -tōte | +------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+ | Third person. | -t | -nt | -tō | -ntō | +------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+
PASSIVE VOICE.
+------------------+---------------------+------------------------+ | Mood. | IND. & SUB. | IMPERATIVE. | +------------------+-----------+---------+-----------+------------+ | Number. | SING. | PLUR. | SING. | PLUR. | +------------------+-----------+---------+-----------+------------+ | First person. | -r | -mur | not used| not used | +------------------+-----------+---------+-----------+------------+ | Second person. | -ris, -re | [-minī] | -re, -tor | [-minī] | +------------------+-----------+---------+-----------+------------+ | Third person. | -tur | -ntur | -tor | -ntor | +------------------+-----------+---------+-----------+------------+
727. In the perfect indicative active, the second person singular ends in #-tī#, and the third person plural in #-runt# for an older #-ront#, or in #-re#. #-re# is most used in poetry and history, and by Cato and Sallust; #-runt# by Cicero, and almost always by Caesar.
728. In the indicative #-m# is not used in the present (except in #sum#, am, and #inquam#, quoth I), in the perfect or future perfect, or in the future in #-bō#. #-s# is not used in #es# for #ess#, thou art, and in #ēs#, eatest (171, 1).
729. In inscriptions, #-d# sometimes stands for #-t# (149, 2) in the third person singular, and sometimes #-t# is not used: as, FECID, made, for fēcit; DEDE, gave, for #dedēt# or #dedit#. And other forms of the third person plural of the indicative active are sometimes used: as, Pisaurian DEDROT, DEDRO (with syncope, 111) for #dederunt#, gave; EMERV, bought, for #ēmērunt#; once DEDERI, probably for #dedēre# (856).
730. In the passive second person singular, Terence has always, Plautus commonly #-re#; later it is unusual in the present indicative, except in deponents; but in other tenses #-re# is preferred, especially in the future #-bere#, by Cicero, #-ris# by Livy and Tacitus. The second person plural passive is wanting; its place is supplied by a single participial form in #-minī#, which is used without reference to gender, for gender words and neuters alike (297).
731. Deponents have rarely #-mino#, in the imperative singular: as, second person, #prōgredimino#, step forward thou (Plaut.); in laws, as third person: FRVIMINO, let him enjoy; or #-tō# and #-ntō# for #-tor# and #-ntor#: as, #ūtitō#, let him use; #ūtuntō#, let them use. In a real passive, #-ntō# is rare: as, CENSENTO, let them be rated.
NOUNS OF THE VERB.
732. The verb is accompanied by some nouns, which are conveniently, though not quite accurately, reckoned parts of the verb; they are:
Three Infinitives, Present Active and Passive, and Perfect Active, sometimes called the Infinitive Mood. For the future active and passive and the perfect passive, compound forms are used.
The Gerund and the Gerundive.
Two Supines.
Three Participles, Present and Future Active, and Perfect Passive.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
733. The several verb stems can readily be found, when once the principal parts are known; these are given in the dictionary.
734. The PRINCIPAL PARTS of a verb are the Present Indicative Active, Present Infinitive Active, Perfect Indicative Active, and Perfect Participle: as,
PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PART. regō, rule regere rēxī rēctus laudō, praise laudāre laudāvī laudātus moneō, advise monēre monuī monitus audiō, hear audīre audīvī auditus
735. The Principal Parts of deponents are the Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, and Perfect Participle: as,
PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. PART. queror, complain querī questus mīror, wonder mīrārī mīrātus vereor, fear verērī veritus partior, share partīrī partītus
DESIGNATION OF THE VERB.
736. A verb is usually named by the present indicative active first person singular: as, #regō#; #laudō#, #moneō#, #audiō#; or by the present infinitive active: as, #regere#; #laudāre#, #monēre#, #audīre#. Deponents are named by the corresponding passive forms: as, #queror#; #mīror#, #vereor#, #partior#; or #querī#; #mīrārī#, #verērī#, #partīrī#.
737. For convenience, verbs with #-ere# in the present infinitive active are called Verbs in #-ere#; those with #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre#, Verbs in #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre#, respectively. In like manner deponents are designated as Verbs in #-ī#; or Verbs in #-ārī#, #-ērī#, or #-īrī#, respectively.
THEME OF THE VERB.
738. The several stems of the verb come from a form called the Theme. In primitives, the theme is a root; in denominatives, the theme is a noun stem.
Thus, #reg-# in #reg-ō# is a root; while #vesti-# in #vesti-ō#, dress, is a noun stem. The noun stem is sometimes modified in form. Oftentimes the noun stem is only presumed: as, #audi-# in #audi-ō#.
739. Some verbs have a denominative theme in the present system, and a primitive theme in the perfect system, others have the reverse.
740. Most verbs with an infinitive of more than two syllables in #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre#, or, if deponent, in #-ārī#, #-ērī#, or #-īrī#, are denominative; most other verbs are primitive.
Thus, #laudāre#, #monēre#, #audīre#; #mīrārī#, #verērī#, #partīrī#, are denominative; while #esse#, #dare#, (#dē#)#lēre#, #regere#, #querī#, are primitive. A few verbs, however, which have the appearance of denominatives, are thought to be primitive in their origin.
ARRANGEMENT OF THE VERB.
741. Verbs are divided into two classes, according to the form of the present system: I. Root verbs, and verbs in #-ere#, mostly primitive; II. Verbs in #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre#, mostly denominative.
742. Verbs are sometimes arranged without regard to difference of kind, in the alphabetical order of the vowel before -s of the second person singular of the present indicative active, #ā#, #ē#, #i#, #ī#: thus, #laudās#, #monēs#, #regis#, #audīs#, sometimes called the first, second, third, and fourth conjugation respectively.
I. PRIMITIVE VERBS.
743. A few of the oldest and commonest verbs of everyday life have a bare root as stem in the present indicative or in parts of it; and some of them have other peculiarities; such are called Root Verbs, or by some, irregular (744-781). Most primitives are verbs in #-ere#, like #regō# (782).
(A.) ROOT VERBS.
Irregular Verbs.
(a.) WITH A PREVALENT BARE ROOT.
744. Primitives with the bare root as present indicative stem in almost all their forms are #sum#, am, #dō#, give, put, and compounds; and with the root doubled, #bibō#, drink, #serō#, sow, and #sistō#, set.
(1.) #sum#, am (#es-#, #s-#).
745. #sum#, am, is used only in the present system (720). The perfect system is supplied by forms of #fuī# (#fu-#).
+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PRINCIPAL PARTS. | | PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PART. | | sum esse (fuī) ---- | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | sum, I am | sumus, we are | | es, thou art | estis, you are | | est, he is | sunt, they are | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | eram, I was | erāmus, we were | | erās, thou wert | erātis, you were | | erat, he was | erant, they were | | | | FUTURE TENSE. | | erō, I shall be | erimus, we shall be | | eris, thou wilt be | eritis, you will be | | erit, he will be | erunt, they will be | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | fuī, I have been, | fuimus, we have been, | | or was | or were | | fuistī, thou hast been, | fuistis, you have been, | | or wert | or were | | fuit, he has been, | fuērunt or -re, | | or was | they have been, or were | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | fueram, I had been | fuerāmus, we had been | | fuerās, thou hadst been | fuerātis, you had been | | fuerat, he had been | fuerant, they had been | | | | FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. | | fuerō, I shall have been | fuerimus, we shall have been | | fueris, thou wilt have been | fueritis, you will have been | | fuerit, he will have been | fuerint, they will have been | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | sim, may I be | sīmus, let us be | | sīs, mayst thou be | sītis, be you, may you be | | sit, let him be, may he be | sint, let them be, | | | may they be | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | essem, I should be | essēmus, we should be | | essēs, thou wouldst be | essētis, you would be | | esset, he would be | essent, they would be | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | fuerim, I may have been | fuerīmus, we may have been | | fuerīs, thou mayst have been | fuerītis, you may have been | | fuerit, he may have been | fuerīnt, they may have been | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | fuissem, | fuissēmus, | | I should have been | we should have been | | fuissēs, | fuissētis, | | thou wouldst have been | you would have been | | fuisset, | fuissent, | | he would have been | they would have been | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | es or estō, be thou, | este or estōte, be you, | | thou shalt be | you shall be | | estō, he shall be | suntō, they shall be | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | NOUNS OF THE VERB. | | | | INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | | Pres. esse, to be | Pres. See 749 | | Perf. fuisse, to have been | Perf. ---- | | Fut. futūrus esse, | Fut. futūrus, going to be | | to be going to be | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+
746. For the first person #sum#, Varro mentions #esum# as an archaic form. This #e# was probably prefixed by analogy with the other forms; for the #-m#, and for #es#, see 728. For #sim#, &c., and #siem#, &c., see 841. In the imperfect #eram#, &c., and the future #erō#, &c., #s# has become #r# (154).
747. The indicative and imperative #es# is for older #ess# (171, 1), and is regularly used long by Plautus and Terence. The #e# of #es# and #est# is not pronounced after a vowel or #-m#, and is often omitted in writing: as #experrēcta es#, pronounced #experrēctas#; #epistula est#, pronounced #epistulast#; #cōnsilium est#, pronounced #cōnsiliumst#. In the dramatists, #-s# preceded by a vowel, which is usually short, unites with a following #es# or #est#: thus, #tū servos es# becomes #tū servos#; #similis est#, #similist#; #virtūs est#, #virtūst#; #rēs est#, #rēst#.
748. Old forms are: SONT (inscr. about 120 B.C.); with suffix #-scō# (834), #escit# (for #*esscit#), gets to be, will be, #escunt#; present subjunctive, #siem#, #siēs#, #siet#, and #sient# (841), common in inscriptions down to 100 B.C., and in old verse; also in compounds; imperative #estōd# rare.
749. The present participle is used only as an adjective. It has two forms: #sontem# (accusative, no nominative), which has entirely lost its original meaning of being, actual, the real man, and has only the secondary meaning of guilty, and #īnsōns#, innocent; and #-sēns# in #absēns#, away, #praesēns#, at hand, #dī cōnsentēs#, gods collective; also once INSENTIBVS. #sum# has no gerund or gerundive.
750. A subjunctive present #fuam#, #fuās#, #fuat#, and #fuant# occurs in old Latin; and an imperfect #forem#, #forēs#, #foret#, and #forent#, in all periods. The present infinitive #fore#, to get to be, become, has a future meaning. Old forms in the perfect system are FVVEIT (29, 1), FVET; #fūit#, #fūimus#, #fūerim#, #fūerit#, #fūerint#, #fūisset# (Plaut., Enn.). #fuī# has no perfect participle or supine.
751. #possum#, can.
+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Principal parts: possum, posse; (potuī, see 875.) | +---------+--------------------------------------------------------+ | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | | | Singular. | Plural. | | Pres. | possum, potes, | possumus, potestis, | | | potest | possunt | | Imp. | poteram, poterās, | poterāmus, poterātis, | | | poterat | poterant | | Fut. | poterō, poteris, | poterimus, poteritis, | | | poterit | poterunt | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | | Pres. | possim, possīs, possit | possīmus, possītis, possint | | Imp. | possem, possēs, posset | possēmus, possētis, possent | | | | +---------+-------------------------+------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | | Pres. | posse | ---- | +---------+-------------------------+------------------------------+
752. #possum# is formed from #pote#, able, and #sum#, juxtaposed (166, 2; 396). The separate forms #potis sum#, &c., or #pote sum#, &c., are also used, and sometimes even #potis# or #pote# alone takes the place of a verb; in either case #potis# and #pote# are indeclinable, and are applied to gender words and neuters both.
753. #t# is retained before a vowel, except in #possem#, &c., for #potessem#, &c., and in #posse#; #t# before #s# changes to #s# (166, 2). Old forms are: #possiem#, &c., (748), #potessem#, #potisset#, #potesse#. Rare forms are POTESTO (inscr. 58 B.C.), and passives, as #potestur#, &c., with a passive infinitive (1484). #possum# has no participles; the perfect system, #potuī#, &c., is like #fuī#, &c. (745).
(2.) #dō#, give, put (#dā-#, #da-#).
754. There are two verbs #dō#, one meaning give, and one meaning put. The #dō# meaning put is oftenest used in compounds; the simple verb has been crowded out by #pōnō#. The present system of #dō# is as follows:
+-----------------------------------------------------------+ | Principal parts: dō, dare, dedī, datus. | +---------+-------------------------------------------------+ | | ACTIVE VOICE. | | | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | | | Singular. | Plural. | | Pres. | dō, dās, dat | damus, datis, dant | | Imp. | dabam, dabās, dabat | dabāmus, dabātis, dabant | | Fut. | dabō, dabis, dabit | dabimus, dabitis, dabunt | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | | Pres. | dem, dēs, det | dēmus, dētis, dent | | Imp. | darem, darēs, daret | darēmus, darētis, darent | | | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | | dā or datō, datō | date or datōte, dantō | +---------+-------------------------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | | Pres. | dare | dāns | | | | | | | GERUND. | | | Gen. | dandī, &c. | | +---------+-------------------------------------------------+ | | PASSIVE VOICE. | | | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | | | Singular. | Plural. | | Pres. | ----, | damur, | | | daris or -re, | daminī, | | | datur | dantur | | Imp. | dabar, | dabāmur, | | | dabāre or -ris, | dabāminī, | | | dabātur | dabantur | | Fut. | dabor, | dabimur, | | | dabere or -ris, | dabiminī, | | | dabitur | dabuntur | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | | Pres. | ----, | ----, | | | dēre or -ris, | dēminī, | | | dētur | dentur | | Imp. | darer, | darēmur, | | | darēre or -ris, | darēminī, | | | darētur | darentur | | | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | | dare or dator, dator | daminī, dantor | | | | +---------+-------------------------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | GERUNDIVE. | | Pres. | darī | dandus | +---------+-------------------------------------------------+
755. In the present system #a# is short throughout in the first syllable, except in #dās# and #dā#. For #dedī#, #datus#, and supines #datum#, #datū#, see 859 and 900.
756. Old forms: #danunt# of uncertain origin (833) for #dant#. From another form of the root come #duis#, #duit#; #interduō#, #concrēduō#, perfect #concrēduī#; subjunctive #duim#, #duīs# (#duās#), #duit# and #duint# (841), and compounds, used especially in law language, and in praying and cursing; #crēduam#, #crēduās# or #crēduīs#, #crēduat# or #crēduit#.
757. Real compounds of #dō# have a present system like #regō# (782); in the perfect and the perfect participle, #e# and #a# become #i#: as, #abdō#, put away, #abdere#, #abdidī#, #abditus#; #crēdō#, put trust in. #perdō#, fordo, destroy, and #vēndō#, put for sale, have gerundives #perdendus#, #vēndundus#, and perfect participles #perditus#, #vēnditus#; the rest of the passive is supplied by forms of pereō and #vēneō#. #reddō#, give back, has future #reddibō# 3 times (Plaut.). In the apparent compounds with #circum#, #pessum#, #satis#, and #vēnum#, #dō# remains without change, as in 754.
[Erratum: 756. . missing]
(3.) #bibō#, #serō#, and #sistō#.
758. #bibō#, drink, #serō#, sow (for #*si-sō#, 154), and #sistō#, set, form their present stem by reduplication of the root (189). The vowel before the person endings is the root vowel, which becomes variable, like a formative vowel (824). These verbs have the present system like #regō# (782).
(b.) WITH THE BARE ROOT IN PARTS.
#inquam#, #eō#, and #queō#.
759. #inquam#, #eō#, and #queō# have the bare root as present stem, in almost all their parts; in a few parts only the root is extended by a formative vowel (829).
(1.) #inquam#, say I, quoth I.
760. #inquam#, say I, is chiefly used in quoting a person’s direct words; and, from its meaning, is naturally very defective. The only parts in common use are the following:
+---------------------------------------------------------+ | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | Singular. | Plural. | | Pres. | inquam, inquis, inquit | ----, ----, inquiunt | | Fut. | ----, inquiēs, inquiet | ----, ----, ---- | +---------------------------------------------------------+
761. Rare forms are: subjunctive #inquiat# (Cornif.), indicative imperfect #inquiēbat# (Cic.), used twice each; indicative present #inquimus# (Hor.), perfect #inquiī# (Catull.), #inquīstī# (Cic.), once each; imperative #inque#, 4 times (Plaut. 2, Ter. 2), #inquitō#, 3 times (Plaut.). For #inquam#, see 728.
762. (2.) #eō#, go (#ī-# for #ei-#, #i-#)
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+ | Principal parts: eō, īre, iī, itum. | +---------+-------------------------------------------------------+ | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | | | Singular. | Plural. | | Pres. | eō, īs, it | īmus, ītis, eunt | | Imp. | ībam, ībās, ībat | ībāmus, ībātis, ībant | | Fut. | ībō, ībis, ībit | ībimus, ībitis, ībunt | | Perf. | iī, īstī, iīt or īt | iimus, īstis, iērunt or -re | | | | | | Plup. | ieram, ierās, ierat | ierāmus, ierātis, ierant | | F. P. | ierō, ieris, ierit | ierimus, ieritis, ierint | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | | Pres. | eam, eās, eat | eāmus, eātis, eant | | Imp. | īrem, īrēs, īret | īrēmus, īrētis, īrent | | Perf. | ierim, ierīs, ierit | ierīmus, ierītis, ierint | | Plup. | īssem, īssēs, īsset | īssēmus, īssētis, īssent | | | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | | ī or ītō, ītō | īte or ītōte, euntō | +---------+-------------------------------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | | Pres. | īre | iēns, Gen. euntis | | Perf. | īsse | itum | | Fut. | itūrus esse | itūrus | | | | | | GERUND. | SUPINE. | | Gen. | eundī | | | Dat. | eundō | | | Acc. | eundum | ---- | | Abl. | eundō | ---- | +---------+-------------------------------------------------------+
763. The passive is only used impersonally, and has a neuter gerundive #eundum# and participle #itum#; but transitive compounds, as #adeō#, go up to, have a complete passive: as, #adeor#, #adīris#, &c. #ambiō#, go round, canvass, follows denominatives in #-īre# (796), but has once or twice the imperfect #ambībat#, #ambībant#, #ambībātur# (Liv., Tac., Plin. Ep.), and once the future #ambībunt# (Plin.); future perfect #ambīssit#, #ambīssint#, once each (prol. Plaut.).
764. The #ī# is weakened from #ei# (98): as, #eis#, #eit#, #eite#, #abeis#, #abei# (Plaut.); EITVR, ABEI, ADEITVR (inscr. 130 B.C.), VENEIRE (49 B.C.), PRAETEREIS. Before #o#, #u#, or #a#, the root becomes #e#. For #u# in #euntis#, see 902.
765. Old forms are: #īerō# (Plaut.), #īī#, #īerant# (Ter.), once each (126); in an inscription of 186 B.C., ADIESET, ADIESENT, ADIESE, and of 146 B.C., REDIEIT (29, 2; 132); INTERIEISTI. A future in #-iet#, as #trānsiet# (Sen.), is late and rare.
766. A double #i# is found in #iissēs# and #iisset# once each (Ciris, Nepos), also sometimes in compounds of these forms: as #rediissēs#, #interiisset#. Compounds sometimes have it also in the perfect infinitive and in the second person singular of the perfect indicative: as, #abiisse#, #abiistī#; also in #rediistis# once (Stat.). In the first person of the perfect indicative a single long #ī# is found rarely in late writers in the singular: as, #adī# (Val. Fl.).
767. A few examples are found of a perfect system with #v#, as #īvī#, &c. This form is confined almost exclusively to poetry and late prose.
(a) Examples of simple forms with #v# are: #īvisse# (Plaut.), #īvit# (Cato), #īvī# (Varro), #īverat# (Catull.). (b) Compound forms: #exīvī# (Plaut.), #obīvit# (Verg.), #subīvit# (Stat.); #trānsīvisse# (Claud. ap. Tac.), #inīvimus#, #trānsīvī#, #trānsīvimus# (Curt.), #trānsīvit#, #trānsīverant# (Sen.), #exīvit# (Gell.). Apparent compounds (396): #īntrō īvit# (C. Gracch., Piso, Gell.).
(3.) #queō#, can.
768. #queō#, can, and #nequeō#, can’t, have the perfect #quīvī#, the rest like #eō# (762); but they have no imperative, gerundive, or future participle, and the present participle is rare. #queō# is commonly used with a negative, and some parts only so. Passive forms are rare, and only used with a passive infinitive (1484).
#edō#; #volō# (#nōlō#, #mālō#) and #ferō#.
(1.) #edō#, eat (#ed-#, #ēd-#).
769. #edō#, eat, has a present system with a formative vowel like #regō# throughout (782); but in some parts of the present, and of the imperfect subjunctive, parallel root forms are usually found, with #d# of the root changed to #s#, and the vowel lengthened (135), as may be seen in the following:
+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Principal parts: edō, ēsse, ēdī, ēsus. | +---------+--------------------------------------------------------+ | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | | | Singular. | Plural. | | Pres. | edō, ēs or edis, | edimus, ēstis or editis, | | | ēst or edit | edunt | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | | Pres. | edim, edīs, edit | edīmus, edītis, edint | | | or | or | | | edam, edās, edat | edāmus, edātis, edant | | Imp. | ēssem, ēssēs, ēsset | ēssēmus, ----, ēssent | | | or | or | | | ederem, ederēs, ederet | ederēmus, ederētis, ederent | | | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | | ēs or ede, | ēste or edite | | | ēstō or editō | | +---------+--------------------------------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | | Pres. | ēsse | edēns | +---------+--------------------------------------------------------+
770. For #ēs#, see 728; for #edim#, &c., 841. In the passive, the indicative present #ēstur# is used, and imperfect subjunctive #ēssētur#. The perfect participle #ēsus# is for an older #ēssus# (170, 7). Supines #ēssum#, #ēssū# (Plaut.).
771. #comedō#, eat up, has also the following root forms: #comēs#, #comēst#, #comēstis#; #comēstō#; #comēsse#; #comēssēs#, #comēsset#, #comēssēmus#. The present subjunctive has also #comedim#, #comedīs#, #comedint#. The participle perfect is #comēssus#, #comēsus#, or #comēstus#, future #comēssūrus#. #exedō#, eat out, has #exēst# and #exēsse#; subjunctive #exedint#. #adedō#, eat at, has #adēst#.
772. #volō# (#nōlō#, #mālō#) and #ferō# have the bare root in some parts only of the present system; in other parts the root extended by a formative vowel, like #regō# (782). #volō# (#nōlō#, #mālō#) lack some forms, as will be seen below.
773. (2.) #volō#, will, wish, want, am willing (#vol-#, #vel-#).
+----------------------------------------------+ | Principal parts: volō, velle, voluī, ----. | +---------+------------------------------------+ | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | | | Singular. | Plural. | | Pres. | volō, | volumus, | | | vīs, | voltis or vultis, | | | volt or vult | volunt | | Imp. | volēbam, | volēbāmus, | | | volēbās, | volēbātis, | | | volēbat | volēbant | | Fut. | volam, | volēmus, | | | volēs, | volētis, | | | volet | volent | | Perf. | voluī, | voluimus, | | | voluistī, | voluistis, | | | voluit | voluērunt or -re | | Plup. | volueram, | voluerāmus, | | | voluerās, | voluerātis, | | | voluerat | voluerant | | F. P. | voluerō, | voluerimus, | | | volueris, | volueritis, | | | voluerit | voluerint | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | | Pres. | velim, | velīmus, | | | velīs, | velītis, | | | velit | velint | | Imp. | vellem, | vellēmus, | | | vellēs, | vellētis, | | | vellet | vellent | | Perf. | voluerim, | voluerīmus, | | | voluerīs, | voluerītis, | | | voluerit | voluerint | | Plup. | voluissem, | voluissēmus, | | | voluissēs, | voluissētis, | | | voluisset | voluissent | | | | +---------+------------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | | Pres. | velle | volēns | | Perf. | voluisse | | +---------+------------------------------------+
774. #volo# for #volō# is rare (2443). #volt# and #voltis# became #vult# and #vultis# about the time of Augustus (141). For #volumus#, see 142; #velim#, &c., 841; #vellem#, &c., #velle#, 166, 8. #sīs#, an thou wilt, is common for #sī vīs# (Plaut., Ter., Cic., Liv.). #sultis#, an ‘t please you, is used by Plautus for #sī voltis#.
775. #nōlō#, won’t, is formed from #ne-#, not, and #volō#, juxtaposed, and #mālō#, like better, abbreviated from #māvolō# for #*magsvolo# (779, 170, 2).
776. #nōlō#, won’t, don’t want, object, am not willing.
+----------------------------------------------------+ | Principal parts: nōlō, nōlle, nōluī, ----. | +---------+------------------------------------------+ | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | | | Singular. | Plural. | | Pres. | nōlō, | nōlumus, | | | nōn vīs, | nōn voltis or vultis, | | | nōn volt or vult | nōlunt | | Imp. | nōlēbam, | nōlēbāmus, | | | nōlēbās, | nōlēbātis, | | | nōlēbat | nōlēbant | | Fut. | ----, | nōlēmus, | | | nōlēs, | nōlētis, | | | nōlet | nōlent | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | | Pres. | nōlim, | nōlīmus, | | | nōlīs, | nōlītis, | | | nōlit | nōlint | | Imp. | nōllem, | nōllēmus, | | | nōllēs, | nōllētis, | | | nōllet | nōllent | | | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | | nōlī or nōlītō, | nōlīte or nōlītōte, | | | nōlītō | nōluntō | | | | +---------+------------------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | | Pres. | nōlle | ---- | +---------+------------------------------------------+
777. #nevīs# and #nevolt#, from #ne-#, not, are found in Plautus. #nōlō# has usually no participles, but oblique cases of #nōlēns# are used a few times by post-Augustan writers (Cels., Luc., Quintil., Ta., Juv., Mart., Plin.). The perfect system, #nōluī#, &c., is like that of #volō# (772).
778. #mālō#, like better, choose rather.
+----------------------------------------------------+ | Principal parts: mālō, mālle, māluī, ----. | +---------+------------------------------------------+ | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | | | Singular. | Plural. | | Pres. | mālō, | mālumus, | | | māvīs, | māvoltis or māvultis, | | | māvolt or māvult | mālunt | | Imp. | mālēbam, | mālēbāmus, | | | mālēbās, | mālēbātis, | | | mālēbat | mālēbant | | Fut. | ----, | mālēmus, | | | mālēs, | mālētis, | | | mālet | mālent | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | | Pres. | mālim, | mālīmus, | | | mālīs, | mālītis, | | | mālit | mālint | | Imp. | māllem, | māllēmus, | | | māllēs, | māllētis, | | | māllet | māllent | | | | +---------+------------------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | | Pres. | mālle | ---- | +---------+------------------------------------------+
779. Old forms are #māvolō#, #māvolunt#; #māvolet#; #māvelim#, #māvelīs#, #māvelit#; #māvellem#. The perfect system, #māluī#, &c., is like that of #volō# (772).
[Errata: 773 (table) ... velīmus, , missing 774 ... #sī vīs# (Plaut., Ter., Cic., Liv.) Plaut. Ter., 775 ... #māvolō# for #*magsvolo# printed as shown: error for magsvolō?]
(3.) #ferō#, carry (#fer-#).
780. #ferō#, carry, is used only in the present system (720). The other parts are supplied by forms of #tollō#, lift (#tol-#, #tlā-#). The present system of #ferō# is as follows:
+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Principal parts: ferō, ferre; (tulī, lātus). | +---------+--------------------------------------------------------+ | | ACTIVE VOICE. | | | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | | | Singular. | Plural. | | Pres. | ferō, fers, fert | ferimus, fertis, ferunt | | Imp. | ferēbam, | ferēbāmus, | | | ferēbās, | ferēbātis, | | | ferēbat | ferēbant | | Fut. | feram, ferēs, feret | ferēmus, ferētis, ferent | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | | Pres. | feram, ferās, ferat | ferāmus, ferātis, ferant | | Imp. | ferrem, ferrēs, ferret | ferrēmus, ferrētis, ferrent | | | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | | fer or fertō, fertō | ferte or fertōte, feruntō | +---------+--------------------------------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | | Pres. | ferre | ferēns | | | | | | | GERUND. | | | Gen. | ferendī, &c. | | +---------+--------------------------------------------------------+ | | PASSIVE VOICE. | | | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | | | Singular. | Plural. | | Pres. | feror, | ferimur, | | | ferris or -re, | feriminī, | | | fertur | feruntur | | Imp. | ferēbar, | ferēbāmur, | | | ferēbāre or -ris, | ferēbāminī, | | | ferēbātur | ferēbantur | | Fut. | ferar, | ferēmur, | | | ferēre or -ris, | ferēminī, | | | ferētur | ferentur | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | | Pres. | ferar, | ferāmur, | | | ferāre or -ris, | ferāminī, | | | ferātur | ferantur | | Imp. | ferrer, | ferrēmur, | | | ferrēre or -ris, | ferrēminī, | | | ferrētur | ferrentur | | | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | | ferre or fertor, | feriminī, | | | fertor | feruntor | +---------+--------------------------------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | GERUNDIVE. | | Pres. | ferrī | ferendus | +---------+--------------------------------------------------------+
781. For #tulī#, see 860; the full form #tetulī#, &c., is found in old Latin, and TOLI, &c., in inscriptions; the compound with #re-# is #rettulī# for #*retetulī# (861). For the participle #lātus#, see 169, 1.
(B.) VERBS IN #-ere#.
The Third Conjugation.
782. #regō#, rule.
+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PRINCIPAL PARTS. | | PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PART. | | regō regere rēxī rēctus | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ACTIVE VOICE. | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | regō, I rule, | regimus, we rule, | | or am ruling | or are ruling | | regis, thou rulest, | regitis, you rule, | | or art ruling | or are ruling | | regit, he rules, | regunt, they rule, | | or is ruling | or are ruling | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | regēbam, I was ruling, | regēbāmus, we were ruling, | | or I ruled | or we ruled | | regēbās, thou wert ruling, | regēbātis, you were ruling, | | or thou ruledst | or you ruled | | regēbat, he was ruling, | regēbant, they were ruling, | | or he ruled | or they ruled | | | | FUTURE TENSE. | | regam, I shall rule | regēmus, we shall rule | | regēs, thou wilt rule | regētis, you will rule | | reget, he will rule | regent, they will rule | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | rēxī, I have ruled, | rēximus, we have ruled, | | or I ruled | or we ruled | | rēxistī, thou hast ruled, | rēxistis, you have ruled, | | or thou ruledst | or you ruled | | rēxit, he has ruled, | rēxērunt or -re, | | or he ruled | they have ruled, | | | or they ruled | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | rēxeram, I had ruled | rēxerāmus, we had ruled | | rēxerās, thou hadst ruled | rēxerātis, you had ruled | | rēxerat, he had ruled | rēxerant, they had ruled | | | | FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. | | rēxerō, | rēxerimus, | | I shall have ruled | we shall have ruled | | rēxeris, | rēxeritis, | | thou wilt have ruled | you will have ruled | | rēxerit, | rēxerint, | | he will have ruled | they will have ruled | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | regam, may I rule | regāmus, let us rule | | regās, mayst thou rule | regātis, may you rule | | regat, let him rule | regant, let them rule | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | regerem, I should rule | regerēmus, we should rule | | regerēs, thou wouldst rule | regerētis, you would rule | | regeret, he would rule | regerent, they would rule | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | rēxerim, | rēxerīmus, | | I may have ruled | we may have ruled | | rēxerīs, | rēxerītis, | | thou mayst have ruled | you may have ruled | | rēxerit, | rēxerint, | | he may have ruled | they may have ruled | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | rēxissem, | rēxissēmus, | | I should have ruled | we should have ruled | | rēxissēs, | rēxissētis, | | thou wouldst have ruled | you would have ruled | | rēxisset, | rēxissent, | | he would have ruled | they would have ruled | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | rege or regitō, | regite or regitōte, | | rule, thou shalt rule | rule, you shall rule | | regitō, he shall rule | reguntō, they shall rule | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | NOUNS OF THE VERB. | | | | INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | | Pres. regere, to rule | Pres. regēns, ruling | | Perf. rēxisse, | | | to have ruled | | | Fut. rēctūrus esse, | Fut. rēctūrus, | | to be going to rule | going to rule | | | | GERUND. | SUPINE. | | Gen. regendī, of ruling | | | Dat. regendō, for ruling | | | Acc. regendum, ruling | Acc. *rēctum, to rule, | | | not used | | Abl. regendō, by ruling | Abl. *rēctū, in ruling, | | | not used | +------------------------------------------------------------------+
VERBS IN #-ere#.
The Third Conjugation.
783. #regor#, am ruled.
+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PASSIVE VOICE. | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | regor, I am ruled | regimur, we are ruled | | regeris or -re, | | | thou art ruled | regiminī, you are ruled | | regitur, he is ruled | reguntur, they are ruled | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | regēbar, | regēbāmur, | | I was ruled | we were ruled | | regēbāre or -ris, | regēbāminī, | | thou wert ruled | you were ruled | | regēbātur, | regēbantur, | | he was ruled | they were ruled | | | | FUTURE TENSE. | | regar, | regēmur, | | I shall be ruled | we shall be ruled | | regēre or -ris, | regēminī, | | thou wilt be ruled | you will be ruled | | regētur, | regentur, | | he will be ruled | they will be ruled | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | rēctus sum, I have been, | rēctī sumus, we have been, | | or was ruled | or were ruled | | rēctus es, thou hast been, | rēctī estis, you have been, | | or wert ruled | or were ruled | | rēctus est, he has been, | rēctī sunt, they have been, | | or was ruled | or were ruled | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | rēctus eram, | rēctī erāmus, | | I had been ruled | we had been ruled | | rēctus erās, | rēctī erātis, | | thou hadst been ruled | you had been ruled | | rēctus erat, | rēctī erant, | | he had been ruled | they had been ruled | | | | FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. | | rēctus erō, | rēctī erimus, | | I shall have been ruled | we shall have been ruled | | rēctus eris, | rēctī eritis, | | thou wilt have been ruled | you will have been ruled | | rēctus erit, | rēctī erunt, | | he will have been ruled | they will have been ruled | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | regar, | regāmur, | | may I be ruled | may we be ruled | | regāre or -ris, | regāminī, | | mayst thou be ruled | may you be ruled | | regātur, | regantur, | | let him be ruled | let them be ruled | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | regerer, | regerēmur, | | I should be ruled | we should be ruled | | regerēre or -ris, | regerēminī, | | thou wouldst be ruled | you would be ruled | | regerētur, | regerentur, | | he would be ruled | they would be ruled | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | rēctus sim, | rēctī sīmus, | | I may have been ruled | we may have been ruled | | rēctus sīs, | rēctī sītis, | | thou mayst have been ruled | you may have been ruled | | rēctus sit, | rēctī sint, | | he may have been ruled | they may have been ruled | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | rēctus essem, | rēctī essēmus, | | I should have been ruled | we should have been ruled | | rēctus essēs, _thou wouldst | rēctī essētis, | | have been ruled_ | you would have been ruled | | rēctus esset, | rēctī essent, | | he would have been ruled | they would have been ruled | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | regere or regitor, be ruled, | regiminī, | | thou shalt be ruled | be ruled | | regitor, | reguntor, | | he shall be ruled | they shall be ruled | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | NOUNS OF THE VERB. | | | | INFINITIVE. | GERUNDIVE. | | Pres. regī, | regendus, to be ruled | | to be ruled | | | Perf. rēctus esse, | PERFECT PARTICIPLE. | | to have been ruled | rēctus, ruled | | Fut. *rēctum īrī, | | | to be going to be ruled, | | | not used (2273) | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+
VERBS IN #-iō#, #-ere#.
784. Verbs in #-iō#, #-ere#, as #capiō#, #capere#, take (#cap-#), drop an #i# in some forms of the present and imperfect. The present system is as follows:
+---------+-------------------------------------------+ | | ACTIVE VOICE. | | | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | Singular. | Plural. | | Pres. | capiō, | capimus, | | | capis, | capitis, | | | capit | capiunt | | Imp. | capiēbam, | capiēbāmus, | | | capiēbās, | capiēbātis, | | | capiēbat | capiēbant | | Fut. | capiam, | capiēmus, | | | capiēs, | capiētis, | | | capiet | capient | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | Pres. | capiam, | capiāmus, | | | capiās, | capiātis, | | | capiat | capiant | | Imp. | caperem, | caperēmus, | | | caperēs, | caperētis, | | | caperet | caperent | | | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | | cape or capitō, | capite or capitōte, | | | capitō | capiuntō | +---------+-------------------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | | Pres. | capere | capiēns | | | | | | | GERUND. | | | Gen. | capiendī, &c. | | +---------+-------------------------------------------+ | | PASSIVE VOICE. | | | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | Singular. | Plural. | | Pres. | capior, | capimur, | | | caperis or -re, | capiminī, | | | capitur | capiuntur | | Imp. | capiēbar, | capiēbāmur, | | | capiēbāre or -ris, | capiēbāminī, | | | capiēbātur | capiēbantur | | Fut. | capiar, | capiēmur, | | | capiēre or -ris, | capiēminī, | | | capiētur | capientur | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | Pres. | capiar, | capiāmur, | | | capiāre or -ris, | capiāminī, | | | capiātur | capiantur | | Imp. | caperer, | caperēmur, | | | caperēre or -ris, | caperēminī, | | | caperētur | caperentur | | | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | | capere or capitor, | capiminī, | | | capitor | capiuntor | +---------+-------------------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | GERUNDIVE. | | Pres. | capi | capiendus | +---------+-------------------------------------------+
785. There are a dozen verbs in #-īō#, #-ere#, like #capiō#, and three deponents in #-ior#, #-ī#, all formed from consonant roots with a short vowel: see 836. #aiō#, say, and #fīō#, grow, become, have certain peculiarities arising from the blending of the root with the suffix.
[Errata: 784 (table) ... capi printed as shown: error for capī? 785 ... verbs in #-īō#, printed as shown: error for -iō?]
(1.) #aiō#, say, say ay, avouch (#ag-#).
786. #aiō#, say, is defective, and has only these parts in common use:
+---------------+-----------+-----------+ | | Singular. | Plural. | | Ind. Pres. | aiō, | ----, | | | ais, | ----, | | | ait | aiunt | | Ind. Imp. | aiēbam, | aiēbāmus, | | | aiēbās, | aiēbātis, | | | aiēbat | aiēbant | | Subj. Pres. | ----, | ----, | | | aiās, | ----, | | | aiāt | ---- | +---------------+-----------+-----------+
787. For #aiō#, sometimes written #aiiō# (23), see 153, 2. Old forms are: present #ais#, #aīs#, #a͡is#, or with #-n# interrogative #āin#, #a͡in#; #aīt#, #ait#, or #a͡it#; imperfect #a͡ibam#, #a͡ibās#, #a͡ibat#, and #a͡ibant#; imperative once only, #aī# (Naev.). A participle #aientibus#, affirmative, occurs once (Cic.).
[Errata: 786 (table) ... aiāt printed as shown: error for aiat? 787 ... interrogative #āin#, #a͡in# printed as shown: āin error for aīn?]
(2.) #fīō#, become, am made.
788. #fīō#, become, and #factus sum# supplement each other: in the present system, the passive of #faciō#, make, except the gerundive, #faciendus#, is not used, #fīō#, &c., taking its place; in the perfect system, only #factus sum#, &c., is used.
+----------------+-----------+--------------------+ | | Singular. | Plural. | | Ind. Pres. | fīō, | ----, | | | fīs, | ----, | | | fit | fīunt | | Ind. Imp. | fīēbam, | fīēbāmus, | | | fīēbās, | fīēbātis, | | | fīēbat | fīēbant | | Ind. Fut. | fīam, | fīēmus, | | | fīēs, | fīētis, | | | fīet | fīent | | Subj. Pres. | fīam, | fīāmus, | | | fīās, | fīātis, | | | fīat | fīant | | Subj. Imp. | fierem, | fierēmus, | | | fierēs, | fierētis, | | | fieret | fierent | | Imper. | fī | fīte | +----------------+-----------+--------------------+ | Infin. Pres. | fierī | Part. Pres. ---- | +----------------+-----------+--------------------+
789. In #fīō#, &c., #ī# represents an older #ei#, seen in FEIENT (inscr. 45 B.C.). The infinitive #fierī# for #fierei# owes its passive ending to analogy; the active form #fiere# occurs twice (Enn., Laev.). The vowel before #-er-# in #fierem#, &c., and #fierī#, is sometimes long in the dramatists, where a cretic (- ⏑ -) is required, but otherwise always short.
790. #-fīō# is used in apparent compounds (394): as, #patē̆fit#. In real compounds commonly #-ficior#: as, #cōnficior#; but sometimes #-fīō#: as, #cōnfit#, #cōnfīunt#, #cōnfīat#, #cōnfieret#, #cōnfierent#, #cōnfī̆erī#; #dēfit#, #dēfīet#, #dēfīat#, #dēfierī#; #effit#, #effīant#, #ecfīerī#; #īnfit#; #interfīat#, #interfīerī#; #superfit#, #superfīat#.
791. Some verbs in #-iō#, #-ere# (or #-ior#, #-ī#), have occasionally the form of verbs in #-īre# (or #-īrī#), in some parts of the present system, oftenest before an #r#, and particularly in the passive infinitive: as,
#fodīrī#, 3 times (Cato, Col. 2), #circumfodīrī# (Col.), #ecfodīrī# (Plaut.); #adgredīrī# (#adgredīrier#), 4 times (Plaut.), #prōgredīrī# (Plaut.); #morīrī# 6 times (Plaut. 4, Pomp., Ov.), #ēmorīrī# twice (Plaut., Ter.); #orīrī#, always; #parīre#, twice (Plaut., Enn.); usually #potīrī# (#potīrier#). Also #cupīret# (Lucr.); #adgredīre#, #adgredībor#, #adgredīmur# (Plaut.); #morīmur# (Enn.); #orīris# (Varr., Sen.), #adorītur# (Lucil., Lucr.), #orīrētur# (Cic., Nep., Sall., Liv.), #adorīrētur# (Liv., Suet.); #parībis# (Pomp.), PARIRET (inscr.); #potīris# (Manil.), #potītur# (Lucil., Ov.), &c., &c.
[Errata: 791 ... #orīrī#, always #orīrī#. #adorītur# (Lucil., Lucr.), final , printed .]
II. DENOMINATIVE VERBS.
(1.) VERBS IN #-āre#.
The First Conjugation.
792. #laudō#, praise.
+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PRINCIPAL PARTS. | | PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PART. | | laudō laudāre laudāvī laudātus | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ACTIVE VOICE. | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | laudō, I praise, | laudāmus, we praise, | | or am praising | or are praising | | laudās, thou praisest, | laudātis, you praise, | | or art praising | or are praising | | laudat, he praises, | laudant, they praise, | | or is praising | or are praising | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | laudābam, I was praising, | laudābāmus, | | or I praised | we were praising, | | | or we praised | | laudābās, thou wert praising, | laudābātis, _you were | | or thou praisedst | praising_, or you praised | | laudābat, he was praising, | laudābant, _they were | | or he praised | praising_, or they praised | | | | FUTURE TENSE. | | laudābō, I shall praise | laudābimus, we shall praise | | laudābis, thou wilt praise | laudābitis, you will praise | | laudābit, he will praise | laudābunt, they will praise | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | laudāvī, I have praised, | laudāvimus, we have praised, | | or I praised | or we praised | | laudāvistī, _thou hast | laudāvistis, _you have | | praised_, or thou praisedst | praised_, or you praised | | laudāvit, he has praised, | laudāvērunt or -re, | | or he praised | they have praised, | | | or they praised | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | laudāveram, I had praised | laudāverāmus, we had praised | | laudāverās, | laudāverātis, | | thou hadst praised | you had praised | | laudāverat, he had praised | laudāverant, | | | they had praised | | | | FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. | | laudāverō, | laudāverimus, | | I shall have praised | we shall have praised | | laudāveris, | laudāveritis, | | thou wilt have praised | you will have praised | | laudāverit, | laudāverint, | | he will have praised | they will have praised | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | laudem, may I praise | laudēmus, let us praise | | laudēs, mayst thou praise | laudētis, may you praise | | laudet, let him praise | laudent, let them praise | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | laudārem, I should praise | laudārēmus, we should praise | | laudārēs, | laudārētis, | | thou wouldst praise | you would praise | | laudāret, he would praise | laudārent, they would praise | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | laudāverim, | laudāverīmus, | | I may have praised | we may have praised | | laudāverīs, | laudāverītis, | | thou mayst have praised | you may have praised | | laudāverit, | laudāverint, | | he may have praised | they may have praised | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | laudāvissem, | laudāvissēmus, | | I should have praised | we should have praised | | laudāvissēs, | laudāvissētis, | | thou wouldst have praised | you would have praised | | laudāvisset, | laudāvissent, | | he would have praised | they would have praised | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | laudā or laudātō, praise, | laudāte or laudātōte, praise,| | thou shalt praise | you shall praise | | laudātō, he shall praise | laudantō, they shall praise | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | NOUNS OF THE VERB. | | | | INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | | Pres. laudāre, | Pres. laudāns, | | to praise | praising | | Perf. laudāvisse, | | | to have praised | | | Fut. laudātūrus esse, | Fut. laudātūrus, | | to be going to praise | going to praise | | | | GERUND. | SUPINE. | | Gen. laudandī, | | | of praising | | | Dat. laudandō, | | | for praising | | | Acc. laudandum, praising | Acc. laudātum, to praise | | Abl. laudandō, by praising | Abl. *laudātū, in praising,| | | not used | +------------------------------------------------------------------+
[Erratum: 792 (table) ... Abl. laudandō . missing or invisible]
VERBS IN #-āre#.
The First Conjugation.
793. #laudor#, am praised.
+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PASSIVE VOICE. | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | laudor, | laudāmur, | | I am praised | we are praised | | laudāris or -re, | laudāminī, | | thou art praised | you are praised | | laudātur, | laudantur, | | he is praised | they are praised | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | laudābar, | laudābāmur, | | I was praised | we were praised | | laudābāre or -ris, | laudābāminī, | | thou wert praised | you were praised | | laudābātur, | laudābantur, | | he was praised | they were praised | | | | FUTURE TENSE. | | laudābor, | laudābimur, | | I shall be praised | we shall be praised | | laudābere or -ris, | laudābiminī, | | thou wilt be praised | you will be praised | | laudābitur, | laudābuntur, | | he will be praised | they will be praised | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | laudātus sum, I have been, | laudātī sumus, we have been, | | or was praised | or were praised | | laudātus es, thou hast been, | laudātī estis, | | or wert praised | you have been, | | | or were praised | | laudātus est, he has been, | laudātī sunt, | | or was praised | they have been, | | | or were praised | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | laudātus eram, | laudātī erāmus, | | I had been praised | we had been praised | | laudātus erās, | laudātī erātis, | | thou hadst been praised | you had been praised | | laudātus erat, | laudātī erant, | | he had been praised | they had been praised | | | | FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. | | laudātus erō, | laudātī erimus, | | I shall have been praised | we shall have been praised | | laudātus eris, | laudātī eritis, | | thou wilt have been praised | you will have been praised | | laudātus erit, | laudātī erunt, _they will | | he will have been praised | have been praised_ | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | lauder, | laudēmur, | | may I be praised | may we be praised | | laudēre or -ris, | laudēminī, | | mayst thou be praised | may you be praised | | laudētur, | laudentur, | | let him be praised | let them be praised | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | laudārer, | laudārēmur, | | I should be praised | we should be praised | | laudārēre or -ris, | laudārēminī, | | thou wouldst be praised | you would be praised | | laudārētur, | laudārentur, | | he would be praised | they would be praised | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | laudātus sim, | laudātī sīmus, | | I may have been praised | we may have been praised | | laudātus sīs, _thou mayst | laudātī sītis, | | have been praised_ | you may have been praised | | laudātus sit, | laudātī sint, | | he may have been praised | they may have been praised | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | laudātus essem, | laudātī essēmus, _we should | | I should have been praised | have been praised_ | | laudātus essēs, _thou | laudātī essētis, _you would | | wouldst have been praised_ | have been praised_ | | laudātus esset, _he would | laudātī essent, _they would | | have been praised_ | have been praised_ | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | laudāre or laudātor, | laudāminī, | | be praised, | be praised | | thou shalt be praised | | | laudātor, | laudantor, | | he shall be praised | they shall be praised | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | NOUNS OF THE VERB. | | | | INFINITIVE. | GERUNDIVE. | | Pres. laudārī, | laudandus, to be praised | | to be praised | | | Perf. laudātus esse, | PERFECT PARTICIPLE. | | to have been praised | laudātus, praised | | Fut. *laudātum īrī, | | | _to be going to be | | | praised_, not used (2273) | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+
(2.) VERBS IN #-ēre#.
The Second Conjugation.
794. #moneō#, advise.
+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PRINCIPAL PARTS. | | PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PART. | | moneō monēre monuī monitus | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ACTIVE VOICE. | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | moneō, I advise, | monēmus, we advise, | | or am advising | or are advising | | monēs, thou advisest, | monētis, you advise, | | or art advising | or are advising | | monet, he advises, | monent, they advise, | | or is advising | or are advising | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | monēbam, I was advising, | monēbāmus, we were advising, | | or I advised | or we advised | | monēbās, thou wert advising, | monēbātis, you were advising, | | or thou advisedst | or you advised | | monēbat, he was advising, | monēbant, they were advising, | | or he advised | or they advised | | | | FUTURE TENSE. | | monēbō, I shall advise | monēbimus, we shall advise | | monēbis, thou wilt advise | monēbitis, you will advise | | monēbit, he will advise | monēbunt, they will advise | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | monuī, I have advised, | monuimus, we have advised, | | or I advised | or we advised | | monuistī, thou hast advised, | monuistis, you have advised, | | or thou advisedst | or you advised | | monuit, he has advised, | monuērunt or -re, | | or he advised | they have advised, | | | or they advised | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | monueram, I had advised | monuerāmus, we had advised | | monuerās, thou hadst advised | monuerātis, you had advised | | monuerat, he had advised | monuerant, they had advised | | | | FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. | | monuerō, | monuerimus, | | I shall have advised | we shall have advised | | monueris, | monueritis, | | thou wilt have advised | you will have advised | | monuerit, | monuerint, | | he will have advised | they will have advised | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | moneam, may I advise | moneāmus, let us advise | | moneās, mayst thou advise | moneātis, may you advise | | moneat, let him advise | moneant, let them advise | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | monērem, I should advise | monērēmus, we should advise | | monērēs, thou wouldst advise | monērētis, you would advise | | monēret, he would advise | monērent, they would advise | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | monuerim, | monuerīmus, | | I may have advised | we may have advised | | monuerīs, | monuerītis, | | thou mayst have advised | you may have advised | | monuerit, | monuerint, | | he may have advised | they may have advised | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | monuissem, | monuissēmus, | | I should have advised | we should have advised | | monuissēs, | monuissētis, | | thou wouldst have advised | you would have advised | | monuisset, | monuissent, | | he would have advised | they would have advised | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | monē or monētō, advise, | monēte or monētōte, advise, | | thou shalt advise | you shall advise | | monētō, he shall advise | monentō, they shall advise | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | NOUNS OF THE VERB. | | | | INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | | Pres. monēre, | Pres. monēns, | | to advise | advising | | Perf. monuisse, | | | to have advised | | | Fut. monitūrus esse, | Fut. monitūrus, | | to be going to advise | going to advise | | | | GERUND. | SUPINE. | | Gen. monendī, | | | of advising | | | Dat. monendō, | | | for advising | | | Acc. monendum, advising | Acc. *monitum, to advise, | | | not used | | Abl. monendō, by advising | Abl. monitū, in advising | +------------------------------------------------------------------+
[Erratum: 794 (table) ... Acc. monendum, advising . missing or invisible]
VERBS IN #-ēre#.
The Second Conjugation.
795. #moneor#, am advised.
+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PASSIVE VOICE. | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | moneor, | monēmur, | | I am advised | we are advised | | monēris or -re, | monēminī, | | thou art advised | you are advised | | monētur, | monentur, | | he is advised | they are advised | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | monēbar, | monēbāmur, | | I was advised | we were advised | | monēbāre or -ris, | monēbāminī, | | thou wert advised | you were advised | | monēbātur, | monēbantur, | | he was advised | they were advised | | | | FUTURE TENSE. | | monēbor, | monēbimur, | | I shall be advised | we shall be advised | | monēbere or -ris, | monēbiminī, | | thou wilt be advised | you will be advised | | monēbitur, | monēbuntur, | | he will be advised | they will be advised | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | monitus sum, I have been, | monitī sumus, we have been, | | or was advised | or were advised | | monitus es, thou hast been, | monitī estis, you have been, | | or wert advised | or were advised | | monitus est, he has been, | monitī sunt, they have been, | | or was advised | or were advised | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | monitus eram, | monitī erāmus, | | I had been advised | we had been advised | | monitus erās, | monitī erātis, | | thou hadst been advised | you had been advised | | monitus erat, | monitī erant, | | he had been advised | they had been advised | | | | FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. | | monitus erō, | monitī erimus, | | I shall have been advised | we shall have been advised | | monitus eris, | monitī eritis, | | thou wilt have been advised | you will have been advised | | monitus erit, | monitī erunt, _they will | | he will have been advised | have been advised_ | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | monear, | moneāmur, | | may I be advised | may we be advised | | moneāre or -ris, | moneāminī, | | mayst thou be advised | may you be advised | | moneātur, | moneantur, | | let him be advised | let them be advised | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | monērer, | monērēmur, | | I should be advised | we should be advised | | monērēre or -ris, | monērēminī, | | thou wouldst be advised | you would be advised | | monērētur, | monērentur, | | he would be advised | they would be advised | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | monitus sim, | monitī sīmus, | | I may have been advised | we may have been advised | | monitus sīs, _thou mayst | monitī sītis, | | have been advised_ | you may have been advised | | monitus sit, | monitī sint, | | he may have been advised | they may have been advised | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | monitus essem, | monitī essēmus, _we should | | I should have been advised | have been advised_ | | monitus essēs, _thou wouldst | monitī essētis, _you would | | have been advised_ | have been advised_ | | monitus esset, | monitī essent, _they would | | he would have been advised | have been advised_ | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | monēre or monētor, | monēminī, | | be advised, | be advised | | thou shalt be advised | | | monētor, | monentor, | | he shall be advised | they shall be advised | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | NOUNS OF THE VERB. | | | | INFINITIVE. | GERUNDIVE. | | Pres. monērī, | monendus, to be advised | | to be advised | | | Perf. monitus esse, | PERFECT PARTICIPLE. | | to have been advised | monitus, advised | | Fut. *monitum īrī, | | | _to be going to be | | | advised_, not used (2273) | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+
(3.) VERBS IN #-īre#.
The Fourth Conjugation.
796. #audiō#, hear.
+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PRINCIPAL PARTS. | | PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PART. | | audiō audīre audīvī audītus | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ACTIVE VOICE. | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | audiō, I hear, | audīmus, we hear, | | or am hearing | or are hearing | | audīs, thou hearest, | audītis, you hear, | | or art hearing | or are hearing | | audit, he hears, | audiunt, they hear, | | or is hearing | or are hearing | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | audiēbam, I was hearing, | audiēbāmus, we were hearing, | | or I heard | or we heard | | audiēbās, thou wert hearing, | audiēbātis, you were hearing,| | or thou heardst | or you heard | | audiēbat, he was hearing, | audiēbant, they were hearing,| | or he heard | or they heard | | | | FUTURE TENSE. | | audiam, I shall hear | audiēmus, we shall hear | | audiēs, thou wilt hear | audiētis, you will hear | | audiet, he will hear | audient, they will hear | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | audīvī, I have heard, | audīvimus, we have heard, | | or I heard | or we heard | | audīvistī, thou hast heard, | audīvistis, you have heard, | | or thou heardst | or you heard | | audīvit, he has heard, | audīvērunt or -re, | | or he heard | they have heard, | | | or they heard | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | audīveram, I had heard | audīverāmus, we had heard | | audīverās, thou hadst heard | audīverātis, you had heard | | audīverat, he had heard | audīverant, they had heard | | | | FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. | | audīverō, | audīverimus, | | I shall have heard | we shall have heard | | audīveris, | audīveritis, | | thou wilt have heard | you will have heard | | audīverit, | audīverint, | | he will have heard | they will have heard | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | audiam, may I hear | audiāmus, let us hear | | audiās, mayst thou hear | audiātis, may you hear | | audiat, let him hear | audiant, let them hear | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | audīrem, I should hear | audīrēmus, we should hear | | audīrēs, thou wouldst hear | audīrētis, you would hear | | audīret, he would hear | audīrent, they would hear | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | audīverim, | audīverīmus, | | I may have heard | we may have heard | | audīverīs, | audīverītis, | | thou mayst have heard | you may have heard | | audīverit, | audīverint, | | he may have heard | they may have heard | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | audīvissem, | audīvissēmus, | | I should have heard | we should have heard | | audīvissēs, | audīvissētis, | | thou wouldst have heard | you would have heard | | audīvisset, | audīvissent, | | he would have heard | they would have heard | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | audī or audītō, | audīte or audītōte, | | hear, thou shalt hear | hear, you shall hear | | audītō, he shall hear | audiuntō, they shall hear | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | NOUNS OF THE VERB. | | | | INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | | Pres. audīre, | Pres. audiēns, | | to hear | hearing | | Perf. audīvisse, | | | to have heard | | | Fut. audītūrus esse, | Fut. audītūrus, | | to be going to hear | going to hear | | | | GERUND. | SUPINE. | | Gen. audiendī, of hearing | | | Dat. audiendō, for hearing | | | Acc. audiendum, hearing | Acc. audītum, to hear | | Abl. audiendō, by hearing | Abl. audītū, in hearing | +------------------------------------------------------------------+
VERBS IN #-īre#.
The Fourth Conjugation.
797. #audior#, am heard.
+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PASSIVE VOICE. | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | audior, | audīmur, | | I am heard | we are heard | | audīris or -re, | audīminī, | | thou art heard | you are heard | | audītur, | audiuntur, | | he is heard | they are heard | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | audiēbar, | audiēbāmur, | | I was heard | we were heard | | audiēbāre or -ris, | audiēbāminī, | | thou wert heard | you were heard | | audiēbātur, | audiēbantur, | | he was heard | they were heard | | | | FUTURE TENSE. | | audiar, | audiēmur, | | I shall be heard | we shall be heard | | audiēre or -ris, | audiēminī, | | thou wilt be heard | you will be heard | | audiētur, | audientur, | | he will be heard | they will be heard | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | audītus sum, I have been, | audītī sumus, we have been, | | or was heard | or were heard | | audītus es, thou hast been, | audītī estis, _you have | | or wert heard | been_, or were heard | | audītus est, he has been, | audītī sunt, _they have | | or was heard | been_, or were heard | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | audītus eram, | audītī erāmus, | | I had been heard | we had been heard | | audītus erās, | audītī erātis, | | thou hadst been heard | you had been heard | | audītus erat, | audītī erant, | | he had been heard | they had been heard | | | | FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. | | audītus erō, | audītī erimus, | | I shall have been heard | we shall have been heard | | audītus eris, | audītī eritis, | | thou wilt have been heard | you will have been heard | | audītus erit, | audītī erunt, | | he will have been heard | they will have been heard | | | +----------------------------------------------------------------- + | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | | | PRESENT TENSE. | | Singular. | Plural. | | audiar, may I be heard | audiāmur, may we be heard | | audiāre or -ris, | audiāminī, may you be heard | | mayst thou be heard | | | audiātur, let him be heard | audiantur, let them be heard | | | | IMPERFECT TENSE. | | audīrer, | audīrēmur, | | I should be heard | we should be heard | | audīrēre or -ris, | audīrēminī, | | thou wouldst be heard | you would be heard | | audīrētur, | audīrentur, | | he would be heard | they would be heard | | | | PERFECT TENSE. | | audītus sim, | audītī sīmus, | | I may have been heard | we may have been heard | | audītus sīs, | audītī sītis, | | thou mayst have been heard | you may have been heard | | audītus sit, | audītī sint, | | he may have been heard | they may have been heard | | | | PLUPERFECT TENSE. | | audītus essem, | audītī essēmus, | | I should have been heard | we should have been heard | | audītus essēs, _thou wouldst | audītī essētis, | | have been heard_ | you would have been heard | | audītus esset, | audītī essent, _they would | | he would have been heard | have been heard_ | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | audīre or audītor, be heard, | audīminī, be heard | | thou shalt be heard | | | audītor, | audiuntor, | | he shall be heard | they shall be heard | | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ | NOUNS OF THE VERB. | | | | INFINITIVE. | GERUNDIVE. | | Pres. audīrī, | audiendus, to be heard | | to be heard | | | Perf. audītus esse, | PERFECT PARTICIPLE. | | to have been heard | audītus, heard | | Fut. audītum īrī, | | | to be going to be heard | | | (2273) | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+
THE DEPONENT VERB.
798. Deponents, that is, verbs with passive person endings and a reflexive or an active meaning (725), have these active noun forms: participles, the future infinitive, the gerund, and the supines. The perfect participle is usually active, but sometimes passive; the gerundive always passive. The following is a synopsis of deponents:
+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PRINCIPAL PARTS. | | | | queror, complain, querī, questus | | mīror, wonder, mīrārī, mīrātus | | vereor, fear, verērī, veritus | | partior, share, partīrī, partītus | +---------+--------------------------------------------------------+ | | I. -ī II. (1.) -ārī (2.) -ērī (3.) -īrī | | | | | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | Pres. | queror | mīror | vereor | partior | | Imp. | querēbar | mīrābar | verēbar | partiēbar | | Fut. | querar | mīrābor | verēbor | partiar | | Perf. | questus sum | mīrātus sum | veritus sum | partītus sum | | Plup. | questus | mīrātus | veritus | partītus | | | eram | eram | eram | eram | | F. P. | questus erō | mīrātus erō | veritus erō | partītus erō | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | Pres. | querar | mīrer | verear | partiar | | Imp. | quererer | mīrārer | verērer | partīrer | | Perf. | questus sim | mīrātus sim | veritus sim | partītus sim | | Plup. | questus | mīrātus | veritus | partītus | | | essem | essem | essem | essem | | | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | | querere | mīrāre | verēre | partīre | +---------+--------------------------------------------------------+ | | PARTICIPLES. | | Pres. | querēns | mīrāns | verēns | partiēns | | Perf. | questus | mīrātus | veritus | partītus | | Fut. | questūrus | mīrātūrus | veritūrus | partītūrus | | | | | | INFINITIVE. | | Pres. | querī | mīrārī | verērī | partīrī | | Perf. | questus | mīrātus | veritus | partītus | | | esse | esse | esse | esse | | Fut. | questūrus | mīrātūrus | veritūrus | partītūrus | | | esse | esse | esse | esse | | | | | | GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. | | Gen. | querendī, | mīrandī, | verendī, | partiendī, | | | &c. | &c. | &c. | &c. | | | querendus | mīrandus | verendus | partiendus | | | | | | SUPINE. | | Acc. | questum | *mīrātum | *veritum | *partītum | | Abl. | *questū | mīrātū | *veritū | *partītū | +---------+--------------------------------------------------------+
799. Three deponents in #-ior#, #-ī#, #gradior#, walk, #morior#, die, and #patior#, suffer, and their compounds, have a present system like the passive of #capiō# (784). But #adgredior# and #prōgredior# and #morior# and #ēmorior# have sometimes the forms of verbs in #-īrī#; for these, and for #orior#, arise, #orīrī#, #ortus#, and #potior#, become master of, #potīrī#, #potītus#, see 791. By far the largest number of deponents are verbs in #-ārī#, like #mīror#, #mīrārī# (368).
800. Some verbs waver between active and passive person endings: as, #adsentiō#, agree, #adsentīre#, and #adsentior#, #adsentīrī#; #populō#, ravage, #populāre#, and #populor#, #populārī#: see 1481.
801. A few verbs are deponent in the present system only: as, #dēvortor#, turn in, perfect #dēvortī#; #revortor#, turn back, perfect #revortī#, but with active perfect participle #revorsus#. Four are deponent in the perfect system only: #fīdō#, trust, #fīdere#, #fīsus#, and the compounds, #cōnfīdō#, #diffīdō#; and #audeō#, dare, #audēre#, #ausus#, #gaudeō#, feel glad, #gaudēre#, #gāvīsus#, and #soleō#, am used, #solēre#, #solitus#. Most impersonals in #-ēre# have both an active and a deponent form in the perfect system: see 815, 816.
PERIPHRASTIC FORMS.
802. (1.) The future active participle with a form of #sum# is used to denote an intended or future action: as,
#rēctūrus sum#, I am going to rule, intend to rule.
+---------+----------------------------------------+ | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | Singular. | Plural. | | Pres. | rēctūrus sum, | rēctūrī sumus, | | | es, | estis, | | | est | sunt | | Imp. | rēctūrus eram, | rēctūrī erāmus, | | | erās, | erātis, | | | erat | erant | | Fut. | rēctūrus erō, | rēctūrī erimus, | | | eris, | eritis, | | | erit | erunt | | Perf. | rēctūrus fuī, | rēctūrī fuimus, | | | fuistī, | fuistis, | | | fuit | fuērunt | | Plup. | rēctūrus fueram, | rēctūrī fuerāmus, | | | fuerās, | fuerātis, | | | fuerat | fuerant | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | Pres. | rēctūrus sim, | rēctūrī sīmus, | | | sīs, | sītis, | | | sit | sint | | Imp. | rēctūrus essem, | rēctūrī essēmus, | | | essēs, | essētis, | | | esset | essent | | Perf. | rēctūrus fuerim, | rēctūrī fuerīmus, | | | fuerīs, | fuerītis, | | | fuerit | fuerint | | Plup. | rēctūrus fuissem, | rēctūrī fuissēmus, | | | fuissēs, | fuissētis, | | | fuisset | fuissent | +---------+----------------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | | | Pres. | rēctūrus esse | | | Perf. | rēctūrus fuisse | | +---------+----------------------------------------+
803. A future perfect is hardly ever used: as, #fuerit victūrus# (Sen.). In the imperfect subjunctive, #forem#, #forēs#, #foret#, and #forent# are sometimes used (Nep., Sall., Liv., Vell.).
804. (2.) The gerundive with a form of #sum# is used to denote action which requires to be done: as,
#regendus sum#, I am to be ruled, must be ruled.
+---------+----------------------------------------+ | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | Singular. | Plural. | | Pres. | regendus sum, | regendī sumus, | | | es, | estis, | | | est | sunt | | Imp. | regendus eram, | regendī erāmus, | | | erās, | erātis, | | | erat | erant | | Fut. | regendus erō, | regendī erimus, | | | eris, | eritis, | | | erit | erunt | | Perf. | regendus fuī, | regendī fuimus, | | | fuistī, | fuistis, | | | fuit | fuērunt | | Plup. | regendus fueram, | regendī fuerāmus, | | | fuerās, | fuerātis, | | | fuerat | fuerant | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | Pres. | regendus sim, | regendī sīmus, | | | sīs, | sītis, | | | sit | sint | | Imp. | regendus essem, | regendī essēmus, | | | essēs, | essētis, | | | esset | essent | | Perf. | regendus fuerim, | regendī fuerīmus, | | | fuerīs, | fuerītis, | | | fuerit | fuerint | | Plup. | regendus fuissem, | regendī fuissēmus, | | | fuissēs, | fuissētis, | | | fuisset | fuissent | +---------+----------------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | | | Pres. | regendus esse | | | Perf. | regendus fuisse | | +---------+----------------------------------------+
[Erratum: 804 (table) ... SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. . missing or invisible]
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
805. (1.) Some verbs have only a few forms: as,
#inquam#, quoth I (760); #aiō#, avouch (786). See also #apage#, avaunt, get thee behind me, #cedo#, give, tell, #fārī#, to lift up one’s voice, #havē̆# or #avē̆# and #salvē#, all hail, #ovat#, triumphs, and #quaesō#, prithee, in the dictionary.
806. (2.) Many verbs have only the present system; such are:
807. (a.) #sum#, am (745); #ferō#, carry (780); #fīō#, grow, become (788).
808. (b.) Some verbs in #-ere#: #angō#, throttle, #bītō#, go, #clangō#, sound, #claudō# or #claudeō#, hobble, #fatīscō#, gape, #glīscō#, wax, #glūbō#, peel, #hīscō#, gape, #temnō#, scorn, #vādō#, go, #vergō#, slope. Also many inceptives (834): as, #dītēscō#, get rich, #dulcēscō#, get sweet, &c., &c.
809. (c.) Some verbs in #-ēre#: #albeō#, am white, #aveō#, long, #calveō#, am bald, #cāneō#, am gray, #clueō#, am called, hight, #flāveō#, am yellow, #hebeō#, am blunt, #immineō#, threaten, #lacteō#, suck, #līveō#, look dark, #maereō#, mourn, #polleō#, am strong, #renīdeō#, am radiant, #squāleō#, am scaly, #ūmeō#, am wet.
810. (d.) Some verbs in #-īre#: #balbūtiō#, sputter, #feriō#, strike, #ganniō#, yelp, #ineptiō#, am a fool, #superbiō#, am stuck up, #tussiō#, cough. Also most desideratives (375).
811. Many verbs are not attended by a perfect participle, and lack in consequence the perfect passive system, or, if deponent, the perfect active system.
812. (3.) Some verbs have only the perfect system: so particularly #coepī#, have begun, began (120); and with a present meaning, #ōdī#, have come to hate, hate; and #meminī#, have called to mind, remember. The following is a synopsis of these three verbs:
+---------+----------------------------------------------------+ | | INDICATIVE MOOD. | | | Active. Passive. | Active. Active. | | Perf. | coepī coeptus sum | ōdī | meminī | | Plup. | coeperam coeptus eram | ōderam | memineram | | F. P. | coeperō coeptus erō | ōderō | meminerō | | | | | | SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | | Perf. | coeperim coeptus sim | ōderim | meminerim | | Plup. | coepissem coeptus essem | ōdissem | meminissem | | | | | | IMPERATIVE MOOD. | | Perf. | ---- ---- | ---- | mementō, | | | | | mementōte | +---------+----------------------------------------------------+ | | INFINITIVE. | | Perf. | coepisse coeptus esse | ōdisse | meminisse | | | | | | PARTICIPLES. | | Perf. | coeptus | ---- | ---- | | Fut. | coeptūrus | ōsūrus | ---- | +---------+----------------------------------------------------+
813. A few forms of the present system of #coepī# occur in old writers: as, #coepiō# (Plaut.), #coepiam# (Caec., Cato), #coepiat# (Plaut.), #coeperet# (Ter.), and #coepere# (Plaut.); perfect once #coēpit# (Lucr.). #ōsus sum# or #fuī# (Plaut., C. Gracch., Gell.), #exōsus sum# (Verg., Sen., Curt., Gell.), and #perōsus sum# (Suet., Col., Quint.), are sometimes used as deponents. #meminī# is the only verb which has a perfect imperative active. #ōdī# and #meminī# have no passive.
814. #coeptūrus# is rather rare and late (Liv. 2, Plin., Suet.), once as future infinitive (Quint.); and #ōsūrus# is very rare (Cic., Gell.). #exōsus# and #perōsus#, as active participles, hating bitterly, are not uncommon in writers of the empire; the simple #ōsus# is not used as a participle.
815. (4.) Impersonal verbs have usually only the third person singular, and the infinitive present and perfect: as,
(a.) #pluit#, it rains, #tonat#, it thunders, and other verbs denoting the operations of nature. (b.) Also a few verbs in #-ēre# denoting feeling: as, #miseret# (or #miserētur#, #miserēscit#), it distresses, #miseritum est#; #paenitet#, it repents, #paenituit#; #piget#, it grieves, #piguit# or #pigitum est#; #pudet#, it shames, #puduit# or #puditum est#; #taedet#, it is a bore, #taesum est#.
816. Some other verbs, less correctly called impersonal, with an infinitive or a sentence as subject, are likewise defective: as,
#lubet# or #libet#, it suits, #lubitum# or #libitum est#, #lubuit# or #libuit#; #licet#, it is allowed, #licuit# or #licitum est#; #oportet#, it is proper, #oportuit#; #rē fert# or #rēfert#, it concerns, #rē ferre# or #rēferre#, #rē tulit# or #rētulit#. For the impersonal use of the third person singular passive, as #pugnātur#, there is fighting, #pugnandum est#, there must be fighting, see 724.
817. Of the impersonals in #-ēre#, some have other forms besides the third person singular and the infinitives: as,
#paenitēns#, repenting, #paenitendus#, to be regretted, late; #pigendus#, irksome; #pudēns#, modest, #pudendus#, shameful, #puditūrum#, going to shame; #lubēns# or #libēns#, with willing mind, gladly, very common indeed; imperative LICETO, be it allowed (inscrr. 133-111 B.C.), #licēns#, unrestrained, #licitus#, allowable; gerunds #pudendum#, #pudendō#, #pigendum#.
[Erratum (in table): 812 (table) ... ōdī ōdi]
REDUNDANT VERBS.
818. (1.) Some verbs have more than one form of the present stem: thus,
819. (a.) Verbs in #-ere# have rarely forms of verbs in #-ēre# in the present system: as, #abnueō#, nod no, #abnuēbunt# (Enn.), for #abnuō#, #abnuent#; #congruēre#, to agree (Ter.), for #congruere#. For verbs in #-iō#, #-ere# (or #-ior#, #-ī#), with forms of verbs in #-īre# (or #-īrī#), see 791. Once #pīnsībant# (Enn.).
820. (b.) Some verbs in #-āre# have occasionally a present stem like verbs in #-ere#: as, #lavis#, washest, #lavit#, &c., for #lavās#, #lavat#, &c.; #sonit#, sounds, #sonunt#, for #sonat#, #sonant#. Others have occasionally a present stem like verbs in #-ēre#: as, dēnseō, thicken, dēnsērī, for dēnsō, #dēnsārī#.
821. (c.) Some verbs in #-ēre# have occasionally a present stem like verbs in #-ere#: as, #fervit#, boils, #fervont#, for #fervet#, #fervent#. See also #fulgeō#, #oleō#, #scateō#, #strīdeō#, #tergeō#, #tueor# in the dictionary. #cieō#, set a going, sometimes has a present stem in #-īre#, particularly in compounds: as, #cīmus#, #ciunt#, for #ciēmus#, #cient#.
822. (d.) Some verbs in #-īre# have occasionally a present stem like verbs in #-ere#: as, #ēvenunt#, turn out, for #ēveniunt#; #ēvenat#, #ēvenant#, for #ēveniat#, #ēveniant#, and #advenat#, #pervenat#, for #adveniat#, #perveniat# (Plaut.).
823. (2.) Some verbs have more than one form of the perfect stem: as,
#eō#, go, old #īī# (765), common #iī#, rarely #īvī# (767); #pluit#, it rains, #pluit#, sometimes #plūvit#. See also #pangō#, #parcō#, #clepō#, #vollō# or #vellō#, #intellegō#, #pōnō#, #nectō#, and #adnectō#, #saliō# and #īnsiliō#, #applicō#, #explicō# and #implicō#, #dīmicō# and #necō# in the dictionary. Some compound verbs have a form of the perfect which is different from that of the simple verb: as, #canō#, make music, #cecinī#, #concinuī#, #occinuī#; #pungō#, punch, #pupugī#, #compunxī#, #expunxī#; #legō#, pick up, #lēgī#, #dīlēxī#, #intellēxī#, #neglēxī#; #emō#, take, buy, #ēmī# (#adēmī#, #exēmī#), #cōmpsī#, #dēmpsī#, #prōmpsī#, #sūmpsī#.
FORMATION OF STEMS.
VARIABLE VOWEL.
824. The final vowel of a tense stem is said to be variable when it is #-o-# in some of the forms, and #-u-#, #-e-#, or #-i-# in others.
825. The sign for the variable vowel is #{-o|e-}#: thus, #reg{o|e-}#, which may be read ‘#rego-# or #rege-#,’ represents #rego-# or #regu-#, #rege-# or #regi-#, as seen in #rego-r# or #regu-nt#, #rege-re# or #regi-t#.
826. The variable vowel occurs in the present of verbs in #-ere#, except in the subjunctive, in the future in #-bō# or #-bor#, and in the future perfect, as may be seen in the paradigms. It is usually short; but in the active, #o# is long: as, #regō#, #laudābō#, #laudāverō#; and poets rarely lengthen #i# in the second and third person singular of the present. For the future perfect, see 882.
827. In old Latin, the stem vowel of the third person plural of the present was #o#: as, COSENTIONT; #o# was long retained after #v#, #u#, or #qu# (107, c): as, #vīvont#, #ruont#, #sequontur#; or, if #o# was not retained, #qu# became #c#: as, #secuntur#.
I. THE PRESENT SYSTEM.
PRESENT INDICATIVE STEM.
I. PRIMITIVES.
(A.) ROOT VERBS.
828. A root without addition is used as the present stem, in the present tense or parts of the present tense, in root verbs (744-781): as,
#es-t#, is; #da-t#, gives; #inqui-t#, quoth he; #i-t#, goes; #nequi-t#, can’t; #ēs-t#, eats; #vol-t#, will; #fer-t#, carries. With reduplicated root (189): #bibi-t#, drinks; #seri-t#, sows; #sisti-t#, sets.
(B.) VERBS IN #-ere#.
829. (1.) The present stem of many verbs in #-ere# is formed by adding a variable vowel #{-o|e-}#, which appears in the first person singular active as #-ō#, to a root ending in a consonant or in two consonants: as,
PRESENT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME. reg{o|e-} regō, guide +reg-+ vert{o|e-} vertō, turn +vert-+
Other examples are: #tegō#, cover, #petō#, make for; #mergō#, dip, #serpō#, creep; #pendō#, weigh; #dīcō#, say, #fīdō#, trust, #scrībō#, write, with long #ī# for #ei# (98); #dūcō#, lead, with long #ū# for #eu#, #ou# (100); #lūdō#, play, with long #ū# for #oi#, #oe# (99); #laedō#, hit, #claudō#, shut; #rādō#, scrape, #cēdō#, move along, #fīgō#, fix, #rōdō#, gnaw, #glūbō#, peel. #*furō#, rave; #agō#, drive, #alō#, nurture. #gignō#, beget, (#gen-#, #gn-#), has reduplication, and #sīdō#, settle, light (#sed-#, #sd-#), is also the result of an ancient reduplication (189).
830. In some present stems an original consonant has been modified: as, #gerō#, carry (#ges-#), #ūrō#, burn (154); #trahō#, draw (#tragh-#), #vehō#, cart (152); or has disappeared: as, #fluō#, flow (#flūgu-#).
831. Some roots in a mute have a nasal before the mute in the present stem: as, #frangō#, break (#frag-#). Other examples are: #iungō#, join, #linquō#, leave, #pangō#, fix, #pingō#, paint; #findō#, cleave, #fundō#, pour; #-cumbō#, lie, #lambō#, lick, #rumpō#, break (164, 3). The nasal sometimes runs over into the perfect or perfect participle, or both.
832. (2.) The present stem of many verbs in #-ere# is formed by adding a suffix ending in a variable vowel #{-o|e-}#, which appears in the first person singular active as #-ō#, to a root: thus, #-nō#, #-scō#, #-tō#, #-iō#: as,
PRESENT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME. lin{o|e-} linō, besmear +li-+ crēsc{o|e-} crēscō, grow +crē-+ pect{o|e-} pectō, comb +pec-+ capi{o|e-} capiō, take +cap-+
833. (a.) #-nō# is added to roots in a vowel, or in a continuous sound, #-m-#, #-r-#, or #-l-#.
So regularly #linō#, besmear, #sinō#, let; #temnō#, scorn, #cernō#, sift, #spernō#, spurn, only. The third persons plural #danunt# (Naev., Plaut.) for #dant#, #prōdīnunt#, #redīnunt# (Enn.) for #prōdeunt#, #redeunt# hardly belong here; their formation is obscure. In a few verbs, #-n# is assimilated (166, 6): as, #tollō#, lift. Sometimes the doubled #l# runs into the perfect (855): as, #vellī#, #fefellī#. #minuō#, lessen, and #sternuō#, sneeze, have a longer suffix #-nu{o|e-}#.
834. (b.) #-scō#, usually meaning ‘begin to,’ forms presents called Inceptives or Inchoatives.
#-scō# is attached: first, to roots: as, #nāscor#, am born, #nōscō#, learn, #pāscō#, feed, #scīscō#, resolve; consonant roots have #ī#, less commonly #ē#, before the suffix: as, #tremīscō# or #tremēscō#, fall a-trembling, #nancīscor#, get (831); but #discō#, learn (170, 1), and #poscō#, demand (170, 10), are shortened; see 168. Secondly, to a form of the present stem of denominative verbs, especially of those in #-ēre#: as, #clārēscō#, brighten; the stem is often assumed only, as in #inveterāscō#, grow old, #mātūrēscō#, get ripe. Many inceptives are used only in composition: as, #extimēscō#, get scared, #obdormīscō#, drop asleep.
835. (c.) #-tō# occurs in the following presents from guttural roots: #flectō#, turn, #nectō#, string, #pectō#, comb, #plector#, am struck, #amplector#, hug, #complector#, clasp. From a lingual root #vid-#, comes #vīsō#, go to see, call on (153). From vowel roots: #bētō# or #bītō#, go, and #metō#, mow.
836. (d.) #-iō# is usually added to consonant roots with a short vowel; the following have presents formed by this suffix:
#capiō#, take, #cupiō#, want, #faciō#, make, #fodiō#, dig, #fugiō#, run away, #iaciō#, throw, #pariō#, bring forth, #quatiō#, shake, #rapiō#, seize, #sapiō#, have sense, and their compounds; the compounds of #*laciō#, lure, and #speciō# or #spiciō#, spy, and the deponents #gradior#, step, #morior#, die, and #patior#, suffer, and their compounds. For occasional forms like those of verbs in #-īre# (or #-īrī#), see 791. For #aiō#, see 786; for #fīō#, 788.
837. A few present stems are formed by adding a variable vowel #{-o|e-}#, for an older #-i{o|e-}#, to a vowel root: as,
#ruō#, tumble down, #rui-s#, #rui-t#, #rui-mus#, #rui-tis#, #ruu-nt# (114). Vowel roots in #-ā-#, #-ē-#, or #-ī-# have a present stem like that of denominatives: as, #stō#, stand, #stā-s#, #sta-t#, #stā-mus#, #stā-tis#, #sta-nt#; #fleō#, weep, #flē-s#, #fle-t#, #flē-mus#, #flē-tis#, #fle-nt#; #neō#, spin, has once #neu-nt# for #ne-nt# (Tib.); #sciō#, know, #scī-s#, #sci-t#, #scī-mus#, #scī-tis#, #sciu-nt#.
838. Most present stems formed by adding the suffix #-iō# to a root ending in #-l-#, #-r-#, or #-n-#, and all formed by adding #-iō# to a long syllable, have the form of denominatives in #-īre# in the present system: as, #saliō#, leap, #salīre#, #aperiō#, open, #aperīre#, #veniō#, come, #venīre#; #farciō#, cram, #farcīre#.
[Errata: 830 ... (#tragh-#) ... (#flūgu-#). In these two roots, the pairs “gh” and “gu” are printed together, while the other letters of the root are spaced as usual. 834 ... less commonly #ē#, before the suffix #ē#. before 835 ... #pectō#, comb #pectō# comb]
II. DENOMINATIVES.
839. The present stem of denominatives is formed by attaching a variable vowel #{-o|e-}#, for an older #-i{o|e-}#, to a theme consisting of a noun stem: as,
UNCONTRACTED PRESENT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME. cēna{o|e-} cēnō, dine cēnā- flōre{o|e-} flōreō, blossom flōre- vesti{o|e-} vestiō, dress vesti- acu{o|e-} acuō, point acu-
The noun stem ending is often slightly modified in forming the theme: thus, #laud-# becomes #laudā-# in #laudō# for #*laudā-ō#, and #flōr-# becomes #flōre-# in #flōre-ō#.
840. In many of the forms, the final vowel of the theme is contracted with the variable vowel: as,
#plantō#, #plantās# (118, 3) for #*plantāi̭ō#, #*plantāi̭es# (153, 2); #monēs# for #*monēi̭es# (118, 1), #audīs# for #*audīi̭es# (118, 3). The long #ā#, #ē#, or #ī#, is regularly shortened in some of the forms: as, #scit#, #arat#, #habet#, for Plautine #scīt#, #arāt#, #habēt#. In a few forms no contraction occurs: as, #moneō#, #audiō#, #audiu-nt#, #audie-ntis#, &c., #audie-ndus#, &c. (114). Denominatives from stems in #-u-#, as #acuō#, are not contracted, and so have the forms of verbs in #-ere# (367).
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.
841. The suffix of the present subjunctive of #sum#, am, is #-ī-#, which becomes #-i-# before #-m#, #-t#, and #-nt#: #si-m#, #sī-s#, #si-t#, #sī-mus#, #sī-tis#, #si-nt# (35, 2, 3). So also in the singular and in the third person plural, #dui-m#, &c. (756), and #edi-m#, &c. (769), and in all the persons, #veli-m#, &c. (#nōli-m#, &c., #māli-m#, &c.). An old suffix is #-iē-# (#-ie-#), in #sie-m#, #siē-s#, #sie-t#, and #sie-nt#.
842. (1.) The present subjunctive stem of verbs in #-ere#, #-ēre#, and #-īre#, ends in #-ā-#, which becomes #-a-# in some of the persons; this suffix replaces the variable vowel of the indicative: as,
#rega-m#, #regā-s#, #rega-t#, #regā-mus#, #regā-tis#, #rega-nt#; #capia-m#, #capiā-s#, &c.; #monea-m#, #moneā-s#, &c.; #audia-m#, #audiā-s#, &c. #ea-m#, #quea-m#, #fera-m#, and the old #fua-m# (750), also have the formative subjunctive vowel.
843. (2.) The present subjunctive stem of verbs in #-āre# ends in #-ē-#, which becomes #-e-# in some of the persons: as,
#laude-m#, #laudē-s#, #laude-t#, #laudē-mus#, #laudē-tis#, #laude-nt#. #dō#, give, also has #de-m#, #dē-s#, &c.
[Erratum: 842 ... #monea-m#, #moneā-s#, &c.; . missing]
IMPERATIVE.
844. Root verbs have a root as imperative stem (745-780): as, #es#, &c., #fer#, &c. But the imperative of #nōlō# has a stem in #-ī-#, like verbs in #-īre#: thus, #nōlī#, #nōlī-tō#, #nōlī-te#, #nōlī-tōte#.
845. The imperative stem of verbs in #-ere#, and of verbs in #-āre#, #-ēre#, and #-īre#, is the same as that of the indicative: as,
#rege#, #regi-tō#, #regu-ntō#, #rege-re#; #cape#, #capi-tō#, #capiu-ntō#; #fī#; #laudā#, &c.; #monē#, &c.; #audī#, &c.
846. The second person singular imperative active of #dīcō#, #dūcō#, and #faciō#, is usually #dīc#, #dūc#, and #fac#, respectively, though the full forms, #dīce#, &c., are also used, and are commoner in old Latin. Compounds of #dūcō# may have the short form: as, #ēdūc#. #ingerō# has once #inger# (Catull.). #sciō# has regularly the singular #scī-tō#, plural #scī-tōte#, rarely #scī-te#.
IMPERFECT INDICATIVE.
847. The imperfect indicative stem ends in #-bā-#, which becomes #-ba-# in some of the persons: as,
#daba-m#, #dabā-s#, #daba-t#, #dabā-mus#, #dabā-tis#, #daba-nt#; #ība-m#; #quība-m#. In verbs in #-ere# and #-ēre#, the suffix is preceded by a form ending in #-ē-#: as, #regēba-m#; #monēba-m#; so also #volēba-m# (#nōlēba-m#, #mālēba-m#), and #ferēba-m#; in verbs in #-iō#, #-ere#, and in #-iō#, #-īre#, by a form ending in #-iē-#: as, #capiēba-m#; #audiēba-m#; in verbs in #-āre#, by one ending in #-ā-#: as, #laudāba-m#. In verse, verbs in #-īre# sometimes have #-ī-# before the suffix (Plaut., Ter., Catull., Lucr., Verg., &c.): as, #audība-t#. #āiō#, say, has sometimes #a͡iba-m#, &c. (787).
848. The suffix of the imperfect indicative of #sum#, am, is #-ā-#, which becomes #-a-# before #-m#, #-t#, and #-nt# (35, 2, 3) the #s# becomes #r# between the vowels (154): #era-m#, #erā-s#, #era-t#, #erā-mus#, #erā-tis#, #era-nt#.
[Erratum: 848 ... #-m#, #-t#, and #-nt# (35, 2, 3) the #s# becomes #r# printed as shown: missing punctuation or conjunction?]
IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.
849. The imperfect subjunctive stem ends in #-rē-#, which becomes #-re-# in some of the persons: as,
#dare-m#, #darē-s#, #dare-t#, #darē-mus#, #darē-tis#, #dare-nt#; #īre-m#, #fore-m#, #ferre-m#. In verbs in #-ere#, the #-rē-# is preceded by a form ending in #-e-#: as, #regere-m#, #capere-m#; in verbs in #-āre#, #-ēre#, and #-īre#, by one ending in #-ā-#, #-ē-#, or #-ī-#, respectively: as, #laudāre-m#, #monēre-m#, #audīre-m#.
850. The suffix of the imperfect subjunctive of #sum#, am, is #-sē-#, which becomes #-se-# in some of the persons; #esse-m#, #essē-s#, #esse-t#, #essē-mus#, #essē-tis#, #esse-nt#; so also #ēssē-s#, &c. (769). #volō#, wish, #nōlō#, won’t, and #mālō#, prefer, have #velle-m#, #nōlle-m#, and #mālle-m# respectively (166, 8).
[Erratum: 850 ... respectively (166, 8). (166, 8.)]
FUTURE.
851. The future stem of #sum#, am, is #er{o|e-}#: #erō#, #eri-s#, #eri-t#, #eri-mus#, #eri-tis#, #eru-nt#. #dō# has #dabō#, #eō# has #ībō#, and #queō# has #quībō#.
852. (1.) The future stem of verbs in #-ere# and #-īre# ends in #-a-# in the first person singular, otherwise in #-ē-#, which becomes #-e-# in some of the persons: as,
#rega-m#, #regē-s#, #rege-t#, #regē-mus#, #regē-tis#, #rege-nt#; #capia-m#, #capiē-s#, &c.; #audia-m#, #audiē-s#, &c. The first person singular is not a future form, but the subjunctive present, used with a future meaning (842); forms in #-em# occur in manuscripts of Plautus: as, #faciem#, #sinem#. Verbs in #-īre# sometimes have #-b{o|e-}#, chiefly in the dramatists: as, #scībō#, #opperībo-r# (Plaut., Ter.), #lēnību-nt# (Prop.); rarely verbs in #-ere# (819): as, #exsūgēbō# (Plaut.). For #reddibō#, instead of the usual #reddam#, see 757.
853. (2.) The future stem of verbs in #-āre# and #-ēre# ends in -b{o|e-}, which is preceded by a form ending in long #-ā-# or #-ē-# respectively: as,
#laudābō#, #laudābi-s#, #laudābi-t#, #laudābi-mus#, #laudābi-tis#, #laudābu-nt#. #monēbō#, #monēbi-s#, &c.
II. THE PERFECT SYSTEM.
PERFECT INDICATIVE STEM.
854. There are two kinds of perfect stems: (A.) Some verbs have as perfect stem a root, generally with some modification, but without a suffix (858-866). (B.) Some perfects are formed with a suffix, #-s-#, or #-v-# or #-u-# (867-875).
855. Some perfects of primitives are formed not from a root, but from the present stem without the formative vowel, treated as a root: as, #prehendī#, seized, from #prehend-# (866); #poposcī#, asked, #fefellī#, deceived (858); #iūnxī#, joined (867).
856. The first person of the perfect ends in #-ī#, sometimes written #ei# (29, 2). #-t#, #-stī#, sometimes written #-stei# (29, 2), #-stis#, and #-mus# are preceded by short #i#; #-re# is always, and #-runt# is usually, preceded by long #ē#: as,
#rēxī#, #rēxi-stī#, #rēxi-t#, #rēxi-mus#, #rēxi-stis#, #rēxē-runt# (#rēxe-runt#), or #rēxē-re#.
857. Sometimes #-t# is preceded by long #ī#: as, #iīt#, #petiīt#, REDIEIT (29, 2). #-runt# is sometimes preceded by short #e# (Plaut., Ter., Lucr., Hor., Ov., Verg., Phaedr.). This is the original form; #-ē-# is by analogy to #-ēre#.
(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.
858. (1.) Some verbs in #-ere# form their perfect stem by prefixing to the root its initial consonant with the following vowel, which, if #a#, is usually represented by #e#; this is called the Reduplicated Perfect, and the first syllable is called the Reduplication: as,
PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME. pu-pug- pungō, punch +pug-+ pe-pig- pangō, fix +pag-+
Other examples are: #cadō#, fall, #cecidī# (#cad-#, 104, c); #pariō#, bring forth, #peperī# (#par-#, 104, c); #pellō#, push, #pepulī# (#pol-#, 105, h); #poscō#, demand, #poposcī# (855); #fallō#, deceive, #fefellī# (855, 104, c); see also 923-932. #caedō#, cut, has #cecīdī# (108, a); and a few old forms are quoted from verbs having an #o# or an #u# in the root with #e# in the reduplication: as, #memordī#, #pepugī#.
859. Four verbs with vowel roots also have a reduplicated perfect stem: #dō#, give, put, #dare#, #dedī#; #bibō#, drink, #bibere#, #bibī#; #stō#, stand, #stāre#, #stetī#, and #sistō#, set, #sistere#, #-stitī#, rarely #stitī#. Also four verbs in #-ēre#: #mordeō#, bite, #momordī#, #pendeō#, hang, #pependī#, #spondeō#, promise, #spopondī#, #tondeō#, clip, #-totondī#. In the root syllable of #spopondī#, promised, #stetī#, stood, #stitī#, set, and the old #scicidī#, clove, an #s# is dropped (173, 2).
860. In compounds the reduplication is commonly dropped: as,
#cecidī#, fell, compound #concidī#, tumbled down. Compounds of #cucurrī#, ran, sometimes retain the reduplication: as, #prōcucurrī#. Compounds of #bibī#, drank, #didicī#, learned, #poposcī#, asked, #stitī#, set, #stetī#, stood, and #dedī#, gave, put, retain it, the last two weakening #e# to #i#: as, #restitī#, staid back. #abscondidī#, hid away, usually becomes #abscondī#; in apparent compounds, #e# is usually retained: as, #circum stetī#, stood round, #vēnum dedī#, put for sale. The reduplication is also lost in the simple verbs #tulī#, carried, old #tetulī#, and in #scindō#, split, #scidī#, which last is rare as a simple verb.
861. Some compounds with #re-# drop only the vowel of the reduplication (111, a): as, #reccidī#, fell back; #rettulī#, brought back (see also 781); #repperī#, found; #rettudī#, beat back. Some perfects occur only in composition: as, PERCELLŌ, knock down, #perculī#; #cōntundō#, smash to pieces, #contudī#; #diffindō#, split apart, #diffidī#; but #fidī# also occurs a couple of times as a simple verb.
862. (2.) Some verbs in #-ere# have a perfect stem consisting of a consonant root with a long vowel (135, 1): as,
PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME. ēd- edō, eat +ed-+ lēg- legō, pick up, read +leg-+
Other examples are: #fodiō#, dig, #fōdī#; #fundō#, pour, #fūdī#; #linquō#, leave, #līquī#; see 936-946. Three verbs in #-ēre# also have this form, #sedeō#, sit, #sēdī#, #strīdeō#, grate, #strīdī#, #videō#, see, #vīdī#; and one in #-īre#, #veniō#, come, #vēnī#.
863. The following verbs in #-ere# with #a# in the present stem, have long #ē# in the perfect stem (145):
#agō#, do, #ēgī#, #frangō#, break, #frēgī#, #pangō#, fix, rarely #pēgī#, but always #compēgī#, #impēgī#, #oppēgī#; #capiō#, take, #cēpī#, #faciō#, make, #fēcī#, #iaciō#, throw, #iēcī#. So also the old #co-ēpī#, began, common #coepī#.
864. Two verbs in #-āre# and some in #-ēre# have a perfect stem consisting of a root which ends in #-v-# and has a long vowel: #iuvō#, help, #iuvāre#, #iūvī#, #lavō#, wash, #lavāre# or #lavere#, #lāvī#; #caveō#, look out, #cavēre#, #cāvī#; see 996.
865. Verbs in #-uō#, #-uere#, both primitives and denominatives, have usually a perfect stem in short #u# of the theme (124): as, #luō#, pay, #luī#; #acuō#, sharpen, #acuī#: see 947, 948. Forms with long #ū# are old and rare (126): as, #fūī#, #adnūī#, #cōnstitūī#, #īnstitūī#. #fluō#, flow, and #struō#, pile, have #flūxī# and #strūxi# (830).
866. (3.) Some verbs in #-ere# from roots ending in two consonants have a perfect stem consisting of the root: as,
PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME. mand- mandō, chew +mand-+ pand- pandō, open +pand-+
Other examples are: #vortō# or #vertō#, turn, #vortī# or #vertī#; #scandō#, climb, #-scendī#; #prehendō#, seize, #prehendī# (855); #vollō# or #vellō#, pluck, #vollī# or #vellī#; see 949-951. Similarly #ferveō#, boil, #fervere# or #fervēre#, has #fervī# or #ferbuī# (823), and #prandeō#, lunch, #prandēre#, has #prandī#.
(B.) PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#, OR IN #-v-# OR #-u-#.
PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#.
867. Many verbs in #-ere# form their perfect stem by adding the suffix #-s-# to a root, which generally ends in a mute: as,
PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME. carp-s- carpō, pluck +carp-+ scalp-s- scalpō, dig +scalp-+ ges-s- gerō, bear +ges-+ dīx- dīcō, say +dīc-+
Other examples are: #dūcō#, lead, #dūxī# (100); #fingō#, mould, #fīnxī# (855); #lūdō#, play, #lūsī# (166, 2); #scrībō#, write, #scrīpsī# (164, 1); #struō#, pile, #strūxī# (164, 1); #vīvō#, live, #vīxī# (98). Some verbs with a short vowel in the present, have a long vowel in the perfect: as, #regō#, guide, #rēxī# (135); #intellegō#, understand, #intellēxī# (823); #tegō#, cover, #tēxī#; #iungō#, join, #iūnxī# (855). And some verbs with a long vowel in the present, have a short vowel in the perfect: as, #ūrō#, burn, #ussī# (830). See 952-961.
868. Some verbs in #-ēre# also have a perfect in #-s-#: as #algeō#, am cold, #alsī# (170, 3); #haereō#, stick, #haesī# (166, 2): see 999, 1000. Also some in #-īre#: as, #sarciō#, patch, #sarsī# (170, 3): see 1014, 1015.
[Errata: 867 ... scalp-s- final - missing #scrībō#, write #scrībō# write]
PERFECT STEM IN #-v-# OR #-u-#.
869. (1.) Some verbs in #-ere#, with vowel roots, and almost all verbs in #-āre# or #-īre#, form their perfect stem by adding the suffix #-v-# to a theme ending in a long vowel: as,
PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME. crē-v- crēscō, grow +crē-+ laudā-v- laudō, praise laudā- audī-v- audiō, hear audī-
For other verbs in #-ere# with a perfect stem in #-v-#, and particularly #terō#, #cernō#, #spernō#, and #sternō#, see 962-970.
870. A few verbs in #-ere# have a perfect stem in #-v-# attached to a presumed theme in long #ī#: as, #cupiō#, want, #cupīvī#; #petō#, aim at, #petīvī#; #quaerō#, inquire, #quaesīvī#; #arcēssō#, fetch, #arcēssīvī#; see 966-970.
871. A few verbs in #-ēre# also have a perfect stem in #-v-#: as, #fleō#, weep, #flēre#, #flēvī#; see 1001-1003. And three verbs in #-ēscere# have a perfect stem in #-v-# attached to a presumed theme in long #ē#: #-olēscō#, grow, #-olēvī#; #quiēscō#, get quiet, #quiēvī#; #suēscō#, get used, #suēvī#.
872. One verb in #-āscere# has a perfect stem in #-v-# attached to a presumed theme in long #ā#: #advesperāscit#, it gets dusk, #advesperāvit#.
873. (2.) Many verbs in #-ere# form their perfect stem by adding the suffix #-u-# to a consonant root: as,
PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME. al-u- alō, nurture +al-+ gen-u- gignō, beget +gen-+
Other examples are: #colō#, cultivate, #coluī#; #cōnsulō#, consult, #cōnsuluī#; #-cumbō#, lie, #-cubuī#; #fremō#, roar, #fremuī#; #ēliciō#, draw out, #ēlicuī#; #molō#, grind, #moluī#; #rapiō#, snatch, #rapuī#; #serō#, string, #-seruī#; #stertō#, snore, #-stertuī#; #strepō#, make a racket, #strepuī#; #texō#, weave, #texuī#; #volō#, will, #voluī#; #compescō#, check, #compescuī# (855); see 971-976.
874. Some verbs in #-āre# also have a perfect stem in #-u-#: as, #crepō#, rattle, #crepāre#, #crepuī# (993); and many in #-ēre#: as, #moneō#, warn, #monēre#, #monuī#: see 1004-1006; also four in #-īre#: as, #saliō#, leap, #salīre#, #saluī# (1019).
875. The perfect #potuī# to the present #possum# (751) is from a lost present #*poteō#, #*potēre# (922). #pōnere# (for #*po-sinere#, 112; 170, 2) forms an old perfect #posīvī# (964), later #posuī#, as if #pos-# were the stem.
PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.
876. The perfect subjunctive stem ends in #-erī-#, for which #-eri-# is sometimes used (35, 2, 3): as,
#rēxeri-m#, #rēxerī-s#, #rēxeri-t#, #rēxerī-mus#, #rēxerī-tis#, #rēxeri-nt#.
877. In the perfect subjunctive, long #ī# is found before the person endings #-s#, #-mus#, and #-tis#, some 25 times, as follows: #-īs#, 18 times (Plaut. 3, Pac., Enn., Ter., Hor., Tib., Sen., inscr., once each, Ov. 8), #-īmus#, 4 times (Plaut. 3, Ter. 1), #-ītis#, 3 times (Plaut. 2, Enn. 1).
878. In the perfect subjunctive, short #i# is found, as in the future perfect, some 9 times, thus: #-is#, 8 times (Plaut. in anapests 3, Verg. 2, Hor. 3), #-imus# once (Verg.). But before #-tis#, short #i# is not found.
PERFECT IMPERATIVE.
879. One verb only, #meminī#, remember, has a perfect imperative; in this imperative, the person endings are not preceded by a vowel, thus: #memen-tō#, #memen-tōte#.
PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE.
880. The pluperfect indicative stem ends in #-erā-#, which becomes #-era-# in some of the persons: as,
#rēxera-m#, #rēxerā-s#, #rēxera-t#, #rēxerā-mus#, #rēxerā-tis#, #rēxera-nt#.
PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.
881. The pluperfect subjunctive stem ends in #-issē-#, which becomes #-isse-# in some of the persons: as,
#rēxisse-m#, #rēxissē-s#, #rēxisse-t#, #rēxissē-mus#, #rēxissē-tis#, #rēxisse-nt#.
FUTURE PERFECT.
882. The future perfect stem ends in #-erō-# and #-eri-#: as,
#rēxerō#, #rēxeri-s#, #rēxeri-t#, #rēxeri-mus#, #rēxeri-tis#, #rēxeri-nt#.
883. In the future perfect, short #i# is found before the person endings #-s#, #-mus#, and #-tis#, some 40 times, as follows: #-is#, 29 times (Plaut. 2, Cic. 1, Catull. 1, Verg. 7, Hor. 12, Ov. 4, Germ. 1, Juv. 1); #-imus#, 3 times (Plaut., Ter., Lucr.); #-itis#, 8 times (Enn. 1, Plaut. 5, Ov. 2).
884. In the future perfect, long #ī# is found, as in the perfect subjunctive, some 33 times, thus: #-īs#, 28 times (Plaut. 3, Hor. 5, Ov. 15, Prop., Stat., Mart., Priap., inscr., once each), #-īmus#, once (Catull.), #-ītis#, 4 times (Ov. 3, Priap. 1).
SHORT OR OLD FORMS.
885. (1.) Some shorter forms in the perfect system are principally found in old Latin.
886. (a.) Shorter forms in the perfect indicative, the pluperfect subjunctive, and the infinitive, most of them from perfects in #-s-# (867), occur chiefly in verse: thus,
Perfect indicative, second person singular, common: as, #dīxtī# (Plaut., Ter., Cic.); plural, rare: as, #accestis# (Verg.). Pluperfect subjunctive singular, not very common: as, #exstīnxem# (Verg.), #intellēxēs# (Plaut.), #vīxet# (Verg.); plural, once only, #ērēpsēmus# (Hor.). Infinitive, #dīxe# (Plaut.), #cōnsūmpse# (Lucr.).
887. (b.) A perfect subjunctive stem in #-sī-# or in #-ssī-#, and a future perfect indicative stem in #-s{o|e-}# or in #-ss{o|e-}#, occur chiefly in old laws and prayers, and in dramatic verse: as,
Perfect subjunctive: #faxim#, #faxīs#, FAXSEIS (inscr. 145 B.C.), #faxit#, #faxīmus#, #faxītis#, #faxint#; #ausim#, #ausīs#, #ausit#; #locāssim#, #amāssīs#, #servāssit#, #amāssint#, #prohibēssīs#, #prohibēssit#, #cohibēssit#, #licēssit#.
Future perfect indicative: #faxō#, #faxis#, #faxit#, #faxitis#, #capsō#, #recepsō#, #iussō#, #occīsit#, #capsimus#; #levāssō#, #invītāssitis#, #mulcāssitis#, #exoculāssitis#, #prohibēssis#, #prohibēssint#. Denominatives in #-āre# have also, in old Latin, a future perfect infinitive: as, #impetrāssere#.
888. Passive inflections, as future perfect #faxitur#, #turbāssitur#, deponent MERCASSITVR (inscr. 111 B.C.), are very rare; and, indeed, with the exception of #faxō# and #ausim#, even the active forms had become antiquated by 150 B.C. Denominatives in #-īre# never have the above formations. But #ambiō#, canvass, is thought to have a future perfect #ambīssit# twice (Plaut. prol.).
889. (2.) Shortened forms from perfect stems formed by the suffix #-v-# (869) are very common in all periods.
890. (a.) In tenses formed from perfect stems in #-āv-#, #-ēv-#, and #-ōv-#, #v# is often dropped before #-is-#, #-ēr-#, or #-er-#, and the vowels thus brought together are contracted (153, 1): as,
#laudāvistī#, #laudāstī#; #laudāvistis#, #laudāstis#; #laudāvērunt#, #laudārunt# (but the form in #-re#, as #laudāvēre#, is never contracted); #laudāverim#, #laudārim#, &c.; #laudāveram#, #laudāram#, &c.; #laudāvissem#, #laudāssem#, &c.; #laudāverō#, #laudārō#, &c.; #laudāvisse#, #laudāsse#.
#-plēvistī#, #-plēstī#; #-plēvistis#, #-plēstis#; #-plēvērunt#, #-plērunt#; #plēverim#, #-plērim#, &c.; #-plēveram#, #-plēram#, &c.; #-plēvissem#, #-plēssem#, &c.; #-plēverō#, #-plērō#, &c.; #-plēvisse#, #-plēsse#.
#nōvistī#, #nōstī#; #nōvistis#, #nōstis#; #nōvērunt#, #nōrunt#; #nōverim#, #nōrim#, &c.; #nōveram#, #nōram#, &c.; #nōvissem#, #nōssem#, &c.; #nōverō# always retains the #v#, but #cōgnōrō#, &c.; #nōvisse#, #nōsse#.
891. The verbs in which #v# belongs to the root (864), are not thus shortened, except #moveō#, mostly in compounds. From #iuvō#, #iuerint# (Catull.), #adiuerō# (Enn.), once each, and twice #adiuerit# (Plaut., Ter.) are unnecessary emendations.
892. Contractions in the perfect before #-t# and #-mus# are rare: as, #inrītāt#, #disturbāt#; #suēmus# or #su͡emus# (Lucr.), #nōmus# (Enn.), #cōnsu͡emus# (Prop.).
893. (b.) In tenses formed from perfect stems in #-īv-#, #v# is often dropped before #-is-#, #-ēr-#, or #-er-#; but contraction is common only in the forms which have #-is-#: as,
#audīvistī#, #audīstī#; #audīvistis#, #audīstis#; #audīvērunt#, #audiērunt#; #audīverim#, #audierim#, &c.; #audīveram#, #audieram#, &c.; #audīvissem#, #audīssem#, &c.; #audīverō#, #audierō#, &c.; #audīvisse#, #audīsse#. Sometimes #audiī#, #audiit#, #audīt#. Intermediate between the long and the short forms are #audīerās# and #audīerit#, once each (Ter.). In the perfect subjunctive, #sinō# has #sīverīs# (Plaut., Cato), #sīrīs# (Plaut., Cato, Liv.), #sīreis# (Pac.), or #seirīs# (Plaut.), #sīrit# (Plaut., Liv.), #sīrītis# (Plaut.), #sīverint# (Plaut., Curt.), #sierint# (Cic., Curt.), or #sīrint# (Plaut.). #dēsinō# is thought to have #dēsīmus# in the perfect indicative a couple of times (Sen., Plin. Ep.).
NOUNS OF THE VERB.
INFINITIVE.
894. The active infinitive has the ending #-re# in the present, and #-isse# in the perfect: as,
#dare#; #regere#, #capere#; #laudāre#, #monēre#, #audīre#. #rēxisse#; #laudāvisse# or #laudāsse#, #monuisse#, #audīvisse# or #audīsse#.
895. For #-rē# in old Latin, see 134, 2. The infinitive of #fīō#, become, ends in #-rī#, #fī̆erī#, with a passive ending (789); twice #fīere# (Enn. Laev.). An older form for #-re# is #-se#, found in #esse#, to be, #ēsse#, to eat, and their compounds. For #velle#, to wish (#mālle#, #nōlle#), see 166, 8. In the perfect, #eō#, go, sometimes has #-iisse# in compounds (766), and in poetry, #petō#, go to, has rarely #petiisse#.
896. The present infinitive passive of verbs in #-ere# has the ending #-ī#; that of other verbs has #-rī#: as,
#regī#, #capī#; #laudārī#, #monērī#, #audīrī#. #ferō#, carry, has #ferrī#. The length of the #ī# is sometimes indicated by the spelling #ei# (29, 2): as, DAREI.
897. A longer form in #-ier# for #-ī#, and #-rier# for #-rī#, is common in old laws and dramatic verse, and occurs sometimes in other poetry: as, FIGIER, to be posted, GNOSCIER, to be read (inscr. 186 B.C.); #dīcier#, to be said, #cūrārier#, to be looked after (Plaut.); #dominārier#, to be lord paramount (Verg.).
898. The place of the perfect passive, future active, and future passive infinitive is supplied by a circumlocution, as seen in the paradigms. For the future perfect #-āssere#, see 887.
GERUNDIVE AND GERUND.
899. The gerundive stem is formed by adding #-ndo-#, nominative #-ndus#, #-nda#, #-ndum#, to the present stem: as,
#dandus#, stem #dando-#; #regendus#, #capiendus#; #laudandus#, #monendus#, #audiendus#. Verbs in #-ere# and #-īre# often have #-undus#, when not preceded by #u# or #v#, especially in formal style: as, #capiundus#; #eō#, go, always has #eundum#, and #orior#, rise, #oriundus#. For the adjective use, see 288. The gerund is like the oblique cases of the neuter singular. For #-bundus#, see 289; #-cundus#, 290.
SUPINE.
900. The supine stem is formed by the suffix #-tu-#, which is often changed to #-su-# (912).
This suffix is attached to a root or to a form of the present stem after the manner of the perfect participle (906): as, #nūntiātum#, to report, #nūntiātū#, in reporting, stem #nūntiātu-#. Many of the commonest verbs have no supine: as, #sum#, #eō#, #ferō#; #regō#, #emō#, #tegō#; #amō#, #dēleō#, #doceō#, &c., &c.
PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
901. The present participle stem is formed by adding #-nt-# or #-nti-#, nominative #-ns#, to the present stem: as,
#dāns#, giving, stems #dant-#, #danti-#; #regēns#, #capiēns#; #laudāns#, #monēns#, #audiēns#.
902. The adjective #sontem# (accusative, no nominative), which was originally the participle of #sum#, has #o# before the suffix, and #absēns# and #praesēns# have #e#; the participle of #eō# has #ē# in the nominative singular, otherwise #u#, #iēns#, #euntis#, &c. #n# rarely drops before #-s# (63): as, LIBES (inscr.), #exsultās# (Enn.), #animās# (Lucr.).
903. Some adjectives which were originally present participles have no verb: as, #clēmēns#, merciful, #ēlegāns#, choice, #ēvidēns#, clear, #frequēns#, thick, #petulāns#, wanton, #recēns#, fresh, #repēns#, sudden, &c., &c. For #potēns#, powerful, see 922.
FUTURE PARTICIPLE.
904. The future participle suffix is #-tūro-#, nominative #-tūrus#, #-tūra#, #-tūrum#, which is often changed to #-sūro-#, nominative #-sūrus#, #-sūra#, #-sūrum# (912).
This suffix is added to a theme after the manner of the perfect participle (906): as, #rēctūrus#, going to guide; #laudātūrus#, going to praise.
905. Some future participles have a different formation from that of the perfect participle: as, #mortuus#, dead, #moritūrus#; see also in the dictionary #arguō#, #fruor#, #orior#, #ruō#, #secō#. And some verbs have two forms of the future participle: as, #āgnōscō#, #īgnōscō#, #hauriō#, #iuvō#, #pariō#. Some verbs which have no perfect participle have a future participle: as, #acquiēscō#, #appāreō#, #ardeō#, #caleō#, #careō#, #doleō#, #ēsuriō#, #fugiō#, #haereō#, #incidō#, #iaceō#, #-nuō#, #parcō#, #rauciō#, #recidō#, #sonō#, #stō#, #valeō#.
PERFECT PARTICIPLE.
906. The perfect participle suffix is #-to-#, nominative #-tus#, #-ta#, #-tum#, which is often changed to #-so-#, nominative #-sus#, #-sa#, #-sum# (912).
907. The perfect participle was originally active as well as passive, and some participles have retained the active meaning: as,
#adultus#, grown up; #ēmersus#, rising out from; #exōsus#, #perōsus#, hating bitterly; #placitus#, engaging; #iūrātus#, sworn, #coniūrātus#, conspiring; #prānsus#, having lunched, #cēnātus#, having dined, #pōtus#, drunk, &c. The perfect participles of deponents are usually active, but sometimes passive: as, #meditātus#, having studied, or studied. Many verbs are not accompanied by a perfect participle (811), particularly verbs in #-ēre#, with a parallel adjective in #-idus# (287). Intransitive verbs have usually only the neuter. A perfect active participle #meminēns# is said to have been used twice (Plaut., Laev.).
908. The perfect participle is formed in one of two separate ways:
909. (1.) From a theme consisting of a root; in this way the participles of most verbs in #-ere# and #-ēre# are formed: as,
#gestus#, carried, #aptus#, fit, #solūtus#, loosed (142), #iūnctus#, joined (831), #sparsus#, sprinkled (170, 3); #doctus#, taught.
910. In some consonant root participles of verbs in #-ere#, #-āre#, or #-ēre#, which have the suffix #-u-# in the perfect stem (873), the #-to-# is preceded by a short #i#: as, #genitus#, born (971-976); #domitus#, tamed (993); #monitus#, warned (1003, 1004, 1009). In old Latin, #e# occurs: as, MERETA (41); #e# is retained in #vegetus#, sprightly. One participle has #-tuo-#: #mortuus#, dead.
911. Some verbs in #-āre# have participles from consonant roots: as, #frictus#, rubbed, #fricō#, #fricāre#; see 993. Also some in #-īre#: as, #fartus#, stuffed (170, 3), #farciō#, #farcīre#; #fultus#, propped, #fulciō#, #fulcīre#; see 1011-1015, and 1017, 1019, 1020.
912. Roots in #-d-# and #-t-# change #-to-# to #-so-#, before which the dentals change to #s# (159). After long vowels, nasals, and liquids the double #ss# is simplified to #s#: as, #fossus#, dug, but #dīvīsus#, divided; #vorsus# or #versus#, turned. The suffix #-so-# is also found with some roots in #-l-#, #-m-#, or #-r-# and a few others: as, #pulsus# (159).
913. (2.) From a theme in long #ā# or in long #ī#; in this way participles are regularly formed from denominatives in #-āre# or #-īre# respectively: as,
#laudātus#, praised; #audītus#, heard.
914. A few perfect participles of verbs in #-ere# are formed from a presumed theme in long #ī#, or long #ē#, or from one in long #ū#: as, #petītus#, aimed at; #exolētus#, grown out; see 967-970; #tribūtus#, assigned; see 947, 948.
915. (1.) Many perfect participles formed from consonant roots have a short root vowel (135, 1): as,
#adspectus#, beheld; #captus#, taken; #coctus#, cooked; #commentus#, devising; #cultus#, tilled; #dictus#, said, verb #dīcō#; #ductus#, led, #dūcō#; #factus#, made; #fossus#, dug; #gestus#, carried; #inlectus#, allured; #questus#, complaining; #raptus#, seized; #tersus#, neat; #textus#, woven; #vorsus#, turned.
916. (2.) Some perfect participles formed from consonant roots have a long root vowel, sometimes even when the vowel of the parallel present stem is short (135, 1; 122, f): as,
#fīxus#, fastened, verb #fīgō#; #-flīctus#, dashed, #-flīgō#; #pāstus#, fed, #pāscō#; #pollūctus#, offered up, #pollūceō#; #scrīptus#, written, scrībō; #-cāsus#, fallen, #cadō#. Also #āctus#, driven, #agō#; #vīsus#, seen, #videō#; #frūctus#, enjoying, #fruor#; #lēctus#, culled, #legō#; #pīctus#, painted, #pingō#; #rēctus#, ruled, #regō#; #ēsus#, eaten, #edō#; #strūctus#, piled, #struō#; #tēctus#, covered, #tegō#; #ūnctus#, anointed, #unguō#; #frāctus#, broken, #frangō#; #pāctus#, fixed, #pangō#. Furthermore, #iūnctus#, joined, #iungō#; #sānctus#, hallowed, #sanciō# (831); also, #fūnctus#, having performed, #fungor#.
917. (1.) Most perfect participles formed from vowel roots have a long root vowel: as,
#lātus#, borne (169, 1); #nātus#, born; #-plētus#, filled; #trītus#, worn; #nōtus#, known; #sūtus#, sewed. So also an isolated #rūtus#, in the law phrase #rūta caesa#, or #rūta et caesa#, diggings and cuttings, i.e. minerals and timber.
918. (2.) Ten perfect participles formed from vowel roots have a short root vowel; they are:
citus, datus, hurried, given itum, ratus, gone, thinking -rutus, satus, fallen, planted situs, status, lying, set litus, quitus, besmeared, been able
919. As #citus#, so always #percitus# and #incitus# (once #incītus#, doubtful); usually #concitus#, rarely #concītus#; #excitus# and #excītus# equally common; always #accītus#. #ambītus# always has long #ī# (763). #āgnitus#, recognized, #cōgnitus#, known, and the adjectives #inclutus# or #inclitus#, of high renown, and #putus#, clean, have a short root vowel. For #dēfrūtum#, #dēfrutum#, see 134, 1.
LIST OF VERBS
ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS.
920. I. The principal parts of root verbs and of verbs in #-ere# are formed in a variety of ways and are best learned separately for every verb (922-986).
921. II. The principal parts of verbs in #-āre#, #-ēre#, and #-īre#, are usually formed as follows:
laudō, praise laudāre laudāvī laudātus moneō, advise monēre monuī monitus audiō, hear audīre audīvī audītus
For other formations, see 989-1022.
I. PRIMITIVE VERBS.
(A.) ROOT VERBS.
922. Root verbs have their principal parts as follows:
sum, am esse ---- ---- ----, become, get, am fore fuī ----
For #fuam#, &c., #forem#, &c., #fore#, see 750. #fuī#, &c., serves as the perfect system of #sum#.
pos-sum, can pos-se ---- ---- ----, can ---- potuī ----
#potuī#, &c., serves as the perfect system of #possum#. Of the present system of #potuī#, only #potēns#, powerful, is used, and only as an adjective.
dō, give, put dare dedī datus
For compounds, see 757.
bibō, drink bibere bibī pōtus
So the compounds, with the reduplication preserved in the perfect system (860).
serō, sow serere sēvī satus
Compounds have #i# for #a# in the perfect participle: as, #cōn-situs#.
sistō, set sistere -stitī, status rarely stitī inquam, quoth I ---- inquiī once ---- eō, go īre iī, itum, -itus very rarely īvī queō, can quīre quīvī quitus ne-queō, can’t ne-quīre ne-quīvī ne-quitus edō, eat ēsse ēdī ēsus volō, will, velle voluī ---- wish, want nōlō, won’t nōlle nōluī ---- mālō, like better mālle māluī ---- ferō, carry ferre (tulī) (lātus)
For #tulī#, old #tetulī#, and #lātus#, see 780; for the perfect of #re-ferō#, 861.
(B.) VERBS IN #-ere#.
(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.
923. (1 a.) The following verbs in #-ere# have a reduplicated perfect stem (858), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:
924. (a.) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).
canō, make music canere cecinī (cantātus)
For #con-cinō#, #oc-cinō#, and #prae-cinō#, see 971 and 823.
tendō, stretch tendere tetendī tentus
For #tennitur# (Ter.), #dis-tennite# (Plaut.), see 166, 4; late participle #tēnsus#. Compounds have #-tendī# (860) and #-tentus#. But sometimes #ex-tēnsus#, and in late writers, #dē-tēnsus#, #dis-tēnsus#, #os-tēnsus#, and #re-tēnsus#.
925. (b.) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).
pangō, fix pangere pepigī, agreed pāctus
In meaning, the perfect #pepigī# corresponds to #pacīscor#; #pānxit#, made, set in verse (Enn.), #pānxerit#, set (Col.), #pēgit# (Pac.), #pēgerit# (Cic.), fixed, once each. For #com-pingō# and #im-pingō#, see 938.
pungō, punch pungere pupugī pūnctus
For #com-pungō# and #ex-pungō#, see 954 and 823.
tangō, touch tangere tetigī tāctus
In old Latin: #tagō# (Turp.), #tagit#, #tagam# (Pac.). Compounds have #i# for #a# in the present system: as, #con-tingō#, #con-tingere#, #con-tigī# (860), #con-tāctus#; in old Latin: #at-tigās# (Plaut., Ter., Acc., Pac.), #at-tigat# (Pac.), #at-tigātis# (Plaut., Pac.).
926. (c.) With the present stem in #-l{o|e-}# (833).
tollō, take off tollere (sus-tulī) (sub-lātus)
As the perfect and perfect participle of #tollō# are appropriated by #ferō#, #tollō# takes those of #sus-tollō#. The original perfect is #tetulī# (860).
927. (d.) With the present stem in #-sc{o|e-}# (834).
discō, learn discere didicī ---- poscō, demand poscere poposcī ----
For #poposcī#, see 855. For #-didicī# and #-poposcī#, see 860.
928. (e.) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).
pariō, bring forth parere peperī partus
For forms in #-īre#, see 791. #com-periō#, 1012; #re-periō#, 1011.
929. (1 b.) The following verbs in #-ere# have a reduplicated perfect stem (858), and the perfect participle, when used, is #-sus# (912).
930. (a.) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).
cadō, fall cadere cecidī -cāsus
Compounds have #i# for #a# in the present system: as, #oc-cidō#, #oc-cidere#, #oc-cidī# (860), #oc-cāsus#. Rarely #e# in the present and perfect systems (Enn., Lucr., Varr.): as, #ac-cedere#, #ac-cedisset# (109). For the perfect of #re-cidō#, see 861.
caedō, fell, cut caedere cecīdī caesus
Compounds have #ī# for #ae#: as, #ac-cīdō#, #ac-cīdere#, ac-cīdī (860), #ac-cīsus#.
parcō, spare parcere pepercī ----
#pepercī#, &c. (regularly in Cic., Caes., Hor., Ov., Mart.; Nep. once; also Plaut. twice, Ter. once). Old #parsī#, &c. (Plaut. 8, Cato, Ter., Nov., Nep., once each); once #parcuit# (Naev.). Compounds: #com-perce# (Plaut.), #con-parsit# (Ter.), #in-perce#, #im-percitō#, #re-percis# (Plaut.), #re-parcent# (Lucr.).
pendō, weigh, pay pendere pependī pēnsus
931. (b.) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).
tundō, pound tundere tutudī not used tūnsus
For the perfect of #re-tundō#, see 861; other compounds have the perfect #-tudī# (861), but once #con-tūdit# (Enn.). Perfect participle, #tūsus# (Plin., Mart.); compounds: #con-tūnsus# (Plin.), #con-tūsus# (Cato, Varr., Caes., Lucr., Sal., Verg., &c.); #ob-tūnsus# (Plaut., Verg., Liv., Sen.), #op-tūsus#, #ob-tūsus# (Lucr., Sen., Quintil., Tac.); #per-tūssus# (Plaut.), #per-tūsus# (Cato, Lucr., Liv., Sen., &c.); #re-tūnsus# (Plaut., Verg.), #re-tūsus# (Cic., Lucr., Hor.); #sub-tūsus# (Tib.).
932. (c.) With the present stem in #-r{o|e-}#, or #-l{o|e-}# (833).
currō, run currere cucurrī cursum
For perfect of compounds, see 860.
fallō, cheat fallere fefellī falsus
Compound #re-fellō#, #re-fellere#, #re-fellī# (860), #----#.
pellō, push pellere pepulī pulsus
For the perfect of #re-pellō#, see 861. Other compounds have #-pulī# (860).
933. (1 c.) The following verbs in #-ere# are without the reduplication (861):
934. (a.) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).
findō, split apart findere -fidī, rarely fidī fissus scindō, rend scindere -scidī, rarely scidī scissus
935. (b.) With the present stem in #-l{o|e-}# (833).
per-cellō, knock down per-cellere per-culī per-culsus
936. (2 a.) The following verbs in #-ere# have a perfect stem consisting of a consonant root with a long vowel (862), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:
937. (a.) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).
agō, drive agere ēgī āctus
Real compounds have #i# for #a# in the present system: as, #ab-igō#, #ab-igere#, #ab-ēgī#, #ab-āctus#; but #per-agō# retains #a#. #cōgō# and #dēgō# are contracted: #cōgō#, #cōgere#, #co-ēgī#, #co-āctus#; #dēgō#, #dēgere#, #----#, #----#.
emō, take, buy emere ēmī emptus
#co-emō# retains #e# in the present system, and usually #inter-emō# and #per-emō#; other compounds have #-imō#. For #cōmō#, #dēmō#, #prōmō#, and #sūmō#, see 952.
----, strike ---- īcī ictus
Forms of the present system are #īcit# (Plaut., Lucr.), #īcitur# (Plin.), #īcimur# (Lucr.).
legō, pick up, read legere lēgī lēctus
Compounds with #ad#, #inter#, #nec-#, #per#, #prae#, and #re-#, have #-legō# in the present system, others #-ligō#. For #dī-ligō#, #intel-legō#, #neg-legō#, see 952.
938. (b.) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).
com-pingō, fix together com-pingere com-pēgī com-pāctus
A compound of #pangō# (925, 823).
frangō, smash frangere frēgī frāctus
Compounds have #i# for #a# in the present system: as, #cōn-fringō#, #cōn-fringere#, #cōn-frēgī#, #cōn-frāctus#.
im-pingō, drive in im-pingere im-pēgī im-pāctus
A compound of #pangō# (925, 823). So also #op-pēgī#.
linquō, leave linquere līquī -lictus rumpō, burst rumpere rūpī ruptus
So the compounds. But Plautus has #con-rumptus# and #dir-rumptus#.
vincō, conquer vincere vīcī victus
939. (c.) With the present stem in #-sc{o|e-}# (834).
pavēscō, get afraid pavēscere ex-pāvī ----
940. (d.) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).
capiō, take capere cēpī captus
Compounds have #i# for #a# in the present system and #e# in the perfect participle: as, #in-cipiō#, #in-cipere#, #in-cēpī#, #in-ceptus#. In the present system, #e# is rare: as, #re-cepit# (Lucr.); #u# is frequent in old Latin.
coepiō, begin rare coepere once coepī coeptus
See 812-814.
faciō, make facere fēcī factus
For #fac#, see 846; for passive, 788. Compounds have #i# for #a# in the present system and #e# in the perfect participle: as, #ef-ficiō#, #ef-ficere#, #ef-fēcī#, #ef-fectus#.
fugiō, run away fugere fūgī ---- iaciō, throw iacere iēcī iactus
Compounds have #-iciō# (104, c), #-icere#, #-iēcī#, #-iectus#: as, #ē-iciō#, #ē-icere#, #ē-iēcī#, #ē-iectus#. In old Latin the present system has rarely #-ieciō#; #-iecere#. #dis-siciō# is sometimes used (Lucr., Verg.) for #dis-iciō#.
941. (2 b.) The following verbs in #-ere# have a perfect stem consisting of a consonant root with a long vowel (862), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-sus# (912).
942. (a.) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).
cūdō, hammer cūdere -cūdī -cūsus
943. (b.) With reduplication and #{-o|e-}# in the present stem (829).
sīdō, settle sīdere sīdī, -sīdī, -sēdī -sessus
944. (c.) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).
fundō, pour fundere fūdī fūsus
945. (d.) With the present stem in #-s{o|e-}# for #-t{o|e-}# (835).
vīsō, go to see vīsere vīsī ----
946. (e.) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).
fodiō, dig fodere fōdī fossus
For forms in #-īre#, see 791.
947. (2 c.) The following verbs in #-ere# (367) with the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (837, 840), have the perfect stem in #-u-# or in #-v-# of the theme (865), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:
acuō, sharpen acuere acuī acūtus adjective arguō, make clear arguere arguī argūtus rare con-gruō, agree con-gruere con-gruī ---- ex-uō, doff ex-uere ex-uī ex-ūtus im-buō, give a smack of im-buere im-buī im-būtus ind-uō, don ind-uere ind-uī ind-ūtus in-gruō, impend in-gruere in-gruī ---- luō, pay, atone for luere luī -lūtus, washed metuō, fear metuere metuī metūtus once -nuō, nod -nuere -nuī ---- pluit, it rains pluere pluit, plūvit ---- ruō, tumble down ruere ruī -rutus so-lvō, loose so-lvere so-lvī so-lūtus spuō, spit spuere -spuī ---- statuō, set statuere statuī statūtus
Compounds have #i# for #a# throughout: as, #cōn-stituō#, #cōn-stituere#, &c.
volvō, roll volvere volvī volūtus suō, sew suere -suī sūtus tribuō, assign tribuere tribuī tribūtus
948. Two verbs in #-ere# with the present stem in #-nu{o|e-}# (833), have the perfect stem in #-nu-# (865), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:
minuō, lessen minuere minuī minūtus sternuō, sneeze sternuere sternuī ----
949. (3.) The following verbs in #-ere# have a perfect stem consisting of a root ending in two consonants (866), and the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):
950. (a.) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829); most have a nasal (831).
-cendō, light -cendere -cendī -cēnsus -fendō, hit -fendere -fendī -fēnsus mandō, chew mandere mandī once mānsus pandō, open pandere pandī passus, pānsus
For #dis-pennite# (Plaut.), see 166, 4. #dis-pandō#, #dis-pendō#, has perfect participle #dis-pessus# (Plaut., Lucr.), #dis-pānsus# (Lucr., Plin., Suet.).
pre-hendō, seize pre-hendere pre-hendī pre-hēnsus
Rarely #prae-hendō#; but very often #prēndō#, #prēndere#, #prēndī#, #prēnsus#.
scandō, climb scandere -scendī -scēnsus
Compounds have #e# for #a# throughout: as, #dē-scendō#, #dē-scendere#, &c.
vorrō, verrō, sweep vorrere, -vorrī, -verrī vorsus, versus verrere vortō, vertō, turn vortere, vortī, vertī vorsus, versus vertere
951. (b.) With the present stem in #-l{o|e-}# (833).
vollō, vellō, tear vollere, vellere vollī, vellī volsus, vulsus
Late perfect #vulsī# (Sen., Luc.); #-vulsī# (Laber., Col., Sen., Luc.).
[Errata: 925 ... For #com-pingō# and #im-pingō# #com-pingo# 930. (a.) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# #{o-|e-}# (829). (829.) (Enn., Lucr., Varr.) Enn. Lucr., 937 ... Compounds with #ad#, #inter#, #nec-#, #per#, #prae# #per#. #prae# 938 ... com-pingō, fix together com-pingo]
(B.) PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#, OR IN #-v-# OR #-u-#.
PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#.
952. (1 a.) The following verbs in #-ere# have the perfect stem in #-s-# (867), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:
953. (a.) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).
carpō, nibble, pluck carpere carpsī carptus
Compounds have #e# for #a#: as, #dē-cerpō#, #dē-cerpere#, #dē-cerpsī#, #dē-cerptus#.
com-būrō, burn up com-būrere com-bussī com-būstus cōmō, put up cōmere cōmpsī cōmptus
Compound of #com-# and #emō# (937, 823). See also #dēmō#, #prōmō#, #sūmō#.
coquō, cook coquere coxī coctus dēmō, take away dēmere dēmpsī dēmptus dīcō, say dīcere dīxī dictus
For #dīc#, see 846.
dī-ligō, esteem dī-ligere dī-lēxī dī-lēctus
Compound of #dis-# and #legō# (937, 823). See also #intel-legō# and #neg-legō#.
dūcō lead dūcere dūxī ductus
For #dūc#, #ē-dūc#, see 846.
-flīgō, smash -flīgere -flīxī -flīctus
Of the simple verb, #flīgit# occurs (L. Andr.), #flīgēbant# (Lucr.), and #flīgī# (L. Andr., Acc.).
gerō, carry gerere gessī gestus intel-legō, understand intel-legere intel-lēxī intel-lēctus neg-legō, disregard neg-legere neg-lēxī neg-lēctus
In the perfect system very rarely #intel-lēgī# and #neg-lēgī# (862, 823).
nūbō, veil, nūbere nūpsī nūpta marry (a man) prōmō, take out prōmere prōmpsī prōmptus regō, guide, rule regere rēxī rēctus
In the present system, #con-rigō# and #ē-rigō#; commonly #por-rigō#, sometimes #porgō#; rarely #sur-rigō#, commonly #surgō#; always #pergō#.
rēpō, creep rēpere rēpsi ---- scalpō, dig scalpere scalpsī scalptus scrībō, write scrībere scrīpsī scrīptus sculpō, carve sculpere sculpsī sculptus struō, build up struere strūxī strūctus sūgō, suck sūgere sūxī suctus sūmō, take up sūmere sūmpsī sūmptus tegō, cover tegere tēxī tēctus trahō, drag trahere trāxī tractus ūrō, burn ūrere ussī ustus vehō, cart vehere vēxī vectus vīvō, live vīvere vīxī ----
954. (b.) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).
cingō, gird cingere cīnxī cīnctus com-pungō, prick over com-pungere com-pūnxī com-pūnctus
A compound of #pungō# (925, 823).
ē-mungō, clean out ē-mungere ē-mūnxī ē-mūnctus ex-pungō, prick out ex-pungere ex-pūnxī ex-pūnctus
A compound of #pungō# (925, 823).
fingō, mould fingere fīnxī fīctus iungō, join iungere iūnxī iūnctus pingō, paint pingere pīnxī pīctus plangō, beat plangere plānxī plānctus stinguō, poke, poke out stinguere -stīnxī -stīnctus stringō, peel, graze stringere strīnxī strīctus tingō, wet tingere tīnxī tīnctus unguō, anoint unguere ūnxī ūnctus
Sometimes #ungō#, #ungere#, &c., in the present system.
955. (c.) With the present stem in #-n{o|e-}# (833).
temnō, scorn temnere (con-tempsī) (con-temptus)
956. (d.) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).
ad-liciō, lure ad-licere ad-lexī ---- in-liciō, inveigle in-licere in-lexī in-lectus pel-liciō, lead astray pel-licere pel-lexī pel-lectus -spiciō, spy -spicere -spēxī -spectus
Forms of the simple verb are old and rare: as, #specitur#, #spicit#, #spece# (Plaut.), #specimus# (Varr.), #spiciunt# (Cato), #spēxit# (Naev., Enn.).
957. (1 b.) The following verbs in #-ere# have the perfect stem in #-s-# (867), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-sus# (912):
958. (a.) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).
cēdō, move along cēdere cessī cessus claudō, shut claudere clausī clausus
Sometimes #clūdō#, #clūdere#, #clūsī#, #clūsus#. Compounds have #ū# for #au# throughout.
dī-vidō, separate dī-videre dī-vīsī dī-vīsus fīgō, pin fīgere fīxī fīxus, twice fīctus fluō, flow fluere flūxī fluxus adjective laedō, hurt laedere laesī laesus
Compounds have #ī# for #ae# throughout: as, #in-līdō#, #in-līdere#, &c.
lūdō, play lūdere lūsī lūsus mittō, send mittere mīsī missus mergō, dip, duck mergere mersī mersus plaudō, clap plaudere plausī plausus
Also #ap-plaudō#, #ap-plaudere#, &c. Other compounds have usually #ō# for #au# throughout: as, #ex-plōdō#, &c.; but #ex-plaudō# (Lucr.).
premō, squeeze premere pressī pressus
Compounds have #i# for #e# in the present system: as, #com-primō#, &c.
rādō, scrape rādere rāsī rāsus rōdō, gnaw rōdere rōsī rōsus spargō, scatter spargere sparsī sparsus
Compounds usually have #e# for #a# throughout: as, #cōn-spergō#, &c.
trūdō, shove trūdere trūsī trūsus vādō, go vādere -vāsī -vāsus
959. (b.) With the present stem in #-sc{o|e-}# (834).
algēscō, get cold algēscere alsī ---- ardēscō, flame out ardēscere arsī (ex-arsī) ---- lūcēscō, grow light lūcēscere -lūxī ----
Sometimes in the present system #lūcīscō#, #lūcīscere#, &c.
frīgēscō, grow cold frīgēscere -frīxī ---- vīvēscō, get alive vīvēscere (re-vīxī) ----
In composition, also #re-vīvīscō#, #re-vīvīscere#.
960. (c.) With the present stem in #-t{o|e-}# (835).
flectō, turn flectere flexī flexus nectō, bind together nectere nexī, nexuī nexus
Perfect system rare: #nexit# (Lucil., Acc.); #nexuit#, #ad-nexuerant# (Sall.).
pectō, comb pectere pexī pexus once
961. (d.) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).
quatiō, shake quatere -cussī quassus
Compounds drop the #a# (111, a): as, #in-cutiō#, #in-cutere#, #in-cussī#, #in-cussus#.
[Errata: 954 ... nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831). final . missing 956 ... #spiciunt# (Cato), #spēxit# (Naev., Enn.). text unchanged: error for spexit?]
PERFECT STEM IN #-v-#.
962. (2 a.) The following verbs in #-ere# have the perfect stem in #-v-#, preceded by a long vowel of the root (869), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:
963. (a.) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).
terō, rub terere trīvī trītus
Perfect infinitive once in pentameter verse (823) #at-teruisse# (Tib.).
964. (b.) With the present stem in #-n{o|e-}# (833).
cernō, sift, cernere crēvī, certus, -crētus separate, see decided linō, besmear linere lēvī, litus rarely līvī
In the present system some forms in #-īre# are used by late writers.
sinō, leave, let sinere sīvī situs
Perfect system forms of #sinō# and #dē-sinō# in #-v-# are: #sīvī# (Plaut., Ter., Cic.); #dē-sīvit# (Sen.), #sīvistis# (Cic.), once each; #sīverīs# (Plaut., Cato), #dē-sīverit# (Cato, Gell.), #sīverint# (Plaut., Curt.), #sīvisset# (Cic., Liv.). Much oftener without #-v-#: as, #dē-siī# (Sen.), #sīstī# (Plaut., Cic.); #dē-sīstī# often, #siit# once (Ter.), #dē-siit# (Varr., Sen., &c.), #dē-sīt# (Mart., &c.), #dē-siimus# (Lent.), #dē-sīmus# (893), #sīstis#; #dē-siērunt# (Cic., Liv.); #dē-sierat#, #dē-sierit# (Cic.); #dē-sīssem#, &c., #sīsset#, #sīssent#, #dē-sīsse#. For #sīrīs#, &c., see 893; for #pōnō#, 972.
spernō, spurn spernere sprēvī sprētus sternō, strew sternere strāvī strātus
965. (c.) With the present stem in #-sc{o|e-}# (834).
crēscō, grow crēscer crēv crētus nōscō, get to know nōscere nōvī nōtus adjective
Compounds: #ī-gnōscō#, #ī-gnōvī#, #ī-gnōtum#; #ā-gnōscō#, #ā-gnōvī#, #ā-gnitus#; #cō-gnōscō#, #cō-gnōvī#, #cō-gnitus#; #dī-nōscō#, #dī-nōvī#, rarely #dī-gnōscō#, #dī-gnōvī#, #----#; #inter-nōscō#, #inter-nōvī#, #----#. Old passive infinitive GNOSCIER (inscr. 186 B.C.).
pāscō, feed pāscere pāvī pāstus scīscō, enact scīscere scīvī scītus
966. (2_b_.) The following verbs in #-ere# have the perfect stem in #-v-#, preceded by the long vowel of a presumed denominative stem (870), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:
967. (a.) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).
petō, aim at petere petīvī petītus
In the perfect, sometimes #petiī# (Cic., Ov., Liv., Val. Fl., Plin. Ep.), PETIEI (inscr.), #petī# late (Sen., Stat.); #petiit# (Cic., Hor., Tac., Suet.), #petīt# (Verg., Ov., Phaedr., Sen., Luc., Suet.), #petiisse# (Verg., Hor., Ov., Val. Fl., Stat.).
quaerō, inquire quaerere quaesīvī quaesītus
Compounds sometimes retain #ae# in old Latin, but usually have #ī# for #ae# throughout: as, #con-quīrō#, #con-quīrere#, &c.
968. (b.) With the present stem in #-sc{o|e-}# (834).
ab-olēscō, vanish away ab-olēscere ab-olēvī ---- ad-olēscō, grow up ad-olēscere ad-olēvī ad-ultus con-cupīscō, hanker for con-cupīscere con-cupīvī con-cupītus -dormīscō, fall asleep -dormīscere -dormīvī ---- ex-olēscō, grow out ex-olēscere ex-olēvī ex-olētus in-veterāscō, get set in-veterāscere in-veterāvī ---- obs-olēscō, obs-olēscere obs-olēvī obs-olētus get worn out adj. quiēscō, get still quiēscere quiēvī quiētus adjective re-sipīscō, come to re-sipīscere re-sipīvī ---- suēscō, get used suēscere suēvī suētus vesperāscit, gets dusk vesperāscere vesperāvit ----
969. (c.) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).
cupiō, want cupere cupīvī cupītus
Once with a form in #-īre# (791), #cupīret# (Lucr.).
sapiō, have a smack sapere sapīvī ----
Compounds have #i# for #a#: as, #re-sipiō#, &c.
970. (d.) With the present stem in #-ss{o|e-}# (375).
ar-cēssō, send for ar-cēssere ar-cēssīvī ar-cēssītus
Sometimes #ac-cersō#, &c.; infinitive rarely #ar-cēssīrī# or #ac-cersīrī#.
capēssō, undertake capēssere capēssīvī ---- facēssō, do, make off facēssere facēssīvī facēssītus
Perfect system rare: #facēssierīs# or #facēsserīs# (Cic.), #facēssīsset# (Tac.).
in-cēssō, attack in-cēssere in-cēssīvī ---- lacēssō, provoke lacēssere lacēssīvī lacēssītus
[Erratum: 967 ... (Verg., Ov., Phaedr., Sen., Luc., Suet.) Verg, Ov.,]
PERFECT STEM IN #-u-#.
971. (3.) The following verbs in #-ere# have the perfect stem in #-u-# (873), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#; in some participles #-tus# is preceded by a short #i#, thus, #-itus# (910):
972. (a.) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).
alō, bring up alere aluī altus, rarely alitus colō, till, colere coluī cultus stay round, court con-cinō, chime with con-cinere con-cinuī ----
A compound of #canō# (924, 823). See also #oc-cinō# and #prae-cinō#.
cōn-sulō, consult cōn-sulere cōn-suluī cōn-sultus depsō, knead depsere depsuī depstus fremō, growl fremere fremuī ---- gemō, groan gemere gemuī ---- molō, grind molere moluī molitus oc-cinō, sing ominously oc-cinere oc-cinuī ----
Once with reduplication, #oc-cecinerit# (Liv.).
oc-culō, hide oc-culere oc-culuī oc-cultus pīsō, pīnsō, bray pīsere, pīnsere pīnsuī, pīsīvī pistus
Once (818, 847) #pīnsībant# (Enn.). Perfect once #pīnsuī# (Pomp.), once (823, 893) #pīsiērunt# (Varr.). Perfect participle often #pīnsītus# (Col.), once #pīnsus# (Vitr.).
pōnō, place pōnere po-suī po-situs
A compound of #po-# and #sinō# (964). Perfect in old Latin #po-sīvī# (893); #po-suī# is first used by Ennius (875). Perfect participle in verse sometimes, #po-stus#, #-po-stus#; inf. #inposīsse# (Plaut.).
prae-cinō, play before prae-cinere prae-cinuī ---- serō, string serere -seruī sertus stertō, snore stertere (dē-stertuī) ---- strepō, make a racket strepere strepuī ---- texō, weave texere texuī textus tremō, quake tremere tremuī ---- vomō, throw up vomere vomuī ----
973. (b.) With reduplication and #{-o|e-}# in the present stem (829).
gignō, beget gignere genuī genitus
Present sometimes also without reduplication, #genit#, &c. (Varr., Lucr.).
974. (c.) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).
ac-cumbō, lie by ac-cumbere ac-cubuī ac-cubitus
So also #in-cumbō#; #dis-cumbō# has #dis-cubuī#, #dis-cubitum#. Compounds with #dē#, #ob#, #prō#, #re-#, and #sub#, have #-cubuī#, #----#.
975. (d.) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).
ē-liciō, coax out ē-licere ē-licuī ē-licitus rapiō, seize rapere rapuī raptus
Compounds have #i# for #a# in the present and perfect systems, and #e# in the perfect participle: as, #ē-ripiō#, #ē-ripere#, #ē-ripuī#, #ē-reptus#. Old Latin has #u# in #dē-rupier# and in #sub-rupiō#, #sub-rupere#, #sub-rupuī#, #sub-ruptus#; shortened forms are: #surpuit#, #surpuerit# (Plaut.), #surpit# (Plaut. prol.), #surpere# (Lucr.), #surpite#, #surpuerat# (Hor.). For #sub-repsit# (Plaut.), see 887.
976. (e.) With the present stem in #-sc{o|e-}# (835); for #com-pēscuī#, see 855.
acēscō, get sour acēscere -acuī ---- alēscō, grow up alēscere (co-aluī) (co-alitus) ārēscō, dry up ārēscere -āruī ---- calēscō, get warm calēscere -caluī ---- candēscō, get white candēscere -canduī ---- cānēscō, get grey cānēscere cānuī ---- clārēscō, get bright clārēscere clāruī ---- com-pescō, check com-pescere com-pescuī ---- con-ticēscō, con-ticēscere con-ticuī ---- get all still
Also in the present system, #con-ticīscō#, #con-ticīscere#, &c.
crēbrēscō, get common crēbrēscere -crēbruī ---- crūdēscō, wax bad crūdēscere (re-crūduī) ---- -dolēscō, get pained -dolēscere -doluī ---- dūrēscō, get hard dūrēscere dūruī ---- ē-vīlēscō, get cheap ē-vīlēscere ē-vīluī ---- fervēscō, boil up fervēscere -ferbuī, -fervī ---- flōrēscō, blossom out flōrēscere -flōruī ---- horrēscō, bristle up horrēscere -horruī ---- languēscō, get weak languēscere languī ---- latēscō, hide away latēscere -lituī ---- liquēscō, melt liquēscere (dē-licuī) ---- madēscō, get moist madēscere maduī ---- marcēscō, pine away marcēscere (ē-marcuī) ---- mātūrēscō, ripen mātūrēscere mātūruī ---- nigrēscō, get black nigrēscere nigruī ---- nōtēscō, get known nōtēscere nōtuī ---- ob-mūtēscō, get still ob-mūtēscere ob-mūtuī ---- ob-surdēscō, get deaf ob-surdēscere ob-surduī ---- oc-callēscō, get hard oc-callēscere oc-calluī ---- pallēscō, grow pale pallēscere palluī ---- pūtēscō, get soaked pūtēscere pūtuī ---- rigēscō, stiffen up rigēscere riguī ---- rubēscō, redden rubēscere rubuī ---- sānēscō, get well sānēscere -sānuī ---- senēscō, grow old senēscere -senuī ---- stupēscō, get dazed stupēscere (ob-stupuī) ----
Also #op-stipēscō# or #ob-stipēscō#, #op-stipuī# or #ob-stipuī#.
tābēscō, waste away tābēscere tābuī ---- tepēscō, get lukewarm tepēscere tepuī ---- -timēscō, get scared -timēscere -timuī ---- torpēscō, get numb torpēscere torpuī ---- tremēscō, quake tremēscere (con-tremuī) ----
Also in the present system, #con-tremīscō#, #con-tremīscere#, &c.
tumēscō, swell up tumēscere -tumuī ---- valēscō, get strong valēscere -valuī ---- vānēscō, wane vānēscere (ē-vānuī) ----
[Errata: 972. (a.) . invisible Once (818, 847) #pīnsībant# pīnsībart 976 ... for #com-pēscuī#, see 855. final . missing]
DEPONENTS IN #-ī#.
977. (1.) The following deponents in #-ī# have the perfect participle in #-tus#, except #morior#, which has #-tuus#:
978. (a.) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).
fruor, enjoy fruī frūctus loquor, speak loquī locūtus queror, complain querī questus sequor, follow sequī secūtus
979. (b.) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by #{-o|e-}# (831).
fungor, get quit fungī fūnctus
980. (c.) With the present stem in #-sc{o|e-}# (834).
apīscor, lay hold of apīscī aptus
Compounds have #i# and #e# for #a#: as, #ad-ipīscor#, #ad-ipīscī#, #ad-eptus#.
com-minīscor, devise com-minīscī com-mentus ex-pergīscor, stretch myself, ex-pergīscī ex-per-rēctus wake
Perfect participle rarely #ex-pergitus# (Lucil., Lucr.).
nancīscor, get nancīscī nactus, nānctus nāscor, am born nāscī nātus ob-līvīscor, forget ob-līvīscī ob-lītus pacīscor, bargain pacīscī pactus
Compounds: #dē-pecīscor#, #dē-pecīscī#, #dē-pectus#; #com-pectus#.
pro-ficīscor, start on pro-ficīscī pro-fectus ulcīscor, avenge ulcīscī ultus
981. (d.) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).
morior, die morī mortuus orior, rise orīrī ortus potior, master potīrī potītus
For forms in #-īrī# of these three verbs, see 791. For #potīrī#, twice #potī# (Enn., Pac.).
982. (2.) The following deponents in #-ī# have the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):
983. (a.) With the present stem in #{-o|e-}# (829).
lābor, tumble down lābī lapsus nītor, rest on nītī nīsus, nīxus ūtor, use ūtī ūsus
984. (b.) With the present stem in #-sc{o|e-}# (834).
dē-fetīscor, get tired out dē-fetīscī dē-fessus
985. (c.) With the present stem in #-t{o|e-}# (835).
am-plector, hug round am-plectī am-plexus com-plector, hug up com-plectī com-plexus
986. (d.) With the present stem in #-i{o|e-}# (836).
gradior, step gradī gressus patior, suffer patī passus
Compounds of these two verbs have #e# for #a#: as, #ad-gredior#, #per-petior#, #per-pessus#; for forms of #-gredior# in #-īrī#, see 791.
[Erratum: 978. (a.) (a).]
II. DENOMINATIVE VERBS.
987. Most verbs in #-āre#, #-ēre#, and #-īre# (or in #-ārī#, #-ērī#, and #-īrī#), are denominatives.
988. Some primitives from vowel roots have the form of denominatives in the present system, or throughout; and some verbs with a denominative present system have the perfect and perfect participle formed directly from a root.
(1.) VERBS IN #-āre#.
(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.
989. (1.) The following verb in #-āre# has a reduplicated perfect stem (859):
stō, stand stāre stetī ----
For #-stitī#, see 860. The compound #prae-stō# has rarely the perfect participle #prae-stātus# (Brut., Plin.), and #prae-stitus# (Liv.).
990. (2.) The following verbs in #-āre# have a perfect stem consisting of a root which ends in #-v-# and has a long vowel (864), and the perfect participle in #-tus#:
iuvō, help iuvāre iūvī iūtus once
In the perfect system, #iuverint#, #adiuverō#, and #adiuverit# occur once each in Catull., Enn., Plaut., and Ter.; see 891. Perfect participle usual only in the compound #ad-iūtus#.
lavō, bathe lavāre lāvī lautus
Forms in #-ere# are very common in the present tense (820): #lavis# (Plaut., Hor.), #lavit# (Plaut., Lucr., Catull., Verg., Hor.), #lavimus# (Hor.), #lavitur# (Val. Fl.), #lavitō# (Cato), #lavere# often, #lavī# (Pomp.). Perfect participle often #lōtus# in writers of the empire; supine, #lautum#, #lavātum#.
[Erratum: 990 ... once each in Catull., Enn., Plaut., and Ter.; and Ter;]
(B.) PERFECT STEM IN #-v-# OR #-u-#.
PERFECT STEM IN #-v-#.
991. (1_a_.) Two verbs in #-āre# have the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#, both preceded by a long #-ā-# of the root:
flō, blow flāre flāvī flātus nō, swim nāre nāvī ----
992. (1_b_.) Most verbs in #-āre# have the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle in #-tus#, both preceded by a form of the present stem in long #-ā-#: as,
laudō, praise laudāre laudāvī laudātus līberō, free līberāre līberāvī līberātus nōminō, name nōmināre nōmināvī nōminātus spērō, hope spērāre spērāvī spērātus
PERFECT STEM IN #-u-#.
993. (2.) The following verbs in #-āre# have the perfect stem in #-u# (874), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#; in some participles, #-tus# is preceded by a short #i#, thus, #-itus# (910):
crepō, rattle crepāre crepuī (in-crepitus)
Forms of the perfect system in #-v-# (823) are: #in-crepāvit# (Plaut.), #dis-crepāvit# (Varr.), #in-crepārit# (Suet.).
cubō, lie cubāre cubuī ----
Forms of the perfect system in #-v-# (823) are: #ex-cubāverant# (Caes.), #cubāris# (Prop.), #in-cubāvēre# (Plin.), #cubāsse# (Quintil.). Compound perfect participle #in-cubitus# (Plin.).
domō, tame domāre domuī domitus ē-necō, murder ē-necāre ē-necuī ē-nectus
The simple verb has #necāvī#, #necātus#; twice #necuit# (Enn., Phaedr.). #ē-necō# sometimes has #i# for #e# in the present and perfect system; once (823) #ē-nicāvit#, and once (887) #ē-nicāssō# (Plaut.); perfect participle also #ē-necātus# (Plin.).
fricō, rub down fricāre fricuī frictus
Perfect participle also #fricātus# (Vitr.), #cōn-fricātus# (Varr., Plin.), #dē-fricātus# (Catull., Col., Plin.), #īn-fricātus# (Col., Plin.), #per-fricātus# (Vitr., Plin.).
micō, quiver micāre micuī ----
So the compounds; except #dī-micō#, #dī-micāvī#, #dī-micātum#; twice in pentameter verse (823) #dī-micuisse# (Ov.).
-plicō, fold -plicāre -plicuī -plicitus
A few forms of the present system of the simple verb occur. In the perfect and perfect participle usually #-plicāvī#, #-plicātus#; but sometimes #ap-plicuī# (Cic. once, Tib., Ov., Liv., Sen., &c.); #com-plicuī# (Sen.), #ex-plicuī# (Verg., Hor., Liv., Sen., &c.), #im-plicuī# (Verg., Tib., Ov., Sen., &c.); #ap-plicitus# (Col., Quintil., Plin. Ep.), #ex-plicitus# (Caes., Sen., Plin. Ep.), #im-plicitus# (Plaut., Cic., Liv.); once #re-plictus# (Stat.).
secō, cut secāre secuī sectus
The compound with #ex# sometimes has #i# for #e#; once (823) #exicāveris# (Cato).
sonō, sound sonāre sonuī ----
Also (820) #sonit#, #sonunt# (Enn., Acc.), #sonere# (Acc., Lucr.); #re-sonunt# (Enn.). Perfect (823) #re-sonārint# (Hor.), #re-sonāvit# (Man.), #sonātūrus# (Hor.).
tonō, thunder tonāre tonuī (at-tonitus)
Once (820) #tonimus# (Varr.). Perfect participle once #in-tonātus# (Hor.).
vetō, forbid vetāre vetuī vetitus
In old Latin, #votō#, &c. (143). Perfect once (823) #vetāvit# (Pers.).
[Erratum: 993 ... #re-sonāvit# (Man.), #sonātūrus# (Hor.). final . missing]
DEPONENTS IN #-ārī#.
994. There are many deponents in #-ārī#, with the perfect participle in #-ātus#: as,
hortor, exhort hortārī hortātus
For the primitive #fārī#, speak, and compounds, see the dictionary.
(2.) VERBS IN #-ēre#.
(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.
995. (1.) The following verbs in #-ēre# have a reduplicated perfect stem (859), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-sus# (912):
mordeō, bite mordēre momordī morsus
The compound #prae-mordeō# has once (823) #prae-morsisset# (Plaut.).
pendeō, am hung pendēre pependī ----
The compound #prō-pendeō# has the perfect participle #prō-pēnsus#.
spondeō, covenant spondēre spopondī spōnsus
For #dē-spondī# and #re-spondī#, see 860; rarely #dē-spopondī# (Plaut.).
tondeō, shear tondēre -totondī, -tondī tōnsus
For #dē-tondunt# (Varr.), see 821. Perfect only in the compounds #at-tondī# and #dē-tondī# (860); once #dē-totonderat# (Varr.), and perhaps #dē-totondit# (Enn.).
996. (2_a_.) The following verbs in #-ēre# have a perfect stem consisting of a root which ends in #-v-# and has a long vowel (864), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:
caveō, look out cavēre cāvī cautus faveō, am friendly favēre fāvī ---- foveō, warm, cherish fovēre fōvī fōtus moveō, move movēre mōvī mōtus
For short forms in the perfect system, particularly in compounds, see 891.
voveō, vow vovēre vōvī vōtus
997. (2_b_.) Three verbs in #-ēre# have a perfect stem consisting of a consonant root with a long vowel (864), and the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):
sedeō, sit sedēre sēdī -sessus
Real compounds have #i# for #e# in the present system: as, #ob-sideō#, &c. Compounds with #dis-#, #prae#, and #re-# have no perfect participle.
strīdeō, grate strīdēre strīdī ----
Often with a present system in #-ere# (821).
videō, see vidēre vīdī vīsus
998. (3.) The following verbs in #-ēre# have a perfect stem ending in two consonants (866), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-sus# (912):
ferveō, boil fervēre fervī, ferbuī ----
Sometimes with forms in #-ere# (821) in verse. The perfect system is rare.
prandeō, lunch prandēre prandī prānsus
(B.) PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#, OR IN #-v-# OR #-u-#.
PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#.
999. (1_a_.) The following verbs in #-ēre# have the perfect stem in #-s-# (868), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:
augeō, increase augēre auxī auctus in-dulgeō, am kind in-dulgēre in-dulsī ---- lūceō, beam lūcēre lūxī ---- lūgeō, mourn lūgēre lūxī ---- torqueō, twist torquēre torsī tortus
1000. (1_b_.) The following verbs in #-ēre# have the perfect stem in #-s-# (868), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-sus# (912):
algeō, feel cold algēre alsī ---- ardeō, blaze ardēre arsī ---- cō-nīveō, wink and blink cō-nīvēre cō-nīxī, cō-nīvī ----
The perfects #cō-nīxī# (Turp.), #cō-nīvī# (Crass.), occur once each.
fulgeō, flash fulgēre fulsī ----
Forms of the present in #-ere# (821) occur in verse: #fulgit# (Pomp., Lucil., Lucr.), #fulgere# (Pac., Acc., Lucil., Lucr., Verg.); #ef-fulgere# (Verg., Claud.).
haereō, stick haerēre haesī ---- iubeō, order iubēre iussī iussus
In old Latin, IOVBEO, after IOVSI (IVSI); later #iussī#, #iussus#, after #iubeō#.
maneō, stay manēre mānsī mānsum mulceō, stroke mulcēre mulsī mulsus adjective
Perfect participle #per-mulsus# rare (Cornif., Varr.).
mulgeō, milk mulgēre mulsī mulsus once rīdeō, laugh rīdēre rīsī -rīsus suādeō, advise suādēre suāsī suāsus tergeō, wipe tergēre tersī tersus
For forms in #-ere# in the present, as #tergit#, &c. (Varr., Prop., Stat., Col.), see 821.
turgeō, am swelling turgēre tursī once ----
Of the perfect system, #turserat# (Enn.).
urgeō, push urgēre ursī ----
[Erratum: 999 ... lūgeō, mourn lūgeo]
PERFECT STEM IN #-v-# OR #-u-#.
PERFECT STEM IN #-v-#.
1001. (1_a_.) The following verbs in #-ēre# have the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle in #-tus#, both preceded by a long #-ē-# of the root:
dē-leō, wipe out dē-lēre dē-lēvī dē-lētus fleō, weep flēre flēvī flētus neō, spin nēre nēvī ----
For #neunt# (Tib.), see 837.
-pleō, fill -plēre -plēvī -plētus
1002. (1_b_.) The following verb in #-ēre# has the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), preceded by long #-ī-#, and the perfect participle in #-tus#, preceded by short #-i-# of the root:
cieō, set a going ciēre cīvī citus
Somewhat defective; also with a form in #-īre# (821). For the perfect participle of compounds, see 919.
1003. (1_c_.) The following verb in #-ēre# has the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle in #-itus# (910):
ab-oleō, destroy ab-olēre ab-olēvī ab-olitus
PERFECT STEM IN #-u-#.
1004. (2_a_.) Most verbs in #-ēre# have the perfect stem in #-u-# (874), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#, which is usually preceded by a short #i# (910): as,
doceō, teach docēre docuī doctus habeō, have habēre habuī habitus
So also #post-habeō#; other compounds have #i# for #a#: as, #pro-hibeō#, #pro-hibēre#, #pro-hibuī#, #pro-hibitus#; twice contracted, #prōbet#, #prōbeat# (Lucr.). Compounds with #dē# and #prae# are regularly contracted, #dēbeō#, #praebeō#, &c.: but in Plautus once #de-hibuistī#, and regularly #prae-hibeō#, &c., throughout.
mereō, earn merēre meruī meritus
Often deponent (800): #mereor#, #merērī#, #meritus#.
misceō, mix miscēre miscuī mixtus, mistus
The present stem is an extension of the suffix #-sc{o|e-}# (834); #-sc-# of the present runs over into the perfect.
moneō, advise monēre monuī monitus placeō, am pleasing placēre placuī placitus
So the compounds #com-placeō# and #per-placeō#; #dis-pliceō# has #i# for #a# throughout.
taceō, hold my tongue tacēre tacuī tacitus adjective
The compound #re-ticeō# has #i# for #a# and no perfect participle.
teneō, hold tenēre tenuī -tentus
Compounds have #i# for #e# in the present and perfect: as, #dē-tineō#, #dē-tinuī#, #dē-tentus#.
terreō, scare terrēre terruī territus torreō, roast torrēre torruī tostus
1005. (2_b_.) The following verb in #-ēre# has the perfect stem in #-u-# (874), and the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):
cēnseō, count, rate cēnsēre cēnsuī cēnsus
1006. (3.) The following verbs in #-ēre# have the perfect stem in #-u-# (874), and no perfect participle (907):
arceō, check arcēre arcuī ----
The compounds #co-erceō# and #ex-erceō# have #e# for #a#, and perfect participles #co-ercitus# and #ex-ercitus#.
caleō, am warm calēre caluī ---- candeō, glow white candēre canduī ---- careō, have not carēre caruī ---- doleō, ache dolēre doluī ---- egeō, need egēre eguī ----
The compound #ind-igeō#, #ind-igēre#, #ind-iguī#, #----#, has #i# for #e#.
ē-mineō, stick out ē-minēre ē-minuī ---- flōreō, bloom flōrēre flōruī ---- horreō, bristle up horrēre horruī ---- iaceō, lie iacēre iacuī ---- lateō, lie hid latēre latuī ---- liceō, am rated licēre licuī ---- liqueō, am melted liquēre licuī ---- madeō, am soaked madēre maduī ---- niteō, shine nitēre nituī ---- noceō, am hurtful nocēre nocuī ---- oleō, smell olēre oluī ----
For forms in #-ere# in the present system, see 821.
palleō, look pale pallēre palluī ---- pāreō, wait on, am obedient pārēre pāruī ---- pateō, am open patēre patuī ---- rigeō, am stiff rigēre riguī ---- sileō, am silent silēre siluī ---- sorbeō, suck up sorbēre sorbuī ----
The perfect system of the simple verb is rare: #sorbuit#, #sorbuerint# (Plin.); also (823) #sorpsit# (Val. Max.); #ab-sorbeō# and #ex-sorbeō# have #-sorbuī#; but #ab-sorpsī# (Plin., Luc., Macr.), #ex-sorpsī# (Sen.).
studeō, am eager studēre studuī ---- stupeō, am dazed stupēre stupuī ---- timeō, fear timēre timuī ---- valeō, am strong valēre valuī ---- vigeō, feel strong vigēre viguī ----
1007. For #audeō#, #gaudeō#, and #soleō#, see 801; for #lubet# or #libet#, #licet#, #miseret#, #oportet#, #paenitet#, #piget#, #pudet#, #taedet#, see 815 and 816.
[Errata: 1004 ... but in Plautus once #de-hibuistī# printed as shown: expected form #dē-hibuistī# 1006 ... but #ab-sorpsī# (Plin., Luc., Macr.) macron invisible]
DEPONENTS IN #-ērī#.
1008. (1_a_.) The following deponent in #-ērī# has the perfect participle in #-tus#:
reor, reckon, think rērī ratus
1009. (1_b_.) The following deponents in #-ērī# have the perfect participle in #-tus#, which is preceded by a short #i# (910):
liceor, bid licērī licitus misereor, pity miserērī miseritus
Perfect participle also #misertus# (Val. Max., Sen., Curt.). Active forms are: #miserēte#, #miserērent# (Enn.), #misereās# (Ter.), #miseret# (Lucr.), #miserent# (Val. Fl.). Passive forms are sometimes used impersonally (724): as, #miserētur#, &c.
tueor, look to, protect tuērī tuitus late
Forms in #-ī# also occur in verse (821). As perfect participle, generally #tūtātus#.
vereor, am awed at verērī veritus
1010. (2.) One deponent in #-ērī# has the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):
fateor, confess fatērī fassus
Compounds have #i# and #e# for #a#: as, #cōn-fiteor#, #cōn-fessus#.
(3.) VERBS IN #-īre#.
(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.
1011. (1_a_.) The following verb in #-īre# has a reduplicated perfect stem (861), and the perfect participle in #-tus#:
re-periō, find re-perīre re-pperī re-pertus
1012. (1_b_.) The following verb in #-īre# has no reduplication in the perfect stem, and the perfect participle in #-tus#:
com-periō, find out com-perīre com-perī com-pertus
As deponent: #com-periar# (Ter.), #com-perior# (Sall., Tac.).
1013. (2.) The following verb in #-īre# has a perfect stem consisting of a consonant root with a long vowel (862), and the perfect participle in #-tus#:
veniō, come venīre vēnī ventum, -ventus
For #ē-venunt#, #ē-venat#, #ē-venant#, #ad-venat#, #per-venat#, see 822.
(B.) PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#, OR IN #-v-# OR #-u-#.
PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#.
1014. (1.) The following verbs in #-īre# have the perfect stem in #-s-# (868), and the perfect participle in #-tus#:
farciō, stuff farcīre farsī fartus
Compounds have usually #e# for #a# throughout.
fulciō, prop fulcīre fulsī fultus hauriō, drain haurīre hausī haustus
A perfect subjunctive #haurierint# is quoted from Varro (823).
saepiō, hedge in saepīre saepsī saeptus sanciō, hallow sancīre sānxī sānctus adjective
Perfect participle rarely #sancītus# (Lucr., Liv.). A pluperfect #sancierat# is quoted from Pomponius Secundus (823).
sarciō, patch sarcīre sarsī sartus vinciō, bind vincīre vīnxī vīnctus
1015. (2.) The following verb in #-īre# has the perfect stem in #-s-# (868), and the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):
sentiō, feel sentīre sēnsī sēnsus
The compound with #ad# is generally deponent (800).
PERFECT STEM IN #-v-#.
1016. (1_a_.) The following verb in #-īre# has the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle in #-tus#, both preceded by a long #ī# of the root:
sciō, know scīre scīvī scītus
1017. (1_b_.) The following verb in #-īre# has the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle in #-tus#:
sepeliō, bury sepelīre sepelīvī sepultus
1018. (1_c_.) Most verbs in #-īre# have the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle in #-tus#, both preceded by a form of the present stem in long #-ī-#: as,
audiō, hear audīre audīvī audītus
PERFECT STEM IN #-u-#.
1019. (2.) The following verbs in #-īre# have the perfect stem in #-u-# (874), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:
am-iciō, don am-icīre am-icuī am-ictus
Perfect rare: once #am-icuī# (Brut.), once #am-ixī# (Varr.).
ap-eriō, open ap-erīre ap-eruī ap-ertus op-eriō, cover over op-erīre op-eruī op-ertus saliō, leap salīre saluī ----
Compounds have #i# for #a# throughout: as, #īn-siliō#. A perfect system in #-v-# (823, 893), as #ex-silīvī#, occurs in late writers (Col., Sen., Plin., &c.).
DEPONENTS IN #-īrī#.
1020. (1_a_.) The following deponents in #-īrī# have the perfect participle in #-tus#:
ex-perior, try ex-perīrī ex-pertus op-perior, wait for op-perīrī op-pertus
Perfect participle once #op-perītus# (Plaut.).
1021. (1_b_.) The following deponents in #-īrī# have the perfect participle in #-ītus#:
blandior, am agreeable blandīrī blandītus largior, shower largīrī largītus mentior, tell lies mentīrī mentītus mōlior, work hard mōlīrī mōlītus partior, share partīrī partītus sortior, draw lots sortīrī sortītus
1022. (2.) The following deponents in #-īrī# have the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):
mētior, measure mētīrī mēnsus ōrdior, begin ōrdīrī ōrsus