Book V (part 1 of 2)

Book V (part 1 of 2)

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

CHAP. 1.—THE TWO MAURITANIAS.

The Greeks have given the name of Libya[3232] to Africa, and have called the sea that lies in front of it the Libyan Sea. It has Egypt for its boundary, and no part of the earth is there that has fewer gulfs or inlets, its shores extending in a lengthened line from the west in an oblique direction. The names of its peoples, and its cities in especial, cannot possibly be pronounced with correctness, except by the aid of their own native tongues. Its population, too, for the most part dwells only in fortresses[3233].

(1.) On our entrance into Africa, we find the two Mauritanias, which, until the time of Caius Cæsar[3234], the son of Germanicus, were kingdoms; but, suffering under his cruelty, they were divided into two provinces. The extreme promontory of Africa, which projects into the ocean, is called Ampelusia[3235] by the Greeks. There were formerly two towns, Lissa and Cotte[3236], beyond the Pillars of Hercules; but, at the present day, we only find that of Tingi[3237], which was formerly founded by Antæus, and afterwards received the name of Traducta Julia[3238], from Claudius Cæsar, when he established a colony there. It is thirty miles distant from Belon[3239], a town of Bætica, where the passage across is the shortest. At a distance of twenty-five miles from Tingi, upon the shores of the ocean[3240], we come to Julia Constantia Zilis[3241], a colony of Augustus. This place is exempt from all subjection to the kings of Mauritania, and is included in the legal jurisdiction of Bætica. Thirty-two miles distant from Julia Constantia is Lixos[3242], which was made a Roman colony by Claudius Cæsar, and which has been the subject of such wondrous fables, related by the writers of antiquity. At this place, according to the story, was the palace of Antæus; this was the scene of his combat with Hercules, and here were the gardens of the Hesperides[3243]. An arm of the sea flows into the land here, with a serpentine channel, and, from the nature of the locality, this is interpreted at the present day as having been what was really represented by the story of the dragon keeping guard there. This tract of water surrounds an island, the only spot which is never overflowed by the tides of the sea, although not quite so elevated as the rest of the land in its vicinity. Upon this island, also, there is still in existence the altar of Hercules; but of the grove that bore the golden fruit, there are no traces left, beyond some wild olive-trees. People will certainly be the less surprised at the marvellous falsehoods of the Greeks, which have been related about this place and the river Lixos[3244], when they reflect that some of our own[3245] countrymen as well, and that too very recently, have related stories in reference to them hardly less monstrous; how that this city is remarkable for its power and extensive influence, and how that it is even greater than Great Carthage ever was; how, too, that it is situate just opposite to Carthage, and at an almost immeasurable distance from Tingi, together with other details of a similar nature, all of which Cornelius Nepos has believed with the most insatiate credulity[3246].

In the interior, at a distance of forty miles from Lixos, is Babba[3247], surnamed Julia Campestris, another colony of Augustus; and, at a distance of seventy-five, a third, called Banasa[3248], with the surname of Valentia. At a distance of thirty-five miles from this last is the town of Volubilis, which is just that distance also from both[3249] seas. On the coast, at a distance of fifty miles from Lixos, is the river Subur[3250], which flows past the colony of Banasa, a fine river, and available for the purposes of navigation. At the same distance from it is the city of Sala[3251], situate on a river which bears the same name, a place which stands upon the very verge of the desert, and though infested by troops of elephants, is much more exposed to the attacks of the nation of the Autololes, through whose country lies the road to Mount Atlas, the most fabulous[3252] locality even in Africa.

It is from the midst of the sands, according to the story, that this mountain[3253] raises its head to the heavens; rugged and craggy on the side which looks toward the shores of the ocean to which it has given its name, while on that which faces the interior of Africa it is shaded by dense groves of trees, and refreshed by flowing streams; fruits of all kinds springing up there spontaneously to such an extent, as to more than satiate every possible desire. Throughout the daytime, no inhabitant is to be seen; all is silent, like that dreadful stillness which reigns in the desert. A religious horror steals imperceptibly over the feelings of those who approach, and they feel themselves smitten with awe at the stupendous aspect of its summit, which reaches beyond the clouds, and well nigh approaches the very orb of the moon. At night, they say, it gleams with fires innumerable lighted up; it is then the scene of the gambols of the Ægipans[3254] and the Satyr crew, while it re-echoes with the notes of the flute and the pipe, and the clash of drums and cymbals. All this is what authors of high character have stated, in addition to the labours which Hercules and Perseus there experienced. The space which intervenes before you arrive at this mountain is immense, and the country quite unknown.

There formerly existed some Commentaries written by Hanno[3255], a Carthaginian general, who was commanded, in the most flourishing times of the Punic state, to explore the sea-coast of Africa. The greater part of the Greek and Roman writers have followed him, and have related, among other fabulous stories, that many cities there were founded by him, of which no remembrance, nor yet the slightest vestige, now exists.

While Scipio Æmilianus held the command in Sicily, Polybius the historian received a fleet from him for the purpose of proceeding on a voyage of discovery in this part of the world. He relates, that beyond[3256] Mount Atlas, proceeding in a westerly direction, there are forests filled with wild beasts, peculiar to the soil of Africa, as far as the river Anatis[3257], a distance of 485 miles, Lixos being distant from it 205 miles. Agrippa says, that Lixos is distant from the Straits of Gades 112 miles. After it we come to a gulf which is called the Gulf of Saguti[3258], a town situate on the Promontory of Mulelacha[3259], the rivers Subur and Salat[3260], and the port of Rutubis[3261], distant from Lixos 213 miles. We then come to the Promontory of the Sun[3262], the port of Risardir[3263], the Gætulian Autololes, the river Cosenus[3264], the nations of the Selatiti and the Masati, the river Masathat[3265], and the river Darat[3266], in which crocodiles are found. After this we come to a large gulf, 616[3267] miles in extent, which is enclosed by a promontory of Mount Barce[3268], which runs out in a westerly direction, and is called Surrentium[3269]. Next comes the river Salsus[3270], beyond which lie the Æthiopian Perorsi, at the back of whom are the Pharusii[3271], who are bordered upon by the Gætulian Daræ[3272], lying in the interior. Upon the coast again, we find the Æthiopian Daratitæ, and the river Bambotus[3273], teeming with crocodiles and hippopotami. From this river there is a continuous range[3274] of mountains till we come to the one which is known by the name of Theon Ochema[3275], from which to the Hesperian Promontory[3276] is a voyage of ten days and nights; and in the middle of this space he[3277] has placed Mount Atlas, which by all other writers has been stated to be in the extreme parts of Mauritania.

The Roman arms, for the first time, pursued their conquests into Mauritania, under the Emperor Claudius, when the freedman Ædemon took up arms to avenge the death of King Ptolemy[3278], who had been put to death by Caius Cæsar; and it is a well-known fact, that on the flight of the barbarians our troops reached Mount Atlas. It became a boast, not only among men of consular rank, and generals selected from the senate, who at that time held the command, but among persons of equestrian rank as well, who after that period held the government there, that they had penetrated as far as Mount Atlas. There are, as we have already stated, five Roman colonies in this province; and it may very possibly appear, if we listen only to what report says, that this mountain is easily accessible. Upon trial, however, it has been pretty generally shown, that all such statements are utterly fallacious; and it is too true, that men in high station, when they are disinclined to take the trouble of inquiring into the truth, through a feeling of shame at their ignorance are not averse to be guilty of falsehood; and never is implicit credence more readily given, than when a falsehood is supported by the authority of some personage of high consideration. For my own part, I am far less surprised that there are still some facts remaining undiscovered by men of the equestrian order, and even those among them who have attained senatorial rank, than that the love of luxury has left anything unascertained; the impulse of which must be great indeed, and most powerfully felt, when the very forests are ransacked for their ivory and citron-wood[3279], and all the rocks of Gætulia are searched for the murex and the purple.

From the natives, however, we learn, that on the coast, at a distance of 150 miles from the Salat, the river Asana[3280] presents itself; its waters are salt, but it is remarkable for its fine harbour. They also say that after this we come to a river known by the name of Fut[3281], and then, after crossing another called Vior which lies on the road, at a distance of 200 miles we arrive at Dyris[3282], such being the name which in their language they give to Mount Atlas. According to their story there are still existing in its vicinity many vestiges which tend to prove that the locality was once inhabited; such as the remains of vineyards and plantations of palm-trees.

Suetonius Paulinus[3283], whom we have seen Consul in our own time, was the first Roman general who advanced a distance of some miles beyond Mount Atlas. He has given us the same information as we have received from other sources with reference to the extraordinary height of this mountain, and at the same time he has stated that all the lower parts about the foot of it are covered with dense and lofty forests composed of trees of species hitherto unknown. The height of these trees, he says, is remarkable; the trunks are without knots, and of a smooth and glossy surface; the foliage is like that of the cypress, and besides sending forth a powerful odour, they are covered with a flossy down, from which, by the aid of art, a fine cloth might easily be manufactured, similar to the textures made from the produce of the silk-worm. He informs us that the summit of this mountain is covered with snow even in summer, and says that having arrived there after a march of ten days, he proceeded some distance beyond it as far as a river which bears the name of Ger[3284]; the road being through deserts covered with a black sand[3285], from which rocks that bore the appearance of having been exposed to the action of fire, projected every here and there; localities rendered quite uninhabitable by the intensity of the heat, as he himself experienced, although it was in the winter season that he visited them. We also learn from the same source that the people who inhabit the adjoining forests, which are full of all kinds of elephants, wild beasts, and serpents, have the name of Canarii; from the circumstance that they partake of their food in common with the canine race, and share with it the entrails of wild beasts.

It is a well-known fact, that adjoining to these localities is a nation of Æthiopians, which bears the name of Perorsi. Juba, the father of Ptolemy, who was the first king[3286] who reigned over both the Mauritanias, and who has been rendered even more famous by the brilliancy of his learning than by his kingly rank, has given us similar information relative to Mount Atlas, and states that a certain herb grows there, which has received the name of ‘euphorbia’[3287] from that of his physician, who was the first to discover it. Juba extols with wondrous praises the milky juice of this plant as tending to improve the sight, and acting as a specific against the bites of serpents and all kinds of poison; and to this subject alone he has devoted an entire book. Thus much, if indeed not more than enough, about Mount Atlas.

(2.) The province of Tingitana is 170 miles in length[3288]. Of the nations in this province the principal one was formerly that of the Mauri[3289], who have given to it the name of Mauritania, and have been by many writers called the Maurusii[3290]. This nation has been greatly weakened by the disasters of war, and is now dwindled down to a few families only[3291]. Next to the Mauri was formerly the nation of the Massæsyli[3292]; they in a similar manner have become extinct. Their country is now occupied by the Gætulian nations[3293], the Baniuræ[3294], the Autololes[3295], by far the most powerful people among them all, and the Vesuni, who formerly were a part of the Autololes, but have now separated from them, and, turning their steps towards the Æthiopians[3296], have formed a distinct nation of their own. This province, in the mountainous district which lies on its eastern side, produces elephants, as also on the heights of Mount Abyla[3297] and among those elevations which, from the similarity of their height, are called the Seven Brothers[3298]. Joining the range of Abyla these mountains overlook the Straits of Gades. At the extremity of this chain begin the shores of the inland sea[3299], and we come to the Tamuda[3300], a navigable stream, with the site of a former town of the same name, and then the river Laud[3301], which is also navigable for vessels, the town and port of Rhysaddir[3302], and Malvane[3303], a navigable stream.

The city of Siga[3304], formerly the residence of King Syphax, lies opposite to that of Malaca[3305] in Spain: it now belongs to the second[3306] Mauritania. But these countries, I should remark, for a long time retained the names of their respective kings, the further Mauritania being called the “land of Bogud[3307],” while that which is now called Cæsariensis was called the “country of Bocchus.” After passing Siga we come to the haven called “Portus Magnus[3308]” from its great extent, with a town whose people enjoy the rights of Roman citizens, and then the river Mulucha[3309], which served as the limit between the territory of Bocchus and that of the Massæsyli. Next to this is Quiza Xenitana[3310], a town founded by strangers, and Arsenaria[3311], a place with the ancient Latin rights, three miles distant from the sea. We then come to Cartenna[3312], a colony founded under Augustus by the second legion, and Gunugum[3313], another colony founded by the same emperor, a prætorian cohort being established there; the Promontory of Apollo[3314], and a most celebrated city, now called Cæsarea[3315], but formerly known by the name of Iol; this place was the residence of King Juba, and received the rights of a colony from the now deified Emperor Claudius. Oppidum Novum[3316] is the next place; a colony of veterans was established here by command of the same emperor. Next to it is Tipasa[3317], which has received Latin rights, as also Icasium[3318], which has been presented by the Emperor Vespasianus with similar rights; Rusconiæ[3319], a colony founded by Augustus; Rusucurium[3320], honoured by Claudius with the rights of Roman citizens; Ruzacus[3321], a colony founded by Augustus; Salde[3322], another colony founded by the same emperor; Igilgili[3323], another; and the town of Tucca[3324], situate on the sea-shore and upon the river Ampsaga. In the interior are the colony of Augusta, also called Succabar[3325], Tubusuptus[3326], the cities of Timici and Tigavæ[3327], the rivers Sardabal[3328], Aves[3329], and Nabar[3330], the nation of the Macurebi, the river Usar[3331], and the nation of the Nababes. The river Ampsaga is distant from Cæsarea 322[3332] miles. The length of the two Mauritanias is 1038, and their breadth 467 miles.

CHAP. 2. (3.)—NUMIDIA.

At the river Ampsaga Numidia begins, a country rendered illustrious by the fame of Masinissa. By the Greeks this region was called Metagonitis[3333]; and the Numidians received the name of “Nomades” from their frequent changes of pasturage; upon which occasions they were accustomed to carry[3334] their mapalia, or in other words, their houses, upon waggons. The towns of this country are Cullu[3335] and Rusicade[3336]; and at a distance of forty-eight miles from the latter, in the interior, is the colony of Cirta[3337], surnamed “of the Sitiani;” still more inland is another colony called Sicca[3338], with the free town of Bulla Regia[3339]. On the coast are Tacatua[3340], Hippo Regius[3341], the river Armua[3342], and the town of Tabraca[3343], with the rights of Roman citizens. The river Tusca[3344] forms the boundary of Numidia. This country produces nothing remarkable except its marble[3345] and wild beasts.

CHAP. 3. (4.)—AFRICA.

Beyond the river Tusca begins the region of Zeugitana[3346], and that part which properly bears the name of Africa[3347]. We here find three promontories; the White Promontory[3348], the Promontory of Apollo[3349], facing Sardinia, and that of Mercury[3350], opposite to Sicily. Projecting into the sea these headlands form two gulfs, the first of which bears the name of “Hipponensis” from its proximity to the city called Hippo Dirutus[3351], a corruption of the Greek name Diarrhytus, which it has received from the channels made for irrigation. Adjacent to this place, but at a greater distance from the sea-shore, is Theudalis[3352], a town exempt from tribute. We then come to the Promontory of Apollo, and upon the second gulf, we find Utica[3353], a place enjoying the rights of Roman citizens, and famous for the death of Cato; the river Bagrada[3354], the place called Castra Cornelia[3355], the colony[3356] of Carthage, founded upon the remains of Great Carthage[3357], the colony of Maxula[3358], the towns of Carpi[3359], Misua, and Clypea[3360], the last a free town, on the Promontory of Mercury; also Curubis, a free town[3361], and Neapolis[3362].

Here commences the second division[3363] of Africa properly so called. Those who inhabit Byzacium have the name of Libyphœnices[3364]. Byzacium is the name of a district which is 250 miles in circumference, and is remarkable for its extreme fertility, as the ground returns the seed sown by the husbandman with interest a hundred-fold[3365]. Here are the free towns of Leptis[3366], Adrumetum[3367], Ruspina[3368], and Thapsus[3369]; and then Thenæ[3370], Macomades[3371], Tacape[3372], and Sabrata[3373] which touches on the Lesser Syrtis; to which spot, from the Ampsaga, the length of Numidia and Africa is 580 miles, and the breadth, so far as it has been ascertained, 200. That portion which we have called Africa is divided into two provinces, the Old and the New; these are separated by a dyke which was made by order of the second Scipio Africanus[3374] and the kings[3375], and extended to Thenæ, which town is distant from Carthage 216 miles.

CHAP. 4.—THE SYRTES.

A third Gulf is divided into two smaller ones, those of the two Syrtes[3376], which are rendered perilous by the shallows of their quicksands and the ebb and flow of the sea. Polybius states the distance from Carthage to the Lesser Syrtis, the one which is nearest to it, to be 300 miles. The inlet to it he also states to be 100 miles across, and its circumference 300. There is also a way[3377] to it by land, to find which we must employ the guidance of the stars and cross deserts which present nothing but sand and serpents. After passing these we come to forests filled with vast multitudes of wild beasts and elephants, then desert wastes[3378], and beyond them the Garamantes[3379], distant twelve days’ journey from the Augylæ[3380]. Above the Garamantes was formerly the nation of the Psylli[3381], and above them again the Lake of Lycomedes[3382], surrounded with deserts. The Augylæ themselves are situate almost midway between Æthiopia which faces the west[3383], and the region which lies between[3384] the two Syrtes, at an equal distance from both. The distance along the coast that lies between the two Syrtes is 250 miles. On it are found the city of Œa[3385], the river Cinyps[3386], and the country of that name, the towns of Neapolis[3387], Graphara[3388], and Abrotonum[3389], and the second, surnamed the Greater, Leptis[3390].

We next come to the Greater Syrtis, 625 miles in circumference, and at the entrance 312 miles in width; next after which dwells the nation of the Cisippades. At the bottom of this gulf was the coast of the Lotophagi, whom some writers have called the Alachroæ[3391], extending as far as the Altars of the Philæni[3392]; these Altars are formed of heaps of sand. On passing these, not far from the shore there is a vast swamp[3393] which receives the river Triton[3394] and from it takes its name: by Callimachus it is called Pallantias[3395], and is said by him to be on the nearer side of the Lesser Syrtis; many other writers however place it between the two Syrtes. The promontory which bounds the Greater Syrtis has the name of Borion[3396]; beyond it is the province of Cyrene.

Africa, from the river Ampsaga to this limit, includes 516 peoples, who are subject to the Roman sway, of which six are colonies; among them Uthina[3397] and Tuburbi[3398], besides those already mentioned. The towns enjoying the rights of Roman citizens are fifteen in number, of which I shall mention, as lying in the interior, those of Assuræ[3399], Abutucum, Aborium, Canopicum[3400], Cilma[3401], Simithium, Thunusidium, Tuburnicum, Tynidrumum, Tibiga, the two towns called Ucita, the Greater and the Lesser, and Vaga. There is also one town with Latin rights, Uzalita by name, and one town of tributaries, Castra Cornelia[3402]. The free towns are thirty in number, among which we may mention, in the interior, those of Acholla[3403], Aggarita, Avina, Abzirita, Canopita, Melizita, Matera, Salaphita, Tusdrita[3404], Tiphica, Tunica[3405], Theuda, Tagasta[3406], Tiga[3407], Ulusubrita, a second Vaga, Visa, and Zama[3408]. Of the remaining number, most of them should be called, in strictness, not only cities, but nations even; such for instance as the Natabudes, the Capsitani[3409], the Musulami, the Sabarbares, the Massyli[3410], the Nisives, the Vamacures, the Cinithi, the Musuni, the Marchubii[3411], and the whole of Gætulia[3412], as far as the river Nigris[3413], which separates Africa proper from Æthiopia.

CHAP. 5. (5.)—CYRENAICA.

The region of Cyrenaica, also called Pentapolis[3414], is rendered famous by the oracle of Hammon[3415], which is distant 400 miles from the city of Cyrene; also by the Fountain of the Sun[3416] there, and five cities in especial, those of Berenice[3417], Arsinoë[3418], Ptolemais[3419], Apollonia[3420], and Cyrene[3421] itself. Berenice is situate upon the outer promontory that bounds the Syrtis; it was formerly called the city of the Hesperides (previously mentioned[3422]), according to the fables of the Greeks, which very often change their localities. Not far from the city, and running before it, is the river Lethon, and with it a sacred grove, where the gardens of the Hesperides are said to have formerly stood; this city is distant from Leptis 375 miles. From Berenice to Arsinoë, commonly called Teuchira, is forty-three miles; after which, at a distance of twenty-two, we come to Ptolemais, the ancient name of which was Barce; and at a distance of forty miles from this last the Promontory of Phycus[3423], which extends far away into the Cretan Sea, being 350 miles distant from Tænarum[3424], the promontory of Laconia, and from Crete 225. After passing this promontory we come to Cyrene, which stands at a distance of eleven miles from the sea. From Phycus to Apollonia[3425] is twenty-four miles, and from thence to the Chersonesus[3426] eighty-eight; from which to Catabathmos[3427] is a distance of 216 miles. The Marmaridæ[3428] inhabit this coast, extending from almost the region of Parætonium[3429] to the Greater Syrtis; after them the Ararauceles, and then, upon the coasts of the Syrtis, the Nasamones[3430], whom the Greeks formerly called Mesammones, from the circumstance of their being located in the very midst of sands[3431]. The territory of Cyrene, to a distance of fifteen miles from the shore, is said to abound in trees, while for the same distance beyond that district it is only suitable for the cultivation of corn: after which, a tract of land, thirty miles in breadth and 250 in length, is productive of nothing but laser [or silphium[3432]].

After the Nasamones we come to the dwellings of the Asbystæ and the Macæ[3433], and beyond them, at eleven days’ journey to the west of the Greater Syrtis, the Amantes[3434], a people also surrounded by sands in every direction. They find water however without any difficulty at a depth mostly of about two cubits, as their district receives the overflow of the waters of Mauritania. They build houses with blocks of salt[3435], which they cut out of their mountains just as we do stone. From this nation to the Troglodytæ[3436] the distance is seven days’ journey in a south-westerly direction, a people with whom our only intercourse is for the purpose of procuring from them the precious stone which we call the carbuncle, and which is brought from the interior of Æthiopia. Upon the road to this last people, but turning off towards the deserts of Africa, of which we have previously[3437] made mention as lying beyond the Lesser Syrtis, is the region of Phazania[3438]; the nation of Phazanii, belonging to which, as well as the cities of Alele[3439] and Cilliba[3440], we have subdued by force of arms, as also Cydamus[3441], which lies over against Sabrata. After passing these places a range of mountains extends in a prolonged chain from east to west: these have received from our people the name of the Black Mountains[3442], either from the appearance which they naturally bear of having been exposed to the action of fire, or else from the fact that they have been scorched by the reflection of the sun’s rays. Beyond it[3443] is the desert, and then Talgæ, a city of the Garamantes, and Debris, at which place there is a spring[3444], the waters of which, from noon to midnight, are at boiling heat, and then freeze for as many hours until the following noon; Garama too, that most famous capital of the Garamantes; all which places have been subdued by the Roman arms. It was on this occasion that Cornelius Balbus[3445] was honoured with a triumph, the only foreigner indeed that was ever honoured with the triumphal chariot, and presented with the rights of a Roman citizen; for, although by birth a native of Gades, the Roman citizenship was granted to him as well as to the elder Balbus[3446], his uncle by the father’s side. There is also this remarkable circumstance, that our writers have handed down to us the names of the cities above-mentioned as having been taken by Balbus, and have informed us that on the occasion of his triumph[3447], besides Cydamus and Garama[3448], there were carried in the procession the names and models of all the other nations and cities, in the following order: the town of Tabudium[3449], the nation of Niteris, the town of Nigligemella, the nation or town of Bubeium[3450], the nation of Enipi, the town of Thuben, the mountain known as the Black Mountain, Nitibrum, the towns called Rapsa, the nation of Discera[3451], the town of Debris[3452], the river Nathabur[3453], the town of Thapsagum[3454], the nation of Nannagi, the town of Boin, the town of Pege[3455], the river Dasibari; and then the towns, in the following order, of Baracum, Buluba, Alasit, Galia, Balla, Maxalla[3456], Zizama, and Mount Gyri[3457], which was preceded by an inscription stating that this was the place where precious stones were produced.

Up to the present time it has been found impracticable to keep open the road that leads to the country of the Garamantes, as the predatory bands of that nation have filled up the wells with sand, which do not require to be dug for to any great depth, if you only have a knowledge of the locality. In the late war[3458] however, which, at the beginning of the reign of the Emperor Vespasian, the Romans carried on with the people of Œa, a short cut of only four days’ journey was discovered; this road is known as the “Præter Caput Saxi[3459].” The last place in the territory of Cyrenaica is Catabathmos, consisting of a town, and a valley with a sudden and steep descent. The length of Cyrenean Africa, up to this boundary from the Lesser Syrtis, is 1060 miles; and, so far as has been ascertained, it is 800[3460] in breadth.

CHAP. 6. (6.)—LIBYA MAREOTIS.

The region that follows is called Libya Mareotis[3461], and borders upon Egypt. It is held by the Marmaridæ, the Adyrmachidæ, and, after them, the Mareotæ. The distance from Catabathmos to Parætonium is eighty-six miles. In this district is Apis[3462], a place rendered famous by the religious belief of Egypt. From this town Parætonium is distant sixty-two miles, and from thence to Alexandria the distance is 200 miles, the breadth of the district being 169. Eratosthenes says that it is 525 miles by land from Cyrene to Alexandria; while Agrippa gives the length of the whole of Africa from the Atlantic Sea, and including Lower Egypt, as 3040 miles. Polybius and Eratosthenes, who are generally considered as remarkable for their extreme correctness, state the length to be, from the ocean to Great Carthage 1100 miles, and from Carthage to Canopus, the nearest mouth of the Nile, 1628 miles; while Isidorus speaks of the distance from Tingi to Canopus as being 3599 miles. Artemidorus makes this last distance forty miles less than Isidorus.

CHAP. 7. (7.)—THE ISLANDS IN THE VICINITY OF AFRICA.

These seas contain not so very many islands. The most famous among them is Meninx[3463], twenty-five miles in length and twenty-two in breadth: by Eratosthenes it is called Lotophagitis. This island has two towns, Meninx on the side which faces Africa, and Troas on the other; it is situate off the promontory which lies on the right-hand side of the Lesser Syrtis, at a distance of a mile and a half. One hundred miles from this island, and opposite the promontory that lies on the left, is the free island of Cercina[3464], with a city of the same name. It is twenty-five miles long, and half that breadth at the place where it is the widest, but not more than five miles across at the extremity: the diminutive island of Cercinitis[3465], which looks towards Carthage, is united to it by a bridge. At a distance of nearly fifty miles from these is the island of Lopadusa[3466], six miles in length; and beyond it Gaulos and Galata, the soil of which kills the scorpion, that noxious reptile of Africa. It is also said that the scorpion will not live at Clypea; opposite to which place lies the island of Cosyra[3467], with a town of the same name. Opposite to the Gulf of Carthage are the two islands known as the Ægimuri[3468]; the Altars[3469], which are rather rocks than islands, lie more between Sicily and Sardinia. There are some authors who state that these rocks were once inhabited, but that they have gradually subsided in the sea.

CHAP. 8. (8.)—COUNTRIES ON THE OTHER SIDE OF AFRICA.

If we pass through the interior of Africa in a southerly direction, beyond the Gætuli, after having traversed the intervening deserts, we shall find, first of all the Liby-Egyptians[3470], and then the country where the Leucæthiopians[3471] dwell. Beyond[3472] these are the Nigritæ[3473], nations of Æthiopia, so called from the river Nigris[3474], which has been previously mentioned, the Gymnetes[3475], surnamed Pharusii, and, on the very margin of the ocean, the Perorsi[3476], whom we have already spoken of as lying on the boundaries of Mauritania. After passing all these peoples, there are vast deserts towards the east until we come to the Garamantes, the Augylæ, and the Troglodytæ; the opinion of those being exceedingly well founded who place two Æthiopias beyond the deserts of Africa, and more particularly that expressed by Homer[3477], who tells us that the Æthiopians are divided into two nations, those of the east and those of the west. The river Nigris has the same characteristics as the Nile; it produces the calamus, the papyrus, and just the same animals, and it rises at the same seasons of the year. Its source is between the Tarrælian Æthiopians and the Œcalicæ. Magium, the city of the latter people, has been placed by some writers amid the deserts, and, next to them the Atlantes; then the Ægipani, half men, half beasts, the Blemmyæ[3478], the Gamphasantes, the Satyri, and the Himantopodes.

The Atlantes[3479], if we believe what is said, have lost all characteristics of humanity; for there is no mode of distinguishing each other among them by names, and as they look upon the rising and the setting sun, they give utterance to direful imprecations against it, as being deadly to themselves and their lands; nor are they visited with dreams[3480], like the rest of mortals. The Troglodytæ make excavations in the earth, which serve them for dwellings; the flesh of serpents is their food; they have no articulate voice, but only utter a kind of squeaking noise[3481]; and thus are they utterly destitute of all means of communication by language. The Garamantes have no institution of marriage among them, and live in promiscuous concubinage with their women. The Augylæ worship no deities[3482] but the gods of the infernal regions. The Gamphasantes, who go naked, and are unacquainted with war[3483], hold no intercourse whatever with strangers. The Blemmyæ are said to have no heads, their mouths and eyes being seated in their breasts. The Satyri[3484], beyond their figure, have nothing in common with the manners of the human race, and the form of the Ægipani[3485] is such as is commonly represented in paintings. The Himantopodes[3486] are a race of people with feet resembling thongs, upon which they move along by nature with a serpentine, crawling kind of gait. The Pharusii, descended from the ancient Persians, are said to have been the companions of Hercules when on his expedition to the Hesperides. Beyond the above, I have met with nothing relative to Africa[3487] worthy of mention.

CHAP. 9. (9.)—EGYPT AND THEBAIS.

Joining on to Africa is Asia, the extent of which, according to Timosthenes, from the Canopic mouth of the Nile to the mouth of the Euxine, is 2639 miles. From the mouth of the Euxine to that of Lake Mæotis is, according to Eratosthenes, 1545 miles. The whole distance to the Tanais, including Egypt, is, according to Artemidorus and Isidorus, 6375[3488] miles. The seas of Egypt, which are several in number, have received their names from those who dwell upon their shores, for which reason they will be mentioned together.

Egypt is the country which lies next to Africa; in the interior it runs in a southerly direction, as far as the territory of the Æthiopians, who lie extended at the back of it. The river Nile, dividing itself, forms on the right and left the boundary of its lower part, which it embraces on every side[3489]. By the Canopic mouth of that river it is separated from Africa, and by the Pelusiac from Asia, there being a distance between the two of 170 miles. For this reason it is that some persons have reckoned Egypt among the islands, the Nile so dividing itself as to give a triangular form to the land which it encloses: from which circumstance also many persons have named Egypt the Delta[3490], after that of the Greek letter so called. The distance from the spot where the channel of the river first divides into branches, to the Canopic mouth, is 146 miles, and to the Pelusiac, 166.

The upper part of Egypt, which borders on Æthiopia, is known as Thebais. This district is divided into prefectures of towns, which are generally designated as “Nomes.” These are Ombites[3491], Apollopolites[3492], Hermonthites[3493], Thinites[3494], Phaturites[3495], Coptites[3496], Tentyrites[3497], Diopolites[3498], Antæopolites[3499], Aphroditopolites[3500], and Lycopolites[3501]. The district which lies in the vicinity of Pelusium contains the following Nomes, Pharbæthites, Bubastites[3502], Sethroites, and Tanites[3503]. The remaining Nomes are those called the Arabian; the Hammonian, which lies on the road to the oracle of Jupiter Hammon; and those known by the names of Oxyrynchites, Leontopolites, Athribites[3504], Cynopolites[3505], Hermopolites[3506], Xoites, Mendesium, Sebennytes[3507], Cabasites, Latopolites, Heliopolites, Prosopites, Panopolites, Busirites[3508], Onuphites[3509], Saïtes[3510], Ptenethu, Phthemphu[3511], Naucratites[3512], Metelites, Gynæcopolites, Menelaites,—all in the region of Alexandria, besides Mareotis in Libya.

Heracleopolites[3513] is a Nome on an island[3513] of the Nile, fifty miles in length, upon which there is a city, called the ‘City of Hercules.’ There are two places called Arsinoïtes[3514]: these and Memphites[3515] extend to the apex[3516] of the Delta; adjoining to which, on the side of Africa, are the two Nomes of Oasites[3517]. Some writers vary in some of these names and substitute for them other Nomes, such as Heroöpolites[3518] and Crocodilopolites[3519]. Between Arsinoïtes and Memphites, a lake[3520], 250 miles, or, according to what Mucianus says, 450 miles in circumference and fifty paces deep, has been formed by artificial means: after the king by whose orders it was made, it is called by the name of Mœris. The distance from thence to Memphis is nearly sixty-two miles, a place which was formerly the citadel of the kings of Egypt; from thence to the oracle of Hammon it is twelve days’ journey. Memphis is fifteen miles from the spot where the river Nile divides into the different channels which we have mentioned as forming the Delta.

CHAP. 10.—THE RIVER NILE.

The sources of the Nile[3521] are unascertained, and, travelling as it does for an immense distance through deserts and burning sands, it is only known to us by common report, having neither experienced the vicissitudes of warfare, nor been visited by those arms which have so effectually explored all other regions. It rises, so far indeed as King Juba was enabled to ascertain, in a mountain[3522] of Lower Mauritania, not far from the ocean; immediately after which it forms a lake of standing water, which bears the name of Nilides[3523]. In this lake are found the several kinds of fish known by the names of alabeta[3524], coracinus, and silurus; a crocodile also was brought thence as a proof that this really is the Nile, and was consecrated by Juba himself in the temple of Isis at Cæsarea[3525], where it may be seen at the present day. In addition to these facts, it has been observed that the waters of the Nile rise in the same proportion in which the snows and rains of Mauritania increase. Pouring forth from this lake, the river disdains to flow through arid and sandy deserts, and for a distance of several days’ journey conceals itself; after which it bursts forth at another lake of greater magnitude in the country of the Massæsyli[3526], a people of Mauritania Cæsariensis, and thence casts a glance around, as it were, upon the communities of men in its vicinity, giving proofs of its identity in the same peculiarities of the animals which it produces. It then buries itself once again in the sands of the desert, and remains concealed for a distance of twenty days’ journey, till it has reached the confines of Æthiopia. Here, when it has once more become sensible of the presence of man, it again emerges, at the same source, in all probability, to which writers have given the name of Niger, or Black. After this, forming the boundary-line between Africa and Æthiopia, its banks, though not immediately peopled by man, are the resort of numbers of wild beasts and animals of various kinds. Giving birth in its course to dense forests of trees, it travels through the middle of Æthiopia, under the name of Astapus, a word which signifies, in the language of the nations who dwell in those regions, “water issuing from the shades below.” Proceeding onwards, it divides[3527] innumerable islands in its course, and some of them of such vast magnitude, that although its tide runs with the greatest rapidity, it is not less than five days in passing them. When making the circuit of Meroë, the most famous of these islands, the left branch of the river is called Astobores[3528], or, in other words, “an arm of the water that issues from the shades,” while the right arm has the name of Astosapes[3529], which adds to its original signification the meaning of “side[3530].” It does not obtain the name of “Nile” until its waters have again met and are united in a single stream; and even then, for some miles both above and below the point of confluence, it has the name of Siris. Homer has given to the whole of this river the name of Ægyptus, while other writers again have called it Triton[3531]. Every now and then its course is interrupted by islands which intervene, and which only serve as so many incentives to add to the impetuosity of its torrent; and though at last it is hemmed in by mountains on either side, in no part is the tide more rapid and precipitate. Its waters then hastening onwards, it is borne along to the spot in the country of the Æthiopians which is known by the name of “Catadupi[3532];” where, at the last Cataract[3533], the complaint is, not that it flows, but that it rushes, with an immense noise between the rocks that lie in its way: after which it becomes more smooth, the violence of its waters is broken and subdued, and, wearied out as it were by the length of the distance it has travelled, it discharges itself, though by many mouths[3534], into the Egyptian sea. During certain days of the year, however, the volume of its waters is greatly increased, and as it traverses the whole of Egypt, it inundates the earth, and, by so doing, greatly promotes its fertility.

There have been various reasons suggested for this increase of the river. Of these, however, the most probable are, either that its waters are driven back by the Etesian winds[3535], which are blowing at this season of the year from an opposite direction, and that the sea which lies beyond is driven into the mouths of the river; or else that its waters are swollen by the summer rains of Æthiopia[3536], which fall from the clouds conveyed thither by the Etesian winds from other parts of the earth. Timæus the mathematician has alleged a reason of an occult nature: he says that the source of the river is known by the name of Phiala, and that the stream buries itself in channels underground, where it sends forth vapours generated by the heat among the steaming rocks amid which it conceals itself; but that, during the days of the inundation, in consequence of the sun approaching nearer to the earth, the waters are drawn forth by the influence of his heat, and on being thus exposed to the air, overflow; after which, in order that it may not be utterly dried up, the stream hides itself once more. He says that this takes place at the rising of the Dog-Star, when the sun enters the sign of Leo, and stands in a vertical position over the source of the river, at which time at that spot there is no shadow thrown. Most authors, however, are of opinion, on the contrary, that the river flows in greater volume when the sun takes his departure for the north, which he does when he enters the signs of Cancer and Leo, because its waters then are not dried up to so great an extent; while on the other hand, when he returns towards the south pole and re-enters Capricorn, its waters are absorbed by the heat, and consequently flow in less abundance. If there is any one inclined to be of opinion, with Timæus, that the waters of the river may be drawn out of the earth by the heat, it will be as well for him to bear in mind the fact, that the absence of shadow is a phænomenon which lasts continuously[3537] in these regions.

The Nile begins to increase at the next new moon after the summer solstice, and rises slowly and gradually as the sun passes through the sign of Cancer; it is at its greatest height while the sun is passing through Leo, and it falls as slowly and gradually as it arose while he is passing through the sign of Virgo. It has totally subsided between its banks, as we learn from Herodotus, on the hundredth day, when the sun has entered Libra. While it is rising it has been pronounced criminal for kings or prefects even to sail upon its waters. The measure of its increase is ascertained by means of wells[3538]. Its most desirable height is sixteen cubits[3539]; if the waters do not attain that height, the overflow is not universal; but if they exceed that measure, by their slowness in receding they tend to retard the process of cultivation. In the latter case the time for sowing is lost, in consequence of the moisture of the soil; in the former, the ground is so parched that the seed-time comes to no purpose. The country has reason to make careful note of either extreme. When the water rises to only twelve cubits, it experiences the horrors of famine; when it attains thirteen, hunger is still the result; a rise of fourteen cubits is productive of gladness; a rise of fifteen sets all anxieties at rest; while an increase of sixteen is productive of unbounded transports of joy. The greatest increase known, up to the present time, is that of eighteen cubits, which took place in the time of the Emperor Claudius; the smallest rise was that of five, in the year of the battle of Pharsalia[3540], the river by this prodigy testifying its horror, as it were, at the murder of Pompeius Magnus. When the waters have reached their greatest height, the people open the embankments and admit them to the lands. As each district is left by the waters, the business of sowing commences. This is the only river in existence that emits no vapours[3541].

The Nile first enters the Egyptian territory at Syene[3542], on the frontiers of Æthiopia; that is the name of a peninsula a mile in circumference, upon which Castra[3543] is situate, on the side of Arabia. Opposite to it are the four islands of Philæ[3544], at a distance of 600 miles from the place where the Nile divides into two channels; at which spot, as we have already stated, the Delta, as it is called, begins. This, at least, is the distance, according to Artemidorus, who also informs us that there were in it 250 towns; Juba says, however, that the distance between these places is 400 miles. Aristocreon says that the distance from Elephantis to the sea is 750 miles; Elephantis[3545] being an inhabited island four miles below the last Cataract, sixteen[3546] beyond Syene, 585 from Alexandria, and the extreme limit of the navigation of Egypt. To such an extent as this have the above-named authors[3547] been mistaken! This island is the place of rendezvous for the vessels of the Æthiopians; they are made to fold up[3548], and the people carry them on their shoulders whenever they come to the Cataracts.

CHAP. 11.—THE CITIES OF EGYPT.

Egypt, besides its boast of extreme antiquity, asserts that it contained, in the reign of King Amasis[3549], 20,000 inhabited cities: in our day they are still very numerous, though no longer of any particular note. Still however we find the following ones mentioned as of great renown—the city of Apollo[3550]; next, that of Leucothea[3551]; then Great Diospolis[3552], otherwise Thebes, known to fame for its hundred gates; Coptos[3553], which from its proximity to the Nile, forms its nearest emporium for the merchandise of India and Arabia; then the town of Venus[3554], and then another town of Jupiter[3555]. After this comes Tentyris[3556], below which is Abydus[3557], the royal abode of Memnon, and famous for a temple of Osiris[3558], which is situate in Libya[3559], at a distance from the river of seven miles and a half. Next to it comes Ptolemais[3560], then Panopolis[3561], and then another town of Venus[3562], and, on the Libyan side, Lycon[3563], where the mountains form the boundary of the province of Thebais. On passing these, we come to the towns of Mercury[3564], Alabastron[3565], the town of Dogs[3566], and that of Hercules already mentioned[3567]. We next come to Arsinoë[3568], and Memphis[3569], which has been previously mentioned; between which last and the Nome of Arsinoïtes, upon the Libyan side, are the towers known as the Pyramids, the Labyrinth[3570] on Lake Mœris, in the construction of which no wood was employed, and the town of Crialon[3571]. Besides these, there is one place in the interior, on the confines of Arabia, of great celebrity, the City of the Sun[3572].

(10.) With the greatest justice, however, we may lavish our praises upon Alexandria, built by Alexander the Great on the shores of the Egyptian Sea, upon the soil of Africa, at twelve miles’ distance from the Canopic Mouth and near Lake Mareotis[3573]; the spot having previously borne the name of Rhacotes. The plan of this city was designed by the architect Dinochares[3574], who is memorable for the genius which he displayed in many ways. Building the city upon a wide space[3575] of ground fifteen miles in circumference, he formed it in the circular shape of a Macedonian chlamys[3576], uneven at the edge, giving it an angular projection on the right and left; while at the same time he devoted one-fifth part of the site to the royal palace.

Lake Mareotis, which lies on the south side of the city, is connected by a canal which joins it to the Canopic mouth, and serves for the purposes of communication with the interior. It has also a great number of islands, and is thirty miles across, and 150 in circumference, according to Claudius Cæsar. Other writers say that it is forty schœni in length, making the schœnum to be thirty stadia; hence, according to them, it is 150 miles[3577] in length and the same in breadth.

There are also, in the latter part of the course of the Nile, many towns of considerable celebrity, and more especially those which have given their names to the mouths of the river—I do not mean, all the mouths, for there are no less than twelve of them, as well as four others, which the people call the False Mouths[3578]. I allude to the seven more famous ones, the Canopic[3579] Mouth, next to Alexandria, those of Bolbitine[3580], Sebennys[3581], Phatnis[3582], Mendes[3583], Tanis[3584], and, last of all, Pelusium[3585]. Besides the above there are the towns of Butos[3586], Pharbæthos[3587], Leontopolis[3588], Athribis[3589], the town of Isis[3590], Busiris[3591], Cynopolis[3592], Aphrodites[3593], Sais[3594], and Naucratis[3595], from which last some writers call that the Naucratitic Mouth, which is by others called the Heracleotic, and mention it instead[3596] of the Canopic Mouth, which is the next to it.

CHAP. 12. (11.)—THE COASTS OF ARABIA, SITUATE ON THE EGYPTIAN SEA.

Beyond the Pelusiac Mouth is Arabia[3597], which extends to the Red Sea, and joins the Arabia known by the surname of Happy[3598], so famous for its perfumes and its wealth. This[3599] is called Arabia of the Catabanes[3600], the Esbonitæ[3601], and the Scenitæ[3602]; it is remarkable for its sterility, except in the parts where it joins up to Syria, and it has nothing remarkable in it except Mount Casius[3603]. The Arabian nations of the Canchlæi[3604] join these on the east, and, on the south the Cedrei[3605], both of which peoples are adjoining to the Nabatæi[3606]. The two gulfs of the Red Sea, where it borders upon Egypt, are called the Heroöpolitic[3607] and the Ælanitic[3608]. Between the two towns of Ælana[3609] and Gaza[3610] upon our sea[3611], there is a distance of 150 miles. Agrippa says that Arsinoë[3612], a town on the Red Sea, is, by way of the desert, 125 miles from Pelusium. How different the characteristics impressed by nature upon two places separated by so small a distance!

CHAP. 13. (12.)—SYRIA.

Next to these countries Syria occupies the coast, once the greatest of lands, and distinguished by many names; for the part which joins up to Arabia was formerly called Palæstina, Judæa, Cœle[3613], and Phœnice. The country in the interior was called Damascena, and that further on and more to the south, Babylonia. The part that lies between the Euphrates and the Tigris was called Mesopotamia, that beyond Taurus Sophene, and that on this side of the same chain Comagene. Beyond Armenia was the country of Adiabene, anciently called Assyria, and at the part where it joins up to Cilicia, it was called Antiochia. Its length, between Cilicia and Arabia[3614], is 470 miles, and its breadth, from Seleucia Pieria[3615] to Zeugma[3616], a town on the Euphrates, 175. Those who make a still more minute division of this country will have it that Phœnice is surrounded by Syria, and that first comes the maritime coast of Syria, part of which is Idumæa and Judæa, after that Phœnice, and then Syria. The whole of the tract of sea that lies in front of these shores is called the Phœnician Sea. The Phœnician people enjoy the glory of having been the inventors of letters[3617], and the first discoverers of the sciences of astronomy, navigation, and the art of war.

CHAP. 14.—IDUMÆA, PALÆSTINA, AND SAMARIA.

On leaving Pelusium we come to the Camp of Chabrias[3618], Mount Casius[3619], the temple of Jupiter Casius, and the tomb of Pompeius Magnus. Ostracine[3620], at a distance of sixty-five miles from Pelusium, is the frontier town of Arabia.

(13.) After this, at the point where the Sirbonian Lake[3621] becomes visible, Idumæa and Palæstina begin. This lake, which some writers have made to be 150 miles in circumference, Herodotus has placed at the foot of Mount Casius; it is now an inconsiderable fen. The towns are Rhinocolura[3622], and, in the interior, Rhaphea[3623], Gaza, and, still more inland, Anthedon[3624]: there is also Mount Argaris[3625]. Proceeding along the coast we come to the region of Samaria; Ascalo[3626], a free town, Azotus[3627], the two Jamniæ[3628], one of them in the interior; and Joppe[3629], a city of the Phœnicians, which existed, it is said, before the deluge of the earth. It is situate on the slope of a hill, and in front of it lies a rock, upon which they point out the vestiges of the chains by which Andromeda was bound[3630]. Here the fabulous goddess Ceto[3631] is worshipped. Next to this place comes Apollonia[3632], and then the Tower of Strato[3633], otherwise Cæsarea, built by King Herod, but now the Colony of Prima Flavia, established by the Emperor Vespasianus: this place is the frontier town of Palæstina, at a distance of 188 miles from the confines of Arabia; after which comes Phœnice[3634]. In the interior of Samaria are the towns of Neapolis[3635], formerly called Mamortha, Sebaste[3636], situate on a mountain, and, on a still more lofty one, Gamala[3637].

CHAP. 15. (14.)—JUDÆA.

Beyond Idumæa and Samaria, Judæa extends far and wide. That part of it which joins up to Syria[3638] is called Galilæa, while that which is nearest to Arabia and Egypt bears the name of Peræa[3639]. This last is thickly covered with rugged mountains, and is separated from the rest of Judæa by the river Jordanes. The remaining part of Judæa is divided into ten Toparchies, which we will mention in the following order:—That of Hiericus[3640], covered with groves of palm-trees, and watered by numerous springs, and those of Emmaüs[3641], Lydda[3642], Joppe, Acrabatena[3643], Gophna[3644], Thamna[3645], Bethleptephene[3646], Orina[3647], in which formerly stood Hierosolyma[3648], by far the most famous city, not of Judæa only, but of the East, and Herodium[3649], with a celebrated town of the same name.

(15.) The river Jordanes[3650] rises from the spring of Panias[3651], which has given its surname to Cæsarea, of which we shall have occasion to speak[3652]. This is a delightful stream, and, so far as the situation of the localities will allow of, winds along[3653] in its course and lingers among the dwellers upon its banks. With the greatest reluctance, as it were, it moves onward towards Asphaltites[3654], a lake of a gloomy and unpropitious nature, by which it is at last swallowed up, and its bepraised waters are lost sight of on being mingled with the pestilential streams of the lake. For this reason it is that, as soon as ever the valleys through which it runs afford it the opportunity, it discharges itself into a lake, by many writers known as Genesara[3655], sixteen miles in length and six wide; which is skirted by the pleasant towns of Julias[3656] and Hippo[3657] on the east, of Tarichea[3658] on the south (a name which is by many persons given to the lake itself), and of Tiberias[3659] on the west, the hot springs[3660] of which are so conducive to the restoration of health.

(16.) Asphaltites[3661] produces nothing whatever except bitumen, to which indeed it owes its name. The bodies of animals will not sink[3662] in its waters, and even those of bulls and camels float there. In length it exceeds 100 miles being at its greatest breadth twenty-five, and at its smallest six. Arabia of the Nomades[3663] faces it on the east, and Machærus on the south[3664], at one time, next to Hierosolyma, the most strongly fortified place in Judæa. On the same side lies Callirrhoë[3665], a warm spring, remarkable for its medicinal qualities, and which, by its name, indicates the celebrity its waters have gained.

(17.) Lying on the west of Asphaltites, and sufficiently distant to escape its noxious exhalations, are the Esseni[3666], a people that live apart from the world, and marvellous beyond all others throughout the whole earth, for they have no women among them; to sexual desire they are strangers; money they have none; the palm-trees are their only companions. Day after day, however, their numbers are fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thither to adopt their usages by the tempests of fortune, and wearied with the miseries of life. Thus it is, that through thousands of ages, incredible to relate, this people eternally prolongs its existence, without a single birth taking place there; so fruitful a source of population to it is that weariness of life which is felt by others. Below this people was formerly the town of Engadda[3667], second only to Hierosolyma in the fertility of its soil and its groves of palm-trees; now, like it, it is another heap of ashes. Next to it we come to Masada[3668], a fortress on a rock, not far from Lake Asphaltites. Thus much concerning Judæa.

CHAP. 16. (18.)—DECAPOLIS.

On the side of Syria, joining up to Judæa, is the region of Decapolis[3669], so called from the number of its cities; as to which all writers are not agreed. Most of them, however, agree in speaking of Damascus[3670] as one, a place fertilized by the river Chrysorroös[3671], which is drawn off into its meadows and eagerly imbibed; Philadelphia[3672], and Rhaphana[3673], all which cities fall back towards Arabia; Scythopolis[3674] (formerly called Nysa by Father Liber, from his nurse having been buried there), its present name being derived from a Scythian colony which was established there; Gadara[3675], before which the river Hieromix[3676] flows; Hippo, which has been previously mentioned; Dion[3677], Pella[3678], rich with its waters; Galasa[3679], and Canatha[3680]. The Tetrarchies[3681] lie between and around these cities, equal, each of them, to a kingdom, and occupying the same rank as so many kingdoms. Their names are, Trachonitis[3682], Panias[3683], in which is Cæsarea, with the spring previously mentioned[3684], Abila[3685], Arca[3686], Ampeloëssa[3687], and Gabe[3688].

CHAP. 17. (19.)—PHŒNICE.

We must now return to the coast and to Phœnice. There was formerly a town here known as Crocodilon; there is still a river[3689] of that name: Dorum[3690] and Sycaminon[3691] are the names of cities of which the remembrance only exists. We then come to the Promontory of Carmelus[3692], and, upon the mountain, a town[3693] of that name, formerly called Acbatana. Next to this are Getta[3694], Jeba, and the river Pacida, or Belus[3695], which throws up on its narrow banks a kind of sand from which glass[3696] is made: this river flows from the marshes of Cendebia, at the foot of Mount Carmelus. Close to this river is Ptolemais, formerly called Ace[3697], a colony of Claudius Cæsar; and then the town of Ecdippa[3698], and the promontory known as the White Promontory[3699]. We next come to the city of Tyre[3700], formerly an island, separated from the mainland by a channel of the sea, of great depth, 700 paces in width, but now joined to it by the works which were thrown up by Alexander when besieging it,—the Tyre so famous in ancient times for its offspring, the cities to which it gave birth, Leptis, Utica, and Carthage[3701],—that rival of the Roman sway, that thirsted so eagerly for the conquest of the whole earth; Gades, too, which she founded beyond the limits of the world. At the present day, all her fame is confined to the production of the murex and the purple[3702]. Its circumference, including therein Palætyrus[3703], is nineteen miles, the place itself extending twenty-two stadia. The next towns are Sarepta[3704] and Ornithon[3705], and then Sidon[3706], famous for its manufacture of glass, and the parent of Thebes[3707] in Bœotia.

(20.) In the rear of this spot begins the chain of Libanus, which extends 1500 stadia, as far as Simyra; this district has the name of Cœle Syria. Opposite to this chain, and separated from it by an intervening valley, stretches away the range of Antilibanus, which was formerly connected with Libanus[3708] by a wall. Beyond it, and lying in the interior, is the region of Decapolis, and, with it, the Tetrarchies already mentioned, and the whole expanse of Palæstina. On the coast, again, and lying beneath Libanus, is the river Magoras[3709], the colony of Berytus[3710], which bears the name of Felix Julia, the town of Leontos[3711], the river Lycos[3712], Palæbyblos[3713], the river Adonis[3714], and the towns of Byblos[3715], Botrys[3716], Gigarta[3717], Trieris[3718], Calamos[3719], Tripolis[3720], inhabited by the Tyrians, Sidonians, and Aradians; Orthosia[3721], the river Eleutheros[3722], the towns of Simyra and Marathos[3723]; and opposite, Arados[3724], a town seven stadia long, on an island, distant 200 paces from the mainland. After passing through the country in which the before-named mountains end and the plains that lie between, Mount Bargylus[3725] is seen to rise.

CHAP. 18.—SYRIA ANTIOCHIA.

Here Phœnicia ends, and Syria recommences. The towns are, Carne[3726], Balanea[3727], Paltos[3728], and Gabale[3729]; then the promontory upon which is situate the free town of Laodicea[3730]; and then Diospolis[3731], Heraclea[3732], Charadrus[3733], and Posidium[3734].

(21.) We then come to the Promontory of Syria Antiochia. In the interior is the free city of Antiochia[3735] itself, surnamed Epidaphnes[3736], and divided by the river Orontes[3737]. On the promontory is Seleucia[3738], called Pieria, a free city.

(22.) Beyond it lies Mount Casius[3739], a different one from the mountain of the same name[3740] which we have already mentioned. The height of this mountain is so vast, that, at the fourth watch[3741] of the night, you can see from it, in the midst of the darkness, the sun rising on the east; and thus, by merely turning round, we may at one and the same time behold both day and night. The winding road which leads to its summit is nineteen miles in length, its perpendicular height four. Upon this coast there is the river Orontes, which takes its rise near Heliopolis[3742], between the range of Libanus and Antilibanus. The towns are, Rhosos[3743], and, behind it, the Gates of Syria[3744], lying in the space between the chain of the Rhosian mountains and that of Taurus. On the coast there is the town of Myriandros[3745], and Mount Amanus[3746], upon which is the town of Bomitæ[3747]. This mountain separates Cilicia from Syria.

CHAP. 19. (23.)—THE REMAINING PARTS OF SYRIA.

We must now speak of the interior of Syria. Cœle Syria has the town of Apamea[3748], divided by the river Marsyas from the Tetrarchy of the Nazerini[3749]; Bambyx, the other name of which is Hierapolis[3750], but by the Syrians called Mabog[3751], (here the monster Atargatis[3752], called Derceto by the Greeks, is worshipped); and the place called Chalcis[3753] on the Belus[3754], from which the region of Chalcidene, the most fertile part of Syria, takes its name. We here find also Cyrrhestice, with Cyrrhum[3755], the Gazatæ, the Gindareni, the Gabeni, the two Tetrarchies called Granucomatæ[3756], the Emeseni[3757], the Hylatæ[3758], the nation of the Ituræi, and a branch of them, the people called the Bætarreni; the Mariamitani[3759], the Tetrarchy known as Mammisea, Paradisus[3760], Pagræ[3761], the Pinaritæ[3762], two cities called Seleucia, besides the one already mentioned, the one Seleucia on the Euphrates[3763], and the other Seleucia[3764] on the Belus, and the Cardytenses. The remaining part of Syria (except those parts which will be spoken of in conjunction with the Euphrates) contains the Arethusii[3765], the Berœenses[3766], and the Epiphanæenses[3767]; and on the east, the Laodiceni[3768], who are called the Laodiceni on the Libanus, the Leucadii[3769], and the Larissæi, besides seventeen other Tetrarchies, divided into kingdoms and bearing barbarous names.

CHAP. 20. (24.)—THE EUPHRATES.

This place, too, will be the most appropriate one for making some mention of the Euphrates. This river rises in Caranitis[3770], a præfecture of Greater Armenia, according to the statement of those who have approached the nearest to its source. Domitius Corbulo says, that it rises in Mount Aba; Licinius Mucianus, at the foot of a mountain which he calls Capotes[3771], twelve miles above Zimara, and that at its source it has the name of Pyxurates. It first flows past Derxene[3772], and then Anaitica[3773], shutting out[3774] the regions of Armenia from Cappadocia. Dascusa[3775] is distant from Zimara seventy-five miles; from this spot it is navigable as far as Sartona[3776], a distance of fifty miles, thence to Melitene[3777], in Cappadocia, distant seventy-four[3778] miles, and thence to Elegia[3779], in Armenia, distant ten miles; receiving in its course the rivers Lycus[3780], Arsanias[3781], and Arsanus. At Elegia it meets the range of Mount Taurus, but no effectual resistance is offered to its course, although the chain is here twelve miles in width. At its passage[3782] between the mountains, the river bears the name of Omma[3783]; but afterwards, when it has passed through, it receives that of Euphrates. Beyond this spot it is full of rocks, and runs with an impetuous tide. It then divides that part of Arabia which is called the country of the Orei[3784], on the left, by a channel three schœni[3785] in width, from the territory of the Commageni[3786] on the right, and it admits of a bridge being thrown across it, even where it forces a passage through the range of Taurus. At Claudiopolis[3787], in Cappadocia, it takes an easterly direction; and here, for the first time in this contest, Taurus turns it out of its course; though conquered before, and rent asunder by its channel, the mountain-chain now gains the victory in another way, and, breaking its career, compels it to take a southerly direction. Thus is this warfare of nature equally waged,—the river proceeding onward to the destination which it intends to reach, and the mountains forbidding it to proceed by the path which it originally intended. After passing the Cataracts[3788], the river again becomes navigable; and, at a distance of forty miles from thence, is Samosata[3789], the capital of Commagene.

CHAP. 21.—SYRIA UPON THE EUPHRATES.

Arabia, above mentioned, has the cities of Edessa[3790], formerly called Antiochia, and, from the name of its fountain, Callirhoë[3791], and Carrhæ[3792], memorable for the defeat of Crassus there. Adjoining to this is the præfecture of Mesopotamia, which derives its origin from the Assyrians, and in which are the towns of Anthemusia[3793] and Nicephorium[3794]; after which come the Arabians, known by the name of Prætavi, with Singara[3795] for their capital. Below Samosata, on the side of Syria, the river Marsyas[3796] flows into the Euphrates. At Cingilla ends the territory of Commagene, and the state of the Immei begins. The cities which are here washed by the river are those of Epiphania[3797] and Antiochia[3798], generally known as Epiphania and Antiochia on the Euphrates; also Zeugma, seventy-two miles distant from Samosata, famous for the passage there across the Euphrates. Opposite to it is Apamia[3799], which Seleucus, the founder of both cities, united by a bridge. The people who join up to Mesopotamia are called the Rhoali. Other towns in Syria are those of Europus[3800], and what was formerly Thapsacus[3801], now Amphipolis. We then come to the Arabian Scenitæ[3802]. The Euphrates then proceeds in its course till it reaches the place called Ura[3803], at which, taking a turn to the east, it leaves the Syrian Deserts of Palmyra[3804], which extend as far as the city of Petra[3805] and the regions of Arabia Felix.

(25.) Palmyra is a city famous for the beauty of its site, the riches of its soil, and the delicious quality and abundance of its water. Its fields are surrounded by sands on every side, and are thus separated, as it were, by nature from the rest of the world. Though placed between the two great empires of Rome and Parthia, it still maintains[3806] its independence; never failing, at the very first moment that a rupture between them is threatened, to attract the careful attention of both. It is distant 337 miles from Seleucia[3807] of the Parthians, generally known as Seleucia on the Tigris, 203 from the nearest part of the Syrian coast, and twenty-seven less from Damascus.

(26.) Below the deserts of Palmyra is the region of Stelendene[3808], and Hierapolis, Berœa, and Chalcis, already mentioned[3809]. Beyond Palmyra, Emesa[3810] takes to itself a portion of these deserts; also Elatium, nearer to Petra by one-half than Damascus. At no great distance from Sura[3811] is Philiscum, a town of the Parthians, on the Euphrates. From this place it is ten days’ sail to Seleucia, and nearly as many to Babylon. At a distance of 594 miles beyond Zeugma, near the village of Massice, the Euphrates divides into two channels, the left one of which runs through Mesopotamia, past Seleucia, and falls into the Tigris as it flows around that city. Its channel on the right runs towards Babylon, the former capital of Chaldæa, and flows through the middle of it; and then through another city, the name of which is Otris[3812], after which it becomes lost in the marshes. Like the Nile, this river increases at stated times, and at much about the same period. When the sun has reached the twentieth degree of Cancer, it inundates[3813] Mesopotamia; and, after he has passed through Leo and entered Virgo, its waters begin to subside. By the time the sun has entered the twenty-ninth degree of Virgo, the river has fully regained its usual height.

CHAP. 22. (27.)—CILICIA AND THE ADJOINING NATIONS.

But let us now return to the coast of Syria, joining up to which is Cilicia. We here find the river Diaphanes[3814], Mount Crocodilus, the Gates[3815] of Mount Amanus, the rivers Androcus[3816], Pinarus[3817], and Lycus[3818], the Gulf of Issos[3819], and the town of that name; then Alexandria[3820], the river Chlorus[3821], the free town of Ægæ[3822], the river Pyramus[3823], the Gates[3824] of Cilicia, the towns of Mallos[3825] and Magarsos[3826], and, in the interior, Tarsus[3827]. We then come to the Aleian Plains[3828], the town of Cassipolis, Mopsos[3829], a free town on the river Pyramus, Thynos, Zephyrium, and Anchiale[3830]. Next to these are the rivers Saros[3831] and Cydnus[3832], the latter of which, at some distance from the sea, runs through the free city of Tarsus, the region of Celenderitis with a town[3833] of similar name, the place where Nymphæum[3834] stood, Soli of Cilicia[3835], now called Pompeiopolis, Adana[3836], Cibyra[3837], Pinare[3838], Pedalie[3839], Ale, Selinus[3840], Arsinoë[3841], Iotape[3842], Doron, and, near the sea, Corycos, there being a town[3843], port, and cave[3844] all of the same name. Passing these, we come to the river Calycadnus[3845], the Promontory of Sarpedon[3846], the towns of Holmœ[3847] and Myle, and the Promontory and town of Venus[3848], at a short distance from the island of Cyprus. On the mainland there are the towns of Myanda, Anemurium[3849], and Coracesium[3850], and the river Melas[3851], the ancient boundary of Cilicia. In the interior the places more especially worthy of mention are Anazarbus[3852], now called Cæsarea, Augusta, Castabala[3853], Epiphania[3854], formerly called Œniandos, Eleusa[3855], Iconium[3856], Seleucia[3857] upon the river Calycadnus, surnamed Tracheotis, a city removed[3858] from the sea-shore, where it had the name of Holmia. Besides those already mentioned, there are in the interior the rivers Liparis[3859], Bombos, Paradisus, and Mount Imbarus[3860].

CHAP. 23.—ISAURIA AND THE HOMONADES.

All the geographers have mentioned Pamphylia as joining up to Cilicia, without taking any notice of the people of Isauria[3861]. Its cities are, in the interior, Isaura[3862], Clibanus, and Lalasis; it runs down towards the sea by the side of Anemurium[3863] already mentioned. In a similar manner also, all who have treated of this subject have been ignorant of the existence of the nation of the Homonades bordering upon Isauria, and their town of Homona[3864] in the interior. There are forty-four other fortresses, which lie concealed amid rugged crags and valleys.

CHAP. 24.—PISIDIA.

The Pisidæ[3865], formerly called the Solymi, occupy the higher parts of the mountains. In their country there is the colony of Cæsarea, also called Antiochia[3866], and the towns of Oroanda[3867] and Sagalessos.

CHAP. 25.—LYCAONIA.

These people are bounded by Lycaonia[3868], which belongs to the jurisdiction of the province of Asia[3869], to which also resort the people of Philomelium[3870], Tymbrium[3871], Leucolithium[3872], Pelta, and Tyrium. To this jurisdiction is also added a Tetrarchy of Lycaonia in that part which joins up to Galatia, containing fourteen states, with the famous city of Iconium[3873]. In Lycaonia itself the most noted places are Thebasa[3874] on Taurus, and Hyde, on the confines of Galatia and Cappadocia. On the [western] side of Lycaonia, and above Pamphylia, come the Milyæ[3875], a people descended from the Thracians; their city is Arycanda.

CHAP. 26.—PAMPHYLIA.

The former name of Pamphylia[3876] was Mopsopia[3877]. The Pamphylian Sea[3878] joins up to that of Cilicia. The towns of Pamphylia are Side[3879], Aspendum[3880], situate on the side of a mountain, Pletenissum[3881], and Perga[3882]. There is also the Promontory of Leucolla, the mountain of Sardemisus, and the rivers Eurymedon[3883], which flows past Aspendus, and Catarrhactes[3884], near to which is Lyrnesus: also the towns of Olbia[3885], and Phaselis[3886], the last on this coast.

CHAP. 27.—MOUNT TAURUS.

Adjoining to Pamphylia is the Sea of Lycia and the country of Lycia[3887] itself, where the chain of Taurus, coming from the eastern shores, terminates the vast Gulf[3888] by the Promontory of Chelidonium[3889]. Of immense extent, and separating nations innumerable, after taking its first rise at the Indian Sea[3890], it branches off to the north on the right-hand side, and on the left towards the south. Then taking a direction towards the west, it would cut through the middle of Asia, were it not that the seas check it in its triumphant career along the land. It accordingly strikes off in a northerly direction, and forming an arc, occupies an immense tract of country, nature, designedly as it were, every now and then throwing seas in the way to oppose its career; here the Sea of Phœnicia, there the Sea of Pontus, in this direction the Caspian and Hyrcanian[3891], and then, opposite to them, the Lake Mæotis. Although somewhat curtailed by these obstacles, it still winds along between them, and makes its way even amidst these barriers; and victorious after all, it then escapes with its sinuous course to the kindred chain of the Riphæan mountains. Numerous are the names which it bears, as it is continuously designated by new ones throughout the whole of its course. In the first part of its career it has the name of Imaüs[3892], after which it is known successively by the names of Emodus, Paropanisus, Circius, Cambades, Paryadres, Choatras, Oreges, Oroandes, Niphates, Taurus, and, where it even out-tops itself, Caucasus. Where it throws forth its arms as though every now and then it would attempt to invade the sea, it bears the names of Sarpedon, Coracesius, Cragus, and then again Taurus. Where also it opens and makes a passage to admit mankind, it still claims the credit of an unbroken continuity by giving the name of “Gates” to these passes, which in one place are called the “Gates of Armenia[3893],” in another the “Gates of the Caspian,” and in another the “Gates of Cilicia.” In addition to this, when it has been cut short in its onward career, it retires to a distance from the seas, and covers itself on the one side and the other with the names of numerous nations, being called, on the right-hand side the Hyrcanian and the Caspian, and on the left the Paryadrian[3894], the Moschian, the Amazonian, the Coraxican, and the Scythian chain. Among the Greeks it bears the one general name of Ceraunian[3895].

CHAP. 28.—LYCIA.

In Lycia, after leaving its promontory[3896], we come to the town of Simena, Mount Chimæra[3897], which sends forth flames by night, and the city of Hephæstium[3898], the heights above which are also frequently on fire. Here too formerly stood the city of Olympus[3899]; now we find the mountain places known as Gagæ[3900], Corydalla[3901], and Rhodiopolis[3902]. Near the sea is Limyra[3903] with a river of like name, into which the Arycandus flows, Mount Masycites[3904], the state of Andriaca[3905], Myra[3906], the towns of Aperræ[3907] and Antiphellos[3908], formerly called Habessus, and in a corner Phellos[3909], after which comes Pyrra, and then the city of Xanthus[3910], fifteen miles from the sea, as also a river known by the same name. We then come to Patara[3911], formerly Pataros, and Sidyma, situate on a mountain. Next comes the Promontory of Cragus[3912], and beyond it a gulf[3913], equal to the one that comes before it; upon it are Pinara[3914], and Telmessus[3915], the frontier town of Lycia.

Lycia formerly contained seventy towns, now it has but thirty-six. Of these, the most celebrated, besides those already mentioned, are Canas[3916], Candyba, so celebrated for the Œnian Grove, Podalia, Choma, past which the river Ædesa flows, Cyaneæ[3917], Ascandalis, Amelas, Noscopium, Tlos[3918], and Telandrus[3919]. It includes also in the interior the district of Cabalia, the three cities of which are Œnianda, Balbura[3920], and Bubon[3921].

On passing Telmessus we come to the Asiatic or Carpathian Sea, and the district which is properly called Asia. Agrippa has divided this region into two parts; one of which he has bounded on the east by Phrygia and Lycaonia, on the west by the Ægean Sea, on the south by the Egyptian Sea, and on the north by Paphlagonia, making its length to be 473 miles and its breadth 320. The other part he has bounded by the Lesser Armenia on the east, Phrygia, Lycaonia, and Pamphylia on the west, the province of Pontus on the north, and the Sea of Pamphylia on the south, making it 575 miles in length and 325 in breadth.

CHAP. 29.—CARIA.

Upon the adjoining coast is Caria[3922], then Ionia, and beyond it Æolis. Caria surrounds Doris, which lies in the middle, and runs down on both sides of it to the sea. In it[3923] is the Promontory of Pedalium[3924], the river Glaucus[3925], into which the Telmedium[3926] discharges itself, the towns of Dædala[3927], Crya[3928], peopled by fugitives, the river Axon[3929], and the town of Calynda[3930].

(28.) The river Indus[3931], which rises in the mountains of the Cibyratæ[3932], receives sixty-five rivers which are constantly flowing, besides upwards of 100 mountain torrents. Here is the free town of Caunos[3933], then the town of Pyrnos[3934], the port of Cressa[3935], from which the island of Rhodes is distant twenty miles; the place where Loryma formerly stood, the towns of Tisanusa[3936], Paridion[3937], and Larymna[3938], the Gulf of Thymnias[3939], the Promontory of Aphrodisias[3940], the town of Hyda, the Gulf of Schœnus, and the district of Bubasus[3941]. There was formerly the town of Acanthus here, another name of which was Dulopolis. We then come to Cnidos[3942], a free town, situate on a promontory, Triopia[3943], and after that the towns of Pegusa and Stadia.

At this last town Doris begins; but, first, it may be as well to describe the districts that lie to the back of Caria and the several jurisdictions in the interior. The first of these[3944] is called Cibyratica, Cibyra being a town of Phrygia. Twenty-five states resort to it for legal purposes, together with the most famous city of Laodicea[3945].

(29.) This place at first bore the name of Diospolis, and after that of Rhoas, and is situate on the river Lycus, the Asopus and the Caprus[3946] washing its sides. The other people belonging to the same jurisdiction, whom it may be not amiss to mention, are the Hydrelitæ[3947], the Themisones[3948], and the Hierapolitæ[3949]. The second jurisdiction receives its title from Synnas[3950]; to it resort the Lycaones[3951], the Appiani[3952], the Eucarpeni[3953], the Dorylæi[3954], the Midæi, the Julienses[3955], and fifteen other peoples of no note. The third jurisdiction has its seat at Apamea[3956], formerly called Celænæ[3957], and after that Cibotos. This place is situate at the foot of Mount Signia, the Marsyas, the Obrima, and the Orga, rivers which fall into the Mæander, flowing past it. Here the Marsyas, rising from the earth, again makes its appearance, but soon after buries itself once more at Aulocrenæ[3958], the spot where Marsyas had the musical contest with Apollo as to superiority of skill in playing on the flute. Aulocrenæ is the name given to a valley which lies ten miles on the road towards Phrygia from Apamea. As belonging to this jurisdiction, it may be as well to mention the Metropolitæ[3959], the Dionysopolitæ[3960], the Euphorbeni[3961], the Acmonenses[3962], the Pelteni[3963], and the Silbiani[3964], besides nine other nations of no note.

Upon the Gulf of Doris[3965] we have Leucopolis, Hamaxitos, Eleus, and Euthene[3966]. We then come to Pitaium, Eutane[3967], and Halicarnassus[3968], towns of Caria. To the jurisdiction of this last place six towns were appended by Alexander the Great, Theangela[3969], Sibde, Medmasa, Euralium, Pedasus, and Telmissus[3970]. Halicarnassus lies between two gulfs, those of Ceramus[3971] and Iasus[3972]. We then come to Myndos[3973], and the former site of Palæomyndos; also Nariandos, Neapolis[3974], Caryanda[3975], the free town of Termera[3976], Bargyla[3977], and the town of Iasus[3978], from which the Iasian Gulf takes its name.

Caria is especially distinguished for the fame of its places in the interior; for here are Mylasa[3979], a free town, and that of Antiochia[3980], on the site of the former towns of Symmæthos and Cranaos: it is now surrounded by the rivers Mæander[3981] and Orsinus[3982]. In this district also was formerly Mæandropolis[3983]; we find also Eumenia[3984], situate on the river Cludros, the river Glaucus[3985], the town of Lysias and Orthosa[3986], the district of Berecynthus[3987], Nysa[3988], and Tralles[3989], also called Euanthia[3990], Seleucia, and Antiochia: it is washed by the river Eudon, while the Thebais runs through it. Some authors say that a nation of Pygmies formerly dwelt here. Besides the preceding towns, there are Thydonos, Pyrrha[3991], Eurome[3992], Heraclea[3993], Amyzon[3994], the free town of Alabanda[3995], which has given name to that jurisdiction, the free town of Stratonicea[3996], Hynidos, Ceramus[3997], Trœzene[3998], and Phorontis. At a greater distance[3999], but resorting to the same place of jurisdiction, are the Orthronienses, the Alindienses[4000] or Hippini, the Xystiani[4001], the Hydissenses, the Apolloniatæ[4002], the Trapezopolitæ[4003], and the Aphrodisienses[4004], a free people. Besides the above, there are the towns of Coscinus[4005], and Harpasa[4006], situate on the river Harpasus[4007], which also passed the town of Trallicon when it was in existence.

CHAP. 30.—LYDIA.

Lydia, bathed by the sinuous and ever-recurring windings of the river Mæander, lies extended above Ionia; it is joined by Phrygia on the east and Mysia on the north, while on the south it runs up to Caria: it formerly had the name of Mæonia[4008]. Its place of the greatest celebrity is Sardes[4009], which lies on the side of Mount Tmolus[4010], formerly called Timolus. From this mountain, which is covered with vineyards, flows the river Pactolus[4011], also called the Chrysorroas, and the sources of the Tarnus: this famous city, which is situate upon the Gygæan Lake[4012], used to be called Hyde[4013] by the people of Mæonia. This jurisdiction is now called that of Sardes, and besides the people of the places already mentioned, the following now resort to it—the Macedonian Cadueni[4014], the Loreni, the Philadelpheni[4015], the Mæonii, situate on the river Cogamus at the foot of Mount Tmolus, the Tripolitani, who are also called the Antoniopolitæ, situate on the banks of the Mæander, the Apollonihieritæ[4016], the Mesotimolitæ[4017], and some others of no note.

CHAP. 31.—IONIA.

Ionia begins at the Gulf of Iasos, and has a long winding coast with numerous bays. First comes the Gulf of Basilicum[4018], then the Promontory[4019] and town of Posideum, and the oracle once called the oracle of the Branchidæ[4020], but now of Didymæan Apollo, a distance of twenty stadia from the sea-shore. One hundred and eighty stadia thence is Miletus[4021], the capital of Ionia, which formerly had the names of Lelegëis, Pityusa, and Anactoria, the mother of more than ninety cities, founded upon all seas; nor must she be deprived of the honour of having Cadmus[4022] for her citizen, who was the first to write in prose. The river Mæander, rising from a lake in Mount Aulocrene, waters many cities and receives numerous tributary streams. It is so serpentine in its course, that it is often thought to turn back to the very spot from which it came. It first runs through the district of Apamea, then that of Eumenia, and then the plains of Bargyla; after which, with a placid stream it passes through Caria, watering all that territory with a slime of a most fertilizing quality, and then at a distance of ten stadia from Miletus with a gentle current enters the sea. We then come to Mount Latmus[4023], the towns of Heraclea[4024], also called by the same name as the mountain, Carice, Myus[4025], said to have been first built by Ionians who came from Athens, Naulochum[4026], and Priene[4027]. Upon that part of the coast which bears the name of Trogilia[4028] is the river Gessus. This district is held sacred by all the Ionians, and thence receives the name of Panionia. Near to it was formerly the town of Phygela, built by fugitives, as its name implies[4029], and that of Marathesium[4030]. Above these places is Magnesia[4031], distinguished by the surname of the “Mæandrian,” and sprung from Magnesia in Thessaly: it is distant from Ephesus fifteen miles, and three more from Tralles. It formerly had the names of Thessaloche and Androlitia, and, lying on the sea-shore, it has withdrawn from the sea the islands known as the Derasidæ[4032] and joined them to the mainland. In the interior also is Thyatira[4033], washed by the Lycus; for some time it was also called Pelopia and Euhippia[4034].

Upon the coast again is Mantium, and Ephesus[4035], which was founded by the Amazons[4036], and formerly called by so many names: Alopes at the time of the Trojan war, after that Ortygia and Morges, and then Smyrna, with the surname of Trachia, as also Samornion and Ptelea. This city is built on Mount Pion, and is washed by the Caÿster[4037], a river which rises in the Cilbian range and brings down the waters of many streams[4038], as also of Lake Pegasæus[4039], which receives those discharged by the river Phyrites[4040]. From these streams there accumulates a large quantity of slime, which vastly increases the soil, and has added to the mainland the island of Syrie[4041], which now lies in the midst of its plains. In this city is the fountain of Calippia[4042] and the temple of Diana, which last is surrounded by two streams, each known by the name of Selenus, and flowing from opposite directions.

After leaving Ephesus there is another Mantium, belonging to the Colophonians, and in the interior Colophon[4043] itself, past which the river Halesus[4044] flows. After this we come to the temple[4045] of the Clarian Apollo, and Lebedos[4046]: the city of Notium[4047] once stood here. Next comes the Promontory of Coryceium[4048], and then Mount Mimas, which projects 150 miles into the sea, and as it approaches the mainland sinks down into extensive plains. It was at this place that Alexander the Great gave orders for the plain to be cut through, a distance of seven miles and a half, for the purpose of joining the two gulfs and making an island of Erythræ[4049] and Mimas. Near Erythræ formerly stood the towns of Pteleon, Helos, and Dorion; we now find the river Aleon, Corynæum, a Promontory of Mount Mimas, Clazomenæ[4050], Parthenie[4051], and Hippi[4052], known by the name of Chytrophoria, when it formed a group of islands; these were united to the continent by the same Alexander, by means of a causeway[4053] two stadia in length. In the interior, the cities of Daphnus, Hermesia, and Sipylum[4054], formerly called Tantalis, and the capital of Mæonia, where Lake Sale now stands, are now no longer in existence: Archæopolis too, which succeeded Sipylum, has perished, and in their turns Colpe and Libade, which succeeded it.

On returning thence[4055] towards the coast, at a distance of twelve miles we find Smyrna[4056], originally founded by an Amazon [of that name], and rebuilt by Alexander; it is refreshed by the river Meles, which rises not far off. Through this district run what may almost be called the most famous mountains of Asia, Mastusia in the rear of Smyrna, and Termetis[4057], joining the foot of Olympus. Termetis is joined by Draco, Draco running into Tmolus, Tmolus into Cadmus[4058], and Cadmus into Taurus. Leaving Smyrna, the river Hermus forms a tract of plains, and gives them its own name. It rises near Dorylæum[4059], a city of Phrygia, and in its course receives several rivers, among them the one called the Phryx, which divides Caria from the nation to which it gives name; also the Hyllus[4060] and the Cryos, themselves swollen by the rivers of Phrygia, Mysia, and Lydia. At the mouth of the Hermus formerly stood the town of Temnos[4061]: we now see at the extremity of the gulf[4062] the rocks called Myrmeces[4063], the town of Leuce[4064] on a promontory which was once an island, and Phocæa[4065], the frontier town of Ionia.

A great part also of Æolia, of which we shall have presently to speak, has recourse to the jurisdiction of Smyrna; as well as the Macedones, surnamed Hyrcani[4066], and the Magnetes[4067] from Sipylus. But to Ephesus, that other great luminary of Asia, resort the more distant peoples known as the Cæsarienses[4068], the Metropolitæ[4069], the Cilbiani[4070], both the Lower and Upper, the Mysomacedones[4071], the Mastaurenses[4072], the Briulitæ[4073], the Hypæpeni[4074], and the Dioshïeritæ[4075].

CHAP. 32. (30.)—ÆOLIS.

Æolis[4076] comes next, formerly known as Mysia, and Troas which is adjacent to the Hellespont. Here, after passing Phocæa, we come to the Ascanian Port, then the spot where Larissa[4077] stood, and then Cyme[4078], Myrina, also called Sebastopolis[4079], and in the interior, Ægæ[4080], Attalia[4081], Posidea, Neontichos[4082], and Temnos[4083]. Upon the shore we come to the river Titanus, and the city which from it derives its name. Grynia[4084] also stood here on an island reclaimed from the sea and joined to the land: now only its harbours are left[4085]. We then come to the town of Elæa[4086], the river Caïcus[4087], which flows from Mysia, the town of Pitane[4088], and the river Canaïus. The following towns no longer exist—Canæ[4089], Lysimachia[4090], Atarnea[4091], Carene[4092], Cisthene[4093], Cilla[4094], Cocylium[4095], Theba[4096], Astyre[4097], Chrysa[4098], Palæscepsis[4099], Gergitha[4100], and Neandros[4101]. We then come to the city of Perperene[4102], which still survives, the district of Heracleotes, the town of Coryphas[4103], the rivers Grylios and Ollius, the region of Aphrodisias[4104], which formerly had the name of Politice Orgas, the district of Scepsis[4105], and the river Evenus[4106], on whose banks the towns of Lyrnesos[4107] and Miletos have fallen to decay. In this district also is Mount Ida[4108], and on the coast Adramytteos[4109], formerly called Pedasus, which gives its name to the gulf and the jurisdiction so called. The other rivers are the Astron, Cormalos, Crianos, Alabastros, and Hieros, flowing from Mount Ida: in the interior is Mount Gargara[4110], with a town of the same name. Again, on the coast we meet with Antandros[4111], formerly called Edonis, and after that Cimmeris and Assos, also called Apollonia. The town of Palamedium also formerly stood here. The Promontory of Lecton[4112] separates Æolis from Troas. In Æolis there was formerly the city of Polymedia, as also Chrysa, and a second Larissa. The temple of Smintheus[4113] is still standing; Colone[4114] in the interior has perished. To Adramyttium resort upon matters of legal business the Apolloniatæ[4115], whose town is on the river Rhyndacus[4116], the Erizii[4117], the Miletopolitæ[4118], the Pœmaneni[4119], the Macedonian Asculacæ, the Polichnæi[4120], the Pionitæ[4121], the Cilician Mandacadeni, and, in Mysia, the Abrettini[4122], the people known as the Hellespontii[4123], and others of less note.

CHAP. 33.—TROAS AND THE ADJOINING NATIONS.

The first place in Troas is Hamaxitus[4124], then Cebrenia[4125], and then Troas[4126] itself, formerly called Antigonia, and now Alexandria, a Roman colony. We then come to the town of Nee[4127], the Scamander[4128], a navigable river, and the spot where in former times the town of Sigeum[4129] stood, upon a promontory. We next come to the Port of the Achæans[4130], into which the Xanthus[4131] flows after its union with the Simois[4132], and forms the Palæscamander[4133], which was formerly a lake. The other rivers, rendered famous by Homer, namely, the Rhesus, the Heptaporus, the Caresus, and the Rhodius, have left no vestiges of their existence. The Granicus[4134], taking a different route, flows into the Propontis[4135]. The small city of Scamandria, however, still exists, and, at a distance of a mile and a half from its harbour, Ilium[4136], a place exempt from tribute[4137], the fountain-head of universal fame. Beyond the gulf are the shores of Rhœteum[4138], peopled by the towns of Rhœteum[4139], Dardanium[4140], and Arisbe[4141]. There was also in former times a town of Achilleon[4142], founded near the tomb of Achilles by the people of Mitylene, and afterwards rebuilt by the Athenians, close to the spot where his fleet had been stationed near Sigeum. There was also the town of Æantion[4143], founded by the Rhodians upon the opposite point, near the tomb of Ajax, at a distance of thirty stadia from Sigeum, near the spot where his fleet was stationed. Above Æolis and part of Troas, in the interior, is the place called Teuthrania[4144], inhabited in ancient times by the Mysians. Here rises the river Caïcus already mentioned. Teuthrania was a powerful nation in itself, even when the whole of Æolis was held by the Mysians. In it are the Pioniæ[4145], Andera[4146], Cale, Stabulum, Conisium, Teium, Balcea[4147], Tiare, Teuthranie, Sarnaca, Haliserne, Lycide, Parthenium, Thymbre, Oxyopum, Lygdamum, Apollonia, and Pergamum[4148], by far the most famous city in Asia, and through which the river Selinus runs; the Cetius, which rises in Mount Pindasus, flowing before it. Not far from it is Elæa, which we have mentioned[4149] as situate on the sea-shore. The jurisdiction of this district is called that of Pergamus; to it resort the Thyatireni[4150], the Mosyni, the Mygdones[4151], the Bregmeni, the Hierocometæ[4152], the Perpereni, the Tiareni, the Hierolophienses, the Hermocapelitæ, the Attalenses[4153], the Panteenses, the Apollonidienses, and some other states unknown to fame. The little town of Dardanum[4154] is distant from Rhœteum seventy stadia. Eighteen miles thence is the Promontory of Trapeza[4155], from which spot the Hellespont first commences its course.

Eratosthenes tells us that in Asia there have perished the nations of the Solymi[4156], the Leleges[4157], the Bebryces[4158], the Colycantii, and the Tripsedri. Isidorus adds to these the Arimi[4159], as also the Capretæ, settled on the spot where Apamea[4160] stands, which was founded by King Seleucus, between Cilicia, Cappadocia, Cataonia, and Armenia, and was at first called Damea[4161], from the fact that it had conquered nations most remarkable for their fierceness.

CHAP. 34. (31.)—THE ISLANDS WHICH LIE IN FRONT OF ASIA.

Of the islands which lie before Asia the first is the one situate in the Canopic Mouth of the Nile, and which received its name, it is said, from Canopus, the pilot of Menelaüs. A second, called Pharos, is joined by a bridge to Alexandria, and was made a colony by the Dictator Cæsar. In former times it was one day’s sail[4162] from the mainland of Egypt; at the present day it directs ships in their course by means of the fires which are lighted at night on the tower[4163] there; for in consequence of the insidious nature of the shoals, there are only three channels by which Alexandria can be approached, those of Steganus[4164], Posideum[4165] and Taurus.

In the Phœnician Sea, before Joppe there is the island of Paria[4166], the whole of it forming a town. Here, they say, Andromeda was exposed to the monster: the island also of Arados, already mentioned[4167], between which and the continent, as we learn from Mucianus, at a depth of fifty cubits in the sea, fresh water is brought up from a spring at the very bottom by means of leather pipes[4168].

CHAP. 35.—CYPRUS.

The Pamphylian Sea contains some islands of little note. The Cilician, besides four others of very considerable size, has Cyprus[4169], which lies opposite to the shores of Cilicia and Syria, running east and west; in former times it was the seat of nine kingdoms. Timosthenes states that the circumference of this island is 427 miles, Isidorus[4170] 375; its length, between the two Promontories of Dinæ[4171] and Acamas[4172] lying on the west, is, according to Artemidorus, 160-1/2 miles, according to Timosthenes, 200. Philonides says that it was formerly called Acamantis, Xenagoras that it had the names of Cerastis[4173], Aspelia, Amathusia, and Macaria[4174], while Astynomus gives it the names of Cryptos[4175] and Colinia. Its towns are fifteen in number, Neapaphos[4176], Palæpaphos[4177], Curias[4178], Citium[4179], Corineum, Salamis[4180], Amathus[4181], Lapethos[4182], Solœ, Tamasos[4183], Epidarum, Chytri[4184], Arsinoë[4185], Carpasium[4186], and Golgi[4187]. The towns of Cinyria, Marium, and Idalium[4188] are no longer in existence. It is distant from Anemurium[4189] in Cilicia fifty miles; the sea which runs between the two shores being called the Channel of Cilicia[4190]. In the same locality[4191] is the island of Eleusa[4192], and the four islands known as the Clides[4193], lying before the promontory which faces Syria; and again at the end of the other cape[4194] is Stiria: over against Neapaphos is Hierocepia[4195], and opposite to Salamis are the Salaminiæ.

In the Lycian Sea are the islands of Illyris, Telendos, and Attelebussa[4196], the three barren isles called Cypriæ, and Dionysia, formerly called Caretha. Opposite to the Promontory of Taurus are the Chelidoniæ[4197], as many in number, and extremely dangerous to mariners. Further on we find Leucolla with its town, the Pactyæ[4198], Lasia, Nymphäis, Macris, and Megista, the city on which last no longer exists. After these there are many that are not worthy of notice. Opposite, however, to Cape Chimæra is Dolichiste[4199], Chœrogylion, Crambussa[4200], Rhoge[4201], Enagora, eight miles in circumference, the two islands of Dædala[4202], the three of Crya[4203], Strongyle, and over against Sidyma[4204] the isle of Antiochus. Towards the mouth of the river Glaucus[4205], there are Lagussa[4206], Macris, Didymæ, Helbo, Scope, Aspis, Telandria, the town of which no longer exists, and, in the vicinity of Caunus[4207], Rhodussa.

CHAP. 36.—RHODES.

But the fairest of them all is the free island of Rhodes, 125, or, if we would rather believe Isidorus, 103 miles in circumference. It contains the inhabited cities of Lindos, Camirus[4208], and Ialysus[4209], now called Rhodos. It is distant from Alexandria in Egypt, according to Isidorus, 583 miles; but, according to Eratosthenes, 469. Mucianus says, that its distance from Cyprus is 166. This island was formerly called Ophiussa[4210], Asteria[4211], Æthria[4212], Trinacrie[4213], Corymbia[4214], Pœeëssa[4215], Atabyria[4216], from the name of one of its kings; and, in later times, Macaria[4217] and Oloessa[4218]. The islands of the Rhodians are Carpathus[4219], which has given its name to the surrounding sea; Casos[4220], formerly known as Achne[4221]; Nisyros[4222], twelve miles distant from Cnidos, and formerly called Porphyris[4223]; and, in the same vicinity, midway between Rhodes and Cnidos, Syme[4224]. This island is thirty-seven miles and a half in circumference, and welcomes us with eight fine harbours. Besides these islands, there are, in the vicinity of Rhodes, those of Cyclopis, Teganon, Cordylussa[4225], the four islands called Diabetæ[4226], Hymos, Chalce[4227], with its city of that name, Seutlussa[4228], Narthecussa[4229], Dimastos, Progne; and, off Cnidos, Cisserussa, Therionarce, and Calydne[4230], with the three towns of Notium, Nisyros, and Mendeterus. In Arconnesus[4231] there is the town of Ceramus. Off the coast of Caria, there are the islands known as the Argiæ, twenty in number; also Hyetussa[4232], Lepsia, and Leros.

The most noted island, however, in this gulf is that of Cos[4233], fifteen miles distant from Halicarnassus, and 100 in circumference, according to the opinion of many writers. It was formerly called Merope; according to Staphylus, Cea; Meropis, as Dionysius tells us; and, after that, Nymphæa. In this island there is Mount Prion. Nisyros[4234], formerly called Porphyris, is supposed to have been severed from the island of Cos. We next come to the island of Caryanda[4235], with a city of that name, and that of Pidosus[4236], not far from Halicarnassus. In the Gulf of Ceramicus we also find Priaponnesos[4237], Hipponnesos, Psyra, Mya, Lampsa, Æmyndus, Passala, Crusa, Pinnicussa, Sepiussa[4238], and Melano. At a short distance from the mainland is an island which bears the name of Cinædopolis, from the circumstance that King Alexander left behind there certain persons of a most disgraceful character.

CHAP. 37.—SAMOS.

The coast of Ionia has the islands of Trageæ, Corseæ[4239], and Icaros, which has been previously[4240] mentioned; Lade[4241], formerly called Late; and, among others of no note, the two Camelidæ[4242], in the vicinity of Miletus; and the three Trogiliæ[4243], near Mycale, consisting of Philion, Argennon, and Sandalion. There is Samos also, a free[4244] island, eighty-seven miles in circumference, or, according to Isidorus, 100. Aristotle tells us, that it was at first called Parthenia[4245], after that Dryussa[4246], and then Anthemussa[4247]. To these names Aristocritus has added Melamphyllus[4248] and Cyparissia[4249]: other writers, again, call it Parthenoarussa[4250] and Stephane[4251]. The rivers of this island are the Imbrasus, the Chesius, and the Ibettes. There are also the fountains of Gigartho and Leucothea; and Mount Cercetius. In the vicinity of Samos are the islands of Rhypara, Nymphæa, and Achillea.

CHAP. 38.—CHIOS.

At a distance of ninety-four miles from Samos is the free island of Chios[4252], its equal in fame, with a town of the same name. Ephorus says, that the ancient name of this island was Æthalia; Metrodorus and Cleobulus tell us, that it had the name of Chia from the nymph Chione; others again say, that it was so called from the word signifying snow[4253]; it was also called Macris and Pityusa[4254]. It has a mountain called Pelennæus; and the Chian marble is well known. It is 125[4255] miles in circumference, according to the ancient writers; Isidorus however makes it nine more. It is situate between Samos and Lesbos, and, for the most part, lies opposite to Erythræ[4256].

The adjacent islands, are Thallusa[4257], by some writers called Daphnusa[4258], Œnussa, Elaphitis, Euryanassa, and Arginusa, with a town of that name. All these islands are in the vicinity of Ephesus, as also those called the Islands of Pisistratus, Anthinæ, Myonnesos, Diarreusa,—in both of these last there were cities, now no longer in existence,—Poroselene[4259], with a city of that name, Cerciæ, Halone[4260], Commone, Illetia, Lepria and Rhesperia, Procusæ, Bolbulæ, Phanæ, Priapos, Syce, Melane, Ænare, Sidusa, Pele, Drymusa[4261], Anhydros, Scopelos[4262], Sycussa, Marathussa, Psile, Perirreusa, and many others of no note. In the main sea lies the celebrated island of Teos, with a city[4263] of that name, seventy-one miles and a half distant from Chios, and the same from the Erythræ.

In the vicinity of Smyrna are the Peristerides[4264], Carteria, Alopece, Elæussa, Bachina, Pystira, Crommyonnesos, and Megale[4265]. Facing Troas there are the Ascaniæ, and the three islands called Plateæ. We find also the Lamiæ, the two islands called Plitaniæ, Plate, Scopelos, Getone, Arthedon, Cœlæ, Lagussæ, and Didymæ.

CHAP. 39.—LESBOS.

But Lesbos[4266], distant from Chios sixty-five miles, is the most celebrated of them all. It was formerly called Himerte, Lasia, Pelasgia, Ægira, Æthiope, and Macaria, and is famous for its nine cities. Of these, however, that of Pyrrha has been swallowed up by the sea, Arisbe[4267] has perished by an earthquake, and Methymna is now united to Antissa[4268]; these lie in the vicinity of nine cities of Asia, along a coast of thirty-seven miles. The towns of Agamede and Hiera have also perished. Eresos[4269], Pyrrha, and the free city of Mitylene[4270], still survive, the last of which was a powerful city for a space of 1500 years. The circumference of the whole island is, according to Isidorus, 168 miles[4271], but the older writers say 195. Its mountains are, Lepethymnus, Ordymnus, Macistus, Creon, and Olympus. It is distant seven miles and a half from the nearest point of the mainland. The islands in its vicinity are, Sandaleon, and the five called Leucæ[4272]; Cydonea[4273], which is one of them, contains a warm spring. The Arginussæ[4274] are four miles distant from Æge[4275]; after them come Phellusa[4276] and Pedna. Beyond the Hellespont, and opposite the shore of Sigeum, lies Tenedos[4277], also known by the names of Leucophrys[4278], Phœnice, and Lyrnesos. It is distant from Lesbos fifty-six miles, and twelve and a half from Sigeum.

CHAP. 40. (32.)—THE HELLESPONT AND MYSIA.

The tide of the Hellespont now begins to run with greater violence, and the sea beats against the shore, undermining with its eddies the barriers that stand in its way, until it has succeeded in separating Asia from Europe. At this spot is the promontory which we have already mentioned as Trapeza[4279]; ten miles distant from which is the city of Abydos[4280], where the straits are only seven stadia wide; then the town of Percote[4281]; Lampsacus[4282], at first called Pityusa; the colony of Parium[4283], which Homer calls by the name of Adrastia; the town of Priapos[4284]; the river Æsepus[4285]; Zelia[4286]; and then the Propontis[4287], that being the name given to the tract of sea where it enlarges. We then come to the river Granicus[4288], and the harbour of Artace[4289], where a town formerly stood. Beyond this is an island which Alexander joined to the continent, and upon which is Cyzicus[4290], a city of the Milesians, which was formerly called Arctonnesos[4291], Dolionis, and Dindymis; above it are the heights of Mount Dindymus[4292]. We then come to the towns of Placia, Ariace[4293], and Scylace; in the rear of which places is Mount Olympus, known as the “Mysian Olympus,” and the city of Olympena. There are also the rivers Horisius[4294] and Rhyndacus[4295], formerly called the Lycus; this last river rises in Lake Artynias, near Miletopolis, and receives the Macestos, and many other streams, dividing in its course Asia[4296] from Bithynia[4297].

This country was at first called by the name of Cronia, after that, Thessalis, and then Malianda and Strymonis. The people of it are by Homer called Halizones[4298], from the fact that it was a nation begirt by the sea. There was formerly a vast city here, Attussa by name; at present there are twelve cities in existence; among which is Gordiucome[4299], otherwise Juliopolis; and, on the coast, Dascylos[4300]. We then come to the river Gelbes[4301]; and, in the interior, the town of Helgas, or Germanicopolis, which has also the other name of Booscœte[4302]; Apamea[4303], now more generally known as Myrlea of the Colophonians: the river Etheleus also, the ancient boundary of Troas, and the commencement of Mysia. Next to this comes the gulf[4304] into which the river Ascanius flows, the town of Bryllion[4305], and the rivers Hylas and Cios, with a town of the same name as the last-mentioned river; it was founded by the Milesians at a place which was called Ascania of Phrygia, as an entrepôt for the trade of the Phrygians who dwelt in the vicinity. We may therefore look upon this as a not ineligible opportunity for making further mention of Phrygia.

CHAP. 41.—PHRYGIA.

Phrygia lies above Troas, and the peoples already mentioned as extending from the Promontory of Lectum[4306] to the river Etheleus. On its northern side it borders upon Galatia, on the south it joins Lycaonia, Pisidia, and Mygdonia, and, on the east, it touches upon Cappadocia. The more celebrated towns there, besides those already mentioned, are Ancyra[4307], Andria, Celænæ[4308], Colossæ[4309], Carina[4310], Cotyaion[4311], Ceraine, Conium, and Midaium. There are authors who say that the Mœsi, the Brygi, and the Thyni crossed over from Europe, and that from them are descended the peoples called the Mysi, Phryges, and Bithyni.

CHAP. 42.—GALATIA AND THE ADJOINING NATIONS.

On this occasion also it seems that we ought to speak of Galatia[4312], which lies above Phrygia, and includes the greater part of the territory taken from that province, as also its former capital, Gordium[4313]. The Gauls[4314] who have settled in these parts, are called the Tolistobogi, the Voturi, and the Ambitouti; those who dwell in Mæonia and Paphlagonia are called the Trocmi. Cappadocia stretches along to the north-east of Galatia, its most fertile parts being possessed by the Tectosages and the Teutobodiaci. These are the nations by which those parts are occupied; and they are divided into peoples and tetrarchies, 195 in number. Its towns are, among the Tectosages, Ancyra[4315]; among the Trocmi, Tavium[4316]; and, among the Tolistobogi, Pessinus[4317]. Besides the above, the best known among the peoples of this region are the Actalenses, the Arasenses, the Comenses[4318], the Didienses, the Hierorenses, the Lystreni[4319], the Neapolitani, the Œandenses, the Seleucenses[4320], the Sebasteni[4321], the Timoniacenses[4322], and the Thebaseni[4323]. Galatia also touches upon Carbalia in Pamphylia, and the Milyæ[4324], about Baris; also upon Cyllanticum and Oroandicum[4325], a district of Pisidia, and Obizene, a part of Lycaonia. Besides those already mentioned[4326], its rivers are the Sangarius[4327] and the Gallus[4328], from which last the priests[4329] of the Mother of the gods have taken their name.

CHAP. 43.—BITHYNIA.

And now as to the remaining places on this coast. On the road from Cios into the interior is Prusa[4330], in Bithynia, founded by Hannibal at the foot of Olympus, at a distance of twenty-five miles from Nicæa, Lake Ascanius[4331] lying between them. We then come to Nicæa[4332], formerly called Olbia, and situate at the bottom of the Ascanian Gulf; as also a second place called Prusa[4333], at the foot of Mount Hypius. Pythopolis, Parthenopolis, and Coryphanta are no longer in existence. Along the coast we find the rivers Æsius, Bryazon, Plataneus, Areus, Æsyros, Geodos, also called Chrysorroas[4334], and the promontory[4335] upon which once stood the town of Megarice. The gulf that here runs inland received the name of Craspedites from the circumstance of that town lying, as it were, upon its skirt[4336]. Astacum[4337], also, formerly stood here, from which the same gulf has received the name of the ‘Astacenian’: the town of Libyssa[4338] formerly stood at the spot where we now see nothing but the tomb of Hannibal. At the bottom of the gulf lies Nicomedia[4339], a famous city of Bithynia; then comes the Promontory of Leucatas[4340], by which the Astacenian Gulf is bounded, and thirty-seven miles distant from Nicomedia; and then, the land again approaching the other side, the straits[4341] which extend as far as the Thracian Bosporus. Upon these are situate Chalcedon[4342], a free town, sixty-two miles from Nicomedia, formerly called Procerastis[4343], then Colpusa, and after that the “City of the Blind,” from the circumstance that its founders did not know where to build their city, Byzantium being only seven stadia distant, a site which is preferable in every respect.

In the interior of Bithynia are the colony of Apamea[4344], the Agrippenses, the Juliopolitæ, and Bithynion[4345]; the rivers Syrium, Laphias, Pharnacias, Alces, Serinis, Lilæus, Scopius, and Hieras[4346], which separates Bithynia from Galatia. Beyond Chalcedon formerly stood Chrysopolis[4347], and then Nicopolis, of which the gulf, upon which stands the Port of Amycus[4348], still retains the name; then the Promontory of Naulochum, and Estiæ[4349], a temple of Neptune[4350]. We then come to the Bosporus, which again separates Asia from Europe, the distance across being half a mile; it is distant twelve miles and a half from Chalcedon. The first entrance of this strait is eight miles and three-quarters wide, at the place where the town of Spiropolis[4351] formerly stood. The Thyni occupy the whole of the coast, the Bithyni the interior. This is the termination of Asia, and of the 282 peoples, that are to be found between the Gulf of Lycia[4352] and this spot. We have already[4353] mentioned the length of the Hellespont and Propontis to the Thracian Bosporus as being 239 miles; from Chalcedon to Sigeum, Isidorus makes the distance 322-1/2.

CHAP. 44.—THE ISLANDS OF THE PROPONTIS.

The islands of the Propontis are, before Cyzicus, Elaphonnesus[4354], from whence comes the Cyzican marble; it is also known by the names of Neuris and Proconnesus. Next come Ophiussa[4355], Acanthus, Phœbe, Scopelos, Porphyrione, Halone[4356], with a city of that name, Delphacia, Polydora, and Artaceon, with its city. There is also, opposite to Nicomedia, Demonnesos[4357]; and, beyond Heraclea, and opposite to Bithynia, the island of Thynias, by the barbarians called Bithynia; the island of Antiochia: and, at the mouth of the Rhyndacus, Besbicos[4358], eighteen miles in circumference; the islands also of Elæa, the two called Rhodussæ, and those of Erebinthus[4359], Megale, Chalcitis[4360], and Pityodes[4361].

SUMMARY.—Towns and nations spoken of ****. Noted rivers ****. Famous mountains ****. Islands, 118 in number. People or towns no longer in existence ****. Remarkable events, narratives, and observations ****.

ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Agrippa[4362], Suetonius Paulinus[4363], M. Varro[4364], Varro Atacinus[4365], Cornelius Nepos[4366], Hyginus[4367], L. Vetus[4368], Mela[4369], Domitius Corbulo[4370], Licinius Mucianus[4371], Claudius Cæsar[4372], Arruntius[4373], Livius the Son[4374], Sebosus[4375], the Register of the Triumphs[4376].

* * * * *

FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—King Juba[4377], Hecatæus[4378], Hellanicus[4379], Damastes[4380], Dicæarchus[4381], Bæton[4382], Timosthenes[4383], Philonides[4384], Zenagoras[4385], Astynomus[4386], Staphylus[4387], Aristoteles[4388], Aristocritus[4389], Dionysius[4390], Ephorus[4391], Eratosthenes[4392], Hipparchus[4393], Panætius[4394], Serapion[4395] of Antioch, Callimachus[4396], Agathocles[4397], Polybius[4398], Timæus[4399] the mathematician, Herodotus[4400], Myrsilus[4401], Alexander Polyhistor[4402], Metrodorus[4403], Posidonius[4404], who wrote the Periplus and the Periegesis, Sotades[4405], Periander[4406], Aristarchus[4407] of Sicyon, Eudoxus[4408], Antigenes[4409], Callicrates[4410], Xenophon[4411] of Lampsacus, Diodorus[4412] of Syracuse, Hanno[4413], Himilco[4414], Nymphodorus[4415], Calliphanes[4416], Artemidorus[4417], Megasthenes[4418], Isidorus[4419], Cleobulus[4420], and Aristocreon[4421].

END OF VOL. I.

APPENDIX OF CORRECTIONS.

Page 1, line 9, The allusion, otherwise obscure, is to the fact that some friends of Catullus had filched a set of table-napkins, which had been given to him by Veranius and Fabius, and substituted others in their place.

„ 13, „ 2, for Roman figures, read other figures.

„ 20, „ 7, for the God of nature; he also tends, down to and most excellent, read the God of nature. He supplies light to the universe, and dispels all darkness; He both conceals and reveals the other stars. It is He that regulates the seasons, and, in the course of nature, governs the year as it ever springs anew into birth; it is He that dispels the gloom of the heavens, and sheds his light upon the clouds of the human mind. He, too, lends his brightness to the other stars. He is most brilliant and most excellent.

„ 21, „ 13, for elected, read erected.

„ 21, „ 13, for good fortune, read evil fortune.

„ 23, „ 18, for our scepticism concerning God is still increased, read our conjectures concerning God become more vague still.

„ 23, „ 31, for and the existence of God becomes doubtful, read whereby the very existence of a God is shewn to be uncertain.

„ 33, „ 4, for as she receives, read as receives.

„ 54, „ 15, for the seventh of the circumference, read the seventh of the third of the circumference.

„ 59, „ 36, for transeuntia, read transcurrentia.

„ 67, „ 26, for circumstances, read influences.

„ 78, „ 9, for higher winds, read higher waves.

„ 78, „ 17, for the male winds are therefore regulated by the odd numbers, read hence it is that the odd numbers are generally looked upon as males.

„ 79, „ 15, for of the cloud, read of the icy cloud.

„ 79, „ 21, for sprinkling it with vinegar, read throwing vinegar against it.

„ 79, „ 22, for this substance, read that liquid.

„ 80, „ 13, for but not until, read and not after.

„ 80, „ 14, for the former is diffused, down to impulse, read the latter is diffused in the blast, the former is condensed by the violent impulse.

„ 80, „ 17, for dash, read crash.

„ 81, „ 21, for thunder-storms, read thunder-bolts.

„ 81, „ 27, for their operation, read its operation.

„ 82, „ 8, for thunder-storms, read thunder-bolts.

„ 85, „ 2, for blown up, read blasted.

„ 88, „ 15, for the east, read the west.

„ 89, „ 11, for even a stone, read ever a stone.

„ 92, „ 9, for how many things do we compel her to produce spontaneously, read how many things do we compel her to produce! How many things does she pour forth spontaneously!

„ 92, „ 10, for odours and flowers, read odours and flavours.

„ 93, „ 16, for luxuries, read caprices.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The weight of testimony inclines to the latter. The mere titles of the works which have been written on the subject would fill a volume.

[2] At a wedding feast, as mentioned by him in B. ix. c. 58. She was then the wife of Caligula.

[3] Related in B. ix. c. 5.

[4] Here at Tusdrita, he saw L. Coisicius, who it was said had been changed from a woman into a man. See B. vii. c. 3. Phlegon Trallianus and Ausonius also refer to the story.

[5] See B. xvi. c. 2, and B. xxxi. c. 19.

[6] Plinii Ep. B. vi. Ep. 16.

[7] Twenty-fourth August.

[8] “Fortes fortuna juvat.”

[9] B. iii. Ep. 5.

[10] Nero Claudius Drusus, the son of Livia, afterwards the wife of Augustus. He was the father of the Emperor Claudius, and died in Germany of the effects of an accident.

[11] “Studiosus.” This work has perished.

[12] “De Dubia Sermone.” A few scattered fragments of it still survive.

[13] 23rd of August.

[14] For astrological presages.

[15] At midwinter, this hour would answer at Rome to our midnight.

[16] At midwinter, this would be between six and seven in the evening.

[17] “Electorum Commentarii.”

[18] B. viii. c. 34. His acrimony may however, in this instance, have outstripped his discretion. Though indebted to them for by far the largest amount of his information on almost every subject, he seems to have had a strong aversion to the Greeks, and repeatedly charges them with lying, viciousness, boasting, and vanity. See B. ii. c. 112; B. iii. c. 6; B. v. c. 1; B. xv. c. 5; B. xix. c. 26; B. xxviii. c. 29; B. xxxvii. c. 74.

[19] Of Vespasian and Titus for certain; and probably of Nero, who appointed him “procurator Cæsaris” in Spain.

[20] Even on that point he contradicts himself in the next Book. See B. viii. c. 19, and 64, in reference to the lion and the horse.

[21] See B. vii. c. 51.

[22] “Summa vitæ felicitas.” B. vii. c. 54.

[23] B. vii. c. 53.

[24] He loses no opportunity of inveighing against luxury and sensuality.

[25] The question as to a future existence he calls “Manium ambages,” “quiddities about the Manes.” B. vii. c. 56.

[26] See B. vii. c. 53.

[27] We have already seen that in his earlier years he was warned in a vision by Drusus to write the history of the wars in Germany; but there is a vast difference between paying attention to the suggestions of a dream, and believing in the immortality of the soul, or the existence of disembodied spirits.

[28] B. vii. c. 53.

[29] B. vii. c. 58, 59, 60.

[30] Mankind must surely have agreed before this in making the instruments employed in shaving.

[31] “Discours Premier sur l’Histoire Naturelle.”

[32] Biographie Universelle. Vol. 35. Art. Pline.

[33] This, however, is not the fault of Pliny, but the result of imperfect tradition. To have described every object minutely that he has named, and of which he has given the peculiar properties, would have swollen his book to a most enormous size, almost indeed beyond conception.

[34] Lemaire informs us, in his title-page, that the two first books of the Natural History are edited by M. Alexandre, in his edition.

[35] “Jucundissime;” it is not easy to find an epithet in our language which will correctly express the meaning of the original, affectionate and familiar, at the same time that it is sufficiently dignified and respectful.

[36] Lamb’s trans.; Carm. i. 4. of the original.

[37] “Conterraneus;” we have no word in English which expresses the idea intended by the original, and which is, at the same time, a military term. There is indeed some reason to doubt, whether the word now inserted in the text was the one employed by the author: see the remarks of M. Alexandre, in Lem. i. 3; also an observation in Cigalino’s dissertation on the native country of Pliny; Valpy, 8.

[38] “Permutatis prioribus sætabis;” Carm. xii. 14; xxv. 7; see the notes in Lamb’s trans. pp. 135 & 149.

[39] These names in the original are Varaniolus and Fabullus, which are supposed to have been changed from Veranius and Fabius, as terms of familiarity and endearment; see Poinsinet, i. 24, and Lemaire, i. 4.

[40] The narrative of Suetonius may serve to illustrate the observation of Pliny: “Triumphavit (Titus) cum patre, censuramque gessit una. Eidem collega et in tribunicia potestate, et in septem consulatibus fuit. Receptaque ad se prope omnium officiorum cura, cum patris nomine et epistolas ipse dictaret, et edicta conscriberet, orationesque in Senatu recitaret etiam quæstoris vice, præfecturam quoque prætorii suscepit, nunquam ad id tempus, nisi ab Equite Romano, administratum.” (viii. 5.)

[41] “Perfricui faciem.” This appears to have been a proverbial expression among the Romans; Cicero, Tusc. Quæs. iii. 41, employs “os perfricuisti,” and Martial, xi. 27. 7, “perfricuit frontem,” in the same sense.

[42] Suetonius speaks of Domitian’s taste for poetry, as a part of his habitual dissimulation, viii. 2; see also the notes of Poinsinet, i. 26, and of Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 351.

[43] “Non eras in hoc albo;” see the note of Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 8. A passage in Quintilian, xii. 4, may serve to illustrate this use of the term ‘album’; “... quorum alii se ad album ac rubricas transtulerunt....”

[44] It appears that the passage in which Cicero makes this quotation from Lucilius, is not in the part of his treatise De Republica which was lately discovered by Angelus Maius; Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 9. Cicero refers to this remark of Lucilius in two of his other works, although with a variation in the expression and in the individuals specified; De Orat. ii. 6, and De Fin. i. 3.

[45] “Qui primus condidit styli nasum.”

[46] “Sed hæc ego mihi nunc patrocinia ademi nuncupatione.”

[47] “Pecunias deponerent.” Ajasson, i. 11, remarks on these words, “Qui videri volebant ambitu alienissimi, pecuniam apud sanctum aliquem virum deponebant, qua scilicet multarentur, si unquam hujus criminis manifesti fierent.”

[48] This expression is not found in any of the works of Cicero which are now extant, nor, indeed, is it certain that it was anything more than a remark made in conversation.

[49] “Provocatio,” calling forth.

[50] Horace, Epist. ii. 1. 143; Ovid, Fast. iv. 746 and v. 121, and Tibullus, i. 1. 26 and ii. 5. 37, refer to the offerings of milk made by the country people to their rural deities.

[51] “... id est, artium et doctrinarum omnium circulus;” Alexandre in Lem. i. 14.

[52] These words are not found in any of the books of Livy now extant; we may conclude that they were introduced into the latter part of his work.

[53] “Quem nunc primum historiæ Plinianæ librum vocamus, hic non numeratur, quod sit operis index.” Hardouin in Lem. i. 16.

[54] Nothing is known of Domitius Piso, either as an author or an individual.

[55] The names of these authors will be found, arranged by Hardouin alphabetically, with a brief account of them and their works, in Lem. i. 157 et seq.; we have nearly the same list in Valpy, p. 4903.

[56] “Musinamur.” We learn from Hardouin, Lem. i. 17, that there is some doubt as to the word employed by our author, whether it was musinamur or muginamur; I should be disposed to adopt the former, as being, according to the remark of Turnebus, “verbum a Musis deductum.”

[57] “A fine Aufidii Bassi;” as Alexandre remarks, “Finis autem Aufidii Bassi intelligendus est non mors ejus, sed tempus ad quod suas ipse perduxerat historias. Quodnam illud ignoramus.” Lem. i. 18. For an account of Aufidius Bassus we are referred to the catalogue of Hardouin, but his name does not appear there. Quintilian (x. 1) informs us, that he wrote an account of the Germanic war.

[58] “Jam pridem peracta sancitur.”

[59] This sentiment is not found in that portion of the treatise which has been lately published by Angelus Maius. Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 19.

[60] The following is probably the passage in the Offices to which Pliny refers: “Panæcius igitur, qui sine controversia de officiis accuratissime disputavit, quemque nos, correctione quadam exhibita, potissimum secuti sumus....” (iii. 2.)

[61] “Cum præsertim sors fiat ex usura.” The commentators and translators have differed respecting the interpretation of this passage; I have given what appears to me the obvious meaning of the words.

[62] “Lac gallinaceum;” “Proverbium de re singulari et admodum rara,” according to Hardouin, who quotes a parallel passage from Petronius; Lemaire, i. 21.

[63] The titles in the original are given in Greek; I have inserted in the text the words which most nearly resemble them, and which have been employed by modern authors.

[64] “Lucubratio.”

[65] The pun in the original cannot be preserved in the translation; the English reader may conceive the name Bibaculus to correspond to our surname Jolly.

[66] “Sesculysses” and “Flextabula;” literally, Ulysses and a Half, and Bend-table.

[67] Βιβλιοθήκη.

[68] “Cymbalum mundi” and “publicæ famæ tympanum.”

[69] “Pendenti titulo;” as Hardouin explains it, “qui nondum absolutum opus significaret, verum adhuc pendere, velut imperfectum.” Lemaire, i. 26.

[70] “Homeromastigæ.”

[71] “Dialectici.” By this term our author probably meant to designate those critics who were disposed to dwell upon minute verbal distinctions; “dialecticarum captionum amantes,” according to Hardouin; Lem. i. 28.

[72] “Quod argutiarum amantissimi, et quod æmulatio inter illos acerbissima.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 28.

[73] Pliny the younger, in one of his letters (iii. 5), where he enumerates all his uncle’s publications, informs us, that he wrote “a piece of criticism in eight books, concerning ambiguity of expression.” Melmoth’s Pliny, i. 136.

[74] The ancients had very exaggerated notions respecting the period of the elephant’s pregnancy; our author, in a subsequent part of his work (viii. 10), says, “Decem annis gestare vulgus existimat; Aristoteles biennio.”

[75] His real name was Tyrtamus, but in consequence of the beauty of his style, he acquired the appellation by which he is generally known from the word θεῖος φράσις. Cicero on various occasions refers to him; Brutus, 121; Orator, 17, et alibi.

[76] “Suspendio jam quærere mortem oportere homines vitæque renunciare, cum tantum licentiæ, vel feminæ, vel imperiti homines sumant, ut in doctissimos scribant;” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 29. We learn from Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 33, that the name of this female was Leontium; “... sed meretricula etiam Leontium contra Theophrastum scribere ausa sit.”

[77] A. Gellius (vii. 4) refers to this work and gives an extract from it.

[78] The hostility which Cato bore to Scipio Africanus is mentioned by Livy, xxxviii. 54, and by Corn. Nepos, Cato, i.

[79] Lucius Munatius Plancus took a conspicuous part in the political intrigues of the times and was especially noted for his follies and extravagance.

[80] Asinius Pollio is a name which stands high in Roman literature; according to the remark of Alexandre, “Vir magnus fuit, prono tamen ad obtrectandum ingenio, quod arguunt ejus cum Cicerone simultates,” Lemaire, i. 30. This hostile feeling towards Cicero is supposed to have proceeded from envy and mortification, because he was unable to attain the same eminence in the art of oratory with his illustrious rival. See Hardouin’s Index Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 168.

[81] “Vitiligatores.”

[82] The table of contents, which occupies no less than 124 pages in Lemaire’s edition, I have omitted, in consequence of its length; the object which the author proposed to effect by the table of contents will be gained more completely by an alphabetical index.

[83] “Ἐποπτίδων.” For an account of Valerius Soranus see Hardouin’s Index Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 217.

[84] To the end of each book of the Natural History is appended, in the original, a copious list of references to the sources from which the author derived his information. These are very numerous; in the second book they amount to 45, in the third to 35, in the 4th to 53, in the fifth to 60, in the sixth to 54, and they are in the same proportion in the remaining books.

[85] “Spartum;” this plant was used to make bands for the vines and cables for ships.

[86] “Mundus.” In translating from one language into another, it is proper, as a general principle, always to render the same word in the original by the same word in the translation. But to this rule there are two exceptions; where the languages do not possess words which precisely correspond, and where the original author does not always use the same word in the same sense. Both these circumstances, I apprehend, apply to the case in question. The term Mundus is used by Pliny, sometimes to mean the earth and its immediate appendages, the visible solar system; and at other times the universe; while I think we may venture to assert, that in some instances it is used in rather a vague manner, without any distinct reference to either one or other of the above designations. I have, in almost all cases, translated it by the term world, as approaching nearest to the sense of the original. The word mundus is frequently employed by Lucretius, especially in his fifth book, and seems to be almost always used in the more extended sense of universe. There are, indeed, a few passages where either meaning would be equally appropriate, and in one line it would appear to be equivalent to firmament or heavens; “et mundi speciem violare serenam,” iv. 138. Cicero, in his treatise De Natura Deorum, generally uses the term mundus in the sense of universe, as in ii. 22, 37, 58 and 154; while in one passage, ii. 132, it would appear to be employed in the more limited sense of the earth. It occasionally occurs in the Fasti of Ovid, but it is not easy to ascertain its precise import; as in the line “Post chaos, ut primum data sunt tria corpora mundo,” v. 41, where from the connexion it may be taken either in the more confined or in the more general sense. Manilius employs the word very frequently, and his commentators remark, that he uses it in two distinct senses, the visible firmament and the universe; and I am induced to think that he attaches still more meaning to the term. It occurs three times in the first eleven lines of his poem. In the third line, “deducere mundo aggredior,” mundus may be considered as equivalent to the celestial regions as opposed to the earth. In the ninth line, “concessumque patri mundo,” we may consider it as signifying the celestial regions generally; and in the eleventh, “Jamque favet mundus,” the whole of the earth, or rather its inhabitants. We meet with it again in the sixty-eighth line, “lumina mundi,” where it seems more properly to signify the visible firmament; again in the 139th, “Et mundi struxere globum,” it seems to refer especially to the earth, synonymous with the general sense of the English term world; while in the 153rd line, “per inania mundi,” it must be supposed to mean the universe. Hyginus, in his Poeticon Astronomicon, lib. i. p. 55, defines the term as follows: “Mundus appellatur is qui constat in sole et luna et terra et omnibus stellis;” and again, p. 57, “Terra mundi media regione collocata.” We may observe the different designations of the term mundus in Seneca; among other passages I may refer to his Nat. Quæst. vii. 27 & iii. 30; to his treatise De Consol. § 18 and De Benef. iv. 23, where I conceive the precise meanings are, respectively, the universe, the terrestrial globe, the firmament, and the heavenly bodies. The Greek term κόσμος, which corresponds to the Latin word mundus, was likewise employed to signify, either the visible firmament or the universe. In illustration of this, it will be sufficient to refer to the treatise of Aristotle Περὶ Κόσμου, cap. 2. p. 601. See also Stephens’s Thesaurus, in loco. In Apuleius’s treatise De Mundo, which is a free translation of Aristotle’s Περὶ Κόσμου, the term may be considered as synonymous with universe. It is used in the same sense in various parts of Apuleius’s writings: see Metam. ii. 23; De Deo Socratis, 665, 667; De Dogmate Platonis, 574, 575, et alibi.

[87] Cicero, in his Timæus, uses the same phraseology; “Omne igitur cœlum, sive mundus, sive quovis alio vocabulo gaudet, hoc a nobis nuncupatum est,” § 2. Pomponius Mela’s work commences with a similar expression; “Omne igitur hoc, quidquid est, cui mundi cœlique nomen indideris, unum id est.” They were probably taken from a passage in Plato’s Timæus, “Universum igitur hoc, Cœlum, sive Mundum, sive quo alio vocabulo gaudet, cognominemus,” according to the translation of Ficinus; Platonis Op. ix. p. 302. The word cœlum, which is employed in the original, in its ordinary acceptation, signifies the heavens, the visible firmament; as in Ovid, Met. i. 5, “quod tegit omnia, cœlum.” It is, in most cases, employed in this sense by Lucretius and by Manilius, as in i. 2. of the former and in i. 14. of the latter. Occasionally, however, it is employed by both of these writers in the more general sense of celestial regions, in opposition to the earth, as by Lucretius, i. 65, and by Manilius, i. 352. In the line quoted by Cicero from Pacuvius, it would seem to mean the place in which the planets are situated; De Nat. Deor. ii. 91. The Greek word οὐρανὸς may be regarded as exactly corresponding to the Latin word cœlum, and employed with the same modifications; see Aristotle, De Mundo and De Cœlo, and Ptolemy, Mag. Const. lib. i. passim; see also Stephens’s Thesaurus, in loco. Aratus generally uses it to designate the visible firmament, as in l. 10, while in l. 32 it means the heavenly regions. Gesner defines cœlum, “Mundus exclusa terra,” and mundus, “Cœlum et quidquid cœli ambitu continetur.” In the passage from Plato, referred to above, the words which are translated by Ficinus cœlum and mundus, are in the original οὐρανὸς and κόσμος; Ficinus, however, in various parts of the Timæus, translates οὐρανὸς by the word mundus: see t. ix. p. 306, 311, et alibi.

[88] The following passage from Cicero may serve to illustrate the doctrine of Pliny: “Novem tibi orbibus, vel potius globis, connexa sunt omnia: quorum unus est cœlestis, extimus, qui reliquos omnes complectitur, summus ipse Deus, arcens et continens cœlum;” Som. Scip. § 4. I may remark, however, that the term here employed by our author is not Deus but Numen.

[89] We have an interesting account of the opinions of Aristotle on this subject, in a note in M. Ajasson’s translation, ii. 234 et seq., which, as well as the greater part of the notes attached to the second book of the Natural History, were written by himself in conjunction with M. Marcus.

[90] The philosophers of antiquity were divided in their opinions respecting the great question, whether the active properties of material bodies, which produce the phænomena of nature, are inherent in them, and necessarily attached to them, or whether they are bestowed upon them by some superior power or being. The Academics and Peripatetics generally adopted the latter opinion, the Stoics the former: Pliny adopts the doctrine of the Stoics; see Enfield’s Hist. of Phil. i. 229, 283, 331.

[91] I may remark, that the astronomy of our author is, for the most part, derived from Aristotle; the few points in which they differ will be stated in the appropriate places.

[92] This doctrine was maintained by Plato in his Timæus, p. 310, and adopted by Aristotle, De Cœlo, lib. ii. cap. 14, and by Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 47. The spherical form of the world, οὐρανὸς, and its circular motion are insisted upon by Ptolemy, in the commencement of his astronomical treatise Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, Magna Constructio, frequently referred to by its Arabic title Almagestum, cap. 2. He is supposed to have made his observations at Alexandria, between the years 125 and 140 A.D. His great astronomical work was translated into Arabic in the year 827; the original Greek text was first printed in 1538 by Grynæus, with a commentary by Theon. George of Trebisond published a Latin version of it in 1541, and a second was published by Camerarius in 1551, along with Ptolemy’s other works. John Muller, usually called Regiomontanus, and Purback published an abridgement of the Almagest in 1541. For an account of Ptolemy I may refer to the article in the Biog. Univ. xxxv. 263 et seq., by Delambre, also to Hutton’s Math. Dict., in loco, and to the high character of him by Whewell, Hist. of the Inductive Sciences, p. 214.

[93] See Ptolemy, ubi supra.

[94] This opinion, which was maintained by Pythagoras, is noticed and derided by Aristotle, De Cœlo, lib. ii. cap. 9. p. 462-3. A brief account of Pythagoras’s doctrine on this subject is contained in Enfield’s Philosophy, i. 386.

[95] Pliny probably here refers to the opinion which Cicero puts into the mouth of one of the interlocutors in his treatise De Nat. Deor. ii. 47, “Quid enim pulchrius ea figura, quæ sola omnes alias figuras complexa continet, quæque nihil asperitatis habere, nihil offensionis potest, nihil incisum angulis, nihil anfractibus, nihil eminens, nihil lacunosum?”

[96] The letter Δ, in the constellation of the triangle; it is named Δελτωτὸν by Aratus, l. 235; also by Manilius, i. 360. We may remark, that, except in this one case, the constellations have no visible resemblance to the objects of which they bear the name.

[97] “Locum hunc Plinii de Galaxia, sive Lactea via, interpretantur omnes docti.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 227. It may be remarked, that the word vertex is here used in the sense of the astronomical term zenith, not to signify the pole.

[98] De Ling. Lat. lib. iv. p. 7, 8. See also the remarks on the derivation of the word in Gesner, Thes., in loco.

[99] “Signifer.” The English term is taken from the Greek word Ζωδιακὸς, derived from Ζῶον; see Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. 2. p. 602. The word Zodiacus does not occur in Pliny, nor is it employed by Ptolemy; he names it λοξὸς κύκλος, obliquus circulus; Magn. Const. i. 7, 13, et alibi. It is used by Cicero, but professedly as a Greek term; Divin. ii. 89, and Arati Phænom. l. 317. It occurs in Hyginus, p. 57 et alibi, and in A. Gellius, 13. 9. Neither signifer taken substantively, nor zodiacus occur in Lucretius or in Manilius.

[100] The account of the elements, of their nature, difference, and, more especially, the necessity of their being four, are fully discussed by Aristotle in various parts of his works, more particularly in his treatise De Cœlo, lib. iii. cap. 3, 4 and 5, lib. iv. cap. 5, and De Gener. et Cor. lib. ii. cap. 2, 3, 4 and 5. For a judicious summary of the opinions of Aristotle on this subject, I may refer to Stanley’s History of Philosophy; Aristotle, doctrines of, p. 2. l. 7, and to Enfield, i. 764 et seq. For the Epicurean doctrine, see Lucretius, i. 764 et seq.

[101] Although the word planeta, as taken from the Greek πλανήτης, is inserted in the title of this chapter, it does not occur in any part of the text. It is not found either in Lucretius, Manilius, or Seneca, nor, I believe, was it used by any of their contemporaries, except Hyginus, p. 76. The planets were generally styled stellæ erraticæ, errantes, or vagæ, sidera palantia, as in Lucretius, ii. 1030, or simply the five stars, as in Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 51, and in Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vii. 24. Pliny, by including the sun and moon, makes the number seven. Aratus calls them πέντ’ ἄστερες, l. 454.

[102] “Aër.” “Circumfusa undique est (terra) hac animabili spirabilique natura, cui nomen est aër; Græcum illud quidem, sed perceptum jam tamen usu a nobis;” Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 91.

[103] “universi cardine.” “Revolutionis, ut aiunt, centro. Idem Plinius, hoc ipso libro, cap. 64, terram cœli cardinem esse dicit;” Alexandre, in Lem. i. 228. On this subject I may refer to Ptolemy, Magn. Const, lib. i. cap. 3, 4, 6. See also Apuleius, near the commencement of his treatise De Mundo.

[104] “Sidera.” The word sidus is used, in most cases, for one of the heavenly bodies generally, sometimes for what we term a constellation, a particular assemblage of them, and sometimes specially for an individual star. Manilius employs the word in all these senses, as will appear by the three following passages respectively; the first taken from the opening of his poem,

“Carmine divinas artes, et conscia fati Sidera....”

The second,

“Hæc igitur texunt æquali sidera tractu Ignibus in varias cœlum laqueantia formas.” i. 275, 276.

The third

“... pectus, fulgenti sidere clarius;” i. 356.

In the Fasti of Ovid, we have examples of the two latter of these significations:—

“Ex Ariadnæo sidere nosse potes;” v. 316.

“Et canis (Icarium dicunt) quo sidere noto Tosta sitit tellus;” iv. 939, 940.

Lucretius appears always to employ the term in the general sense. J. Obsequens applies the word sidus to a meteor; “sidus ingens cœlo demissum,” cap. 16. In a subsequent part of this book, chap. 18 et seq., our author more particularly restricts the term sidus to the planets.

[105] Cicero remarks concerning them; “quæ (stellæ) falso vocantur errantes;” De Nat. Deor. ii. 51.

[106] “... vices dierum alternat et noctium, quum sidera præsens occultat, illustrat absens;” Hard. in Lem. i. 230.

[107] “ceteris sideribus.” According to Hardouin, ubi supra, “nimium stellis errantibus.” There is, however, nothing in the expression of our author which sanctions this limitation.

[108] See Iliad, iii. 277, and Od. xii. 323.

[109] It is remarked by Enfield, Hist. of Phil. ii. 131, that “with respect to philosophical opinions, Pliny did not rigidly adhere to any sect.... He reprobates the Epicurean tenet of an infinity of worlds; favours the Pythagorean notion of the harmony of the spheres; speaks of the universe as God, after the manner of the Stoics, and sometimes seems to pass over into the field of the Sceptics. For the most part, however, he leans to the doctrine of Epicurus.”

[110] “Si alius est Deus quam sol,” Alexandre in Lem. i. 230. Or rather, if there be any God distinct from the world; for the latter part of the sentence can scarcely apply to the sun. Poinsinet and Ajasson, however, adopt the same opinion with M. Alexandre; they translate the passage, “s’il en est autre que le soleil,” i. 17 and ii. 11.

[111] “totus animæ, totus animi;” “Anima est qua vivimus, animus quo sapimus.” Hard. in Lem. i. 230, 231. The distinction between these two words is accurately pointed out by Lucretius, iii. 137 et seq.

[112] “fecerunt (Athenienses) Contumeliæ fanum et Impudentiæ.” Cicero, De Leg. ii. 28. See also Bossuet, Discours sur l’Histoire univ. i. 250.

[113] The account which Cicero gives us of the opinions of Democritus scarcely agrees with the statement in the text; see De Nat. Deor. i. 120.

[114] “In varios divisit Deos numen unicum, quod Plinio cœlum est aut mundus; ejusque singulas partes, aut, ut philosophi aiunt, attributa, separatim coluit;” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 231.

[115] “Febrem autem ad minus nocendum, templis celebrant, quorum adhuc unum in Palatio....” Val. Max. ii. 6; see also Ælian, Var. Hist. xii. 11. It is not easy to ascertain the precise meaning of the terms Fanum, Ædes, and Templum, which are employed in this place by Pliny and Val. Maximus. Gesner defines Fanum “area templi et solium, templum vero ædificium;” but this distinction, as he informs us, is not always accurately observed; there appears to be still less distinction between Ædes and Templum; see his Thesaurus in loco, also Bailey’s Facciolati in loco.

[116] “Orbona est Orbitalis dea.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 231.

[117] “Appositos sibi statim ab ortu custodes credebant, quos viri Genios, Junones fœminæ vocabant.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 232. See Tibullus, 4. 6. 1, and Seneca, Epist. 110, sub init.

[118] We may suppose that our author here refers to the popular mythology of the Egyptians; the “fœtidi cibi” are mentioned by Juvenal; “Porrum et cæpe nefas violare et frangere morsu,” xv. 9; and Pliny, in a subsequent part of his work, xix. 32, remarks, “Allium cæpeque inter Deos in jurejurando habet Ægyptus.”

[119] See Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 42 et alibi, for an illustration of these remarks of Pliny.

[120] This sentiment is elegantly expressed by Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 62, and by Horace, Od. iii. 3. 9 et seq. It does not appear, however, that any of the Romans, except Romulus, were deified, previous to the adulatory period of the Empire.

[121] “Planetarum nempe, qui omnes nomina mutuantur a diis.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 234.

[122] This remark may be illustrated by the following passage from Cicero, in the first book of his treatise De Nat. Deor. Speaking of the doctrine of Zeno, he says, “neque enim Jovem, neque Junonem, neque Vestam, neque quemquam, qui ita appelletur, in deorum habet numero: sed rebus inanimis, atque mutis, per quandam significationem, hæc docet tributa nomina.” “Idemque (Chrysippus) disputat, æthera esse eum, quem homines Jovem appellant: quique aër per maria manaret, eum esse Neptunum: terramque eam esse, quæ Ceres diceretur: similique ratione persequitur vocabula reliquorum deorum.”

[123] The following remarks of Lucretius and of Cicero may serve to illustrate the opinion here expressed by our author:—

“Omnis enim per se Divum natura necesse est Immortali ævo summa cum pace fruatur, Semota ab nostris rebus, sejunctaque longe;” Lucretius, i. 57-59.

“Quod æternum beatumque sit, id nec habere ipsum negotii quidquam, nec exhibere alteri; itaque neque ira neque gratia teneri, quod, quæ talia essent, imbecilla essent omnia.” Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 45.

[124] The author here alludes to the figures of the Egyptian deities that were engraven on rings.

[125] His specific office was to execute vengeance on the impious.

[126] “sola utramque paginam facit.” The words utraque pagina generally refer to the two sides of the same sheet, but, in this passage, they probably mean the contiguous portions of the same surface.

[127] “astroque suo eventu assignat;” the word astrum appears to be synonymous with sidus, generally signifying a single star, and, occasionally, a constellation; as in Manilius, i. 541, 2.

“... quantis bis sena ferantur Finibus astra....”

It is also used by synecdoche for the heavens, as is the case with the English word stars. See Gesner’s Thesaurus.

[128] “Quæ si suscipiamus, pedis offensio nobis ... et sternutamenta erunt observanda.” Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 84.

[129] “Divus Augustus.” The epithet divus may be regarded as merely a term of court etiquette, because all the Emperors after death were deified ex officio.

[130] We learn the exact nature of this ominous accident from Suetonius; “... si mane sibi calceus perperam, et sinister pro dextro induceretur;” Augustus, Cap. 92. From this passage it would appear, that the Roman sandals were made, as we term it, right and left.

[131] It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the opinions here stated respecting the Deity are taken partly from the tenets of the Epicureans, combined with the Stoical doctrine of Fate. The examples which are adduced to prove the power of fate over the Deity are, for the most part, rather verbal than essential.

[132] “affixa mundo.” The peculiar use of the word mundus in this passage is worthy of remark, in connexion with note [86], ch. 1. page 13.

[133] We have many references in Pliny to the influence of the stars upon the earth and its inhabitants, constituting what was formerly regarded as so important a science, judicial astrology. Ptolemy has drawn up a regular code of it in his “Centum dicta,” or “Centiloquiums.” We have a highly interesting account of the supposed science, its origin, progress, and general principles, in Whewell’s History of the Inductive Sciences, p. 293 et seq. I may also refer to the same work for a sketch of the history of astronomy among the Greeks and the other nations of antiquity.

[134] There are certain metaphorical expressions, which have originated from this opinion, adopted by the moderns; “his star is set;” “the star of his fortune,” &c.

[135] Ovid, when he compares Phaëton to a falling star, remarks, concerning this meteor,—

“Etsi non cecidit, potuit cecidisse videri.” Metam. ii. 322.

[136] Manilius supposes that comets are produced and rendered luminous by an operation very similar to the one described in the text; i. 815 et seq. Seneca, in the commencement of his Nat. Quæst., and in other parts of the same treatise, refers to this subject. His remarks may be worth perusing by those who are curious to learn the hypotheses of the ancients on subjects of natural science. We may remark, that Seneca’s opinions are, on many points, more correct than our author’s.

[137] The author probably refers to that part of his work in which he treats on agriculture, particularly to the 17th and 18th books.

[138] The æra of the Olympiads commenced in the year 776 before Christ; each olympiad consists of 4 years; the 58th olympiad will therefore include the interval 548 to 544 B.C. The 21st vol. of the “Universal History” consists entirely of a “chronological table,” and we have a useful table of the same kind in Brewster’s Encycl., article “Chronology.”

[139] “rerum fores aperuisse ... traditur.” An account of the astronomy of Anaximander is contained in Brewster’s Encycl., article “Astronomy,” p. 587, and in the article “Anaximander” in the supplement to the same work by Scott of Aberdeen. I may remark, that these two accounts do not quite agree in their estimate of his merits; the latter author considers his opinions more correct. We have also an account of Anaximander in Stanley, pt. 2. p. 1 et seq., and in Enfield, i. 154 et seq.

[140] In the translation of Ajasson, ii. 261-7, we have some valuable observations by Marcus, respecting the origin and progress of astronomy among the Greeks, and the share which the individuals mentioned in the text respectively had in its advancement; also some interesting remarks on the history of Atlas. Diodorus Siculus says, that “he was the first that discovered the knowledge of the sphere; whence arose the common opinion, that he carried the world upon his shoulders.” Booth’s trans. p. 115.

[141] “nunc relicto mundi ipsius corpore, reliqua inter cœlum terrasque tractentur.” I have already had occasion to remark upon the various modes in which the author uses the word mundus; by cœlum, in this passage, he means the body or region beyond the planets, which is conceived to contain the fixed stars. Sphæra, in the preceding sentence, may be supposed to mean the celestial globe.

[142] “ac trigesimo anno ad brevissima sedis suæ principia regredi;” I confess myself unable to offer any literal explanation of this passage; nor do the remarks of the commentators appear to me satisfactory; see Hardouin and Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 241, 2. It is translated by Ajasson “en trente ans il reviens à l’espace minime d’où il est parti.” The period of the sidereal revolutions of the planets, as stated by Mrs. Somerville, in her “Mechanism of the Heavens,” and by Sir J. Herschel, in his “Treatise on Astronomy,” are respectively as follows:—

days. days. Mercury 87·9705 87·9692580 Venus 224·7 224·7007869 Earth 365·2564 365·2563612 Mars 686·99 686·9796458 Jupiter 4332·65 4332·5848212 Saturn 10759·4 10759·2198174

Somerville, p. 358. Herschel, p. 416.

[143] “‘mundo;’ hoc est, cœlo inerrantium stellarum.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, ii. 242.

[144] Our author supposes, that the spectator has his face directed towards the south, as is the case with the modern observers. We are, however, informed by Hardouin, that this was not the uniform practice among the ancients; see the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 242, and of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 269.

[145] The constant revolution refers to the apparent daily motion; the opposite direction to their annual course through the zodiac. Ptolemy gives an account of this double motion in his Magna Constructio, i. 7.

[146] For the exact period, according to Somerville and Herschel, see note [142], p. 27.

[147] Aristotle informs us, that Mars was also called Hercules or Pyrosis; De Mundo, cap. ii. p. 602. See also Apuleius, De Mundo, § 710. Hyginus is said by Hardouin to give the name of Hercules to the planet Mars, but this appears to be an inaccuracy; he describes the planet under its ordinary appellation; lib. ii. p. 62; and ii. 78, 9.

[148] Cicero, speaking of the period of Mars, says, “Quatuor et viginti mensibus, sex, ut opinor, diebus minus;” De Nat. Deor. For the exact period, see note [142], p. 27.

[149] “Sed ut observatio umbrarum ejus redeat ad notas.” According to the interpretation of Hardouin, “Ad easdem lineas in solari horologio.” Lemaire, ii. 243.

[150] This is an example of the mode of computation which we meet with among the ancients, where, in speaking of the period of a revolution, both the time preceding and that following the interval are included.

[151] The division of the planets into superior and inferior was not known to Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. ii. p. 602, to Plato, Timæus, p. 318, 319, or the older Greek astronomers. It was first made by the Egyptians, and was transferred from them to the Romans. It is one of the points in which our author differs from Aristotle. See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 242 et seq. Marcus notices the various points which prove the deficiency of Pliny’s knowledge of astronomy; he particularizes the four following:—his ignorance of the true situation of the constellations; his erroneous opinion respecting the cause of the seasons; his account of the phases of the moon, and of the position of the cardinal points. He appears not to have been aware, that certain astronomical phænomena undergo a regular progression, but supposed that they remained, at the time when he wrote, in the same state as in the age of Hipparchus or the original observers. Columella, when treating on these subjects, describes the phænomena according to the ancient calculation, but he informs us, that he adopts it, because it was the one in popular use, and better known by the farmers (De Re Rust. ix. 14), while Pliny appears not to have been aware of the inaccuracy.

[152] “Modo solem antegrediens, modo subsequens.” Hardouin in Lemaire, ii. 243.

[153] It was not known to the earlier writers that Lucifer and Vesper were the same star, differently situated with respect to the Sun. Playfair remarks, that Venus is the only planet mentioned in the sacred writings, and in the most ancient poets, such as Hesiod and Homer; Outlines, ii. 156.

[154] There has been much discussion among the commentators respecting the correctness of the figures in the text; according to the æra of the olympiads, the date referred to will be between the years 750 and 754 B.C.; the foundation of Rome is commonly referred to the year 753 B.C. See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 278, 9.

[155] Aristotle informs us, that it was called either Phosphorus, Juno, or Venus; De Mundo, cap. 2. t. i. p. 602. See also Hyginus, Poet. Astr. lib. iii. p. 76, 7; and Apuleius, De Mundo, § 710.

[156] It will be scarcely necessary to refer the reader to the well-known commencement of Lucretius’s poem for the illustration of this passage; it is remarkable that Pliny does not refer to this writer.

[157] The periodical revolution of Venus is 224·7 days, see note [142], p. 27. Its greatest elongation is 47° 1′; Somerville, § 641. p. 391.

[158] According to Aristotle, this planet had the three appellations of Stilbon, Mercury, and Apollo; De Mundo, cap. 2. p. 602; see also Apuleius, De Mundo, § 710. Cicero inverts the order of the planets; he places Mercury next to Mars, and says of Venus, that it is “infima quinque errantium, terræque proxima;” De Nat. Deor. ii. 53. Aristotle places the stars in the same order, ubi supra, and he is followed in this by Apuleius, ubi supra; this appears to have been the case with the Stoics generally; see Enfield’s Phil. i. 339.

[159] For the periodical revolution of Mercury see note[142], p. 27. Its greatest elongation, according to Playfair, p. 160, is 28°. Mrs. Somerville, p. 386, states it to be 28° 8′. Ptolemy supposed it to be 26·5 degrees; Almagest, ix. 7. We learn from Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 246, that there is considerable variation in the MSS. with respect to the greatest elongation of Mercury.

[160] Sosigenes was an Egyptian mathematician and astronomer, who is said to have assisted Cæsar in the formation of his Kalendar, as our author informs us in a subsequent part of his work, xviii. 25; see also Aikin, Gen. Biog., in loco; Enfield’s Phil. ii. 96; Whewell, p. 210; and Hardouin’s “Index Auctorum,” in Lemaire, i. 213.

[161] Concerning the “magnus annus” Cicero remarks, “efficitur cum solis et lunæ et quinque errantium ad eandem inter se comparationem, confectis omnibus spatiis, est facta conversio.” De Nat. Deor. ii. 51. See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 281-3.

[162] For the various appellations which the moon has received in the ancient and modern languages, and their relation to each other, the reader is referred to the learned remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 283-5.

[163] Marcus conceives that the epithet maculosa does not refer to what are called the spots on the moon, but to the circumstance of the edge of the disc being not illuminated when it is near the full; Ajasson, ii. 286. But, from the way in which the word is employed at the end of the chapter, and from the explanation which is given of the cause of the “maculæ,” I think it ought to be referred to the spotted appearance of the face of the moon.

[164] “Quum laborare non creditur.” It was a vulgar notion among the ancients, that when the moon is eclipsed, she is suffering from the influence of magicians and enchanters, who are endeavouring to draw her down to the earth, in order to aid them in their superstitious ceremonies. It was conceived that she might be relieved from her sufferings by loud noises of various kinds which should drown the songs of the magicians. Allusion is frequently made to this custom by the ancient poets, as Virgil, Æn. i. 742, Manilius, i. 227, and Juvenal, vi. 444; and the language has been transferred to the moderns, as in Beattie’s Minstrel, ii. 47, “To ease of fancied pangs the labouring moon.”

[165] We have some interesting remarks by Marcus respecting Endymion, and also on the share which Solon and Thales had in correcting the lunar observations; Ajasson, ii. 288-290.

[166] “Lucem nobis aperuere in hac luce.”

[167] “Cardo.”

[168] Astronomers describe two different revolutions or periods of the moon; the synodical and the sidereal. The synodical marks the time in which the moon passes from one conjunction with the sun to the next conjunction, or other similar position with respect to the sun. The sidereal period is the time in which the moon returns to the same position with respect to the stars, or in which it makes a complete revolution round the earth. These numbers are, for the synodical period, 29ᵈ 12ʰ 44ᵐ 2·87ˢ, and for the sidereal, 27ᵈ 7ʰ 43ᵐ 11·5ˢ; Herschel, pp. 213, 224.

[169] Our author, as Marcus remarks, “a compté par nombres ronds;” Ajasson, ii. 291; the correct number may be found in the preceding note.

[170] It was a general opinion among the ancients, and one which was entertained until lately by many of the moderns, that the moon possessed the power of evaporating the water of the ocean. This opinion appears to have been derived, at least in part, from the effect which the moon produces on the tides.

[171] “quantum ex sole ipsa concipiat;” from this passage, taken singly, it might be concluded, that the author supposed the quantity of light received by the moon to differ at different times; but the succeeding sentence seems to prove that this is not the case; see the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 249. Marcus, however, takes a different view of the subject; Ajasson, ii. 291, 292. He had previously pointed out Pliny’s opinion respecting the phases of the moon, as one of the circumstances which indicate his ignorance of astronomy, ut supra, ii. 245, 246.

[172] This doctrine is maintained by Seneca, Quæst. Nat. lib. ii. § 5. p. 701, 702. From the allusion which is made to it by Anacreon, in his 19th ode, we may presume that it was the current opinion among the ancients.

[173] I may remark, that Poinsinet, in this passage, substitutes “umbra” for “umbræque,” contrary to the authority of all the MSS., merely because it accords better with his ideas of correct reasoning. Although it may be of little consequence in this particular sentence, yet, as such liberties are not unfrequently taken, I think it necessary to state my opinion, that this mode of proceeding is never to be admitted, and that it has proved a source of serious injury to classical literature. In this account of the astronomical phenomena, as well as in all the other scientific dissertations that occur in our author, my aim has been to transfer into our language the exact sense of the original, without addition or correction. Our object in reading Pliny is not to acquire a knowledge of natural philosophy, which might be better learned from the commonest elementary work of the present day, but to ascertain what were the opinions of the learned on such subjects when Pliny wrote. I make this remark, because I have seldom if ever perused a translation of any classical author, where, on scientific topics, the translator has not endeavoured, more or less, to correct the mistakes of the original, and to adapt his translation to the state of modern science.

[174] The terms here employed are respectively interventus, objectio, and interpositus; it may be doubted whether the author intended to employ them in the precise sense which is indicated by their etymology.

[175] “metæ et turbini inverso.” The metæ were small pyramids placed at the two extremities of the spina, or central division of the circus: see Montfaucon, v. iii. p. 176; Adam, p. 341.

[176] The eclipses of the moon are only visible when the spectator is so situated as to be able to observe the shadow of the earth, or is on that side of the earth which is turned from the sun.

[177] “non semper in scrupulis partium congruente siderum motu.” On the term scrupulus Hardouin remarks, “Scrupuli, nodi sunt, in quibus circuli, quos in suo cursu Sol et Luna efficiunt, se mutuo secant.” Lemaire, ii. 251. Ptolemy, Magn. Const. vi. 6-11, gives a full and generally correct account of the principal phænomena of eclipses.

[178] Marcus conceives that our author must here mean, not the actual, but the apparent size of these bodies; Ajasson, ii. 295; but I do not perceive that the text authorizes this interpretation.

[179] I have given the simple translation of the original as it now stands in the MSS.; whether these may have been corrupted, or the author reasoned incorrectly, I do not venture to decide. The commentators have, according to their usual custom, proposed various emendations and explanations, for which I may refer to the note of Hardouin in Lemaire, ii. 252, with the judicious remarks of Alexandre, and to those of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 295-298, who appear to me to take a correct view of the subject.

[180] Alexandre remarks, “Hinc tamen potius distantia quam magnitudo Solis colligi potest.” Lemaire, ii. 252. And the same remark applies to the two next positions of our author.

[181] Alexandre remarks on the argument of our author, perhaps a little too severely, “Absurde dictum; nam aliis oritur, aliis occidit, dum aliis est a vertice; quod vel pueri sentiunt.” Lemaire, ii. 253. But we may suppose, that Pliny, in this passage, only meant to say, that as the sun became vertical to each successive part of the equinoctial district, no shadows were formed in it.

[182] The commentators have thought it necessary to discuss the question, whether, in this passage, Pliny refers to the Ida of Crete or of Asia Minor. But the discussion is unnecessary, as the statement of the author is equally inapplicable to both of them. Mela appears to refer to this opinion in the following passage, where he is describing the Ida of Asia Minor; “ipse mens ... orientem solem aliter quam in aliis terris solet aspici, ostentat.” lib. i. cap. 18.

[183] “Ut dictum est superiore capite, quo Plinius falso contendit Terram esse Luna minorem.” Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 253. The words of the text, however, apply equally to the comparative size of the earth and the sun, as of the earth and the moon.

[184] “turbo rectus;” literally an upright top.

[185] “meta.”

[186] This has been pointed out as one of our author’s erroneous opinions on astronomy. The earth is really about 1/30 nearer the sun in our winters than in our summers. The greater degree of heat produced by his rays in the latter case depends upon their falling on the surface of the earth less obliquely. This is the principal cause of the different temperatures of the equatorial and polar regions.

[187] This eclipse is calculated to have occurred on the 28th of June, 168 B.C.; Brewster’s Encyc. “Chronology,” p. 415, 424. We have an account of this transaction in Livy, xliv. 37, and in Plutarch, Life of Paulus Æmilius, Langhorne’s trans. ii. 279; he however does not mention the name of Gallus. See also Val. Maximus, viii. 11. 1, and Quintilian, i. 10. Val. Maximus does not say that Gallus predicted the eclipse, but explained the cause of it when it had occurred; and the same statement is made by Cicero, De Repub. i. 15. For an account of Sulpicius, see Hardouin’s Index auctorum, Lemaire, i. 214.

[188] An account of this event is given by Herodotus, Clio, § 74. There has been the same kind of discussion among the commentators, respecting the dates in the text, as was noticed above, note [154], p. 29: see the remarks of Brotier and of Marcus in Lemaire and Ajasson, in loco. Astronomers have calculated that the eclipse took place May 28th, 585 B.C.; Brewster, ut supra, pp. 414, 419.

[189] Hipparchus is generally regarded as the first astronomer who prosecuted the science in a regular and systematic manner. See Whewell, C. 3. p. 169 et seq., 177-179. He is supposed to have made his observations between the years 160 and 125 B.C. He made a catalogue of the fixed stars, which is preserved in Ptolemy’s Magn. Const. The only work of his now extant is his commentary on Aratus; it is contained in Petau’s Uranologie. We find, among the ancients, many traces of their acquaintance with the period of 600 years, or what is termed the great year, when the solar and lunar phænomena recur precisely at the same points. Cassini, Mem. Acad., and Bailly, Hist. Anc. Astron., have shown that there is an actual foundation for this opinion. See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 302, 303.

[190] Seneca, the tragedian, refers to this superstitious opinion in some beautiful verses, which are given to the chorus at the termination of the fourth act of the Thyestes.

[191] We have an account of this event in Thucydides, Smith’s trans. ii. 244, and in Plutarch, Langhorne’s trans. iii. 406. It is calculated to have happened Aug. 27th, 413 B.C.; Brewster, ut supra, p. 415, 421.

[192] The elegant lines of Ovid, in his Fasti, i. 297 et seq., express the same sentiment: “Felices animos, quibus hoc cognoscere primis,” &c.

[193] I have already remarked upon the use of this term as applied to the eclipses of the moon in note [164], p. 31.

[194] According to the remarks of Marcus, it appears probable that this sol-lunar period, as it has been termed, was discovered by the Chaldeans; Ajasson, ii. 306, 307.

[195] “coitus.”

[196] “Hoc enim periodo (223 mensium) plerumque redeunt eclipses, non multum differentes, denis tamen gradibus zodiaci antecedentes;” Kepler, as quoted by Alexandre, in Lemaire, ii. 238.

[197] The terms “sub terra” and “superne” are interpreted, by most of the commentators, below and above the horizon respectively; see Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 307.

[198] “globo terræ obstante convexitatibus mundi.” The term convexus, as applied to the heavens, or visible firmament, simply signifies arched; not opposed to concave, like the English word convex.

[199] This point is discussed by Ptolemy, Magn. Const. vi. 6; “De distantia eclipticorum mensium.” See also the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire, ii. 260, 261; and of Poinsinet, i. 67.

[200] These are styled horizontal eclipses; they depend on the refractive power of the atmosphere, causing the sun to be visible above the horizon, although it is actually below it. Brotier states, that eclipses of this description occurred on the 17th July, 1590, on the 30th November, 1648, and on the 16th January, 1660; Lemaire, ii. 260.

[201] This is supposed to have been in the year 72 of our æra, when it is said that the sun was eclipsed, in Italy, on the 8th, and the moon on the 22nd of February; see Hardouin and Alexandre, in Lemaire, ii. 261.

[202] In a subsequent part of the work, xviii. 75, the author gives a different rate of increase, viz. 51-1/2 minutes; neither of these numbers is correct; the mean rate of increase being, according to Alexandre, about 54′ or 55′; Lemaire, ii. 261, 262. See also Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 311-14.

[203] It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the effect, as here stated, has no connexion with the supposed cause.

[204] “luminum canonica.”

[205] Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

[206] They are then said, in astronomical language, to rise heliacally.

[207] In the last chapter this distance was stated to be 7 degrees; see the remarks of Alexandre, in Lemaire, ii. 263.

[208] “radiorum ejus contactu reguntur.” The doctrine of the ancient astronomers was, that the motions of the planets are always governed by the rays of the sun, according to its position, attracting or repelling them.

[209] A planet appears to be stationary, i. e. to be referred to the same point of the zodiac, when it is so situated with respect to the earth, that a straight line passing through the two bodies forms a tangent to the smaller orbit. The apparent motion of the planets, sometimes direct and at other times retrograde, with their stationary positions, is occasioned by the earth and the planets moving in concentric orbits, with different velocities. One hundred and twenty degrees is the mean distance at which the three superior planets become stationary. We have an elaborate dissertation by Marcus, on the unequal velocities of the planets, and on their stations and retrogradations, as well according to the system of Aristotle as to that of Copernicus; Ajasson, ii. 316 et seq. He remarks, and, I conceive, with justice, “... ce n’est pas dans les traités d’astronomie de nos savans que l’on doit puiser les détails destinés à éclaircir le texte des chapitres xii, xiii, xiv et xv du second livre de Pline.... Je ne dis rien des commentaires de Poinsinet, d’Hardouin et d’autres savans peu versés en matière d’astronomie, qui ont fait dire à Pline les plus grandes absurdités.”

[210] “Occasus planetæ vespertinus dicitur, quo die desinit post occasum solis supra horizontem oculis se præbere manifestum;” Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 265. It is then said to set heliacally.

[211] The interpretation of this passage has given rise to much discussion among the commentators and translators; I may refer the reader to the remarks of Poinsinet, i. 70, 71; of Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 266; and of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 328. I conceive the meaning of the author to be, that while the other planets become stationary, when at 120 degrees from the sun, Mars becomes so at 90 degrees, being detained by the rays, which act upon him more powerfully, in consequence of his being nearer to their source.

[212] I may refer to the remarks of Marcus on the respective distances from the sun at which Venus and Mercury become stationary, and when they attain their greatest elongations; Ajasson, ii. 328, 329. According to Ptolemy, Magn. Constr. lib. viii. cap. 7, the evening setting of Venus is at 5° 40′ from the sun, and that of Mercury at 11° 30′.

[213] “Ἁψὶς, ligneus rotæ circulus, ab ἅπτω necto;” Hederic in loco. The term is employed in a somewhat different sense by the modern astronomers, to signify the point in the orbit of a planet, when it is either at the greatest or the least distance from the earth, or the body about which it revolves; the former being termed the apogee, aphelion, or the higher apsis; the latter the perigee, perhelion, or lower apsis; Jennings on the Globes, pp. 64, 65.

[214] “mundo.”

[215] “ratione circini semper indubitata.”

[216] In consequence of the precession of the equinoxes these points are continually advancing from W. to E., and are now about 30 degrees from the situation they were in when the observations were first made by the modern astronomers.

[217] Our author here probably refers to the motions of the planets through their epicycles or secondary circles, the centres of which were supposed to be in the peripheries of the primary circles. See Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 270.

[218] It is to this visible appearance of convexity in the heavens that Ovid refers in the story of Phaëton, where he is describing the daily path of the sun; Metam. ii. 63-67.

[219] “quam quod illi subjacet;” under this designation the author obviously meant to include the temperate zones, although it technically applies only to the part between the tropics. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that modern discoveries have shown that this opinion respecting the Arctic zone is not strictly correct.

[220] The breadth of the zodiac, which was limited by the ancients to 12 degrees, has been extended by the modern astronomers to 18, and would require to be much farther extended to include the newly discovered planet. Herschel’s Astronomy, § 254.

[221] There is considerable difficulty in ascertaining the meaning of the terms employed by our author in describing the course of the planet Mercury through the zodiac; “medio ejus,” “supra,” and “infra.” Hardouin’s comment is as follows: “Duas zodiaci partes seu gradus pererrat, quum ipse per medium incedit signiferum: supra, quum deflectit ad Aquilonem, per quatuor alias ejusdem partes vagatur: infra, quum descendit ad Austrum, discedit duabus.” Lemaire, ii. 271, 272. But Marcus has shown that the opinion of Hardouin is inadmissible and inconsistent with the facts; Ajasson, ii. 338-341. He proposes one, which he conceives to be more correct, but we may probably be led to the conclusion, that the imperfect knowledge and incorrect opinions of our author on these subjects must render it impossible to afford an adequate explanation.

[222] “flexuoso draconum meatu;” Poinsinet remarks, “Les Grecs ... appellaient dragons les bracelets, les hausse-cols, les chainettes, et généralement tout ce qui avait une figure armillaire;” i. 79, 80.

[223] As this remark appears to contradict what was said in the last sentence respecting the sun, we may suspect some error in the text; see Poinsinet, Alexandre, and Marcus, in loco.

[224] The following comparative statement is given by Alexandre of the geocentric latitudes of the planets, as assigned by Pliny, and as laid down by the moderns. Lemaire, ii. 273:—

Pliny. Moderns. Venus 8° 9° 22′ Moon 6 6 0 Mercury 5 6 54 Mars 2 0 1 51 Jupiter 1 30 1 30 Saturn 1 (or 2°) 2 30

[225] It appears from the remark at the end of this chapter, that this explanation applies to the superior planets alone.

[226] It is not easy, as Marcus observes, Ajasson, ii. 341, 345, to comprehend the exact meaning of this passage, or to reconcile it with the other parts of our author’s theory.

[227] “Ecliptica,” called by the moderns the nodes; i. e. the two points where the orbits of the planets cut the ecliptic. See the remarks of Marcus on this term; Ajasson, ii. 345, 346.

[228] We may presume that our author here refers to the apparent motion of the planets, not to their actual acceleration or retardation.

[229] The editors have differed in the reading of this passage; I have followed that of Lemaire.

[230] “incipit detrahi numerus.” According to the explanation of Alexandre, “numerus nempe partium quas certo temporis intervallo emetiuntur.” Lemaire, ii. 275. Marcus remarks in this place, “Dans tout ce chapitre et dans le suivant, Pline a placé dans une correlation de causité, tout ce qu’il croit arriver en même temps; mais il n’a pas prouvé par-là que les phenomènes célestes qui sont contemporains sont engendrés les uns par les autres.” Ajasson, ii. 349.

[231] The hypothesis of Pliny appears to be, that the planets are affected by the rays of the sun, and that according to the angle at which they receive the impulse, they are either accelerated or retarded in their course.

[232] “ex priore triquetro.”

[233] Alexandre supposes, as I conceive justly, that our author, in this passage, only refers to the writings of his own countrymen; Lemaire, ii. 276.

[234] According to Ptolemy, these numbers are respectively 47° 51′ and 24° 3′; the modern astronomers have ascertained them to be 48° and 29°. The least elongations of the planets are, according to Ptolemy, 44° 7′ and 18° 50′, and according to the observations of the moderns, 45° and 16°; Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 354.

[235] I have not translated the clause, “quum sint diversæ stelæ,” as, according to Hardouin, it is not found “in probatissimis codd.,” and appears to have little connexion with the other parts of the sentence; it is omitted by Valpy and Lemaire, but is retained by Poinsinet and Ajasson.

[236] When these inferior planets have arrived at a certain apparent distance from the sun, they are come to the extent of their orbits, as seen from the earth.

[237] “Quum ad illam Solis distantiam pervenerunt, ultra procedere non possunt, deficiente circuli longitudine, id est, amplitudine.” Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 277.

[238] The transits of the inferior planets had not been observed by the ancients.

[239] “utroque modo;” “latitudine et altitudine;” Hardouin in Lemaire, ii. 279.

[240] “Catholica.”

[241] “... quæ (stella Martis) ut maxime excentrica volvitur, motus etiam maxime dissonos habere diu visa est....;” Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 180.

[242] “... qui numerus sexangulas mundi efficit formas.”

[243] Lynceus was one of the Argonauts and was celebrated for the acuteness of his vision; Val. Flaccus, i. 462 et seq.

[244] The relative situation of these astronomical phænomena has changed since the time of Pliny, in consequence of the precession of the equinoxes. For an illustration and explanation of the various statements in this chapter I may refer to the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 368-370.

[245] Ptolemy’s account of the colours of the planets is nearly similar to that of our author; “Candidus color Jovialis est, rutilus Martius, flavus Veneris, varius Mercurii;” De Jur. Astrol. ii. 9.

[246] This effect cannot be produced by any of the planets, except perhaps, to a certain extent, by Venus.

[247] “mundi.”

[248] It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the method which Pliny employs to explain the different phases of the moon betrays his ignorance, not only of the cause of these particular phænomena, but of the general principles which affect the appearance of the heavenly bodies.

[249] “seminani ambitur orbe.” According to the interpretation of Hardouin, “Orbe non perfecto et absoluto;” “major dimidia, minor plena;” Lemaire, ii. 284.

[250] As Alexandre justly remarks, our author refers here to the aspects only of the planets, not to their phases; ii. 284.

[251] “centrum terræ;” the equator, the part equally distant from the two poles or extremities.

[252] It may be remarked, that the equinoxes did not actually take place at this period in the points mentioned by Pliny, but in the 28th degrees of Pisces and Virgo respectively; he appears to have conformed to the popular opinion, as we may learn from Columella, lib. ix. cap. 14. The degrees mentioned above were those fixed by the Greek astronomers who formed the celestial sphere, and which was about 138 years before the Christian æra. See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 246 & 373, 374.

[253] The same remark applies to this as to the former observation.

[254] “siderum.”

[255] The hypothesis of the author is, that the excess of moisture in the orbit of Saturn, and the excess of heat in that of Mars, unite in the orbit of Jupiter and are discharged in the form of thunder.

[256] Alexandre remarks, that Pliny mentions this, not as his own opinion, but that of many persons; for, in chap. 21, he attempts to prove mathematically, that the moon is situated at an equal distance between the sun and the earth; Lemaire, ii. 286.

[257] Marcus remarks upon the inconsistency between the account here given of Pythagoras’s opinion, and what is generally supposed to have been his theory of the planetary system, according to which the sun, and not the earth, is placed in the centre; Enfield’s Philosophy, i. 288, 289. Yet we find that Plato, and many others among the ancients, give us the same account of Pythagoras’s doctrine of the respective distances of the heavenly bodies; Ajasson, ii. 374. Plato in his Timæus, 9. p. 312-315, details the complicated arrangement which he supposes to constitute the proportionate distances of the planetary bodies.

[258] Sulpicius has already been mentioned, in the ninth chapter of this book, as being the first among the Romans who gave a popular explanation of the cause of eclipses.

[259] “Διὰ πασῶν, omnibus tonis contextam harmoniam.” Hardouin in Lemaire, ii. 287.

[260] These appellations appear to have originated from different nations having assumed different notes as the foundation or commencement of their musical scale. The Abbé Barthelemi informs us, that “the Dorians executed the same air a tone lower than the Phrygians, and the latter a tone still higher than the Lydians; hence the denomination of the Dorian, Phrygian, and Lydian modes.” It appears to have been a general practice to employ the lowest modes for the slowest airs; Anacharsis’s Travels, iii. 73, 74.

[261] Hence the passus will be equal to 5 Roman feet. If we estimate the Roman foot at 11·6496 English inches, we shall have the miliare of 8 stadia equal to 1618 English yards, or 142 yards less than an English statute mile. See Adam’s Roman Antiquities, p. 503; also the articles Miliare and Pes in Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities; and for the varieties of the stadium, as employed at different periods and in different countries, see the article Stadium. The stadium which Herodotus employed in measurements of Babylon has been supposed to consist of 490 English feet, while that of Xenophon and Strabo has been estimated at 505; see Ed. Rev. xlviii. 190. The Abbé Barthelemi supposes the stadium to be equal to 604 English feet; Anach. Travels, vii. 284.

[262] There appears to have been two individuals of this name, who have been confounded with each other; the one referred to by Pliny was an astronomer of Alexandria, who flourished about 260 years B.C.; the other was a native of Apamea, a stoic philosopher, who lived about two centuries later; see Aikin’s Biog. in loco; also Hardouin’s Index Auctorum, Lemaire, i. 209.

[263] The terms in the original are respectively nubila and nubes. The lexicographers and grammarians do not appear to have accurately discriminated between these two words.

[264] The words in the text are “vicies centum millia” and “quinquies millia.”

[265] Archimedes estimated that the diameter of a circle is to its circumference as 1 to 3·1416; Hutton’s Dict. in loco. Ptolemy states it to be precisely as 1 to 3; Magn. Const. i. 12.

[266] The author’s reasoning is founded upon the supposition of the length of the sun’s path round the earth being twelve times greater than that of the moon’s; the orbit therefore would be twelve times greater and the radius in the same proportion.

[267] “Non inter Lunam et Saturnum, sed inter Lunam et cœlum affixarum stellarum, medium esse Solem modo dixerat. Quam parum sui meminit!” Alexandre in Lem. i. 291.

[268] “Qui computandi modus plurimum habet verecundiæ et modestiæ, quum ibi sistit, nec ulterius progreditur.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 292.

[269] “... ad Saturni circulum addito Signiferi ipsius intervallo, ...”

[270] We may remark, that our author, for the most part, adopts the opinions of Aristotle respecting comets and meteors of all kinds, while he pays but little attention to those of his contemporary Seneca, which however, on some points, would appear to be more correct. See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 244. Under the title of comets he includes, not only those bodies which are permanent and move in regular orbits, but such as are transient, and are produced from various causes, the nature of which is not well understood. See Aristotle, Meteor. lib. i. cap. 6, 7, and Seneca, Nat. Quæst. lib. 7, and Manilius, i. 807 et seq.

[271] a κόμη, coma.

[272] a πωγωνίος, barbatus. Most of these terms are employed by Aristotle and by Seneca.

[273] ab ἀκόντιον, jaculum.

[274] a ξίφος, ensis.

[275] a δίσκος, orbis.

[276] a πίθος, dolium. Seneca describes this species as “magnitudo vasti rotundique ignis dolio similis;” Nat. Quæst. lib. i. § 14. p. 964.

[277] a κέρας, cornu.

[278] a λαμπὰς, fax.

[279] ab ἵππος, equus. Seneca mentions the fax, the jaculum, and the lampas among the prodigies that preceded the civil wars; Phars. i. 528 et seq.

[280] Alexandre remarks, that these dates do not correspond, and adds, “Desperandum est de Pliniana chronologia; nec satis interdum scio, utrum librarios, an scriptorem ipsum incusem,....” Lemaire, i. 295. According to the most approved modern chronology, the middle of the 109th olympiad corresponds to the 211th year of the City.

[281] “errantium modo;” this may mean, that they move in orbits like those of the planets and exhibit the same phænomena, or simply that they change their situation with respect to the fixed stars.

[282] Seneca remarks on this point, “Placet igitur nostris (Stoicis) cometas ... denso aëri creari. Ideo circa Septemtrionem frequentissime apparent, quia illic plurimi est aëris frigor.” Quæst. Nat. i. 7. Aristotle, on the contrary, remarks that comets are less frequently produced in the northern part of the heavens; Meteor. lib. i. cap. 6. p. 535.

[283] Ubi supra.

[284] See Aristotle, ut supra, p. 537.

[285] “Videtur is non cometes fuisse, sed meteorus quidam ignis;” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 296.

[286] Virgil, Geor. i. 488 et seq., Manilius, i. 904 et seq., and Lucan, i. 526 et seq., all speak of the comets and meteors that were observed previous to the civil wars between Pompey and Cæsar. In reference to the existence of a comet about the time of Julius Cæsar, Playfair remarks, that Halley supposed the great comet of 1680 to have been the same that appeared in the year 44 A.C., and again in Justinian’s time, 521 P.C., and also in 1106; Elem. Nat. Phil. ii. 197, 198. See Ptolemy’s Cent. Dict. no. 100, for the opinion, that comets presented an omen especially unfavourable to kings. To this opinion the following passage in the Paradise Lost obviously refers; “And with fear of change perplexes monarchs.”

[287] Seneca refers to the four comets that were seen, after the death of Cæsar, in the time of Augustus, of Claudius, and of Nero; Quæst. Nat. i. 7. Suetonius mentions the comet which appeared previous to the death of Claudius, cap. 46, and Tacitus that before the death of Nero, Ann. xiv. 22.

[288] “A Julio Cæsare. Is enim paulo ante obitum collegium his ludis faciendis instituerat, confecto Veneris templo;” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 299. Jul. Obsequens refers to a “stella crinita,” which appeared during the celebration of these games, cap. 128.

[289] “Hoc est, hora fere integra ante solis occasum;” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 299.

[290] All these circumstances are detailed by Suetonius, in Julio, § 88. p. 178.

[291] “terris.”

[292] Seneca remarks, “... quidam nullos esse cometas existimant, sed species illorum per repercussionem vicinorum siderum,... Quidam aiunt esse quidem, sed habere cursus suos et post certa lustra in conspectum mortalium exire.” He concludes by observing, “Veniet tempus, quo ista quæ nunc latent, in lucem dies extrahat, et longioris diei diligentia;” Nat. Quæst. lib. 7. § 19. p. 807.

[293] For some account of Hipparchus, see note [189], p. 37.

[294] Nothing is known respecting the nature of these instruments, nor have we any means of forming even a conjecture upon the subject.

[295] The terms “faces,” “lampades,” “bolides,” and “trabes,” literally torches, lamps, darts, and beams, which are employed to express different kinds of meteors, have no corresponding words in English which would correctly designate them.

[296] From this account it would appear, that the “fax” was what we term a falling star. “Meteora ista, super cervices nostras transeuntia, diversaque a stellis labentibus, modo aërolithis ascribenda sunt, modo vaporibus incensis aut electrica vi prognata videntur, et quamvis frequentissime recurrant, explicatione adhuc incerta indigent.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 302.

[297] Seneca refers to this meteor; “Vidimus non semel flammam ingenti pilæ specie, quæ tamen in ipso cursu suo dissipata est ... nec Germanici mors sine tali demonstratione fuit;” Nat. Quæst, lib. i. cap. 1. p. 683.

[298] This meteor is mentioned by Dion Cassius, lib. xlv. p. 278, but is described by him as a lampas.

[299] We may presume that the trabes are, for the most part, to be referred to the aurora borealis. The chasma and the appearances described in the twenty-seventh chapter are probably varieties of this meteor. On these phænomena we have the following remarks by Seneca: “Lucem in aëre, seu quamdam albedinem, angustam quidem, sed oblongam, de noctu quandoque visam, sereno cœlo, si parallelo situ sit, Trabem vocant; si perpendiculari, Columnam; si, cum cuspide Bolida, sive Jaculum.” Nat. Quæst. vii. 4, and again, vii. 5, “Trabes autem non transcurrunt nec prætervolant, ut faces, sed commorantur, et in eadem parte cœli collucent.”

[300] Seneca describes this meteor, ubi supra, i. 14. “Sunt chasmata, cum aliquando cœli spatium discedit, et flammam dehiscens velut in abdito ostentat. Colores quoque horum omnium plurimi sunt. Quidam ruboris acerrimi, quidam evanidæ et levis flammæ, quidam candidæ lucis, quidam micantes, quidam æquabiliter et sine eruptionibus aut radiis fulvi.” Aristotle’s account of chasmata is contained in his Meteor. lib. i. cap. 5. p. 534.

[301] The meteor here referred to is probably a peculiar form of the aurora borealis, which occasionally assumes a red colour. See the remarks of Fouché, in Ajasson, i. 382.

[302] The doctrine of the author appears to be, that the prodigies are not the cause, but only the indication of the events which succeed them. This doctrine is referred to by Seneca; “Videbimus an certus omnium rerum ordo ducatur, et alia aliis ita complexa sint, ut quod antecedit, aut causa sit sequentium aut signum.” Nat. Quæst. i. 1.

[303] It would appear that, in this passage, two phænomena are confounded together; certain brilliant stars, as, for example, Venus, which have been occasionally seen in the day-time, and the formation of different kinds of halos, depending on certain states of the atmosphere, which affect its transparency.

[304] This occurrence is mentioned by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. i. 2; he enters into a detailed explanation of the cause; also by V. Paterculus, ii. 59, and by Jul. Obsequens, cap. 128. We can scarcely doubt of the reality of the occurrence, as these authors would not have ventured to relate what, if not true, might have been so easily contradicted.

[305] The term here employed is “arcus,” which is a portion only of a circle or “orbis.” But if we suppose that the sun was near the horizon, a portion only of the halo would be visible, or the condition of the atmosphere adapted for forming the halo might exist in one part only, so that a portion of the halo only would be obscured.

[306] The dimness or paleness of the sun, which is stated by various writers to have occurred at the time of Cæsar’s death, it is unnecessary to remark, was a phænomenon totally different from an eclipse, and depending on a totally different cause.

[307] Aristotle, Meteor. lib. iii. cap. 2. p. 575, cap. 6. p. 582, 583, and Seneca, Quæst. Nat. lib. i. § 11, describe these appearances under the title which has been retained by the moderns of παρήλια. Aristotle remarks on their cause as depending on the refraction (ἀνάκλασις) of the sun’s rays. He extends the remark to the production of halos (ἅλως) and the rainbow, ubi supra.

[308] This occurrence is referred to by Livy, xli. 21.

[309] This meteor has been named παρασελήνη; they are supposed to depend upon the same cause with the Parhelia. A phænomenon of this description is mentioned by Jul. Obsequens, cap. 92, and by Plutarch, in Marcellus, ii. 360. In Shakspeare’s King John the death of Prince Arthur is said to have been followed by the ominous appearance of five moons.

[310] This phænomenon must be referred to the aurora borealis. See Livy, xxviii. 11. and xxix. 14.

[311] “clypei.”

[312] Probably an aërolite. Jul. Obsequens describes a meteor as “orbis clypei similis,” which was seen to pass from west to east, cap. 105.

[313] “ceu nubilo die.”

[314] It would be difficult to reconcile this phænomenon with any acknowledged atmospherical phenomenon.

[315] Perhaps the phænomena here alluded to ought to be referred to some electric action; but they are stated too generally to admit of our forming more than a conjecture on the subject. Virgil refers to the occurrence of storms of wind after the appearance of a falling star; Geor. i. 265-6.

[316] These phænomena are admitted to be electrical; they are referred to by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. i. 1. This appearance is noticed as of frequent occurrence in the Mediterranean, where it is named the fire of St. Elmo; see Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 311, and Fouché in Ajasson, ii. 382.

[317] Perhaps this opinion may be maintained on the principle, that, when there is a single luminous appearance only, it depends upon the discharge of a quantity of electrical fluid in a condensed state; its effects are, in this case, those that would follow from a stroke of lightning.

[318] This is said by Livy to have occurred to Servius Tullius while he was a child; lib. i. cap. 39; and by Virgil to Ascanius, Æn. ii. 632-5.

[319] “Ut circumagendo balistæ vel fundæ impetus augetur.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 313.

[320] “sed assidue rapta (natura) convolvitur, et circa terram immenso rerum causas globo ostendit, subinde per nubes cœlum aliud obtexens.” On the words “immenso globo,” Alexandre has the following comment: “Immensis cœli fornicibus appicta sidera, dum circumvolvitur, terris ostendit;” and on the words “cœlum aliud,” “obductæ scilicet nubes falsum quasi cœlum vero prætexunt.” Lemaire, i. 313.

[321] The author probably means to speak of all the atmospheric phænomena that have been mentioned above.

[322] Marcus has made some remarks on this subject which may be read with advantage; Ajasson, ii. 245-6.

[323] The diminutive of Sus.

[324] Ab ὕω, pluo.

[325] The Hædi were in the constellation Auriga.

[326] We have the same account of the Oryx in Ælian, lib. vii. cap. 8.

[327] Our author again refers to this opinion, viii. 63, and it was generally adopted by the ancients; but it appears to be entirely unfounded.

[328] “cum tempestatibus confici sidus intelligimus.”

[329] “afflantur.” On this term Hardouin remarks, “Siderantur. Sideratio morbi genus est, partem aliquam corporis, ipsumque sæpe totum corpus percutientis subito: quod quum repentino eveniat impetu, e cœlo vi quadam sideris evenire putatur.” Lemaire, i. 317.

[330] Cicero alludes to these opinions in his treatise De Divin. ii. 33; see also Aul. Gellius, ix. 7.

[331] The heliotropium of the moderns has not the property here assigned to it, and it may be doubted whether it exists in any plant, except in a very slight and imperfect degree: the subject will be considered more fully in a subsequent part of the work, xxii. 29, where the author gives a more particular account of the heliotrope.

[332] “conchyliorum;” this term appears to have been specifically applied to the animal from which the Tyrian dye was procured.

[333] “soricum fibras;” Alexandre remarks on these words, “fibras jecoris intellige, id est, lobos infimos ...;” Lemaire, i. 318; but I do not see any ground for this interpretation.

[334] It does not appear from what source our author derived this number; it is considerably greater than that stated by Ptolemy and the older astronomers. See the remarks of Hardouin and of Brotier; Lemaire. i. 319.

[335] The Vergiliæ or Pleiades are not in the tail of the Bull, according to the celestial atlas of the moderns.

[336] “Septemtriones.”

[337] The doctrine of Aristotle on the nature and formation of mists and clouds is contained in his treatises De Meteor. lib. i. cap. 9. p. 540, and De Mundo, cap. 4. p. 605. He employs the terms ἀτμὶς, νέφος, and νεφέλη, which are translated vapor, nubes and nebula, respectively. The distinction, however, between the two latter does not appear very clearly marked either in the Greek or the Latin, the two Greek words being indiscriminately applied to either of the Latin terms.

[338] It is doubtful how far this statement is correct; see the remarks of Hardouin, Lem. i. 320.

[339] The words in the original are respectively fulmen and fulgetrum; Seneca makes a similar distinction between fulmen and fulguratio: “Fulguratio est late ignis explicitus; fulmen est coactus ignis et impetu jactus.” Nat. Quæst. lib. ii. cap. 16. p. 706.

[340] “Præsertim ex tribus superioribus planetis, uti dictum est, cap. 18.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 322.

[341] Our author’s opinion respecting the origin of winds nearly agrees with that of Aristotle; “nihil ut aliud ventus (ἄνεμος) sit, nisi aër multus fluctuans et compressus, qui etiam spiritus (πνεῦμα) appellatur;” De Meteor. This treatise contains a full account of the phænomena of winds. Seneca also remarks, “Ventus est aër fluens;” Nat. Quæst. lib. 3 & 5.

[342] Aristotle informs us, that the winds termed apogæi (ἀπόγαιοι) proceed from a marshy and moist soil; De Mundo, cap. 4. p. 605. For the origin and meaning of the terms here applied to the winds, see the remarks of Hardouin and Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 323.

[343] This is mentioned by Pomp. Mela.

[344] “In domibus etiam multis manu facta inclusa opacitate conceptacula....” Some of the MSS. have madefacta for manu facta, and this reading has been adopted by Lemaire; but nearly all the editors, as Dalechamps, Laët, Grovonius, Poincinet and Ajasson, retain the former word.

[345] The terms in the original are “flatus” and “ventus.”

[346] “illos (flatus) statos atque perspirantes.”

[347] “qui non aura, non procella, sed mares appellatione quoque ipsa venti sunt.” This passage cannot be translated into English, from our language not possessing the technical distinction of genders, as depending on the termination of the substantives.

[348] “Septem nimirum errantibus.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 306.

[349] In his account and nomenclature of the winds, Pliny has, for the most part, followed Aristotle, Meteor. lib. ii. cap. 4. pp. 558-560, and cap. 6. pp. 563-565. The description of the different winds by Seneca is not very different, but where it does not coincide with Aristotle’s, our author has generally preferred the former; see Nat. Quæst. lib. 5. We have an account of the different winds, as prevailing at particular seasons, in Ptolemy, De Judiciis Astrol. 1. 9. For the nomenclature and directions of the winds, we may refer to the remarks of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 328 et seq.

[350] Odyss. v. 295, 296.

[351] In giving names to the different winds, the author designates the points of the compass whence they proceed, by the place where the sun rises or sets, at the different periods of the year. The following are the terms which he employs:—“Oriens æquinoctialis,” the place where the sun rises at the equinox, i. e. the East. “Oriens brumalis,” where he rises on the shortest day, the S.E. “Occasus brumalis,” where he sets on the shortest day, the S.W. “Occasus æquinoctialis,” where he sets at the equinox, the W. “Occasus solstitialis,” where he sets on the longest day, the N.W. “Exortus solstitialis,” where he rises on the longest day, the N.E. “Inter septemtrionem et occasum solstitialem,” between N. and N.W., N.N.W. “Inter aquilonem et exortum æquinoctialem,” between N. and N.E., N.N.E. “Inter ortum brumalem et meridiem,” between S. and S.E., S.S.E. “Inter meridiem et hybernum occidentem,” between S. and S.W., S.S.W.

[352] “Quod sub sole nasci videtur.”

[353] This name was probably derived from the town Vulturnum in Campania.

[354] Seneca informs us, that what the Latins name Subsolanus, is named by the Greeks Ἀφηλιώτης; Quæst. Nat. lib. 5. § 16. p. 764.

[355] “quia favet rebus nascentibus.”

[356] “... semper spirantes frigora Cauri.” Virgil, Geor. iii. 356.

[357] The eight winds here mentioned will bear the following relation to our nomenclature: Septemtrio, N.; Aquilo, N.E.; Subsolanus, E.; Vulturnus, S.E.; Auster, S.; Africus, N.W.; Favonius, W.; and Corus, N.W.

[358] The four winds here mentioned, added to eight others, making, in the whole, twelve, will give us the following card:—

N. Septemtrio. N.N.E. Boreas or Aquilo. E.N.E. Cæcias. E. Apeliotes or Subsolanus. E.S.E. Eurus or Vulturnus. S.S.E. Euronotus or Phœnices. S. Notos or Auster. S.S.W. Libonotos. W.S.W. Libs or Africus. W. Zephyrus or Favonius. W.N.W. Argestes or Corus. N.N.W. Thrascias.

We are informed by Alexandre, Lemaire, i. 330, that there is an ancient dial plate in the Vatican, consisting of twelve sides, in which the names of the twelve winds are given both in Greek and in Latin. They differ somewhat from those given above, both absolutely and relatively; they are as follows:—

Ἀπαρκτίας, Septemtrio. Βορέας, Aquilo. Καικίας, Vulturnus. Ἀφηλιώτης, Solanus. Εὖρος, Eurus. Εὐρόνοτος, Euronotus. Νότος, Auster. Λιβόνοτος, Austroafricus. Λὶψ, Africus. Ζέφυρος, Zephyrus. Ἰάπυξ, Corus. Θρασκίας, Circius.

[359] This wind must have been N.N.W.; it is mentioned by Strabo, iv. 182; A. Gellius, ii. 22; Seneca, Nat. Quæst. v. 17; and again by our author, xvii. 2.

[360] We may learn the opinions of the Romans on the subject of this chapter from Columella, xi. 2.

[361] corresponding to the 8th day of the month.

[362] ... lustro sequenti ...; “tribus annis sequentibus.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 334.

[363] corresponding to the 22nd of February.

[364] a χελιδὼν, hirundo.

[365] This will be either on March 2nd or on February 26th, according as we reckon from December the 21st, the real solstitial day, or the 17th, when, according to the Roman calendar, the sun is said to enter Capricorn.

[366] “quasi Avicularem dixeris.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 334.

[367] Corresponding to the 10th of May.

[368] According to the Roman calendar, this corresponds to the 20th July, but, according to the text, to the 17th. Columella says, that the sun enters Leo on the 13th of the Calends of August; xi. 2.

[369] “quasi præcursores;” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 335. Cicero refers to these winds in one of his letters to Atticus; xiv. 6.

[370] ἐτησίαι, ab ἔτος, annus.

[371] This will be on the 13th of September, as, according to our author, xviii. 24, the equinox is on the 24th.

[372] This corresponds to the 11th of November; forty-four days before this will be the 29th of September.

[373] Or Halcyonides. This topic is considered more at length in a subsequent part of the work; x. 47.

[374] The author, as it appears, portions out the whole of the year into fourteen periods, during most of which certain winds are said to blow, or, at least, to be decidedly prevalent. Although the winds of Italy are less irregular than those of England, Pliny has considerably exaggerated the real fact.

[375] On this subject the reader may peruse the remarks of Seneca, Nat. Quæst. v. 18, written in his style of flowery declamation.

[376] The greatest part of the remarks on the nature of the winds, in this chapter, would appear to be taken from Aristotle’s Treatise De Meteor., and it may be stated generally, that our author has formed his opinions more upon those of the Greek writers than upon actual observation.

[377] 9 A.M.

[378] In the last chapter Ornithias is said to be a west wind.

[379] This obviously depends upon the geographical situation of the northern parts of Africa, to which the observation more particularly applies, with respect to the central part of the Continent and the Mediterranean. See the remarks of Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 340.

[380] The influence of the fourth day of the moon is referred to by Virgil, Geor. i. 432 et seq. “Sin ortu quarto,” &c.

[381] This refers to the genders of the names of the winds, analogous to the remark in note [346], p. 71.

[382] Eudoxus was a native of Cnidus, distinguished for his knowledge in astrology and science generally; he was a pupil of Plato, and is referred to by many of the ancients; see Hardouin’s Index Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 187, and Enfield’s Hist. of Phil. i. 412, with the very copious list of references.

[383] “flatus repentini.”

[384] Cicero refers to an opinion very similar to this as maintained by the Stoics; De Div. ii. 44.

[385] “procella.”

[386] “ἐκ νέφους, ex nube, erumpente spiritu.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 343. Perhaps it most nearly corresponds to the term “hurricane.”

[387] a τύφω, incendo, ardeo. We have no distinct term in our language which corresponds to the account of the typhon; it may be considered as a combination of a whirlwind and a hurricane.

[388] Plutarch, Sympos. Quæst. iii. 5, refers to the extraordinary power of vinegar in extinguishing fire, but he ascribes this effect, not to its coldness, but to the extreme tenuity of its parts. On this Alexandre remarks, “Melius factum negassent Plinius et Plutarchus, quam causam inanem rei absurdissimæ excogitarent.” Lemaire, i. 344.

[389] The terms here employed are respectively “turbines,” “presteres,” and “vortices.”

[390] πρηστὴρ, a πρήθω, incendo. Seneca calls it “igneus turbo;” Nat. Quæst. v. 13. p. 762. See also Lucretius, vi. 423.

[391] Plutarch.

[392] A water-spout. We have a description of this phænomenon in Lucretius, vi. 425 et seq.

[393] “fulmen.”

[394] This has been pointed out by Alexandre, Lemaire, i. 346, as one of the statements made by our author, which, in consequence of his following the Greek writers, applies rather to their climate than to that of Italy. The reader may form a judgement of the correctness of this remark by comparing the account given by Aristotle and by Seneca; the former in Meteor. iii. 1. p. 573, 574, the latter in Nat. Quæst. ii. 32 et seq.

[395] “fulgur.” The account of the different kinds of thunder seems to be principally taken from Aristotle; Meteor. iii. 1. Some of the phænomena mentioned below, which would naturally appear to the ancients the most remarkable, are easily explained by a reference to their electrical origin.

[396] “quod clarum vocant.”

[397] This account seems to be taken from Aristotle, Meteor. iii. 1. p. 574; see also Seneca, Nat. Quæst. ii. 31. p. 711. We have an account of the peculiar effects of thunder in Lucretius, vi. 227 et seq.

[398] This effect may be easily explained by the agitation into which the female might have been thrown. The title of “princeps Romanarum,” which is applied to Marcia, has given rise to some discussion among the commentators, for which see the remarks of Hardouin and Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 348.

[399] Sometimes a partial thunder-cloud is formed, while the atmosphere generally is perfectly clear, or, as Hardouin suggests, the effect might have been produced by a volcanic eruption. See Lemaire, i. 348.

[400] Seneca gives us an account of the opinions of the Tuscans; Nat. Quæst. ii. 32; and Cicero refers to the “libri fulgurales” of the Etrurians; De Divin. i. 72.

[401] According to Hardouin, “Summanus est Deus summus Manium, idem Orcus et Pluto dictus.” Lemaire, i. 349; he is again referred to by our author, xxix. 14; Ovid also mentions him, Fast. vi. 731, with the remark, “quisquis is est.”

[402] The city of Bolsena is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Volsinium. From the nature of the district in which it is situate, it is perhaps more probable, that the event alluded to in the test was produced by a volcanic eruption, attended by lightning, than by a simple thunder-storm.

[403] “Vocant et familiaria ... quæ prima fiunt familiam suam cuique indepto.” This remark is explained by the following passage from Seneca; Nat. Quæst. ii. 47. “Hæc sunt fulmina, quæ primo accepto patrimonio, in novo hominis aut urbis statu fiunt.” This opinion, as well as most of those of our author, respecting the auguries to be formed from thunder, is combated by Seneca; ubi supra, § 48.

[404] This opinion is also referred to by Seneca in the following passage; “privata autem fulmina negant ultra decimum annum, publica ultra trigesimum posse deferri;” ubi supra.

[405] “in deductione oppidorum;” according to Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 350, “quum in oppida coloniæ deducuntur.”

[406] The following conjecture is not without a degree of probability; “Ex hoc multisque aliis auctorum locis, plerique conjiciunt Etruscis auguribus haud ignotam fuisse vim electricam, licet eorum arcana nunquam divulgata sint.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 350.

[407] Alexandre remarks in this place, “An morbus aliquis fuit, qui primum in agros debacchatus, jam urbi minabatur, forsitan ab aëris siccitate natus, quem advenientes cum procella imbres discusserunt?” Lemaire, i. 350.

[408] For a notice of Piso, see Lemaire, i. 208.

[409] We have an account of the death of Tullus Hostilius in Livy, i. 31.

[410] “ab eliciendo, seu quod precationibus cœlo evocaretur, id nomen traxit.” This is confirmed by the following lines from Ovid, Fast. iii. 327, 328:—

“Eliciunt cœlo te, Jupiter: unde minores Nunc quoque te celebrant, Eliciumque vocant.”

[411] “beneficiis abrogare vires.”

[412] “ictum autem et sonitum congruere, ita modulante natura.” This remark is not only incorrect, but appears to be at variance both with what precedes and what follows.

[413] The following remark of Seneca may be referred to, both as illustrating our author and as showing how much more correct the opinions of Seneca were than his own, on many points of natural philosophy; “... necesse est, ut impetus fulminis et præmittat spiritus, et agat ante se, et a tergo trahat ventum....;” Nat. Quæst. lib. ii. § 20. p. 706.

[414] “quoniam læva parte mundi ortus est.” On this passage Hardouin remarks; “a Deorum sede, quum in meridiem spectes, ad sinistram sunt partes mundi exorientes;” Lemaire, i. 353. Poinsinet enters into a long detail respecting opinions of the ancients on this point and the circumstances which induced them to form their opinions; i. 34 et seq.

[415] See Cicero de Divin. ii. 42.

[416] “Junonis quippe templum fulmine violatum ostendit non a Jove, non a Deis mitti fulmina.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 354. The consulate of Scaurus was in the year of Rome 638. Lucan, i. 155, and Horace, Od. i. 2. refer to the destruction of temples at Rome by lightning.

[417] Obviously because faint flashes are more visible in the night.

[418] We have an explanation of this peculiar opinion in Tertullian, as referred to by Hardouin, Lemaire. i. 355; “Qui de cœlo tangitur, salvus est, ut nullo igne decinerescat.”

[419] Although it has been thought necessary by M. Fée, in the notes to Ajasson’s trans., ii. 384, 385, to enter into a formal examination of this opinion of the author’s, I conceive that few of our readers will agree with him in this respect.

[420] Suetonius informs us, that Augustus always wore a seal’s skin for this purpose; Octavius, § 90.

[421] The eagle was represented by the ancients with a thunderbolt in its claws.

[422] There is strong evidence for the fact, that, at different times, various substances have fallen from the atmosphere, sometimes apparently of mineral, and, at other times, of animal or vegetable origin. Some of these are now referred to those peculiar bodies termed aërolites, the nature and source of which are still doubtful, although their existence is no longer so. These bodies have, in other instances, been evidently discharged from distant volcanoes, but there are many cases where the substance could not be supposed to have proceeded from a volcano, and where, in the present state of our knowledge, it appears impossible to offer an explanation of their nature, or the source whence they are derived. We may, however, conclude, that notwithstanding the actual occurrence of a few cases of this description, a great proportion of those enumerated by the ancients were either entirely without foundation or much exaggerated. We meet with several variations of what we may presume to have been aërolites in Livy; for example, xxiv. 10, xxx. 38, xli. 9, xliii. 13, and xliv. 18, among many others. As naturally may be expected, we have many narratives of this kind in Jul. Obsequens.

[423] The same region from which lightning was supposed to proceed.

[424] We have several relations of this kind in Livy, xxiv. 10, xxxix. 46 and 56, xl. 19, and xliii. 13. The red snow which exists in certain alpine regions, and is found to depend upon the presence of the Uredo nivalis, was formerly attributed to showers of blood.

[425] This occurrence may probably be referred to an aërolite, while the wool mentioned below, i. e. a light flocculent substance, was perhaps volcanic.

[426]

Armorum sonitum toto Germania cœlo Audiit.—Virgil, Geor. i. 474, 475.

“ ... in Jovis Vicilini templo, quod in Compsano agro est, arma concrepuisse.” Livy, xxiv. 44.

[427] See Plutarch, by Langhorne; Marius, iii. 133.

[428] See Livy, iii. 5 & 10, xxxi. 12, xxxii. 9, et alibi.

[429] I have already had occasion to remark, concerning this class of phænomena, that there is no doubt of their actual occurrence, although their origin is still unexplained.

[430] The life of Anaxagoras has been written by Diogenes Laërtius. We have an ample account of him by Enfield in the General Biography, in loco; he was born B.C. 500 and died B.C. 428.

[431] There is some variation in the exact date assigned by different authors to this event; in the Chronological table in Brewster’s Encyc. vi. 420, it is said to have occurred 467 B.C.

[432] Aristotle gives us a similar account of this stone; that it fell in the daytime, and that a comet was then visible at night; Meteor. i. 7. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the authority for this fact must be referred entirely to Aristotle, without receiving any additional weight from our author. The occurrence of the comet at the same time with the aërolite must have been entirely incidental.

[433] “Deductis eo sacri lapidis causa colonis, extructoque oppido, cui nomen a colore adusto lapidis, est inditum, Potidæa. Est enim ποτὶ Dorice πρὸς, ad, apud; δαίομαι, uror.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 361. It was situated in the peninsula of Pallene, in Macedonia.

[434] The Vocontii were a people of Gallia Narbonensis, occupying a portion of the modern Dauphiné.

[435] “Manifestum est, radium Solis immissum cavæ nubi, repulsa acie in Solem, refringi.”

[436] Aristotle treats of the Rainbow much in detail, principally in his Meteor. iii. 2, 3, 4, and 5, where he gives an account of the phænomena, which is, for the most part, correct, and attempts to form a theory for them; see especially cap. 4. p. 577 et seq. In the treatise De Mundo he also refers to the same subject, and briefly sums up his doctrine with the following remark: “arcus est species segmenti solaris vel lunaris, edita in nube humida, et cava, et perpetua; quam velut in speculo intuemur, imagine relata in speciem circularis ambitûs.” cap. 4. p. 607. Seneca also treats very fully on the phænomena and theory of the Rainbow, in his Nat. Quæst. i. 3-8.

[437] Vide supra, also Meteor. iii. 2, and Seneca, Nat. Quæst. i. 3.

[438] Aristotle, Meteor. iii. 5. p. 581, observes, that the rainbow is less frequently seen in the summer, because the sun is more elevated, and that, consequently, a less portion of the arch is visible. See also Seneca, Nat. Quæst. i. 8. p. 692.

[439] Aristotle treats at some length of dew, snow, and hail, in his Meteor. i. cap. 10, 11 & 12 respectively.

[440] When water is frozen, its bulk is increased in consequence of its assuming a crystalline structure. Any diminution which may be found to have taken place in the bulk of the fluid, when thawed, must be ascribed to evaporation or to some accidental circumstance.

[441] “Velini lacus ... præcipiti cursu in gurgitem subjectum defertur, et illo aquarum lapsu, dispersis in aëra guttis humidis, ... iridis multiplicis phænomenon efficit....” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 365.

[442] We have an example in Martial, v. 34. 9, of the imprecation which has been common in all ages:

Mollia nec rigidus cespes tegat ossa, nec illi Terra gravis fueris;

and in Seneca’s Hippolytus, sub finem:

... istam terra defossam premat, Gravisque tellus impio capiti incubet.

[443] The author refers to this opinion, xxix. 23, when describing the effects of venomous animals.

[444] inertium; “ultione abstinentium,” as explained by Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 367.

[445] “Quod mortis genus a terræ meritis et benignitate valde abhorret.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 367.

[446] “Terra, inquit, sola est, e quatuor naturæ partibus sive elementis, adversus quam ingrati simus.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 368.

[447] “Est ironiæ formula. Quid, ait, feras et serpentes et venena terræ exprobramus, quæ ne ad tuendam quidem illam satis valent?” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 369.

[448] “ossa vel insepulta cum tempore tellus occultat, deprimentia pondere suo mollitam pluviis humum.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 370.

[449] “figura prima.” I may refer to the second chapter of this book, where the author remarked upon the form of the earth as perfect in all its parts, and especially adapted for its supposed position in the centre of the universe.

[450] “... si capita linearum comprehendantur ambitu;” the meaning of this passage would appear to be: if the extremities of the lines drawn from the centre of the earth to the different parts of the surface were connected together, the result of the whole would be a sphere. I must, however, remark, that Hardouin interprets it in a somewhat different manner; “Si per extremitates linearum ductarum a centro ad summos quosque vertices montium circulus exigatur.” Lemaire, i. 370.

[451] “... immensum ejus globum in formam orbis assidua circa eam mundi volubilitate cogente.” As Hardouin remarks, the word mundus is here used in the sense of cœlum. Lemaire, i. 371.

[452] As our author admits of the existence of antipodes, and expressly states that the earth is a perfect sphere, we may conclude that the resemblance to the cone of the pine is to be taken in a very general sense. How far the ancients entertained correct opinions respecting the globular figure of the earth, or rather, at what period this opinion became generally admitted, it is perhaps not easy to ascertain. The lines in the Georgics, i. 242, 243, which may be supposed to express the popular opinion in the time of Virgil, certainly do not convey the idea of a sphere capable of being inhabited in all its parts:

Hic vertex nobis semper sublimis; at illum Sub pedibus Styx atra videt, manesque profundi.

[453] “spiritus vis mundo inclusi.”

[454] “... Alpium vertices, longo tractu, nec breviore quinquaginta millibus passuum assurgere.” To avoid the apparent improbability of the author conceiving of the Alps as 50 miles high, the commentators have, according to their usual custom, exercised their ingenuity in altering the text. See Poinsinet, i. 206, 207, and Lemaire, i. 373. But the expression does not imply that he conceived them as 50 miles in perpendicular height, but that there is a continuous ascent of 50 miles to get to the summit. This explanation of the passage is adopted by Alexandre; Lemaire, ut supra. For what is known of Dicæarchus I may refer to Hardouin, Index Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 181.

[455] “coactam in verticem aquarum quoque figuram.”

[456] “aquarum nempe convexitas.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 374.

[457] “Quam quæ ad extremum mare a primis aquis.” I profess myself altogether unable to follow the author’s mode of reasoning in this paragraph, or to throw any light upon it. He would appear to be arguing in favour of the actual flatness of the surface of the ocean, whereas his previous remarks prove its convexity.

[458] Alexandre remarks on this passage, “Nempe quod remotissimos etiam fontes alat oceanus. Sed omittit Plinius vaporationis intermedia ope hoc fieri.” Lemaire, i. 376. Aristotle has written at considerable length on the origin of springs, in his Meteor. i. 13. p. 543 et seq. He argues against the opinion of those who suppose that the water of springs is entirely derived from evaporation. Seneca’s account of the origin of springs is found in his Nat. Quæst. iii. 1.

[459] The voyage which is here alluded to was probably that performed by Drusus; it is mentioned by Dio, lib. iv., Suetonius, Claud. § 1, Vel. Paterculus, ii. 106, and by Tacitus, Germ. § 34.

[460] What is here spoken of we may presume to have been that part of the German Ocean which lies to the N.W. of Denmark; the term Scythian was applied by the ancients in so very general a way, as not to afford any indication of the exact district so designated.

[461] “Sub eodem sidere;” “which lies under the same star.”

[462] The ancients conceived the Caspian to be a gulf, connected with the northern ocean. Our author gives an account of it, vi. 15.

[463] That is, of the Caspian Sea.

[464] The remarks which our author makes upon the Palus Mæotis, in the different parts of his work, ii. 112 and vi. 7, appear so inconsistent with each other, that we must suppose he indiscriminately borrowed them from various writers, without comparing their accounts, or endeavouring to reconcile them to each other. Such inaccuracies may be thought almost to justify the censure of Alexandre, who styles our author, “indiligens plane veri et falsi compilator, et ubi dissentiunt auctores, nunquam aut raro sibi constans.” Lemaire, i. 378.

[465] The son of Agrippa, whom Augustus adopted. Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 378.

[466] See Beloe’s Herodotus, ii. 393, 394, for an account of the voyage round Africa that was performed by the Phœnicians, who were sent to explore those parts by Necho king of Egypt.

[467] It is generally supposed that C. Nepos lived in the century previous to the Christian æra. Ptolemy Lathyrus commenced his reign U.C. 627 or B.C. 117, and reigned for 36 years. The references made to C. Nepos are not found in any of his works now extant.

[468] We have previously referred to Eudoxus, note [382], p. 78.

[469] We have a brief account of Antipater in Hardouin’s Index Auctorum; Lemaire, i. 162.

[470] We are informed by Alexandre that this was in the year of the City 691, the same year in which Cicero was consul; see note in Lemaire, i. 379.

[471] It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the account here given must be incorrect; the reader who may be disposed to learn the opinions of the commentators on this point, may consult the notes in Poinsinet and Lemaire in loco.

[472] Dividuo globo; “Eoas partes a vespertinis dividente oceano.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 380.

[473] “Jam primum in dimidio computari videtur.”

[474] “Cœlum;” the rigour of the climate.

[475] The division of the globe into five zones is referred to by Virgil, Geor. i. 233-239, and by Ovid, Met. i. 45, 46.

[476] “... interna maria allatrat, ...”

[477] This is considerably more than the distance in the present day. The Isthmus of Suez appears, according to the statement of the most accurate geographers, to be about 70 miles in breadth.

[478] Hæ tot portiones terræ, as Alexandre correctly remarks, “ironice dictum. Quam paucæ enim supersunt!” Lemaire, i. 383.

[479] “Mundi punctus.” This expression, we may presume, was taken from Seneca; “Hoc est illud punctum, quod inter tot gentes ferro et igni dividitur.” Nat. Quæst. i. præf. p. 681.

[480] Nostro solo adfodimus; “addimus, adjungimus, annectimus, ut una fossione aretur.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 383.

[481] “Mundi totius.”

[482] “Æquinoctii paribus horis.”

[483] Dioptra. “Græce διόπτρα, instrumentum est geometricum, un quart de cercle, quo apparentes rerum inter se distantiæ anguli apertura dijudicantur.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 384.

[484] This title does not correspond with the contents of the chapter.

[485] “Tropici duo, cum æquinoctiali circulo;” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 384.

[486] The Troglodytice of the ancients may be considered as nearly corresponding to the modern Abyssinia and Nubia.

[487] This remark is incorrect, as far as respects nearly the whole of Egypt; see the remarks of Marcus, in Ajasson, ii. 245.

[488] This is a star of the first magnitude in the southern constellation of Argo; we have a similar statement in Manilius, i. 216, 217.

[489] The commentators suppose that the star or constellation here referred to cannot be the same with what bears this name on the modern celestial atlas; vide Hardouin in loco, also Marc. in Ajasson, ut supra. The constellation of Berenice’s hair forms the subject of Catullus’s 67th poem.

[490] In Troglodytice and in Egypt.

[491] The first watch of the night was from 6 P.M. to 9; the second from 9 to midnight.

[492] According to Columella, xi. 2. 369, this was 9 Calend. Mart., corresponding to the 21st of February.

[493] “In alia adverso, in alia prono mari.” I have adopted the opinion of Alexandre, who explains the terms “adverso” and “prono,” “ascendenti ad polum,” and “ad austrum devexo;” a similar sense is given to the passage by Poinsinet and Ajasson, in their translations.

[494] “Anfractu pilæ.” See Manilius, i. 206 et seq. for a similar mode of expression.

[495] “Aut;” as Poinsinet remarks, “aut est ici pour alioqui;” and he quotes another passage from our author, xix. 3, where the word is employed in a similar manner.

[496] We may presume that the author meant to convey the idea, that the eclipses which are visible in any one country are not so in those which are situated under a different meridian. The terms “vespertinos,” “matutinos,” and “meridianos,” refer not to the time of the day, but to the situation of the eclipse, whether recurring in the western, eastern, or southern parts of the heavens.

[497] Brewster, in the art. “Chronology,” p. 415, mentions this eclipse as having taken place Sept. 21st, U.C. 331, eleven days before the battle of Arbela; while, in the same art. p. 423, the battle is said to have taken place on Oct. 2nd, eleven days after a total eclipse of the moon.

[498] It took place on the 30th of April, in the year of the City 811, A.D. 59; see Brewster, ubi supra. It is simply mentioned by Tacitus, Ann. xiv. 12, as having occurred among other prodigies which took place at this period.

[499] We have an account of Corbulo’s expedition to Armenia in Dion Cassius, lx. 19-24, but there is no mention of the eclipse or of any peculiar celestial phænomenon.

[500] The terms employed in the original are “oppositu” and “ambitu.” Alexandre’s explanation of the first is, “quum globi terraquei crassitudo interposita solis arcet radios;” and of the second, “quum nostra hujus globi pars a sole ambitur.” Lemaire, i. 389.

[501] One of these towers is mentioned by Livy, xxxiii. 48; it is said to have been situated between Acholla and Thapsus, on the sea-coast.

[502] Hardouin, according to his usual custom, employs all his learning and ingenuity to give a plausible explanation of this passage. Alexandre, as it must be confessed, with but too much reason, remarks, “Frustra desudavit Harduinus ut sanum aliquem sensum ex illis Plinii deliramentis excuteret.” He correctly refers the interval of time, which was said to occur between these signals, not to any astronomical cause, but to the necessary delay which took place in the transmission of them. He concludes, “Sed ad cursum solis hoc referre, dementiæ est. Nam ut tanta horarum differentia intersit, si moram omnem in speculandis ac transmittendis signis sustuleris, necesse erit observatores illos ultimos 135 gradibus, id est, sesquidimidio hemisphærio, a primis distare furribus. Recte igitur incredibilem Plinii credulitatem ludibrio vertit Baylius in Dictionario suo.” Lemaire, i. 389.

[503] The distance, as here stated, is about 150 miles, which he is said to have performed in nine hours, but that the same distance, in returning, required fifteen hours. We have here, as on the former occasion, a note of Hardouin’s to elucidate the statement of the author. On this Alexandre observes, “Optime; sed in tam parva locorum distantia, Elidis et Sicyonis horologia vix quinque unius horæ sexagesimis differre poterant; quare eunti ac redeunti ne discrimen quidem quadrantis horæ intererat. Ineptos igitur auctores sequitur hoc quoque loco Plinius.” Lemaire, i. 390, 391.

[504] “Vincunt spatia nocturnæ navigationis.” This expression would appear to imply, that the author conceived some physical difficulty in sailing during the night, and so it seems to be understood by Alexandre; vide not. in loco.

[505] “Vasa horoscopica.” “Vasa horoscopica appellat horologia in plano descripta, horizonti ad libellam respondentia. Vasa dicuntur, quod area in qua lineæ ducebantur, labri interdum instar et conchæ erat, cujus in margine describebantur horæ. Horoscopa, ab ὥρα et σκοπέω, hoc est, ab inspiciendis horis.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 391.

[506] These distances are respectively about 38 and 62 miles.

[507] We are not to expect any great accuracy in these estimates, and we accordingly find, that our author, when referring to the subject in his 6th book, ch. 39, makes the shadow at Ancona 1/35 greater than the gnomon, while, in Venetia, which is more northerly, he says, as in the present chapter, that the shadow and the gnomon are equal in length. See the remarks of M. Alexandre in Lemaire, ut supra.

[508] This would be about 625 miles. Strabo, ii. 114, and Lucan, ii. 587, give the same distance, which is probably nearly correct. Syene is, however, a little to the north of the tropic.

[509] This remark is not correct, as no part of this river is between the tropics. For an account of Onesicritus see Lemaire, i. 203, 204.

[510] “In meridiem umbras jaci.” M. Ajasson translates this passage, “les ombres tombent pendant quatre-vingt-dix jours sur le point central du méridien.” ii. 165. But I conceive that Holland’s version is more correct, “for 90 days’ space all the shadows are cast into the south.” i. 36. The remarks of M. Alexandre are to the same effect; “... ut bis solem in zenitho haberet (Ptolemais), Maii mensis et Augusti initio; interea vero, solem e septemtrione haberet.” Lemaire, i. 393.

[511] About 625 miles.

[512] These days correspond to the 8th of May and the 4th of August respectively.

[513] There is considerable uncertainty respecting the identity of this mountain; our author refers to it in a subsequent part of his work, where it is said to be in the country of the Monedes and Suari; vi. 22. See the note of Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 394.

[514] Our author, in a subsequent part of his work, vi. 23, describes the island of Patale as situated near the mouth of the Indus; he again refers to it, xii. 25. His account of the position of the sun does not, however, apply to this place.

[515] If we may suppose this to have been actually the case, we might calculate the time of the year when Alexander visited this place and the length of his stay.

[516] We may presume, that our author means to say no more than that, in those places, they are occasionally invisible; literally the observation would not apply to any part of India.

[517] ἄσκια, shadowless.

[518] If this really were the case, it could have no relation to the astronomical position of the country.

[519] “In contrarium,” contrary to what takes place at other times, i. e. towards the south. This observation is not applicable to the whole of this country, as its northern and southern parts differ from each other by seven or eight degrees of latitude. For an account of Eratosthenes see Lemaire, i. 186.

[520] “Hora duodecim in partes, ut as in totidem uncias dividebatur. Octonas igitur partes horæ antiquæ, sive bessem, ut Martianus vocat, nobis probe repræsentant horarum nostratium 40 sexagesimæ, quas minutas vocamus.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 396.

[521] For a notice of Pytheas see Lemaire, i. 210. He was a geographer and historian who lived in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus; but his veracity does not appear to have been highly estimated by his contemporaries.

[522] The Thule of Pliny has been generally supposed to be the Shetland Isles. What is here asserted respecting the length of the day, as well as its distance from Britain, would indeed apply much more correctly to Iceland than to Shetland; but we have no evidence that Iceland was known to the ancients. Our author refers to the length of the day in Thule in two subsequent parts of his work, iv. 30 and vi. 36.

[523] Supposed to be Colchester in Essex; while the Mona of Pliny appears to have been Anglesea. It is not easy to conceive why the author measured the distance of Mona from Camelodunum.

[524] Chap. 6 of this book.

[525] a σκιὰ, umbra, and θηράω, sector. It has been a subject for discussion by the commentators, how far this instrument of Anaximenes is entitled to the appellation of a dial, whether it was intended to mark the hours, or to serve for some other astronomical purpose. See Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 398, 399. It has been correctly remarked by Brotier, that we have an account of a much more ancient dial in the 2nd book of Kings, xx. 9, 11.

[526] A. Gellius, iii. 3, informs us, that the question concerning the commencement of the day was one of the topics discussed by Varro, in his book “Rerum Humanarum:” this work is lost. We learn from the notes of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 399, that there are certain countries in which all these various modes of computation are still practised; the last-mentioned is the one commonly employed in Europe.

[527] It has been supposed, that in this passage the author intended to say no more than that the nights are shorter at the summer solstice than at the other parts of the year; see Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 399, 400. But to this, I conceive, it may be objected, that the words “inter ortus solis” can scarcely apply to the period while the sun is below the horizon, and that the solstices generally would seem to be opposed to the equinoxes generally. Also the words “obliquior” and “rectior” would appear to have some farther reference than merely to the length of time during which the sun is above or below the horizon.

[528] “Vibrato;” the same term is applied by Turnus to the hair of Æneas; Æn. xii. 100.

[529] “Mobilitate hebetes;” it is not easy to see the connexion between these two circumstances.

[530] There is a passage in Galen, De Temperamentis, iii. 6, which may appear to sanction the opinion of our author; “Siccos esse, quibus macra sunt crura; humidos, quibus crassa.”

[531] The latter part of the remark is correct, but the number of ferocious animals is also greater in the warmer regions; there is, in fact, a greater variety in all the productions of nature in the warmer districts of the globe, except in those particular spots where animal or vegetable life is counteracted by some local circumstances, as in many parts of Asia and Africa by the want of water.

[532] “Sensus liquidus;” Alexandre explains this expression, “judicium sanum, mens intelligendo apta.” Lemaire, i. 401.

[533] Saturn, Jupiter and Mars: see the 8th chapter of this book.

[534] “Vel quando meant cum Sole in conjunctione cum eo, vel quando cum eo conveniunt in aspectu, maxime vero in quadrato, qui fit, quum distant a Sole quarta mundi sive cœli parte.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 401.

[535] “Ut urbem et tecta custodirent.” This anecdote is referred to by Cicero, who employs the words “ut urbem et tecta linquerent.” De Divin. i. 112.

[536] This anecdote is also referred to by Cicero, de Div. ii.

[537] It has been observed that earthquakes, as well as other great convulsions of nature, are preceded by calms; it has also been observed that birds and animals generally exhibit certain presentiments of the event, by something peculiar in their motions or proceedings; this circumstance is mentioned by Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8, and by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 12.

[538] It is scarcely necessary to remark, that this supposed resemblance or analogy is entirely without foundation. The phænomena of earthquakes are described by Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. 4, and Meteor. ii. 7 and 8; also by Seneca in various parts of the 6th book of his Quæst. Nat.

[539] On this subject we shall find much curious matter in Aristotle’s Treatise de Mundo, cap. 4.

[540] Poinsinet enters into a long detail of some of the most remarkable earthquakes that have occurred, from the age of Pliny to the period when he wrote, about fifty years ago; i. 249. 2.

[541] See Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8.

[542] See Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8, and Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 13.

[543] “Fervente;” “Fremitum aquæ ferventis imitante.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 404.

[544] The reader will scarcely require to be informed, that many of the remarks in the latter part of this chapter are incorrect. Our author has principally followed Aristotle, whose treatise on meteorology, although abounding in curious details, is perhaps one of the least correct of his works.

[545] This observation is taken from Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8.

[546] Phænomena of this kind have been frequently noticed, and are not difficult of explanation.

[547] “In iisdem;” “Iidem, inquit, putei inclusum terra spiritum libero meatu emittentes, terræ motus avertunt.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 406.

[548] “Quæ pendent.” M. Ajasson translates this passage, “qui sont comme suspendues.” Hardouin’s explanation is, “Structis fornice cameris imposita ædificia intelligit; quod genus camerarum spiramenta plerumque habet non pauca, quibus exeat ad libertatem aer.” Lemaire, i. 407.

[549] Many of these circumstances are referred to by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 30. On the superior security of brick buildings, M. Alexandre remarks, “Muri e lateribus facti difficilius quam cæteri dehiscunt, unde fit ut in urbibus muniendis id constructionum genus plerumque præferatur. Ex antiquæ Italiæ palatiis templisve nihil fere præter immensas laterum moles hodie superest.”

[550] These remarks upon the different kinds of shocks are probably taken from Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8.

[551] This observation is also in Aristotle, ii. 8.

[552] In the year of the city 663; A.C. 90.

[553] In the year of the city 821; A.D. 68.

[554] The continuation of Aufidius Bassus’ history; our author refers to it in the first book.

[555] We have no authentic accounts of this mutual change of place between two portions of land, nor can we conceive of any cause capable of effecting it. Our author mentions this circumstance again in book xvii. ch. 38.

[556] See Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8.

[557] “Eodem videlicet spiritu infusi (maris) ac terræ residentis sinu recepti.”

[558] U.C. 770; A.D. 17. We have an account of this event in Strabo, xii. 57; in Tacitus, Ann. ii. 47; and in the Universal History, xiv. 129, 130. We are informed by Hardouin, that coins are still in existence which were struck to commemorate the liberality of the emperor on the occasion, inscribed “civitatibus Asiæ restitutis.” Lemaire, i. 410.

[559] U.C. 537; A.C. 217.

[560] This circumstance is mentioned by Livy, xxii. 5, and by Floras, ii. 6.

[561] “Præsagiis, inquit, quam ipsa clade, sæviores sunt terræ motus.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 410.

[562] This phænomenon is distinctly referred to by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 21. It presents us with one of those cases, where the scientific deductions of the moderns have been anticipated by the speculations of the ancients.

[563] Odyss. iv. 354-357; see also Arist. Meteor. i. 14; Lucan, x. 509-511; Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 26; Herodotus, ii. 4, 5; and Strabo, i. 59.

[564] These form, at this day, the Monte Circello, which, it is remarked, rises up like an island, out of the Pontine marshes. It seems, however, difficult to conceive how any action of the sea could have formed these marshes.

[565] See Strabo, i. 58.

[566] ii. 5. et alibi.

[567] The plain in which this river flows, forming the windings from which it derives its name, appears to have been originally an inlet of the sea, which was gradually filled up with alluvial matter.

[568] “Paria secum faciente natura.” This appears to have been a colloquial or idiomatic expression among the Romans. See Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 412.

[569] It may be remarked, that the accounts of modern travellers and geologists tend to confirm the opinion of the volcanic origin of many of the islands of the Archipelago.

[570] Brotier remarks, that, according to the account of Herodotus, this island existed previous to the date here assigned to it; Lemaire, i. 412, 413: it is probable, however, that the same name was applied to two islands, one at least of which was of volcanic origin.

[571] U.C. 517, A.C. 237; and U.C. 647, A.C. 107; respectively.

[572] Hiera, Automata; ab ἱερὰ, sacer, et αὐτομάτη, sponte nascens. Respecting the origin of these islands there would appear to be some confusion in the dates, which it is difficult to reconcile with each other; it is, I conceive, impossible to decide whether this depends upon an error of our author himself, or of his transcribers.

[573] July 25th, U.C. 771; A.C. 19.

[574] U.C. 628; A.C. 125.

[575] See Ovid, Metam. xv. 290, 291; also Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 29.

[576] This event is mentioned by Thucydides, lib. 3, Smith’s Trans, i. 293; and by Diodorus, xii. 7, Booth’s Trans. p. 287, as the consequence of an earthquake; but the separation was from Locris, not from Eubœa. See the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 415.

[577] It is somewhat uncertain to what island our author applied this name; see the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire.

[578] See Ovid, Metam. xv. 287.

[579] It is not improbable, from the situation and geological structure of the places here enumerated, that many of the changes mentioned above may have actually occurred; but there are few of them of which we have any direct evidence.

[580] This celebrated narrative of Plato is contained in his Timæus, Op. ix. p. 296, 297; it may be presumed that it was not altogether a fiction on the part of the author, but it is, at this time, impossible to determine what part of it was derived from ancient traditions and what from the fertile stores of his own imagination. It is referred to by various ancient writers, among others by Strabo. See also the remarks of Brotier in Lemaire, i. 416, 417.

[581] Many of these changes on the surface of the globe, and others mentioned by our author in this part of his work, are alluded to by Ovid, in his beautiful abstract of the Pythagorean doctrine, Metam. xv. passim.

[582] See Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8, and Strabo, i. For some account of the places mentioned in this chapter the reader may consult the notes of Hardouin in loco.

[583] Poinsinet, as I conceive correctly, makes the following clause the commencement of the next chapter.

[584] See Ovid, Metam. xv. 293-295; also the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 418.

[585] “Spatium intelligit, fretumve, quo Sicilia nunc ab Italia dispescitur.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 419.

[586] See Strabo, ix.

[587] “Spiracula.”

[588] “Busta urbium.”

[589] “Suboriens,” as M. Alexandre explains it, “renascens;” Lemaire, i. 420.

[590] “Scrobibus;” “aut quum terra fossis excavatur, ut in Pomptina palude, aut per naturales hiatus.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 420.

[591] This circumstance is mentioned by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 28, as occurring “pluribus Italiæ locis;” it may be ascribed to the exhalations from volcanos being raised up into the atmosphere. It does not appear that there is, at present, any cavern in Mount Soracte which emits mephitic vapours. But the circumstance of Soracte being regarded sacred to Apollo, as we learn from our author, vii. 2, and from Virgil, Æn. xi. 785, may lead us to conjecture that something of the kind may formerly have existed there.

[592] The author may probably refer to the well-known Grotto del Cane, where, in consequence of a stratum of carbonic acid gas, which occupies the lower part of the cave only, dogs and other animals, whose mouths are near the ground, are instantly suffocated.

[593] Celebrated in the well-known lines of Virgil, Æn. vii. 563 et seq., as the “sævi spiracula Ditis.”

[594] Apuleius gives us an account of this place from his own observation; De Mundo, § 729. See also Strabo, xii.

[595] See Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. iv.

[596] “Ad ingressum ambulantium, et equorum cursus, terræ quoque tremere sentiuntur in Brabantino agro, quæ Belgii pars, et circa S. Audomari fanum.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 421, 422.

[597] See Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 25.

[598] Martial speaks of the marshy nature of the Cæcuban district, xiii. 115. Most of the places mentioned in this chapter are illustrated by the remarks of Hardouin; Lemaire, i. 422, 423.

[599] “Saltuares.” In some of the MSS. the term here employed is Saliares, or Saltares; but in all the editions which I am in the habit of consulting, it is Saltuares.

[600] There is, no doubt, some truth in these accounts of floating islands, although, as we may presume, much exaggerated. There are frequently small portions of land detached from the edges of lakes, by floods or rapid currents, held together and rendered buoyant by a mass of roots and vegetable matter. In the lake of Keswick, in the county of Cumberland, there are two small floating islands, of a few yards in circumference, which are moved about by the wind or by currents; they appear to consist, principally, of a mass of vegetable fibres.

[601] It has been observed, that there are certain places where bodies remain for a long time without undergoing decomposition; it depends principally upon a dry and cool condition of the air, such as is occasionally found in vaults and natural caverns. See the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 424.

[602] We may conceive of a large mass of rock being so balanced upon the fine point of another rock, as to be moved by the slightest touch; but, that if it be pushed with any force, it may be thrown upon a plane surface, and will then remain immovable.

[603] Perhaps the author may refer to some kind of earth, possessed of absorbent or astringent properties, like the Terra Sigillata or Armenian Bole of the old Pharmacopœias.

[604] A σὰρξ, caro, and φάγω, edo. We may conceive this stone to have contained a portion of an acrid ingredient, perhaps of an alkaline nature, which, in some degree, might produce the effect here described. It does not appear that the material of which the stone coffins are composed, to which this name has been applied, the workmanship of which is so much an object of admiration, are any of them possessed of this property.

[605] Alexandre remarks on this statement, “Montes istæ videntur originem dedisse fabulæ quæ in Arabicis Noctibus legitur ...;” Lemaire, i. 425. Fouché, indeed, observes, that there are mountains composed principally of natural loadstone, which might sensibly attract a shoe containing iron nails. Ajasson, ii. 386. But I conceive that we have no evidence of the existence of the magnetic iron pyrites having ever been found in sufficient quantity to produce any sensible effect of the kind here described.

[606] We may remark generally, that of the “miracula” related in this chapter, the greatest part are entirely without foundation, and the remainder much exaggerated.

[607] “Mundo;” the heavens or visible firmament, to which the stars and planets appear to be connected, so as to be moved along with it.

[608] “Ancillante;” “Credas ancillari sidus, et indulgere mari, ut non ab eadem parte, qua pridie, pastum ex oceano hauriat.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 427.

[609] Not depending on the time of the rising and setting of the sun or the latitude of the place, but determinate portions of the diurnal period.

[610] By a conjectural variation of a letter, viz. by substituting “eos” for “eas,” Dalechamp has, as he conceives, rendered this passage more clear; the alteration is adopted by Lemaire.

[611] “In iisdem ortus occasusque operibus;” “Eodem modo utrinque orientibus occidentibusque sideribus,” as interpreted by Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 428.

[612] It is scarcely necessary to remark, that both the alleged fact and the supposed cause are incorrect. And this is the case with what our author says in the next sentence, respecting the period of eight years, and the hundred revolutions of the moon.

[613] “Solis annuis causis.” The circumstances connected with the revolution of the sun, acting as causes of the period and height of the tides, in addition to the effect of the moon.

[614] “Inanes;” “Depressiores ac minus tumentes.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 429.

[615] According to the remark of Alexandre, “Uno die et dimidio altero, 36 circiter horis, in Gallia.” Lemaire, i. 429.

[616] Alexandre remarks on this passage, “Variat pro locis hoc intervallum a nullo fere temporis momento ad undecim horas et amplius;” Lemaire, i. 429.

[617] Our author has already referred to Pytheas, in the 77th chapter of this book.

[618] It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the space here mentioned, which is nearly 120 feet, is far greater than the actual fact.

[619] “Ditioni paret;” “Lunæ solisque efficientiæ, quæ ciet æstum.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 430.

[620] The effect here described could not have depended upon the tides, but upon some current, either affecting the whole of the Mediterranean, or certain parts of it. See the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire.

[621] Pliny naturally adopted the erroneous opinions respecting the state of the blood-vessels, and the cause of the pulse, which were universally maintained by the ancients.

[622] The name of Euripus is generally applied to the strait between Bœotia and Eubœa, but our author here extends it to that between Italy and Sicily. A peculiarity in the tide of this strait is referred to by Cicero, De Nat. Deor. iii. 24.

[623] “Æstus idem triduo in mense consistit.” “Consistentia, sive mediocritas aquarum non solum septima die sentitur, sed et octava, ac nona durat,” as Hardouin explains this passage, Lemaire, i. 431.

[624] Now called the Guadalquivir.

[625] The modern Seville.

[626] This circumstance is noticed by most of the ancients, as by Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 1; by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iv. 2; and by Strabo. It has, however, no relation to the tide, but depends upon the quantity of water transmitted into the Euxine by the numerous large rivers that empty themselves into it.

[627] It has been suggested, with some plausibility, that the greater height of the tides at this period will cause a greater quantity of matter to be cast on shore. This circumstance is referred to by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 26; and by Strabo.

[628] Alexandre observes on this supposed fact, “Algarum molles quædam species intelligendæ sunt, quæ convolutæ et marcidæ in littus ejiciuntur.” Lemaire, i. 432.

[629] It may cause some surprise to find that such an opinion has been entertained even in modern times; but more correct observation has shown it to be without foundation. Lemaire.

[630] “Spiritus sidus;” “Quod vitalem humorem ac spiritus in corporibus rebusque omnibus varie temperet.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 433.

[631] “Terras saturet;” as Alexandre interprets it, “succo impleat;” Lemaire.

[632] This circumstance is alluded to by Cicero, De Divin. ii. 33, and by Horace, Sat. ii. 4, 30. It is difficult to conceive how an opinion so totally unfounded, and so easy to refute, should have obtained general credence.

[633] Lib. xviii. chap. 75.

[634] Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 1, remarks, that as the sun is continually evaporating the water of the sea, it must eventually be entirely dried up. But we have reason to believe, that all the water which is evaporated by the solar heat, or any other natural process, is again deposited in the form of rain or dew.

[635] “Terræ sudor;” according to Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 4: this opinion was adopted by some of the ancients.

[636] The commentators discuss at considerable length the relative merits of the three hypotheses here proposed, to account for the saltness of the ocean; all of which are equally unfounded. See Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 434, 435. Aristotle’s opinion on this subject is contained in his Meteor.

[637] It is not easy to ascertain the origin of the very general opinion respecting the peculiar physical action of the moon. The alleged facts are, for the most part, without foundation, and I am not aware of any circumstance which could, originally, have made them a part of the popular creed of so many nations, ancient as well as modern. Perhaps some of the effects which have been ascribed to the specific action of the moon, may be explained by the lower temperature and greater dampness of the air, during the absence of the sun.

[638] There appears to be some doubt respecting the history of the person here referred to: according to the account of Hardouin, Fabianus was a naturalist, who enjoyed a high reputation; he lived in the time of Tiberius: see Lemaire, i. 188.

[639] This would be a depth of 3125 yards, not very far short of two miles; see Adam’s Rom. Antiq. p. 503.

[640] “Βαθέα Ponti;” Aristotle refers to this as one of those parts where the sea is unfathomable; Meteor. i. 13.

[641] A distance of nearly nine and a half miles.

[642] The specific gravity of sea water varies from 1·0269 to 1·0285. The saline contents of the water of the English Channel are stated to be 27 grs. in 1000. Turner’s Chem. p. 1289, 1290.

[643] The modern names of the rivers and lakes here mentioned are the Liris, communicating with the Lago di Celano; the Adda, with the Lago di Como; the Ticino, with the Lago Maggiore; the Mincio, with the Lago di Guarda; the Oglio, with the Lago di Sero; and the Rhone with the Lake of Geneva. There may be some foundation for the alleged fact, because the specific gravity and the temperature of the lake may differ a little from that of the river which passes through it.

[644] According to Brotier, “fons ille olim nobilissimus, nunc ignobile est lavacrum, cujus aqua marino sapore inficitur.” He conceives that there is no actual foundation for this so frequently repeated story; and conjectures that it originated from the similitude of the names, the fountain in Sicily and the river in the Peloponnesus being both named Alpheus. He goes on to mention some examples of springs of fresh water rising up on the sea-coast; Lemaire, i. 438. The allusion to the fountain of Arethusa, by Virgil, in the commencement of the 10th eclogue, is well known to all classical scholars. The lines of Virgil have been elegantly imitated by Voltaire, in the Henriade, ix. 269, 270.

[645] This is mentioned by Ovid, Met. xv. 273, 274.

[646] This is again referred to by our author, vi. 31; also by Strabo, and by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 26.

[647] Pausanias.

[648] The river here referred to is the Tanager, the modern Rio Negro. See the remarks of Hardouin and Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 439.

[649] From a note in Poinsinet, i. 302, we learn that there has been some doubt respecting the locality of this river. It is mentioned by Virgil, Æn. i. 244, and it forms the subject of Heyne’s 7th Excursus, ii. 124 et seq. Virgil also speaks of the Timavus, Ec. viii. 6; and Heyne, in a note, gives the following description of it: “Timavus in ora Adriæ, non longe ab Aquileia fluvius ex terra novem fontibus seu capitibus progressus, brevi cursu, in unum alveum collectus, lato altoque flumine in mare exit.” i. 127, 128.

[650] This remark is not to be taken in its full extent; the water of these lakes contains a large quantity of saline and other substances dissolved in it, and, consequently, has its specific gravity so much increased, that various substances float on it which sink in pure water.

[651] According to Hardouin, this is now called the Lake of Andoria, near the town of Casalnuovo; Lemaire, i. 439. Poinsinet calls it Anduria, i. 303.

[652] The petrifying quality of this river is referred to by Ovid, Met. xv. 313, 314; Seneca quotes these lines when treating on this subject, Nat. Quæst. iii. 20.

[653] Aristotle, Strabo, and Silius Italicus, viii. 582, 583, refer to this property of the Silarus; but, according to Brotier, it does not appear to be known to the present inhabitants of the district through which it flows. Lemaire, i. 440.

[654] In a subsequent part of the work, xxxi. 8, our author remarks, “Reatinis tantum paludibus ungulas jumentorum indurari.” We may presume that the water contained some saline, earthy or metallic substance, either in solution, or in a state of minute division, which would produce these effects. It does not appear that anything of this kind has been observed by the moderns in this water.

[655] The coral beds with which the Red Sea abounds may have given rise to this opinion: see the remarks of Alexandre in loco. Hardouin informs us, that this clause respecting the Red Sea is not found in any of the MSS. Lemaire, i. 441. A similar observation occurs in a subsequent part of the work, xiii. 48.

[656] There are thermal springs in the Alpine valleys, but not any in the elevated parts of the Alps themselves.

[657] The volcanic nature of a large portion of the south of Italy and the neighbouring islands may be regarded as the cause of the warm springs which are found there.

[658] This river may be supposed to have been principally supplied by melted snow; it would appear to be colder, because its temperature would be less elevated than the other streams in the neighbourhood.

[659] The statement, if correct, may be referred to the discharge of a quantity of inflammable gas from the surface of the water. The fact is mentioned by Lucretius, vi. 879, 880, and by Mela.

[660] “Quasi alternis requiescens, ac meridians: diem diffindens, ut Varro loquitur, insititia quiete.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 443. He says that there is a similar kind of fountain in Provence, called Collis Martiensis.

[661] There has been considerable difference of opinion among the commentators, both as to the reading of the text and its interpretation, for which I shall refer to the notes of Poinsinet, i. 307, of Hardouin and Alexandre, Lemaire, i. 443, and of Richelet, Ajasson, ii. 402.

[662] We have an account of the Troglodytæ in a subsequent part of the work, v. 5. The name is generally applied by the ancients to a tribe of people inhabiting a portion of Æthiopia, and is derived from the circumstance of their dwellings being composed of caverns; a τρωγλὴ and δύνω. Alexandre remarks, that the name was occasionally applied to other tribes, whose habitations were of the same kind; Lemaire, i. 443. They are referred to by Q. Curtius as a tribe of the Æthiopians, situated to the south of Egypt and extending to the Red Sea, iv. 7.

[663] Q. Curtius gives nearly the same account of this fountain.

[664] The Po derives its water from the torrents of the Alps, and is therefore much affected by the melting of the snow or the great falls of rain, which occur at different seasons of the year; but the daily diminution of the water, as stated by our author, is without foundation.

[665] “Fontem ibi intermittentem frustra quæsivit cl. Le Chevalier, Voyage de la Troade, t. i. p. 219.” Lemaire, i. 444.

[666] Strabo, in allusion to this circumstance, remarks, that some persons make it still more wonderful, by supposing that this spring is connected with the Nile. We learn from Tournefort, that there is a well of this name in Delos, which he found to contain considerably more water in January and February than in October, and which is supposed to be connected with the Nile or the Jordan: this, of course, he regards as an idle tale. Lemaire.

[667] Hardouin informs us, that these warm springs are called “i bagni di Monte Falcone,” or “di S. Antonio.” They are situate so very near the sea, that we may suppose some communication to exist, which may produce the alleged effect. Lemaire.

[668] According to Hardouin this is the modern Torre di Pitino; he conceives that the river here mentioned must be the Vomanus. The effect here described is, to a certain extent, always the case with rivers which proceed from mountains that are covered with snow. Lemaire, i. 445.

[669] Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 25, makes the same remark: the fact would seem to be, that in certain districts the cattle are found to be for the most part white, and in other places black; but we have no reason to suppose that their colour has any connexion with the water which they employ.

[670] This is asserted by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. iii. 12. We have a similar statement made by Ælian respecting the Scamander; viii. 21.

[671] “Annonæ mutationem significans.”

[672] The peculiar nature of the water of the Lyncestis is referred to by many of the ancients: we may suppose that it was strongly impregnated with carbonic acid gas. See Ovid, Met. xv. 329-331; also Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 3, and Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 20.

[673] Vitruvius and Athenæus.

[674] Calenum was a town in Campania; this peculiar property of its water is referred to by Val. Maximus, i. 8, 18.

[675] Literally, Jovis cultus; as interpreted by Hardouin, “tanquam si dixeris, divinum Jovis munus hunc fontem esse.” Lemaire, i. 447.

[676] Seneca affirms its poisonous nature; Nat. Quæst. iii. 25. Q. Curtius refers to a spring in Macedonia of the same name, “quo pestiferum virus emanat.” x. 10.

[677] There appears to be some uncertainty respecting the locality of this district; see the remarks of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 447.

[678] “Hunc fontem describit eximie Plinius jun. lib. iv. epist. ult. Est ad orientalem Larii lacus plagam, Lago di Como, x mill. pass. a Como.” Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 448.

[679] Our author, in a subsequent passage, v. 39, speaks of Cydonea, “cum fonte calido.”

[680] According to Hardouin, i. 448, there is a considerable variation in the MSS. with respect to this name: he informs us that “Συναὸς urbs est Magnæ Phrygiæ Ptolemæo, v. 2.”

[681] Tacitus gives an account of this oracle as having been visited by Germanicus; Ann. ii. 54.

[682] Our author refers to this history in the First book of the present work.

[683] “Comparatos scilicet cum aëris externi temperie.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 448.

[684] Thin leaves or films of metal have little affinity for water, and have, generally, bubbles of air attached to them; so that, when placed upon the water, the fluid is prevented from adhering to them, and thus they remain on the surface.

[685] Depending not upon their absolute, but their specific gravity.

[686] Being partly supported by the water.

[687] The stone may have floated in consequence of its being full of pores: these are more quickly filled with water when it is broken into small pieces. It was probably of the nature of pumice or some other volcanic product.

[688] This is well known to depend upon the commencement of the decomposition of some part of the viscera, by which there is an evolution of gaseous matter.

[689] This is an erroneous statement; it is not easy to ascertain what was the source of the error.

[690] Rain, as it falls from the clouds, is nearly pure; and rivers, or receptacles of any kind, that are supplied by it, are considerably more free from saline impregnations than the generality of springs.

[691] This statement is altogether incorrect.

[692] When salt water freezes, it is disengaged from the saline matter which it previously held in solution; a greater degree of cold is therefore required to overcome the attraction of the water for the salt, and to form the ice, than when pure water is congealed.

[693] “Celerius accendi.” We can scarcely suppose that by this term our author intended to express the actual burning or inflaming of the water, which is its literal and ordinary meaning. This, however, would appear to be the opinion of Hardouin and Alexandre; Lemaire, i. 449. Holland translates it, “made hot and set a-seething,” i. 46; Poinsinet, “s’échauffe le plus vîte,” i. 313; and Ajasson, “plus prompte à s’échauffer,” ii. 217.

[694] The temperature of the ocean, in consequence of its great mass and the easy diffusion and mixture of its various parts, may be conceived to be longer in becoming raised or depressed than any particular portion of the land, where contemporary observations may be made.

[695] The evaporation that is going on during the heats of summer, and the heavy rains which in many countries fall during the autumn, may produce the effects here described, in confined seas or inlets.

[696] The statement is true to a certain extent, as is proved by the well-known experiments of Franklin and others; but the degree of the effect is considerably exaggerated. See the observations of Hardouin, Brotier, and Alexandre; Lemaire, i. 450, 451.

[697] In the Mediterranean the warm vapours rising from the water and its shores may melt the snow as it descends; but this is not the case in the parts of the main ocean which approach either to the Arctic or the Antarctic regions.

[698] The theory of springs is well understood, as depending upon the water tending to rise to its original level, so as to produce an equilibrium of pressure.

[699] When we consider the great extent of the base of Ætna, and that the crater is in the form of an inverted cone, we shall perceive that there is ample space for the existence of springs in the lower part of the mountain, without their coming in contact with the heated lava.

[700] Samosata is situated on the Euphrates, in the north of Syria.

[701] The Petroleum or Bitumen of the modern chemists; it is a tarry substance, more or less fluid, which has probably been produced by carbonaceous matter, as affected by heat or decomposition, below the surface of the earth. Our author has exaggerated its properties and action upon other bodies.

[702] Respecting the transaction here mentioned, I shall refer to the note of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 452.

[703] The substance here mentioned may be considered as not differing essentially from the Maltha of the last chapter, except in being of a more fluid consistence.

[704] The Astaceni are supposed to have inhabited a district near the sources of the Indus, probably corresponding to the modern Cabul.

[705] We may conceive of a quantity of inflammable vapour on the surface of the naphtha, which might, in some degree, produce the effect here described.

[706] Horace, in one of his Epodes, where he refers to the magical arts of Medea, says, that it was a cloak, “palla,” which was sent to Creüsa; v. 65. So far as there is any foundation for the story, we may suppose that some part of her dress had been impregnated with an inflammable substance, which took fire when she approached the blazing altar.

[707] When the volcanos are less active the flame is visible in the night only.

[708] The observations of modern travellers and geologists have proved, that the number of extinct volcanos is considerably greater than those now in action.

[709] Chimæra was a volcano in Lycia, not far from the Xanthus; the circumstance of its summit emitting flame, while its sides were the resort of various savage animals, probably gave rise to the fabulous story of the Centaur of this name, a ferocious monster who was continually vomiting forth flame.

[710] The word in the text is “fœnum”; Hardouin suggests that the meaning of the author may have been litter, or the refuse of stables. Lemaire, i. 454.

[711] The emission of a gas, which may be kindled by the application of flame, is a phænomenon of no very rare occurrence; but the effects are, no doubt, much exaggerated. See the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 454.

[712] The country of the Bactrians was a district to the S.E. of the Caspian Sea, and to the north of the sources of the Indus, nearly corresponding to the modern Bucharia.

[713] There would appear to be some uncertainty as to the locality of this place: our author derived his statement from the writer of the treatise de Mirab. Auscult.

[714] “Caminis.”

[715] Probably the crater of a former volcano.

[716] This mountain, as well as the Θεῶν ὄχημα mentioned below, has been supposed to be situated on the west of Africa, near Sierra Leone, or Cape Verd; but, as I conceive, without sufficient authority. See Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 455.

[717] “Internus.” “In interiore nemore abditus.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 455.

[718] If this account be not altogether fabulous, the appearance here described may be, perhaps, referred to the combustion of an inflammable gas which does not acquire a very high temperature.

[719] We have an account of this place in Strabo, vii. 310. Our author has already referred to it in the 96th chapter of this book, as a pool or lake, containing floating islands; and he again speaks of it in the next chapter.

[720] We have an account of this volcano in Ælian, Var. Hist. xiii. 16. It would appear, however, that it had ceased to emit flame previous to the calamitous events of which it was supposed to be the harbinger.

[721] This circumstance is mentioned by Dion Cassius, xli. 174. We may conceive that a sudden influx of water might force up an unusually large quantity of the bitumen.

[722] We have a full account of this circumstance in Strabo, vi. 277.

[723] “Currum deorum Latine licet interpretari.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 456.

[724] “torrentesque solis ardoribus flammas egerit;” perhaps the author may mean, that the fires of the volcano assist those of the sun in parching the surface of the ground.

[725] “Tot rogis terræ?” in reference to the remark in a former chapter, “natura terras cremat.”

[726] “Humani ignes,” according to Hardouin, “Hi nostri ignes, quos vitæ usus requirit, ut Tullius ait de Nat. Deor. ii. 67;” Lemaire, i. 457.

[727] This is the mode which many savage tribes employ for exciting flame.

[728] It is not known whether the Scantia was a river or a lake, or where it was situated; see Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 457.

[729] This may have been owing to the emission of an inflammable gas which burns at a comparatively low temperature, as was observed on a former occasion.

[730] These are said by Columella, xi. 3, to occur in August; the statement as to the fire occurring on these particular days we may presume is erroneous.

[731] Aricia was a town in Campania, near the modern Lake of Nemi: this place, as well as the other places mentioned by our author, were probably of volcanic origin.

[732] Sidicinum was a town in Campania, also called Teanum; probably the modern Teano.

[733] Egnatia was a town in Calabria, on the coast of the Adriatic: the circumstance mentioned by our author is ridiculed by Horace, in his well-known lines, Sat. i. 5, 97; but it is not improbable that there may be some foundation for it.

[734] This circumstance is referred to by Val. Maximus, i. 8, 18. The altar was probably in the neighbourhood of the Lacinian Promontory, at the S.W. extremity of the Bay of Tarentum, the modern Capo delle Colonne.

[735] This may be referred to the inflammable vapours mentioned above, unless we regard the whole narrative as fabulous.

[736] See Livy, i. 39, and Val. Maximus, i. 6. 2. Although it would be rash to pronounce this occurrence and the following anecdotes respecting Marcius to be absolutely impossible, we must regard them as highly improbable, and resting upon very insufficient evidence.

[737] In the 66th chapter of this book.

[738] In the estimate of distances I have given the numbers as they occur in the text of Lemaire, although, in many cases, there is considerable doubt as to their accuracy. See the observations of Hardouin and Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 460.

[739] Artemidorus was an Ephesian, who wrote on geography; see Hardouin’s Index Auct., Lemaire, i. 167.

[740] Isidorus was a native of Nicæa; he appears to have been a writer on various topics in natural history, but not much estimated; see Hardouin’s Index Auct., in Lemaire, i. 194.

[741] The modern Cape St. Vincent and Cape Finisterre.

[742] This was a city on the Sinus Issicus, the present Gulf of Aiasso, situated, according to Brotier, between the sites of the modern towns of Scanderoon and Rosos. See Lemaire, i. 461.

[743] Respecting this and the other distances mentioned in this chapter, I may refer the reader to the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 461.

[744] It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the calculations of our author do not indicate the real distance between the extreme points of the habitable parts of the globe, as known to the ancients, but the number of miles which must be passed over by a traveller, in going from place to place; in the first instance, a considerable part of the way by sea, and, in the second, almost entirely by land.

[745] It appears to be difficult to ascertain the identity of the place here mentioned; I may refer to the remarks of Hardouin and Brotier in Lemaire, i. 464.

[746] The same remarks may be made upon this and the following numbers as upon those in the former paragraph; for further information I shall refer my readers to the notes of Hardouin, Brotier, and Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 465-468.

[747] There is great uncertainty respecting the locality of the Thule of the ancients; there was, in fact, nothing known respecting the locality or identity of any of the places approaching to the Arctic circle; the name appears to have been vaguely applied to some country lying to the north of the habitable parts of Europe. In note [522], p. 109, I have already had occasion to offer some remarks on the locality of Thule. Our author speaks of Thule in two subsequent parts of his work, iv. 30 and vi. 39.

[748] It is probable, that these supposed “immense islands,” if they were not entirely imaginary, were the countries of Sweden and Norway, the southern extremities alone of which had been visited by the ancients.

[749] Strabo, ii.; Vitruvius, i. 6; Macrobius, in Somn. Scip. ii. 20.

[750] Our author has previously referred to Eratosthenes, in the 76th chapter of this book.

[751] Our author has referred to Hipparchus, in the 9th chapter of this book.

[752] “Aliter, inquit, et cautius multo Dionysodorus est audiendus, qui miraculo solo nititur, quam Hipparchus et Eratosthenes, qui geometricis nituntur principiis.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 469. Nothing further is known of Dionysodorus; see Hardouin’s Index Auct. in Lemaire, i. 123.

[753] Marcus Terentius Varro. He was born B.C. 116, espoused the cause of Pompey against Cæsar, and served as his lieutenant in Spain. He afterwards became reconciled to Cæsar, and died in the year B.C. 26. He is said to have written 500 volumes, but nearly all his works are lost (destroyed, it is said, by order of Pope Gregory VII.). His only remains are a Treatise on Agriculture, a Treatise on the Latin Tongue, and the fragments of a work called Analogia.

[754] C. Sulpicius Gallus was Consul in the year 166 B.C. He wrote a Roman History, and a work on the Eclipses of the Sun and Moon.

[755] Titus Vespasianus, the Emperor, to whom Pliny dedicates his work. His poem is mentioned in c. 22 of this Book. See pages 1, 2, and 55 of the present volume.

[756] It is most probable that Quintus Ælius Pætus Tubero is here meant. He was son-in-law, and, according to Cicero, nephew of Æmilius Paulus, and Consul in the year B.C. 167. There are two other persons found mentioned of the name of Q. Ælius Tubero.

[757] The freedman and amanuensis of Cicero. He was a man of great learning, and was supposed to have invented short-hand. He also wrote a Life of Cicero.

[758] Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi. He was Consul in the year B.C. 133, and was a stout opponent of the Gracchi. He wrote Annals of the History of Rome from the earliest periods.

[759] Livy, the well-known Roman historian.

[760] He was the intimate friend of Cicero, and wrote Chronicles or Annals, in three books, a Life of Cicero, and some other historical works. A work still exists, called “Lives of Eminent Commanders,” which is ascribed sometimes to him and sometimes to one Æmilius Probus, a writer of the reign of Theodosius. The latter probably abridged the original work of Nepos.

[761] Statius Sebosus. He is mentioned by Cicero as the friend of Catulus. He wrote a work called the “Periplus,” and another on the Wonders of India.

[762] A Roman historian and lawyer, who flourished about B.C. 124. He wrote a Book of Annals, in which was contained a valuable account of the Second Punic war. This work was epitomized by Brutus and held in high estimation by the Emperor Adrian.

[763] Fabianus Papirius, a Roman rhetorician and naturalist, whose works are highly commended by Pliny and Seneca. He wrote a History of Animals, and a book on Natural Causes.

[764] Quintus Valerius Antias. He flourished about B.C. 80, and wrote the Annals of Rome, down to the time of Sylla.

[765] Marcus Licinius Crassus Mucianus. He was instrumental in raising the Emperor Vespasian to the throne, and was Consul in the years A.D. 52, 70, and 74. He published three Books of Epistles, and a History in eleven Books, which appears to have treated chiefly of Eastern affairs.

[766] Aulus Cæcina. He was sent into exile by Cæsar, joined the Pompeians in Africa, and was taken prisoner by Cæsar, but his life was spared. Cicero wrote several letters to him, and commends his abilities. His work appears to have been on Divination as practised by the Etrurians.

[767] He appears to have been a diviner or soothsayer of Etruria, and to have written a work on Etruscan prodigies.

[768] He also wrote a work on Etruscan divination, but it does not appear that any thing further is known of him.

[769] Sergius Paulus. He is also mentioned in the Index to the 18th Book. Nothing further seems to be known of him.

[770] The greatest, with the exception of Aristotle, of the Greek Philosophers, and the disciple of Socrates.

[771] A native of Nicæa in Bithynia, who flourished B.C. 160. He is called the “Father” of Astronomy. He wrote a Commentary on the Phænomena of Aratus and Eudoxus, which is still extant. His works, including those on the Lunar Month and the Fixed Stars, have not come down to us. His Catalogue of the Stars is preserved in the Almagest of Ptolemy.

[772] Timæus of Locri in Italy, a Pythagorean philosopher, said to have been the instructor of Plato. He wrote a work on Mathematics. A work “On the Soul of the World and of Nature,” which is still extant, has been ascribed to him, but on doubtful grounds.

[773] An astronomer and peripatetic philosopher of Alexandria. He was employed by Julius Cæsar to superintend his revision of the Calendar. It is supposed that he wrote a work on the Celestial Revolutions, and a Commentary on the works of Aristotle.

[774] A priest, mathematician, and astrologer of Egypt. A Letter on the Astrological Sciences, written by him to King Necepsos, is said to be extant in the Royal Library at Vienna, as also a work called the “Organum Astrologicum,” dedicated to the same king. Juvenal seems to use his name as a common term for an astrologer.

[775] He is mentioned by Julius Firmicus as “a most just emperor of Egypt, and a very good astronomer.” A work by him is quoted by Galen in his tenth Book on Simples, but it was most probably of spurious origin.

[776] “Pythagoricis” here may either mean the works of the followers of Pythagoras of Samos, or the books which were written by that philosopher. Pliny, in Books 19, 20, and 24, speaks of several writings of Pythagoras, and Diogenes Laertius mentions others; but it is more generally supposed that he wrote nothing, and that everything that passed by his name in ancient times was spurious.

[777] A Stoic philosopher of Apamea in Syria. He was the instructor of Cicero, and the friend of Pompey. He wrote works on history, divination, the tides, and the nature of the gods. Some fragments only have survived.

[778] Of Miletus, was born B.C. 610, and was the successor of Thales, the founder of the Ionian school of philosophy. He is said to have first taught the obliquity of the ecliptic and the use of the gnomon.

[779] A philosopher of Rhodes or Byzantium. Seneca says that he boasted of having studied astronomy among the Chaldeans. He is mentioned by Varro and Columella as having written on rural matters, and is praised by Censorinus.

[780] Of Alexandria, the great geometrician, and instructor of Ptolemy I. He was the founder of the mathematical school of Alexandria.

[781] He was a Greek by birth, and lived in the time of Nero. He is extolled by Tacitus, B. 14, for his superlative wisdom, beyond which nothing is known of him.

[782] Of Cnidus, an astronomer and legislator who flourished B.C. 366. He was a friend and disciple of Plato, and said to have been the first who taught in Greece the motions of the planets. His works on astronomy and geometry are lost, but his Phænomena have been preserved by Aratus, who turned his prose into verse.

[783] Born at Abdera in Thrace, about B.C. 460. He was one of the founders of the atomic theory, and looked upon peace of mind as the summum bonum of mortals. He wrote works on the nature and organization of the world, on physics, on contagious maladies, on the chameleon, and on other subjects.

[784] A Grecian astronomer. A work of his, called “Apotelesmatica,” is said to be preserved in the Imperial Library at Vienna.

[785] An astrologer of Rhodes, patronized by Augustus and Tiberius. He wrote a work on Stones, and a History of Egypt. Tacitus, in his Annals, B. vi., speaks highly of his skill in astrology.

[786] A geographer of Antioch, and an opponent of the views of Eratosthenes. Cicero declares that he himself was unable to understand a thousandth part of his work.

[787] A Peripatetic philosopher and geographer, of Messina in Sicily. He studied under Aristotle and wrote several works, the principal of which was an account of the history, geography, and moral and religious condition of Greece. A few fragments only are extant.

[788] Of Syracuse, the most famous mathematician of antiquity, born B.C. 287. A few only of his works have come down to us, published at Oxford in 1792, by Torelli.

[789] Born either at Astypalæa or Ægina. He was chief pilot of the fleet of Alexander during the descent of the Indus and the voyage to the Persian Gulf. He wrote a work called the “Alexandropædia,” or Education of Alexander. In his description of what he saw in India, many fables and falsehoods are said to have been interwoven, so much so that the work (which is now lost) is said to have resembled a fable more than a history.

[790] Of Cyrene, born B.C. 276. He was invited from Athens by Ptolemy Euergetes, to become keeper of the library at Alexandria. He was a man of most extensive erudition, as an astronomer, geographer, philosopher, historian and grammarian. All of his writings have perished, with the exception of a few fragments on geographical subjects.

[791] Of Massilia, now Marseilles, a celebrated navigator who flourished about the time of Alexander the Great. In his voyages he visited Britain and Thule, of which he probably gave some account in his work “On the Ocean.” He has been wrongfully accused of falsehood by Strabo. Another work written by him was his “Periplus,” or ‘Circumnavigation’ from Gades to the Tanais, probably, in this instance, the Elbe.

[792] Of Halicarnassus, the father of Grecian history; born B.C. 484. Besides his great work which has come down to us, he is supposed to have written a history of Arabia.

[793] Probably the most learned of the Greek philosophers. His works were exceedingly numerous, and those which have survived to us treat of natural history, metaphysics, physical science, ethics, logic, and general literature.

[794] A native of Cnidus in Caria, and private physician to Artaxerxes Mnemon, having been made prisoner by him at the battle of Cunaxa. He wrote a History of Persia in 23 books, which, with the exception of a small abridgement by Photius and a few fragments, is now lost. He also wrote a book on India. He was much censured, probably without sufficient reason, for the credulity displayed in his works.

[795] Of Ephesus, a geographer, who lived about B.C. 100. He wrote a Periplus, and a work on Geography; a few fragments only of abridgements of these have survived.

[796] Of Charax in Parthia, of which country he wrote an account which still exists. He flourished in the reign of Augustus.

[797] Of Chios, a celebrated historian, and disciple of the orator Isocrates. His principal works were a History of Greece, and a Life of Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great.

[798] Now the Straits of Gibraltar.

[799] This is said more especially in reference to the western parts of Asia, the only portion which was perfectly known to the ancients. His meaning is, that Asia as a portion of the globe does not lie so far north as Europe, nor so far south as Africa.

[800] Now the Don. It was usually looked upon as the boundary between Europe and Asia. Pliny’s meaning seems to be, that the Tanais divides Asia from Europe, and the Nile, Asia from Africa, the more especially as the part to the west of the Nile was sometimes considered as belonging to Asia. It has been however suggested that he intends to assign these rivers as the extreme eastern boundaries of the internal or Mediterranean sea.

[801] At no spot are the Straits less than ten miles in width; although D’Anville makes the width to be little less than five miles. This passage of our author is probably in a corrupt state.

[802] This probably stood near the site of the town of Tarifa of the present day.

[803] Probably the point called ‘Punta del Sainar’ at the present day.

[804] Now called Ximiera, Jebel-el-Mina, or Monte del Hacho.

[805] The Rock of Gibraltar.

[806] The fable was that they originally formed one mountain, which was torn asunder by Hercules, or as Pliny says, “dug through.”

[807] This was the opinion of Herodotus, but it had been so strenuously combated by Polybius and other writers before the time of Pliny, that it is difficult to imagine how he should countenance it.

[808] He probably alludes to Leucopetra, now called Capo dell’ Armi. Locri Epizephyrii was a town of Bruttium, situate north of the promontory of Zephyrium, now called Capo di Bruzzano.

[809] So called from the Bætis, now the Guadalquivir or Great River.

[810] The situation of this town is not known, but it is supposed to have been about five leagues from the present city of Mujacar, or Moxacar. It was situate on the Sinus Urgitanus.

[811] So called from the city of Tarraco, on the site of the present Tarragona.

[812] Corresponding nearly in extent with the present kingdom of Portugal.

[813] Now Gaudiana, a corruption of the Arabic Wadi Ana, “the river Ana.”

[814] According to Hardouin this place is the modern town of Montiel, but Pinet and D’Anville make it the same as Alhambra.

[815] According to modern writers it conceals itself in this manner for a distance of fifteen miles.

[816] From the Balearic Channel to the Gulf of Gascony or Bay of Biscay.

[817] Probably the Sierra Nevada is meant by this name; Hardouin considers it the same as the Sierra de los Vertientes.

[818] Probably the Sierra Morena.

[819] The Monte de Toledo.

[820] The Sierra de las Asturias.

[821] The present Cadiz. It was originally a Phœnician colony.

[822] Now Cordova.

[823] Now Ecija.

[824] Now Seville.

[825] The Roman colonies or colonies “civium Romanorum” are those here meant. The colonists in such case enjoyed all the rights of Roman citizens, the town in which they lived being founded under the supervision of the Roman magistracy.

[826] “Municipia.” These were towns in conquered countries which were not founded by the Romans, but whose inhabitants retained their original institutions, at the same time receiving certain of the rights of Roman citizens; most frequently, immunity to a greater or less degree from payment of tribute.

[827] “Latium;” also called “Jus Latii” and “Latinitas.” This was the name given to those circumscribed or limited rights as Roman citizens which were at first bestowed upon the conquered states of Italy, before the time of the Social War. Indeed the Latinus held a kind of intermediate state between the Civis Romanus with all his rights, and the peregrinus or foreigner with all his disabilities. These Latin rights were afterwards extended to the people of other countries, but retained their original name.

[828] The free towns were those, the inhabitants of which were at liberty to enjoy their ancient institutions and modes of internal government, though at the same time they enjoyed none of the privileges of Roman citizens.

[829] “Fœderati civitates;” the inhabitants of which were called ‘fœderati’ or ‘socii.’ They were in alliance with the Romans, but in some cases paid them tribute in the same manner as the ‘stipendiaria’ next mentioned. In some instances they also enjoyed the Latin rights.

[830] From the numerous creeks or æstuaries with which the coast is here indented. Commentators are at a loss for the site of the town of Onoba (or Ossonoba according to some readings). D’Anville considers it to be the same with the present town of Moguer; other commentators have suggested Gibraleon, and the vicinity of Palos.

[831] The Odiel and the Tinto; the Urium being supposed to be the same with the Tinto of the present day.

[832] Some readings have “Hareni montes,” and others “Arenæ montes,” the “mountains of sand.” There is no doubt that the sandy heights or downs on this coast are here meant, which are called at the present day “Dunes” by the French, and by the natives “Arenas gordas.”

[833] Probably the line of sea-shore between Roia and the city of Cadiz, skirting the Bay of Cadiz. Hardouin however thinks that the coast between the Guadalquivir and the Guadalete is meant, now occupied in part by the town of San Lucar de Barameda.

[834] In the Fourth Book, c. 36.

[835] The present Cape Trafalgar.

[836] Hardouin says that the present Vejer is the place meant, while others have suggested Puerto de Santa Maria, or Cantillana. Others again identify it with Bejer de la Frontera, though that place probably lies too far inland. The Roman ruins near Porto Barbato were probably its site.

[837] Hardouin and other commentators suggest that the site of the present Tarifa is here meant; it is more probable however that D’Anville is right in suggesting the now deserted town of Bolonia.

[838] Probably the present Tarifa.

[839] The exact site of Carteia is unknown; but it is generally supposed to have stood upon the bay which opens out of the straits on the west of the Rock of Gibraltar, now called the Bay of Algesiras or Gibraltar; and upon the hill at the head of the bay of El Rocadillo, about half-way between Algesiras and Gibraltar.

[840] We learn also from Strabo, that Tartessus was the same place as Carteia; it is not improbable that the former was pretty nearly the Phœnician name of the place, and the latter a Roman corruption of it, and that in it originated the ‘Tarshish’ of Scripture, an appellation apparently given to the whole of the southern part of the Spanish peninsula. Probably the Greeks preserved the appellation of the place more in conformity with the original Phœnician name.

[841] By the “inland sea” Pliny means the Mediterranean, in contradistinction to the Atlantic Ocean without the Straits of Cadiz.

[842] The ruins of this place, probably, are still to be seen on the east bank of the river Guadiaro, here alluded to.

[843] With its river flowing by it. This place is probably the present Marbella, situate on the Rio Verde.

[844] Probably the present Castillo de Torremolinos, or else Castillo de Fuengirola.

[845] The present city of Malaga. Hardouin thinks that the river Guadalquivirejo is here meant, but as that is some miles distant from the city, it is more probable that Guadalmedina, which is much nearer to it, is the stream alluded to.

[846] Not improbably Velez Malaga, upon a river of the same name. Hardouin thinks that the place is the modern Torrox on the Fiu Frio, and D’Anville the present city of Almunecar, on the Rio Verde.

[847] Most probably the present Almunecar, but it is uncertain. D’Anville says the present Torre de Banas; others have suggested the town of Motril.

[848] Now Salobrena.

[849] Either the present Adra or Abdera: it is uncertain which.

[850] Probably the present Mujacar. D’Anville suggests Almeria.

[851] Also called Bastitani, a mixed race, partly Iberian and partly Phœnician.

[852] The Greek Λύσσα, “frantic rage” or “madness.” The etymologies here suggested are puerile in the extreme.

[853] Plutarch, quoting from the Twelfth Book of the Iberica of Sosthenes, tells us that, “After Bacchus had conquered Iberia [the present Spain], he left Pan to act as his deputy, and he changed its name and called the country Pania, after himself, which afterwards became corrupted into Spania.”

[854] He alludes to the expedition of Hercules into Spain, of which Diodorus Siculus makes mention; also his courtship of the nymph Pyrene, the daughter of Bebryx, who was buried by him on the Pyrenæan mountains, which thence derived their name.

[855] It is unknown where this town was situate; Hardouin and D’Anville think it was on the site of the present village of San Thome, once an episcopal see, now removed to Jaen. The people of Mentisa, mentioned in c. 4, were probably inhabitants of a different place. D’Anville in his map has two Mentisas, one ‘Oretana,’ the other ‘Bastitana.’

[856] According to D’Anville, the place now called Toia.

[857] Now the Segura.

[858] ‘Nova’ or ‘New’ Carthage, so called from having been originally founded by a colony of Carthaginians B.C. 242. It was situate a little to the west of the Saturni Promontorium, or Promontory of Palos. It was taken by Scipio Africanus the elder B.C. 210.

[859] The present Lorca.

[860] This place is even now called by the inhabitants Sepulcro de Scipion. Cneius Cornelius Scipio Calvus, after the defeat of his brother P. Cornelius Scipio, in the year B.C. 211, by the forces of Asdrubal and Mago, fled to a tower at this spot, which was set fire to by the troops of Asdrubal, and he perished in the flames.

[861] So called from the town of Ossigi afterwards mentioned.

[862] It is unknown where this place stood; Medina Sidonia has been suggested.

[863] Probably the present Fuentes del Rey, between Andujar and Jaen, according to Pinet.

[864] D’Anville suggests that this is the present Arjona; but more probably it was the village of Arjonilla, two leagues south of Andujar. Gruter has an inscription found here, “MUNIC. ALBENSE URGANON.”

[865] There were five cities of this name in Spain. Hardouin thinks that this is the modern Alcala la Real, between Granada and Cordova.

[866] Most probably the modern Sierra de Elvira, though some writers have suggested the city of Granada.

[867] Probably near the modern Montilla. Hardouin takes it to be the present Granada.

[868] Poinsinet thinks that this is the present Ecija, but other writers take it to be Alhama, between Granada and Malaga.

[869] Perhaps the present Archidona. Some writers have suggested the modern Faventia and Velez.

[870] Probably near the present Puente de Don Gonzalo, on the banks of the Rio Genil.

[871] Probably near Aguilar on the river Cabra; or else the present Teba, between Osuna and Antequera.

[872] Agla the Less.

[873] Probably the present Cabra. The sites of the two preceding towns are not known.

[874] “The Encampment in the Vineyards.” Probably this was the same as the Castra Postumiana mentioned by Hirtius in his Book on the Spanish War as being four miles from Attegua. It appears to be the present Castro, or Castro el Rio, situate on the banks of the river Guadajoz.

[875] In some readings “Episibrium.” Probably the present Espeja.

[876] Its present site is unknown.

[877] According to D’Anville, the present Puente de Pinos, six leagues north of Granada. Others take it to be Illora, south of Alcala la Real.

[878] The present Huesca, according to Hardouin; more probably, however, Huector, on the banks of the river Genil.

[879] Perhaps Escusar, five leagues from Granada. But according to some it is the same as Truelo or Eruelo.

[880] Called Ucubis by Hirtius. Morales suggests that it is Sierra la Ronda, but Pinet says Stoponda.

[881] The sites of this and the preceding place are unknown.

[882] In relation to the ‘conventus juridicus,’ we may here observe that under the Roman sway, in order to facilitate the administration of justice, a province was divided into a number of districts or circuits, each of which was so called, as also ‘forum’ or ‘jurisdictio’. At certain times of the year fixed by the proconsul or chief magistrate, the people assembled in the chief town of the district (whence the name ‘conventus’), upon which judges were selected to try the causes of litigant parties.

[883] Probably near the town at the present day called Espelui. Strabo, in Book iii., tells us that Laconian institutions and customs were prevalent in some parts of Spain.

[884] This place was ravaged by fire and levelled with the ground by the troops of Scipio, in consequence of the vigorous defence they had made, and the losses they had caused to the Roman army. It probably stood about four miles from the present city of Baeza.

[885] The sites of this place and the next are unknown.

[886] Most probably the present town of Porcuna. Ubeda or Ubedos has also been suggested.

[887] The present town of Montoro.

[888] Now Alcoorrucen, near Perabad.

[889] Ansart suggests that the reading is not Sacili of the Martiales, but Onoba of the Martiales, to distinguish it from Onoba Æstuaria, previously mentioned. It is not improbable that the place was so called from the Martian or Martial legion having originally colonized it. The site of Onoba is unknown.

[890] Cordova was so called from the great number of patricians, who were among the original colonists, when it was founded by Marcellus. To the present day it is noted for the pride of its nobles. The Great Captain Gonzalo de Cordova used to say, that “other towns might be better to live in, but there was none better to be born in.” It was the birth-place of Lucan and the two Senecas.

[891] The site of these two places is unknown at the present day.

[892] Now called by the similar name of Genil or Xenil.

[893] Perhaps the present Alcolea.

[894] Perhaps the Cantillana of the present day: there is, however, the greatest uncertainty as to the sites of these places.

[895] According to Hardouin, the modern city of Penaflor: D’Anville places it about two leagues thence, and near the city of Lora.

[896] Now Sevilla la Vieja, or Old Seville; called by the lower classes Santi-pone.

[897] Now Seville. This colony was founded by Julius Cæsar, and also bore the name of Julia Romula.

[898] Or north side of the river.

[899] Probably on the site of the present Alcala del Rio.

[900] ‘The [good] genius of Julius,’ probably meaning Cæsar. Nothing seems to be known of its site.

[901] Caura may be the present Coria, a town three leagues from Seville.

[902] Probably the Rio Guadalete.

[903] Either the present Sebrija, or in the vicinity of the city of San Lucar.

[904] Probably the present Bonania.

[905] Probably between Trebujena and the city of Xeres. It was the usual place of meeting for the people of the territory of Gades; and its importance may be judged from its appellation ‘Regia’ or ‘royal,’ and its numerous coins. Its ruins are still to be seen on a hill there.

[906] It is not improbable that this was the present city of Xeres. Some geographers however take it to be that of Medina Sidonia, and look upon Xeres as the site of the ancient Asta.

[907] Now Ecija. It stood on the plain of the Bætis, some distance south of the river, on its tributary the Singulis or Xenil.

[908] The site of this place is unknown. It probably obtained its name from being a colony of one of the legions, the 7th, 10th, 13th or 14th; which were called ‘geminæ’ or ‘gemellæ,’ from being composed of the men of two legions originally.

[909] “The Valour of Julius.” Sanson places it not far from Miragenil.

[910] “The Fame of Julius.” Perhaps the present Olivera, or else Teba, six leagues to the south of Estepa.

[911] The present city of Ossuna. “Genua Urbanorum” would seem to mean “the knees of the citizens.” Though all the MSS. agree in this reading, it probably is an error for “gemina Urbanorum,” and it may have been a colony of one of the legions called ‘geminæ’ or ‘gemellæ,’ as previously mentioned. The other part of its appellation may possibly have originated in the fact of its first inhabitants being all natives of the city of Rome.

[912] The use of the word fuit, ‘was,’ implies that the place had been destroyed. Cneius Pompeius, the eldest son of Pompey the Great, was defeated at Munda, in the year B.C. 45, and the town destroyed. Pompey escaped from the battle, but was taken a short time after and put to death. The site of the ancient town is very generally supposed to be the modern village of Monda, S.W. of Malaga, and about three leagues from the sea. It is more probable however that it was in the vicinity of Cordova, and there are ruins of ancient walls and towers between Martos, Alcandete, Espejo and Baena, which are supposed to denote its site.

[913] Now Alameda; eight leagues from the other Astiji or Ecija.

[914] Now Estepa, six leagues from Ecija.

[915] Perhaps Mancloua, between the towns of Ecija and Carmona; the sites of all the other places here mentioned appear to be quite unknown.

[916] Sanson supposes the Alostigi to have inhabited the territory near Almagia, between Malaga and Antiqueira.

[917] The Celtici are supposed to have inhabited the country between the Guadiana and Guadalquivir, the eastern parts of Alentejo and the west of Estremadura, as far as the city of Badajoz.

[918] Probably part of Estremadura, and the vicinity of Badajoz in an easterly direction.

[919] The exact meaning of this passage is somewhat obscure, but he probably means to say that the Celtici have an identity of sacred rites, language, and names of towns with the Celtiberians; though it had become the usage in Bætica more generally to distinguish the towns by their Roman names.

[920] “The Fame of Julius.” Its site is not known.

[921] “The Concord of Julius.” Probably the same as the modern Valera la Vega, near Frejenal.

[922] Probably meaning “Restored by Julius.” Nothing is known of its site.

[923] According to an authority quoted by Hardouin, this may possibly be Medina de las Torres.

[924] Probably Constantina in Andalusia, to the north of Penaflor.

[925] The tribe or nation of the Tereses are supposed to have dwelt in the vicinity of the modern San Nicolo del Puerto.

[926] Calentum was their town; probably the present Cazalla near Alaniz. This place will be found mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxv. c. 14.

[927] The ruins two leagues north of Ronda la Vieja are supposed to be those of this place. There are the remains of an aqueduct and theatre, and numerous coins are found here.

[928] Probably the present Ronda la Vieja.

[929] Identified by inscriptions with the present Aroche. The sites of several of the following places are unknown.

[930] The Azuaga of modern times; but, according to Hardouin, Argallen.

[931] According to Hardouin this was on the site of the modern Fuente de la Ovejuna, fourteen leagues from Cordova.

[932] This has been identified by inscriptions with the modern Villa de Capilla.

[933] According to Hardouin, the modern Almaden de la Plata.

[934] Probably the same as the modern Monte Major.

[935] The ruins of this place are probably those seen at Carixa, near Bornos, in the vicinity of Seville.

[936] According to Hardouin, the same as the modern Las Cabezas, not far from Lebrija.

[937] The sites of these two towns are unknown. Bæsippo, Barbesula and Callet have been already mentioned.

[938] The ruins of Saguntia are to be seen between Arcos and Xeres della Frontera, on the river Guadalete; they bear their ancient name under the form of Cigonza. Mela, B. iii. c. 1, says that Oleastro was a grove near the Bay of Cadiz. Brana was probably the same place that is mentioned by Ptolemy under the name of Urbona.

[939] We may here mention for the more correct information of the reader that the Roman mile consisted of 1000 paces, each pace being five English feet. Hence its length was 1618 English yards (taking the Roman foot at 11·6496 English inches), or 142 yards less than the English statute mile.

[940] Nova Carthago, or New Carthage.

[941] Now Cazlona, on the confines of New Castile and the kingdom of Granada. It was a place of great importance, and the chief town of the Oretani. Himilce, the rich wife of Hannibal, was a native of this place.

[942] This was the ‘porticus Octaviæ,’ which, having been commenced by his sister Octavia, the wife of Marcellus and Antony, was completed by Augustus. It lay between the Circus Flaminius and the Theatre of Marcellus, occupying the site of the former portico, which had been built by Q. Cæcilius Metellus, and enclosing the two temples of Juno and of Jupiter Stator. It contained a public library, in which the Senate often met, and it was in this probably that the map or plan, mentioned by Pliny, was deposited. It also contained a great number of statues, paintings, and other works of art, which, with the library, were destroyed by fire in the reign of Titus.

[943] Nova Carthago or New Carthage, now Carthagena.

[944] Now Zaragoza or Saragossa, on the right bank of the river Ebro. Its original name was Salduba, but it was changed in honour of Augustus, who colonized it after the Cantabrian war, B.C. 25.

[945] This was the most remote place of any consideration in Celtiberia, on the west. Its ruins are still to be seen on the summit of a hill surrounded with rocks, forming a natural wall between Corunna del Conde and Pennalda de Castro.

[946] This was Asturica Augusta, the chief city of the nation of the Astures, and situate on one of the tributaries of the Astura, now Esta. On its site is situate the present Astorga: its ruins are very extensive.

[947] Now Lugo.

[948] Or Bracara Augusta, now Braga. Among the ruins of the ancient city there are the remains of an aqueduct and amphitheatre.

[949] Probably the present town of Vera near Muxacra.

[950] The “Promontory of Saturn,” now Cabo de Palos.

[951] D’Anville takes this place to be the port of Vacur; if so, the distance from Cape Palos is exactly 170 miles.

[952] Now Segura.

[953] The modern town of Elche was probably built from the ruins of this place.

[954] Now called the Gulf of Alicant.

[955] With the Arabian El prefixed, this has formed the name of the famous port of Alicant.

[956] Now Denia, a thriving town.

[957] Now called the Xucar.

[958] Now called Albufera.

[959] The present city of Valencia.

[960] Or Turia, now the Guadalaviar.

[961] Or Saguntus, famed for the fidelity of its inhabitants to the Roman cause: after a siege of nine months, rather than submit to the Carthaginians under Hannibal, they set fire to their town and perished in the flames, B.C. 219. It was rebuilt eight years afterwards and made a Roman colony. The ruins of the ancient town, which was said to have been originally founded by Greeks from Zacynthus, are still to be seen, and the ancient walls (muri veteres) give name to the present Murviedro, which is built on its site.

[962] Now the Murviedro, which flows past the city of that name and the town of Segorbe.

[963] Dertosa, the present Tortosa, is supposed to have been inhabited by them.

[964] Now the Ebro.

[965] Hardouin places this on the site of the modern Fuente de Ivero. The Ebro takes its rise in the Val de Vieso.

[966] According to D’Anville, the present Logrono. At present the Ebro only becomes navigable at Tudela, 216 miles from the sea. Other writers, however, take Varia to be the present Valtierra, near Tudela.

[967] Or the Subur, now the Francoli. It flows into the sea at the port of Tarraco, now Tarragona.

[968] The more ancient commentators think that Carthago Vetus, or the colony of Old Carthage (now Carta la Vieja), is here alluded to, but more probably it is Carthago Nova that is meant.

[969] On the Subi, previously mentioned; now called Villa Nova.

[970] Now the Llobregat.

[971] Their territory was situate around the present Gulf of Ampurias.

[972] Their chief cities were Gerunda, the present Gerona, and Ausa or Vicus Ausæ, now Vic d’Osona.

[973] In the country beyond Gerona.

[974] Living in the upper valley of the river Sicoris or Segre, which still retains, from them, the name of Cerdague.

[975] The people of the modern Navarre and Guipuzcoa.

[976] In the later writers Barcelo, now Barcelona. It was said to have been originally founded by Hercules, and afterwards rebuilt by Hamilcar Barcas, who gave it the name of his family. Its name as a Roman colony was Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta Pia Barcino. The modern city stands somewhat to the east of the ancient one.

[977] The modern Badalona, two leagues from Barcelona.

[978] On the sea-shore,—the present Pineda.

[979] Now the Tordera.

[980] The modern city of Blanos stands on its site.

[981] Probably the present Ter or Tet.

[982] The modern Ampurias. We learn from Strabo that a wall divided the town of the Greeks from that of the old inhabitants. It was the usual landing-place for travellers from Gaul. It was originally colonized by the Phocæans from Massilia or Marseilles.

[983] Hardouin says that the Ticher or Tichis is the same with the modern Ter, but in such case Pliny would have mentioned it before coming to Emporiæ. Its present name however does not appear to be accurately known.

[984] A promontory extending from the Pyrenæan chain, on which a temple of Venus was situate. It is now called Cabo de Cruz. The distance mentioned by Pliny is probably too great.

[985] The people of the present Tortosa.

[986] Probably not the same people as the Edetani, in whose district Saguntum and Valencia were situate.

[987] The people of Gerunda or Gerona.

[988] They are nowhere else mentioned. Ukert supposes that their city stood in the district between the Sicoris and Nucaria.

[989] Their city was Tiara Julia.

[990] The people of Aquæ Calidæ or the ‘Hot Springs,’ called at the present day Caldes, four leagues from the city of Barcelona.

[991] Ptolemy places Bæcula between Ausa and Gerunda.

[992] The people of the present Belchite.

[993] The people of the present Xelsa, on the Ebro.

[994] The inhabitants of Calagurris, now Calahorra, a city of the Vascones, on the banks of the Ebro. They remained faithful to Sertorius to the last, and after slaughtering their wives and children and eating their flesh, their city was taken and destroyed; which event put an end to the Sertorian war. It was called “Nassica,” in contradistinction to Calagurris Fibularia, which is afterwards mentioned by Pliny. The latter is mentioned by Cæsar as forming one community with Osca (now Huesca), and was probably the present Loarre, though some writers take the first-named Calagurris to be that place, and the latter one to be the present Calahorra.

[995] The people of Ilerda, the present Lerida, on the Sicoris or Segre. It is memorable for its siege by Cæsar, when the Pompeian forces under Afranius and Petreius had retired thither. It was a most flourishing city, though in the times of the later Roman emperors it had fallen into decay.

[996] The people of the present Huesca.

[997] The inhabitants of Turiazo, the present Tarazona, five leagues south of Tudela.

[998] The people of Cascantum, the present town of Cascante in Navarre.

[999] The people of Ergavica. Its ruins, at the confluence of the Guadiela and Tagus, are still to be seen, and are called Santaver. By some writers this place is considered to be the same as the modern Fraga, on the river Cinca, five leagues from Lerida.

[1000] The people of Graccuris. Its former name of Ilurcis was changed in honour of Sempronius Gracchus, who placed new settlers there after the conquest of Celtiberia. It is supposed to be the same as the modern Agreda, four leagues from Tarazona.

[1001] The people of Leonica, probably the modern Alcaniz, on the river Guadalope, in Arragon.

[1002] The people of Tarraga, the present Tarrega, nine leagues east of Lerida, in Catalonia.

[1003] The people of Arcobriga, now Los Arcos, in Navarre, five leagues south of Estella.

[1004] Perhaps the same as the Andosini, a people mentioned by Polybius, B. iii. c. 35, as situate between the Iberus and the Pyrenees. There is a small town of Navarre called Androilla.

[1005] The people probably of the site now occupied by Huarte Araquil, six leagues to the west of Pampeluna.

[1006] Probably the same as the Bursaones of Livy, the Bursavolenses of Hirtius, and the Bursadenses of Ptolemy. Their exact locality is unknown.

[1007] Mention has been made of Calagurris Fibularensis or Fibulicensis under Calagurris Nassica: see p. 168.

[1008] The people of Complutum, the modern Alcala de Henares, on the river Henares, six leagues to the east of Madrid. It is not quite certain whether it stood on the exact site of Alcala, or on the hill of Zulema, on the other side of the Henares.

[1009] The town of Cares, adjoining the more modern one of Puente la Reyna, probably marks their site.

[1010] Probably so called from the river Cinga, the modern Cinca: or they may have given their name thereto.

[1011] The people probably of the present Mediana on the Ebro, six leagues below Zaragoza.

[1012] Their town was Larnum, situate on a river of the same name. It was probably the present Torderas, situate on the river of that name.

[1013] Of this people nothing appears to be known. In the old editions the next people mentioned are the “Ispalenses,” but since the time of Hardouin, they have been generally omitted, as wrongly introduced, and as utterly unknown. Spanish coins have however been more recently discovered with the name ‘Sblaie’ or ‘Splaie,’ inscribed in Celtiberian characters, and numismatists are of opinion that they indicate the name of the town of this people, which in Latin would be Ispala. This at all events is the opinion of M. de Sauley.

[1014] The people of the present town of Lumbier in Navarre, called by its inhabitants Irumberri.

[1015] The people of the present city of Pampeluna.

[1016] Carthago Nova, or New Carthage.

[1017] The colony of Acci was called Colonia Julia Gemella Accitana. The town of Acci or Accis was on the site of the present Guadix el Viejo, between Granada and Baza. It was colonized by the third and sixth legions under Julius or Augustus, from which it obtained the name of ‘Gemella,’ the origin of which name is previously mentioned, p. 161.

[1018] The ruins of this place are supposed to be those seen at Lebazuza or Lezuza, not far from the city of Cuença.

[1019] The “jus Italicum” or “Italiæ,” “Italian rights” or “privileges,” differed from the “jus Latinum.” It was granted to provincial towns which were especially favoured by the magistracy of Rome, and consisted of exemption from taxes, a municipal constitution, after the manner of the Italian towns, and many other rights and exemptions.

[1020] According to Hardouin, the people of the town formerly called Saliotis, now Cazorla. They are called “Cæsari venales,” from the circumstance of their territory having been purchased by Cæsar.—Castulo or Cazlona has been previously mentioned.

[1021] The people of Sætabis, now Xativa in Valencia. This town was famous for its manufacture of fine table-napkins, to which reference is made by Pliny at the beginning of his Introduction addressed to Titus, in his quotation from the lament of Catullus on the loss of his table-napkins which his friends had filched from him. See p. 1 of the present volume.

[1022] According to some writers, the present Cuença was the ancient Valeria; but perhaps it was situate at the present village of Valera la Vieja, or Old Valeria, eight leagues south of Cuença.

[1023] The people of Alaba, not far from the present town of Ergavica.

[1024] They were so called from their town of Basti, now Baza, on the river Guadalentin in Granada.

[1025] Their town was probably the present Consuegra, twelve leagues from the city of Toledo.

[1026] So called from the promontory Dianium or Artemisium, named from a temple of Diana there situate, and having in its vicinity a town of the same name. The present town of Denia still retains nearly the original name. Its lake, now called Albufera de Valencia, has been previously mentioned, p. 166.

[1027] The modern Yniesta marks the site of their town.

[1028] The people probably of Eliocroca, now Lorca, on the high road, from Carthago Nova to Castulo.

[1029] There were two places of the name of Mentesa, one in the district of the Oritani, and the other in that of the Bastitani or Bastuli.

[1030] Ptolemy, B. ii., mentions a city of this nation, called ‘Oretum Germanorum.’ It has been supposed that it was the present Calatrava, five leagues from Ciudad Real.

[1031] Supposed to be in the vicinity of the present Calatajud.

[1032] The present Toledo.

[1033] Their town is supposed to have stood on the site of the present Murcia.

[1034] Now Coruña del Conde.

[1035] The people of the present Alava on the Ebro.—A small town there still bears the name of Alvana.

[1036] This nation is not mentioned elsewhere. Possibly they are the Murbogi, mentioned by Ptolemy.

[1037] Their town Segisamon was either the present Veyzama in Guipuzcoa, or, more probably, Sasamon, eight leagues north-west of Burgos.

[1038] The people of Carissa, on the site of the present Carixa near Seville.

[1039] Strabo assigns the Numantini to the Arevacæ, and not the Pelendones. The ruins of the city of Numantia were still to be seen at Puente Garray near the city of Soria, in Hardouin’s time, the 17th century.

[1040] D’Anville places their city, Intercatia, at the place called Villa nueva de Azuague, forty miles from the present Astorga; others again make it to have been sixty miles from that place.

[1041] Their town was on the site of the modern city of Palencia, on the river Carion.

[1042] The people of Cauca, the present Coca, situate between Segovia and Valladolid, on the river Eresma.

[1043] This was the chief city of the Cantabri. It has been already mentioned, but we may add that it stood near the sources of the Ebro, on the eminence of Retortillo, south of Reynosa. Five stones still mark the boundaries which divided the territory from that of the Fourth Legio.

[1044] Supposed to be the present Briviesca; the site of Tritium does not appear to be known, but it has been suggested that it was near Najara, in the vicinity of Logrono.

[1045] It does not appear to be certain whether the Areva was the present Ucero, or the Arlanzon, which flows near Valladolid.

[1046] The modern Siguenza.

[1047] Now El Burgo d’Osma, in the province of Soria.

[1048] This must not be mistaken for the modern Segovia, between Madrid and Valladolid: it was a small town in the vicinity of Numantia.

[1049] Probably the present Lerma, on the river Arlanza.

[1050] The people of Asturica Augusta, now Astorga, in the province of Leon. The ruins of this fine city are said still to give a perfect idea of a fortified Roman town.

[1051] Their chief city stood on the site of the present Cigarrosa, or San Estevan de Val de Orres. Its ruins are still to be seen, and a Roman bridge, the people preserving a tradition that an old town once stood there called Guigurra.

[1052] The people of Lance or Lancia, probably the present Lollanco or Mansilla; though Oviedo has been suggested. This however may be the Ovetum mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxiv. c. 17.

[1053] Mentioned by Pliny in B. xix. c. 2, as famous for their flax. Their locality near the coast does not appear to be exactly known. The Pæsici previously mentioned were situate on the peninsula of Cabo de Penas.

[1054] Now the city of Lugo in Gallicia.

[1055] The people of Bracara Augusta, now Braga. Among the ruins of the ancient city are the remains of an aqueduct and an amphitheatre. This people probably derived their name from their fashion of wearing braccæ, “breeches” or “trowsers,” like their neighbours of Gallia Braccata. The exact localities of the various other tribes here mentioned do not appear to be exactly known.

[1056] Our author is mistaken here, even making allowance for the shortness of the Roman mile (1618 yards), as the length is only 470 miles. Coastwise it is 620.

[1057] Now Oyarzun. It is also mentioned in B. iv. c. 34.

[1058] He is also in error here; for, taken in a straight line, this distance is but 210 miles.

[1059] The distance is about 560 miles.

[1060] It may be worth while here to take some notice of the mineral productions of Spain in modern times, from which we shall be able to form a more accurate judgement as to the correctness of the statement here made by Pliny. Grains of gold are still to be found in the rivers Tagus and Douro; but there is not found sufficient of the precious metal to pay for the search. Silver is found in the mines of the Guadal canal. Copper and lead are to be found in abundance. There is a mine of plumbago four leagues from Ronda; and tin is found in Gallicia. In every province there are iron mines, those in Biscay being the most remarkable. Lodestone is found in Seville, cobalt on the Pyrenees, quicksilver and cinnabar at Almaden, arsenic in Asturias, and coal in Asturias and Arragon. There are salt-mines at Mingrilla and Cardona; alum is found in Arragon, antimony at Alcaraz. On the Sierra Morena, and in Gallicia, there is saltpetre in numerous localities; amber in Asturias and Valencia, and sulphur in Murcia, Arragon, and Seville. Pipe-clay of a peculiar quality is found in the vicinity of Andujar. Gypsum and marble are found in great abundance, and stone for budding purposes, of the best quality. Amethysts, white cornelians, rubies, agates, garnets, and rock crystals, with other precious stones, are also found in abundance and of the finest quality.

[1061] Transparent stone. Further mention is made of it by Pliny in B. xxxv. c. 45.

[1062] Or Mediterranean.

[1063] From the chief city Narbo Martius, and later Narbona, now Narbonne, situate on the river Atax, now Aude. It was made a Roman colony by the Consul Q. Martius B.C. 118, and from him received its surname. It was the residence of the Roman governor of the province and a place of great commercial importance. There are scarcely any remains of the ancient city, but some vestiges of the canal, by which it was connected with the sea at twelve miles’ distance.

[1064] From the linen breeches which the inhabitants wore, a fashion which was not adopted by the Romans till the time of the Emperors. Severus wore them, but the use of them was restricted by Honorius.

[1065] Still called the ‘Var.’ It divides France from Nice, a province of Sardinia.

[1066] Now the Cevennes. They lie as much to the west as the north of Gallia Narbonensis.

[1067] The range of the Jura, north of the Lake of Geneva.

[1068] Inhabiting the former Comté de Roussillon, or Département des Pyrénées Orientales. They were said to have been originally a Bebrycian or Thracian colony.

[1069] Probably the inhabitants of the present Conserans, on the west of the Département de l’Arriége.

[1070] Probably the Tech, and the Verdouble, which falls into the Gly.

[1071] Probably the present Elne, on the Tech.

[1072] The present Castel Roussillon.

[1073] The Aude of the present day.

[1074] The bodies of water now called Etangs de Bages et de Sigean.

[1075] Now the Herault.

[1076] Now called the Lez, near the city of Montpellier.

[1077] Now called Etangs de Leucate, de Sigean, de Gruissan, de Vendres, de Thau, de Maguelonne, de Perols, de Mauguio, du Repausset; Marais d’Escamandre, de Lermitane et de la Souteyrane, and numerous others.

[1078] Now the town of Agde. Strabo also informs us that this place was founded by the Massilians.

[1079] This people seems to have inhabited the eastern parts of the departments of l’Arriége and the Haute Garonne, that of Aude, the south of that of Tarn, and of that of Herault, except the arrondissement of Montpellier.

[1080] Dalechamp takes this to be Foz les Martigues; but the locality is doubtful. Most probably this is the same place that is mentioned by Strabo as Rhoë, in conjunction with the town of Agathe or Agde, and the Rodanusia of Stephen of Byzantium, who places it in the district of Massilia or Marseilles.

[1081] Now the Rhone.

[1082] Now the Lake of Geneva.

[1083] The modern Saone.

[1084] Now the rivers Isère and Durance.

[1085] Most probably from Libici, a town in the south of Gaul, of which there are coins in existence, but nothing else seems to be known. At the present day there are four mouths of the Rhone, the most westerly of which is called the “Dead” Rhone; the next the “Lesser” Rhone; the third the “Old” Rhone; and the fourth simply the Rhone. D’Anville considers the “Lesser” Rhone to have been the “Spanish” mouth of the ancients. In consequence of the overflowings of this river there is great confusion upon this subject.

[1086] This mouth of the Rhone was much used by the Massilians for the purposes of commerce with the interior of Gaul, and the carriage of the supplies of tin which they obtained thence.

[1087] The manner in which Pliny here expresses himself shows that he doubts the fact of such a place having even existed; it is mentioned by none of the preceding geographers, and of those who followed him Stephen of Byzantium is the only one who notices it. An inscription was found however in the reign of Charles V. of France, in which it was stated that Ataulphus, king of the Visigoths, selected Heraclea as his place of residence. On the faith of this inscription, Spon and Ducange have placed Heraclea at the modern Saint-Gilles, and other writers at Saint-Remy, where the inscription was found. Unfortunately, however, Messrs. Devic and Vaissette, in their “History of Languedoc,” have proved that this inscription is of spurious origin.

[1088] The “Fossæ Marianæ” are also mentioned by Ptolemy and Solinus; though they differ in the situation which they have respectively assigned them. They were formed by Marius when advancing to dispute the passage of the Rhone with the Cimbri, who had quitted Spain for the purpose of passing the Pyrenees and invading Italy, in the year B.C. 102. There is considerable difficulty in determining their position, but they are supposed to have commenced at the place now called the Camp of Marius, and to have terminated at the eastern mouth of the Rhone near the present Arles.

[1089] Pliny is the first who mentions the name of this lake, though previous writers had indicated its existence. Strabo informs us that above the mouth of the Rhone there is a large lake that communicates with the sea, and abounds in fish and oysters. Brotier and D’Anville identify it with the present lake of Martigues or of Berre.

[1090] D’Anville takes this place to be the present town of Martigues; Brotier thinks that it was situate on the spot now called Le Cap d’Œil, near the town of Saint-Chamas; and Bouche, the historian of the Province, places it at Marignane, on the east side of the lake already mentioned.

[1091] “Campi Lapidei,” called by the natives at the present day “La Crau;” probably from the same Celtic root as our word “Crags;” though Bochart derives it from the Hebrew. Æschylus and Hyginus speak of this combat of Hercules, and Mela relates that being engaged in a mortal struggle with Albion and Geryon, the sons of Neptune, he invoked the aid of Jupiter, on which a shower of stones fell from the heavens and destroyed his antagonists. Those on this plain are said to be the remains of the stony shower. It is supposed by the scientific that many of these stones are aërolites, and that tradition has ingeniously adapted this story to their real origin. The vicinity of Tunbridge Wells presents a somewhat similar appearance.

[1092] The people probably of the site of the present isle of Camargue.

[1093] They probably inhabited the district south of the Durance, between it and the Rhone.

[1094] They inhabited the country in which the present Avignon, Orange, Cavaillon, and perhaps Carpentras are situate.

[1095] They are thought by Hardouin to have dwelt in the vicinity of the present town of Talard in the department of the Hautes Alpes.

[1096] They inhabited the eastern part of the departments of the Drôme and the Vaucluse.

[1097] Their territory comprehended the southern part of the department of the Ain, the department of the Isère, the canton of Geneva, and part of Savoy.

[1098] It was said to have been colonized from Phocæa, a town of Ionia in Asia Minor. Lucan in his Third Book more than once falls into the error of supposing that it was colonized from Phocis in Greece.

[1099] We learn from Justin, B. xliii., that this privilege, as well as others, and a seat at the public shows, were granted to the Massilians by the Roman Senate, in return for their sympathy and assistance after the city had been taken and plundered by the Gauls.

[1100] According to D’Anville the present Cap de l’Aigre, though Mannert takes it to be the Cap de la Croisette.

[1101] D’Anville takes this to be the same as the present Port de la Ciotat.

[1102] Probably occupying the south-east of the department of the Var. It is supposed by Hardouin that the village of Ramatuelle, near the coast, south of the Gulf of Grimaud, represents the ancient name; and D’Anville and other writers are of the same opinion.

[1103] Probably the country around the modern Brignole and Draguignan was inhabited by them.

[1104] They inhabited Verignon and Barjols in the southern part of the department of the Var.

[1105] D’Anville takes this to be the place called Agaï, between Frejus and La Napoule: but in so doing he disregards the order in which they are given by Pliny.

[1106] “The Forum of Julius.” Now Frejus. As its name implies, it was a colony of the Eighth Legion. It was probably called ‘Pacensis,’ on some occasion when peace had happily been made with the original inhabitants, and ‘Classica’ from the fleet being stationed there by Augustus.

[1107] Still known as the Argens, from the silvery appearance of the water. It has choked up the harbour with sand, in which probably the ships of Augustus rode at anchor.

[1108] They inhabited the coast, in the vicinity of the modern Cannes.

[1109] They are supposed to have inhabited the country of Grasse, in the south-east of the department of the Var.

[1110] According to Ptolemy they had for their capital the town of Salinæ; which some take to be the modern Saluces, others Castellane, and others again Seillans, according to Holstein and D’Anville.

[1111] D’Anville thinks that they lived in the valley of Queyras, in the department of the Hautes Alpes, having a town of the same name.

[1112] The Adunicates are supposed by Hardouin to have inhabited the department of the Basses Alpes, between the towns of Senez and Digne.

[1113] The modern Antibes. Mount Cema is the present Monte-Cemelione.

[1114] “Arelate of the Sixth Legion,” a military colony; now the city of Arles. It is first mentioned by Cæsar, who had some ships built there for the siege of Massilia or Marseilles. It was made a military colony in the time of Augustus.

[1115] “Beterræ of the Seventh Legion.” The modern town of Beziers.

[1116] “Arausio of the Second Legion,” now Orange, a town in the department of Vaucluse.

[1117] Now Valence, in the department of the Drôme.

[1118] Now Vienne, in the department of the Isère.

[1119] Aix, in the department of the Bouches du Rhône.

[1120] Avignon, in the Vaucluse.

[1121] Apt, in the department of Vaucluse.

[1122] Riez, in the department of the Basses Alpes.

[1123] The modern Alps, near Viviers, is probably built on the site of this town. The text shows that it was different from Augusta, probably the Alba Augusta mentioned by Ptolemy, though D’Anville supposes them to have been the same place.

[1124] Some writers take this place to be the present Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux, in the department of the Drôme.

[1125] Probably so called from its lofty position, and supposed by D’Anville to have been situate on the modern Mont Ventoux, or “Windy Mountain.” Other writers place it at La Croix Haute, near the city of Avignon.

[1126] There is a village in the department of the Var, six leagues from Toulon, called Bormes, not improbably from these people.

[1127] The modern Cavaillon, in the department of the Vaucluse.

[1128] Now Carcassone, in the department of the Aude.

[1129] Probably Saint Tibéry, on the river Hérault.

[1130] Now Carpentras. Ptolemy also makes mention of the Memini.

[1131] Probably situate on the river Cœnus of Ptolemy, between the eastern mouth of the Rhone and Massilia. Probably the name in Pliny should be “Cœnienses.”

[1132] Walckenaer places this people in the vicinity of Cambo, in the arrondissement of Bayonne, in the department of the Basses Pyrenees.

[1133] In names similar to this, as Festus remarks, “Forum” has the meaning of “Market;” much as that word is used as a compound in our names, such as Market Drayton, &c. Bouche thinks that by this place is meant the modern Le Canet: but D’Anville takes it to be Gonfaron, a corruption, he thinks, of Voconfaron from the Latin name.

[1134] The site of Glanum was about a mile to the south of the village of Saint Remi, between Cavaillon and Arles. On the spot there are the remains of a Roman mausoleum and a triumphal arch.

[1135] The people of Luteva, now Lodève, in the department of the Hérault.

[1136] “The people of Forum Neronis,” which place has been supposed by some to have been the same with Carpentoracte: D’Anville supposes Forcalquier to have been Forum Neronis, while Walckenaer takes Momas to have been that place. From the text it would appear to have been identical with Luteva.

[1137] The modern Nismes, which in its ruins contains abundant marks of its ancient splendour. The family of the Antonines came from this place. The remains of its aqueduct still survive, containing three rows of arches, one above the other, and 180 feet in height.

[1138] The people of the present Pézenas, in the department of the Hérault.

[1139] Their chief town is supposed to have been Albiga, now Albi, in the department of Tarn.

[1140] The inhabitants of the present Senez in the Basses Alpes. De la Saussaye says that their coins read ‘Samnagenses,’ and not ‘Sanagenses,’ and that they inhabited Senas, a town in the vicinity of Aix.

[1141] Their chief town was Tolosa, now Toulouse, in the department of the Haute-Garonne.

[1142] They probably lived in the vicinity of the present Montauban, in the department of the Tarn et Garonne.

[1143] Probably the inhabitants of the site of the modern town of Tarascon. There is, however, considerable doubt as to these two names.

[1144] Poinsinet thinks that they occupied Vabres, a place situate in the south of the department of Aveyron.

[1145] Now Vaison, in the department of Vaucluse.

[1146] “The Grove of Augustus.” This town appears to have been overflowed by the river Druma, which formed a lake on its site. Its remains were still to be seen in the lake in modern times, and from it the town on the margin of the lake takes its name of Le Luc.

[1147] Under the name “formula” Pliny perhaps alludes to the official list of the Roman government, which he had consulted for the purposes of accuracy.

[1148] Bouche places the site of this people at the village of Avançon, between Chorges and Gap, in the department of the Hautes Alpes.

[1149] The present town of Digne, in the department of the Basses Alpes.

[1150] It is not known from what points these measurements of our author are taken.

[1151] The modern names of these localities will form the subject of consideration when we proceed, in c. 7, to a more minute description of Italy.

[1152] This passage is somewhat confused, and may possibly be in a corrupt state. He here speaks of the Apennine Alps. By the “lunata juga” he means the two promontories or capes, which extend east and west respectively.

[1153] This seems to be the meaning of “alumna,” and not “nurse” or “foster-mother,” as Ajasson’s translation has it. Pliny probably implies by this antithesis that Rome has been “twice blessed,” in receiving the bounties of all nations of the world, and in being able to bestow a commensurate return. Compared with this idea, “at once the nurse and mother of the world” would be tame indeed!

[1154] By adding its deified emperors to the number of its divinities. After what Pliny has said in his Second Book, this looks very much like pure adulation.

[1155] Or “Great Greece.” This is a poor and frivolous argument used by Pliny in support of his laudations of Italy, seeing that in all probability it was not the people of Greece who gave this name to certain cities founded by Greek colonists on the Tarentine Gulf, in the south of Italy; but either the Italian tribes, who in their simplicity admired their splendour and magnificence, or else the colonists themselves, who, in using the name, showed that they clung with fondness to the remembrance of their mother-country; while at the same time the epithet betrayed some vanity and ostentation in wishing thus to show their superiority to the people of their mother-country.

[1156] The comparison of its shape to an oak leaf seems rather fanciful; more common-place observers have compared it to a boot: by the top (cacumen) he seems to mean the southern part of Calabria about Brundisium and Tarentum; which, to a person facing the south, would incline to the coast of Epirus on the left hand.

[1157] The ‘Parma’ or shield here alluded to, would be one shaped like a crescent, with the exception that the inner or concave side would be formed of two crescents, the extremities of which join at the central projection. He says that Cocinthos (now Capo di Stilo) would in such case form the central projection, while Lacinium (now Capo delle Colonne) would form the horn at the extreme right, and Leucopetra (now Capo dell’ Armi) the horn on the extreme left.

[1158] The Tuscan or Etrurian sea, and the Adriatic.

[1159] The Varus, as already mentioned, was in Gallia Narbonensis, while the Arsia, now the Arsa, is a small river of Istria, which became the boundary between Italy and Illyricum, when Istria was annexed by order of Augustus to the former country. It flows into the Flanaticus Sinus, now Golfo di Quarnero, on the eastern coast of Istria, beyond the town of Castel Nuovo, formerly Nesactium.

[1160] Now the Pescara.

[1161] Now Palo, a city on the coast of Etruria, eighteen miles from Portus Augusti, at the mouth of the Tiber.

[1162] This distance is overstated: the circuit is in reality about 2500 miles.

[1163] For instance, from Pola to Ravenna, and from Iadera to Ancona.

[1164] Sardinia is in no part nearer to Italy than 140 miles.

[1165] Issa, now Lissa, is an island of the Adriatic, off the coast of Liburnia; it is not less than eighty miles distant from the nearest part of the coast of Italy.

[1166] That is to say, the south, which was so called by the Romans: the meaning being that Italy extends in a south-easterly direction.

[1167] Italy was divided by Augustus into eleven districts; the ninth of which nearly corresponded to the former republic of Genoa.

[1168] The modern Nizza of the Italians, or Nice of the French.

[1169] Now the Paglione.

[1170] Livy mentions four of these tribes, the Celelates, the Cerdiciates, the Apuani, and the Friniates.

[1171] Or “Long-haired.” Lucan, B. i. l. 442, 3, refers to this characteristic of the Alpine Ligurians:

Et nunc tonse Ligur, quondam per colla decora Crinibus effusis toti prælate Comatæ.

[1172] It is probably the ruins of this place that are to be seen at the present day at Cimiez in the vicinity of Nice.

[1173] The modern Monaco.

[1174] These tribes have been already mentioned in c. 5, as belonging to the province of Gallia Narbonensis.

[1175] It is supposed that they dwelt near the present Vinadio in Piedmont.

[1176] It is supposed that they inhabited the vicinity of the present town of Chorges, between Embrun and Gap.

[1177] They probably dwelt near the modern town of Montserrat.

[1178] They probably dwelt near the modern Biela, eight leagues from Verceil in Piedmont.

[1179] Some writers place them near the modern city of Casale.

[1180] Their locality is supposed by some writers to be near the present Cortemiglia, five leagues from the town of Alba.

[1181] Now the Roya, flowing between very high banks.—Lucan, B. ii. l. 422, speaks of the Rutuba as “Cavus,” “flowing in deep cavities.”

[1182] Probably the present Vintimiglia.

[1183] The modern Arozia.

[1184] The present town of Albenga.—Livy, B. xxix. c. 5, calls the inhabitants Albingauni.

[1185] Now called Vaï or Ve, and Savona.

[1186] The modern Bisagna, which waters Genua, the modern Genoa.

[1187] Now the Lavagna, which also washes Genoa.

[1188] “The Port of the Dolphin;” now Porto Fino.

[1189] Probably the ruins called those of Tregesa or Trigoso are those of Tigullia.

[1190] Now Sestri di Levante.

[1191] The modern Magra.

[1192] Of which they were considered as a chain, and called the Apennine Alps.

[1193] Now the Po.

[1194] According to D’Anville, now Castel Arqua.

[1195] Now Tortona. It was a city of importance, and there are considerable ruins still in existence.

[1196] The modern Voghera, upon the river Staffora.

[1197] Probably the present Verrua.

[1198] Called by the Ligurians Bodincomagus, by the Romans Industria. Its remains are to be found at Monteù di Po, a few miles below Chevasso, on the right bank of the river.

[1199] The modern Pollenza, a small town on the river Tenaro near Alba.

[1200] Its site has been placed at Chieri near Turin, and at Carrù on the Tanaro, a few miles south of Bene, which is perhaps the most probable.

[1201] The modern Valenza.

[1202] Placed by D’Anville at Vico near Mondovi, and by other writers at Carmagnole and Saluzzo: but Durandi has shown that the ruins still to be seen near Bene in Piedmont are those of Augusta Vagiennorum. Bene is supposed to be a corruption of Bagienna, the name of the town in the middle ages. The name of the Vagienni also probably survives in that of Viozenna, an obscure place in that vicinity.

[1203] Still called Alba; a town near the northern foot of the Apennines. It probably had its appellation from Cn. Pompeius Strabo, the father of Pompey the Great, who conferred many privileges on the Cisalpine Gauls. It was the birth-place of the Emperor Helvius Pertinax.

[1204] The modern Aste.

[1205] The modern Acqui, so called from its mineral springs. It is again mentioned by Pliny in B. XXXI. Numerous remains of the ancient town have been discovered.

[1206] Ansart observes that this measurement is nearly correct.

[1207] For an account of this see Herodotus, B. i. c. 94, Tacitus, Ann. B. iv. c. 55, and Velleius Paterculus, B. i. c. 1. These writers all agree as to the fact of the migration of a colony of Lydians under the conduct of Tyrrhenus to the part of Italy afterwards called Etruria. This subject however, as well as the migrations of the Pelasgi, is involved in the greatest obscurity.

[1208] From the Greek verb θύειν “to sacrifice,” he implies:—from their custom of frequently sacrificing, says Servius, on the Xth Book of the Æneid. Dionysius of Halicarnassus says that they were from their frequent sacrifices called θυόσκοοι. These are probably fanciful derivations; but there is no doubt that the people of Etruria were for several centuries the instructors of the Romans in the arts of sacrifice, augury, and divination.

[1209] The ruins of Luna, which was destroyed by the Normans in the middle ages, are still visible on the banks of the Magra. The modern name of the port is Golfo della Spezzia.

[1210] The modern city of Lucca has its site and name.—Livy, B. xli. c. 13, informs us that this colony was founded in the year of the city 576, during the Consulship of Claudius Pulcher and Sempronius Gracchus.

[1211] The modern city of Pisa. See Virgil, B. x. l. 179, as to the origin of this place.

[1212] The modern Serchio.

[1213] Now the Arno.

[1214] The people of Pisa or Pisæ, a city of Elis in the Peloponnesus.

[1215] Now Vadi, a small village on the sea-shore.

[1216] Still called the Cecina. It entered the Tyrrhenian sea, near the port of Vada Volaterrana just mentioned.

[1217] The present Piombino is supposed to have arisen from the ruins of this place.

[1218] Now the Bruno.

[1219] The modern Ombrone.

[1220] Now known as Telamone Vecchio.

[1221] There are ruins near lake Orbitello, which bear the name of Cosa; Ansedonia was said to have risen from its ruins, and in its turn fallen to decay.

[1222] Two localities have been mentioned as the site of Graviscæ, at both of which there are ancient remains: one on the right bank of the Marta, about a mile from its mouth, and the other on the sea-coast at a spot called Santo Clementino or Le Saline, a mile south of the mouth of the Marta. Probably the latter are the remains of Graviscæ, although Dennis (Etruria, i. pp. 387-395) inclines to be in favour of the former.

[1223] The modern Torre Chiaruccia, five miles south of Civita Vecchia.

[1224] The modern Torre di Santa Severa.

[1225] Now the Vaccina.

[1226] The remains of this once powerful city are marked by the village of Cervetri or Old Cære. According to Strabo it received its name from the Greek word χαῖρε “hail!” with which the inhabitants saluted the Tyrrhenian or Lydian invaders. It was to this place that the Romans sent their most precious sacred relics when their city was taken by the Gauls. Its most interesting remains are the sepulchres, of which an account is given in Dennis’s Etruria.

[1227] Its remains are to be seen in the vicinity of the modern village of Palo.

[1228] Its site is supposed to have been at the spot now called the Torre di Maccarese, midway between Palo and Porto, and at the mouth of the river Arone. Its situation was marshy and unhealthy.

[1229] This exceeds the real distance, which is about 230 miles.

[1230] The site of the Etruscan Falerii or Falisci is probably occupied by the present Civita Castellana; while that of the Roman city of the same name, at a distance of four miles, is marked by a single house and the ruins of a church, called Santa Maria di Falleri. The ancient city was captured by the Romans under Camillus.

[1231] In his book of “Origines,” which is now lost.

[1232] “The Grove of Feronia.” The town was so called from the grove of that Sabine goddess there situate. In the early times of Rome there was a great resort to this spot not only for religious purposes, but for those of trade as well. Its traces are still to be seen at the village of Saint Orestes, near the south-east extremity of the hill there, which is still called Felonica. This is in southern Etruria, but Ptolemy mentions another place of the same name in the north-west extremity of Etruria, between the Arnus and the Macra.

[1233] The people of the spot now called Siena, in Tuscany.

[1234] Now Sutri, on the river Pozollo.

[1235] The people of Arretium, one of the most powerful cities of Etruria. The three tribes or peoples here mentioned probably did not occupy distinct towns, but constituted separate communities or municipal bodies, being distinct colonies or bodies of settlers. The Julienses were the colonists settled there by Augustus. The Fidentes had probably settled at an earlier period. The modern Arezzo has risen on the remains of the Roman city, while the remains of the Etruscan city are pointed out on an elevated spot called Poggio di San Cornellio, two or three miles south-east of Arezzo. Many valuable relics of antiquity have been discovered here. The family of Mæcenas sprang from this place.

[1236] The people of Aquæ Tauri, a watering-place of Etruria, situate about three miles north of the present Civita Vecchia, and now called Bagni di Ferrata. The baths are described by Rutilius in his Itinerary, who calls them Tauri Thermæ (the Bull’s Baths), and ascribes their name to the fact of their having been accidentally discovered by a bull.

[1237] The people of Blera, on the site of the modern village of Bieda, about twelve miles south of Viterbo. Numerous remains of Etruscan antiquity have been found here.—See Dennis’s Etruria, vol. i. pp. 260-272.

[1238] The people of Cortona, a powerful city of Etruria, which is still known by the same name. It was probably in the number of the cities of Etruria that were ravaged by Sylla, and then recolonized by him. Numerous remains of Etruscan antiquity have been discovered there.

[1239] The people of Capena, an ancient and important city of Etruria, which, after long opposing the inroads of the Romans, was reduced to submission shortly after the fall of Veii, B.C. 393. It existed and held municipal rank till the time of the Emperor Aurelian, after which all traces of its name or existence were lost, till 1750, when Galetti fixed its site with great accuracy at Civitucola or San Martino, about 24 miles from Rome. It was situate on the banks of a small river now called the Grammiccia, and in its territory was the celebrated ‘Lucus Feroniæ’ previously mentioned.

[1240] The new and old colonists of the city of Clusium, who probably enjoyed distinct municipal rights. The modern Chiusi stands on its site.

[1241] The modern Fiorenze or Florence occupies the site of their city.

[1242] The village of Fiesole stands on its site. Extensive remains of the ancient city are still to be found.

[1243] The site of Ferentinum is now uninhabited, but is still known by the name of Ferento. The rivers of the ancient city are very considerable; it was finally destroyed by the people of Viterbo in the 12th century.

[1244] An ancient town of Etruria near Falisci. Cluver thinks that it was situate at Gallese, a village nine miles north of Civita Castellana; but Dennis considers its site to have been between Borghetto on the Tiber and Corchiano, where there are considerable remains of an Etruscan city. The spot is named San Silvestro, from a ruined church there.

[1245] Or Horta; the spot now called Orte, where numerous Etruscan remains are found; it probably derived its name from the Etruscan goddess Horta. Hortanum, the name given to it by Pliny, is perhaps an adjective form of the name, “oppidum” being understood.

[1246] Possibly the same as ‘Urbs Vetus,’ on the side of which the present Orvieto stands.

[1247] Now Nepi, near the river Pozzolo.

[1248] According to Hardouin the site of the Novem Pagi, or nine Boroughs, is occupied by the modern Il Mignone, near Civita Vecchia.

[1249] Its site is generally supposed to have been at Oriuolo, about five miles north of Bracciano; but Dennis informs us that there are no ancient remains at that place. Being a præfecture it may have consisted of only a number of little villages, united in one jurisdiction.

[1250] The modern Pistoia stands on its site.

[1251] Now Perugia.

[1252] Supposed by Hardouin to have inhabited the site of the modern Sovretto.

[1253] Probably situate in the modern duchy of Castro.

[1254] The people of Tarquinii near Rome, the head of the Etruscan confederation. It was here that Demaratus the Corinthian, the father of Tarquinius Priscus, settled. It was deserted by its inhabitants in the eighth or ninth century, who founded the town of Corneto on a hill opposite to it. The ruins are known as Turchina, a corruption of the ancient name.

[1255] The site of their town is probably marked by the modern Toscanella.

[1256] The ruins of their town still retain somewhat of their ancient name in that of “Vetulia.”

[1257] The people of the powerful city of Veii, subdued by Camillus. Its ruins have been discovered in the vicinity of the village of Isola Farnese.

[1258] Their town stood on the site of the present Bisontia.

[1259] The people of Volaterræ, the present Volterra, one of the twelve cities of the Etruscan Confederation. It was for a time the residence of the kings of Lombardy. The modern town covers only a small portion of the area of the ancient city, of which there are some interesting remains.

[1260] The people of Volci or Vulci, of which the ruins bear the same name. Its sepulchres have produced vast treasures of ancient art.

[1261] The people of Volsinii or Vulsinii, now called Bolsena. This was one of the most ancient and powerful of the twelve cities of the Etruscan confederation. On their subjugation by the Romans the Etruscan city was destroyed, and its inhabitants were compelled to settle on a less defensible site. The new city was the birth-place of Sejanus, the worthless favourite of Tiberius. Of the ancient city there are scarcely any remains.

[1262] Called also Crustumeria, Crustumium, and Crustuminium. It was a city of Latium on the borders of the Sabine country, and was subdued by Romulus, though it afterwards appears as independent in the time of Tarquinius Priscus. The territory was noted for its fertility. The exact site of the city is unknown; a place called Marcigliana Vecchia, about nine miles from Rome, seems the most probable.

[1263] The site of Caletra is quite unknown. It was situate at some point in the present valley of the Albegna.

[1264] The First Region extended from the Tiber to the Gulf of Salernum, being bounded in the interior by the Apennines. It consisted of ancient Latium and Campania, comprising the modern Campagna di Roma, and the provinces of the kingdom of Naples.

[1265] Livy, B. i. c. 3, and Ovid, Fasti, B. iii. l. 389, inform us that the name of Albula was changed into Tiberis in consequence of king Tiberinus being accidentally drowned in it.

[1266] Still known by that name. The Glanis is called la Chiana.

[1267] According to D’Anville, now known as Citta di Castello.

[1268] A municipal town of Umbria, situate near the confluence of the rivers Nar and Tiber, and on the Flaminian Way. There are the ruins of an aqueduct, an amphitheatre, and some temples, now the modern Otricoli.

[1269] The territory of Umbria extended from the left bank of the Tiber, near its rise, to the Adriatic.

[1270] The Sabines occupied the left bank of the Tiber from the Umbri to the Anio. The Crustumini and the Fidenates probably occupied the southern part of the district about the river Alba.

[1271] The Nera and the Teverone. The exact situation of the district of Vaticanum has not been ascertained with exactness.

[1272] As not so much causing mischief by its inundations, as giving warning thereby of the wrath of the gods and of impending dangers; which might be arrested by sacrifices and expiatory rites.—See Horace, Odes, B. i. 2. 29.

[1273] The frontier of ancient Latium was at Circeii, but that of modern Latium extended to Sinuessa.

[1274] A town of Latium, situate at the foot of the Mons Circeius, now Monte Circello. It was used as a place of retirement, and Tiberius and Domitian had villas there. The Triumvir Lepidus was banished thither by Octavius after his deposition. It was also famous for its oysters, which were of the finest quality. Considerable remains of it are still to be seen on the hill called Monte di Citadella, about two miles from the sea.

[1275] Now the Garigliano, the same river which he previously calls the Glanis. It was the boundary between Latium and Campania.

[1276] Founded by Ancus Martius, as we learn from Livy. It was abandoned under the Emperor Claudius, who built the Portus Romanus or Portus Augusti in its vicinity; and it only continued famous for its salt-works, which had been established there by Ancus Martius. Its ruins, still called Ostia, are nearly three miles from the coast, in consequence of the receding of the sea.

[1277] Now San Lorenzo. It was between Ostia and Antium.

[1278] By some, Æneas was supposed to have been worshiped by that name.

[1279] Now the river Numico.

[1280] The ruins of this once great city may still be seen near the present village of the same name. Its situation was peculiarly unhealthy. Another tradition, besides the one mentioned by Pliny, was, that it was founded by a son of Ulysses and Circe. It was twenty-four miles distant from Rome.

[1281] A temple of Venus, of which the ruins are still to be seen.

[1282] Its few ruins are still known as Anzio Rovinato. It was famous for its temple of Fortune, addressed by Horace, Odes, i. 35. Near the site is the modern village of Porto d’Anzo.

[1283] This island was occupied by villas of the Roman nobility, and was the resort of Cicero, Augustus and Tiberius. There is still a fortified town called the Torre di Astura.

[1284] The modern Ninfa.

[1285] “The Roman Bulwarks.” They were thrown up to protect the frontier of the ancient kingdom of Rome from the inroads of the Volscians.

[1286] To our previous note we may add that this spot was supposed to have been once inhabited by the enchantress Circe, the daughter of the Sun, and from her to have taken its name.

[1287] This has been also translated “dedicated to Nicodorus, the Archon of Athens,” but nothing appears to be known of such a fact as the dedication to Nicodorus of any of his works.

[1288] Now called the “Palude Pontine.” They are again mentioned in B. xxvi. c. 9.

[1289] Now called Il Portatore.

[1290] It was situate fifty-eight miles from Rome; the modern town of Terracina stands on its site. The remains of the ancient citadel are visible on the slope of Montecchio.

[1291] The exact site of this place is unknown. Servius, in his Commentary on B. x. of the Æneid, l. 564, tells the same story of the serpents.

[1292] This was near Amyclæ. A villa was situate there called “Speluncæ,” from the cavities in the rock, in one of which the Emperor Tiberius nearly lost his life by the falling in of the roof. The modern village of Sperlonga, eight miles west of Gaëta, marks its site.

[1293] Now Lago di Fondi.

[1294] Now Gaëta, said to have received its name from being the burial-place of Caieta, the nurse of Æneas. The shore was studded with numerous villas of the Roman nobility. It is now a city of great opulence; in its vicinity extensive ruins are to be seen.

[1295] On the spot now called Mola di Gaëta. Many of the wealthy Romans, and among them Cicero, had villas here: and at this place he was put to death. It was destroyed by the Saracens in the year 856. The remains of antiquity to be seen on this spot are very extensive.

[1296] Homer places these Cannibals on the coast of Sicily, but the Romans in general transplanted them to the vicinity of Circeii, and suppose Formiæ to have been built by Lamus, one of their kings. It is more probable however that it was founded by the Laconians, from whom it may have received its name of Hormiæ (from the Greek ὅρμος), as being a good roadstead for shipping.

[1297] Its site is occupied by the present Trajetta. In its marshes, formed by the overflow of the Liris, Caius Marius was taken prisoner, concealed in the sedge.

[1298] The town of Minturnæ stood on both banks of the river.

[1299] Its ruins are probably those to be seen in the vicinity of Rocca di Mondragone. It was a place of considerable commercial importance. On its site Livy says there formerly stood the Greek city of Sinope.

[1300] “Felix illa Campania.”

[1301] Now Sezza.

[1302] A marshy district of Latium, extending about eight miles along the coast from Terracina to Speluncæ, famous in the time of Horace for the first-rate qualities of its wines.

[1303] A district famous for its wines, extending from the Massican Hills to the north bank of the Volturnus.

[1304] According to Hardouin, the town of Calenum was on the site of the present Calvi near Capua.

[1305] Now called Monte Marsico, and as famous for its wine (called Muscatella) as it was in the Roman times.

[1306] Now Monte Barbaro. The wines of most of these places will be found fully described by Pliny in B. xiv.

[1307] More fully mentioned, B. xviii. c. 29, where the ‘alicæ’ or fermenty made from the spelt grown here is again referred to.

[1308] Of Baiæ, Puteoli, and Stabiæ, for instance.

[1309] The modern Saove.

[1310] Now called the Volturno, with a small place on its banks called Castel Volturno.

[1311] The present village of Torre di Patria is supposed to occupy its site.

[1312] Strabo describes Cumæ as a joint colony of the Chalcidians of Eubœa and the Cymæans of Æolis. Its sea-shore was covered with villas of the Roman aristocracy, and here Sylla spent the last years of his life. Its site is now utterly desolate and its existing remains inconsiderable.

[1313] Now Capo or Punta di Miseno; a town built on a promontory of Campania, by Æneas, it was said, in honour of his trumpeter, Misenus, who was drowned there. It was made by Augustus the principal station of the Roman fleet. Here was the villa of Marius, which afterwards belonged to Lucullus and the Emperor Tiberius, who died here.

[1314] Famous for its warm springs, and the luxurious resort of the Roman patricians. Marius, Lucullus, Pompey, and Cæsar had villas here. In later times it became the seat of every kind of pleasure and dissipation. It is now rendered unwholesome by the Malaria, and the modern Castello di Baja, with numerous ruins, alone marks its site.

[1315] The modern village of Baolo stands near its site. It was here that Hortensius had his fish-ponds, mentioned by Pliny in B. ix. c. 55. It rivalled its neighbour Baiæ in ministering to the luxury of the wealthy Romans, and was occupied by numerous villas so late as the reign of Theodosius.

[1316] Probably the inner part of the Gulf of Cumæ or Puteoli, but separated from the remainder by an embankment eight stadia in length. It was famous for its oyster-beds. Behind it was the Lake Avernus, occupying the crater of an extinct volcano, and supposed by the Greeks to be the entrance to the Infernal Regions. Agrippa opened a communication with the Lucrine Lake to render Lake Avernus accessible to ships. The Lucrine Lake was filled up by a volcanic eruption in 1538, and a mountain rose in its place. The Lake Avernus is still called the Lago di Averno.

[1317] Or “the town Cimmerium.” Nothing is known of it.

[1318] Now Pozzuolo. The Romans called it Puteoli, from the strong smell of its mineral springs. There are still many ruins of the ancient town, which was destroyed by Alaric, Genseric, and Totila, and as many times rebuilt.

[1319] Now called Salpatara. This was the name given to the volcanic plain extending from Cumæ to Capua, and supposed to have been once covered with fire; whence the name, from φλέγω, “to burn.”

[1320] Now the Lago di Fusaro. It seems to have had its name from its vicinity to Avernus, the supposed entrance to the infernal regions. Its banks were, in the later times of the Roman republic, adorned with the villas of the wealthy.

[1321] Neapolis, or the “New City,” was founded by the Chalcidians of Cumæ on the site of Parthenope, the supposed burial-place of the Siren of that name. It was so called as being only a ‘new quarter’ of the neighbouring city of Cumæ. The modern city of Naples stands nearly on its site.

[1322] Said to have been founded by Hercules. It was on the occasion of its destruction by an eruption of Vesuvius, A.D. 79, that our author unfortunately met his death, a martyr to his thirst for knowledge. Its closer proximity to Vesuvius caused it to be buried under a more solid body of materials ejected from the mountain than was the case with Pompeii; which seems to have been suffocated with ashes, while Herculaneum was covered with volcanic tufa most probably hardened by the agency of water. A few scattered inhabitants are supposed to have afterwards settled upon the site where it was buried, which for many centuries was utterly forgotten, till brought to light in 1738. Part of the site over the buried town is occupied by the villages of Resina and Portici. The works of art found here far exceed in value and interest those discovered at Pompeii.

[1323] This seems to have been a town of Oscan origin. The first traces of it were found in 1689, but excavations were not commenced till 1721. It perished in the same eruption of Vesuvius as Herculaneum.

[1324] Now the Sarno. Its course was changed by the great eruption of Vesuvius previously mentioned.

[1325] The modern Nocera stands on its site. Pompeii was used as its harbour.

[1326] Now Sorrento.

[1327] Now also called Capo della Minerva.

[1328] It probably had its name from Campania, of which it was the capital, and which was so called from its extensive campi or plains. The site of this luxurious and magnificent city is now occupied by the village of Santa Maria di Capoua, the modern city of Capua being on the site of ancient Casilinum. Of ancient Capua there are but few remains. It was made a Roman colony by Julius Cæsar.

[1329] Originally a city of the Volscians: Cicero had a villa there, and Juvenal and the emperor Pescennius Niger were natives of it. The present Aquino stands on its site, and there are considerable remains of it to be seen.

[1330] Or Suessa Aurunca, to distinguish it from the Volscian city of Suessa Pometia. The poet Lucilius was a native of it. The modern Sessa stands in its vicinity.

[1331] The modern Venafri stands near its site. It was famous for the excellence of its olives.

[1332] On the banks of the Suris, and the most northerly town of the Volsci. The modern Sora is in its vicinity, and the remains of its walls are still to be seen.

[1333] The modern Teano occupies its site. It was famous for the medicinal springs in its vicinity. There was another Teanum, in Apulia.

[1334] The town on its site still preserves the name. Bells were made here, whence in the later writers they are called “Nolæ.” There is also an ecclesiastical tradition that church bells were first used by Saint Paulinus, bishop of this place, whence they were called ‘Campanæ.’ The emperor Augustus died here.

[1335] The remains of the ancient town, of which the ruins are very extensive, are called Avella Vecchia. It was famous for its fruit, especially its filberts, to which it gives name in the French “Avelines.” It was first a Greek colony, and then a town of the Oscans.

[1336] A city of Latium, sixteen miles from Rome, and said to have been of Sicilian origin. The modern town of La Riccia occupies the site of its citadel. It was celebrated for the temple and grove of Diana, whose high priest was always a fugitive slave who had killed his predecessor, and was called “Rex nemorensis,” or “king of the grove.” See Ovid, Fasti, B. vi. l. 59; Art of Love, B. i. l. 260; and Lucan, B. vi. l. 74.

[1337] The ancient city was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius, king of Rome. The Roman colony here was probably but small. The Roman patrician families, the Julii, Servilii, Tullii, and Quintii, are said to have migrated from Alba Longa, which, according to tradition, had given to Rome her first king.

[1338] The people of Acerra, still called by the same name; it was plundered and burnt by Hannibal, B.C. 216, but was rebuilt by order of the Roman senate.

[1339] The people of Allifæ, a former city of Samnium, on the borders of Campania. The modern city of Alife, a decayed place, stands on its site. There are considerable remains.

[1340] The people of Atina, an ancient city of the Volscians. The modern city of Atina, noted for the bleakness of its situation, stands on its site. There are extensive ruins of the ancient city.

[1341] The people of Aletrium or Alatrium, an ancient city of the Hernici. The modern Alatri stands on its site; there are but few ancient remains.

[1342] The people of Anagnia in Latium, still called Anagni. There are scarcely any remains of the ancient place, which was of considerable importance.

[1343] The people of Atella, an ancient city of Campania. Some remains of its ruins are to be seen two miles east of the town of Aversa, near the villages of San Arpino and San Elpidio.

[1344] The people of Affilæ, an ancient Hernican town. It is still called Affile, and has many ancient remains.

[1345] The people of Arpinum, once a famous city of the Volscians. The present Arpino occupies its site; there are few Roman remains, but its ancient walls, of Cyclopean construction, still exist. It was the birth-place of Marius and Cicero. The villa of the latter was on the banks of the adjoining river Fibrenus. It was, and is still, famous for its woollen manufactures.

[1346] The people of Auximum, a city of Picenum. Its site is occupied by the modern Osimo; there are numerous remains of antiquity to be seen.

[1347] Or perhaps “Abellini,” people of Abelliacum; which, if meant, ought not to be included in this division, being a city of the Hirpini. This city was finally destroyed in the wars of the Greeks and Lombards, and the modern Avellino rose on its site. There are considerable ruins in the vicinity. According to Hardouin, this place also claimed the honour of giving name to filberts, which grew abundantly in its vicinity. If such is the case, it seems probable that both it and Abella took their names from that fruit as called by the early inhabitants. See Note [1335] p. 198.

[1348] An ancient city of Latium. Its ruins are to be seen in the vicinity of the Via Appia. See a curious story connected with it in Ovid’s Fasti, B. iii. l. 667 et seq.

[1349] There were two cities of this name on the confines of Samnium and Campania, one in the valley of the Volturnum, the modern Caiazzo, the other in Campania, between Capua and Beneventum, whose ruins are probably those to be seen at Le Galazzi, between Caserta and Maddaloni.

[1350] Once a considerable city of Latium. The modern city of San Germano has risen on its ruins, while the name of Monte Casino has been retained by the monastery founded near it by St. Bernard A.D. 529.

[1351] The present Calvi probably occupies its site.

[1352] It is not named in history. Its site was probably between Palestrina and Il Piglio.

[1353] The people of Cereatæ, a town of Latium. It is supposed that the ancient monastery of Casamari occupied its site.

[1354] The people of Cora, an ancient city of Latium. The present Cori stands on its site, and there are considerable remains of the ancient walls and other buildings.

[1355] The people of Castrimœnium, a colony of Sylla. It has been suggested that these were the same people whom Pliny speaks of at a subsequent place in this chapter as the Munienses, an extinct people of Latium. If so, the name was perhaps changed on the establishment here by Sylla of his colony. It probably stood near the modern city of Marino.

[1356] The people of Cingulum, a city of Picenum, the site of which is occupied by the modern Cingoli.

[1357] It is conjectured that Fabia was on the same site as the present village of Rocca di Papa.

[1358] The inhabitants of Forum Popilii in Campania; its site is unknown.

[1359] The people of Frusino, originally a Volscian city. The modern Frosinone occupies its site.

[1360] The people of Ferentinum, a city of the Hernici: the present city of Ferentino stands on its site. The ruins are very extensive.

[1361] Probably the people of Fregellæ, an ancient city of the Volscians. Its site is now unknown, but it was probably on the banks of the Liris, opposite to the modern Ceprano.

[1362] The people of Fabrateria or Frabateria, a Volscian city. A Roman colony was placed there B.C. 124, by C. Gracchus, and probably the old inhabitants for that reason styled themselves “Veteres.” The ruins at San Giovanni in Cerico, about three miles from Falvaterra, are supposed to be those of this place, or at least of the new town or colony. In such case Falvaterra may occupy the site of the original city.

[1363] The people of Ficulnea or Ficulia, a city of ancient Latium, on the Via Nomentana. It is supposed to have decayed soon after the reign of M. Aurelius. Its site was probably on the modern domain of Cesarini, though some separate the ancient Latin city from the Roman town, and fix the locality of the former on the hill called Monte Gentile, or that of the Torre Lupara.

[1364] These are omitted in most editions, but if a correct reading, the word must signify the “people of Fregellæ,” and the Freginates must be the people of Fregenæ in Etruria; although they do not appear properly to belong to this locality.

[1365] “The Market of Appius.” It was distant forty-three miles from Rome, and we learn from Horace, that it was the usual resting-place for travellers at the end of one day’s journey from Rome. It is also mentioned in the account of the journey of St. Paul (Acts xxviii. 15) as one of the usual resting-places on the Appian way. There are now no inhabitants on the spot, but considerable ruins still exist, as well as the forty-third milestone, which is still to be seen.

[1366] Probably the inhabitants of Ferentium or Ferentinum, now Ferento, five miles from Viterbo, a city of Etruria, of which very considerable remains exist.

[1367] The people of Gabii, formerly one of the most famous cities of Latium. On its site the ruins of a mediæval fortress now stand, known as Castiglione. Some remains of the walls still exist.

[1368] The people of Interamna Lirinas, a Roman colony on the banks of the Liris; and as there were several cities of the same name, it was generally distinguished by the epithet “Lirinas.” Pliny no doubt calls it “Succasina,” from its vicinity to Casinum. Its site, though uninhabited, is still called Terame, and there are numerous remains of antiquity.

[1369] Probably the people of Lavinium were thus called from their supposed Trojan descent. The town was said to have been founded by Æneas in honour of his wife Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus. In the times of the Antonines it was united with Laurentum; their ruins are to be seen at Casale di Copocotta.

[1370] The people of Norba, a town of Latium. It is now called Norma, and there are still some remains of the ancient walls.

[1371] Nomentum, now called La Mentana, was a Latin town, fourteen miles from Rome.

[1372] The people of Præneste, one of the most ancient towns of Latium. It was originally a Pelasgic city, but claimed a Greek origin, and was said to have been built by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses. During summer it was much frequented by the Romans for its delightful coolness. The remains of its ancient walls are still to be seen at Palestrina.

[1373] The people of Privernum, now Piperno, an ancient city of Latium.

[1374] The people of Setia, now Sesse or Sezza, an ancient town of Latium, to the east of the Pomptine marshes. It was famous for its wine.

[1375] The people of Signia, now Segni, a town of Latium founded by Tarquinius Priscus. There are still some remains of its walls.

[1376] The people of Suessula, now Castel di Sessola.

[1377] The people of Telesia, a town of Samnium seven leagues from Capua, now called Telese.

[1378] Trebula was distinguished probably by this surname from a town of that name in Samnium. There seem to have been two places of the name in the Sabine territory, but it is not known which is here meant. The ruins of one of them are supposed to be those not far from Maddaloni.

[1379] The people of Treba, now Trevi, a town of Latium.

[1380] The people of Tusculum, an ancient town of Latium, the ruins of which are to be seen on a hill about two miles distant from the modern Frascati. Cicero’s favourite residence was his Tusculan villa, and Cato the censor was a native of this place.

[1381] The people of Verulæ, a town of the Hernici, in Latium, now Veroli.

[1382] The people of Velitræ, an ancient town of the Volsci, now Velletri. It was the birth-place of the emperor Augustus.

[1383] The people of Ulubræ, a small town of Latium, near the Pomptine Marshes; its site is unknown.

[1384] The people of Urbinum; there were two places of that name in Umbria, now called Urbeno and Urbania.

[1385] The name probably by which the city was called in the mystical language of the priesthood. It has been said that this mysterious name of Rome was Valentia; if so, it appears to be only a translation of her name Græcized—Ῥώμη, “strength.” This subject will be found again mentioned in B. xxviii. c. 4.

[1386] Solinus says that he was put to death as a punishment for his rashness. M. Sichel has suggested that this mysterious name was no other than Angerona.

[1387] It is not known whether this mystical divinity was the goddess of anguish and fear, or of silence, or whether she was the guardian deity of Rome. Julius Modestus says that she relieved men and cattle when visited by the disease called “angina,” or “quinsy,” whence her name.

[1388] The Carmental, the Roman, and the Pandanian or Saturnian gates, according to Varro.

[1389] Titus was saluted Imperator after the siege of Jerusalem, and was associated with his father Vespasian in the government. They also acted together as Censors.

[1390] The Lares Compitales presided over the divisions of the city, which were marked by the compita or points where two or more streets crossed each other, and where ‘ædiculæ’ or small chapels were erected in their honour. Statues of these little divinities were erected at the corner of every street. It was probably this custom which first suggested the idea of setting up images of the Virgin and Saints at the corners of the streets, which are still to be seen in many Roman Catholic countries at the present day.

[1391] This was a gilded column erected by Augustus in the Forum, and called “milliarium aureum;” on it were inscribed the distances of the principal points to which the “viæ” or high-roads conducted.

[1392] Supposing the circuit of the city to have been as he says, 13-2/5 miles, he must either make a great miscalculation here, or the text must be very corrupt. The average diameter of the city would be in such case about 4-1/2 miles, the average length of each radius drawn from the mile-column 2-1/4 miles, and the total amount 83-1/4 miles, whereas he makes it but 20-3/4 miles, or little better than an average of half-a-mile for each radius. We may also remark that the camp of the Prætorian cohorts here mentioned was established by the emperor Tiberius, by the advice of Sejanus. Ajasson’s translation makes the measurement to be made to twelve gates only, but the text as it stands will not admit of such a construction.

[1393] The Aventine, Cælian, and Quirinal hills.

[1394] Such as Ocriculum, Tibur, Aricia, &c.

[1395] Near Antium. Casale di Conca stands on its site.

[1396] Suæssa Pometia. It was destroyed by the consul Servilius, and its site was said, with that of twenty-two other towns, to have been covered by the Pomptine Marsh, to which it gave its name.

[1397] A town of Latium destroyed by Ancus Martius.

[1398] An ancient city of Latium, conquered by Romulus; on which occasion he slew its king Acron and gained the spolia opima. Nibby suggests that it stood on the Magugliano, two miles south-east of Monte Gentile. Holstein says that it stood where the present Sant’ Angelo or Monticelli stands.

[1399] Also destroyed by Ancus Martius. A farm called Dragonello, eleven miles from Rome, is supposed to have stood upon its site. Tellene was also destroyed by the same king. Tifata was a town of Campania.

[1400] A city of Latium, which was conquered by Tarquinius Priscus. It has been suggested that its ruins are visible about a mile to the north of Monte Sant’ Angelo.

[1401] A Sabine town, the people of which were incorporated by Tarquinius Priscus with the Roman citizens. It is supposed to have stood on the present Monte Sant’ Angelo.

[1402] An ancient city of Latium, subdued by Tarquinius Priscus, on which occasion Ocrisia, the mother of Servius Tullius, fell into the hands of the Romans as a captive. It was probably situate on one of the isolated hills that rise from the plain of the Campagna.

[1403] Both Virgil and Ovid allude to this tradition.

[1404] Said to have been so called from being “opposite” to the ancient city of Saturnia. The Janiculus or Janiculum was a fortress on the opposite bank of the Tiber, and a suburb of Rome, connected with it by the Sublician bridge.

[1405] A very ancient city situate three miles from Rome, and said to have been so called from its position on the Tiber, ante amnem. In the time of Strabo it had become a mere village. It stood at the confluence of the Anio and the Tiber.

[1406] An ancient city of Latium reduced by Tarquinius Priscus. It has been suggested that the town of Palombara, near the foot of Monte Gennaro, stands on its site.

[1407] An ancient city of Latium. It probably gradually fell into decay. Lucius Tarquinius, the husband of Lucretia, is represented as dwelling here during the siege of Ardea. Its site is thought by some to have been at Castellaccio or Castel dell’ Osa, and by others at Lunghezza, which is perhaps the most probable conjecture.

[1408] An ancient city of the Sabines. Its ruins are visible at San Vittorino, a village near Aquila.

[1409] An ancient town of the Volsci, five leagues from Velletri. Sermonata now stands on its site. It must not be confounded with the town of the Peligni, the birth-place of Ovid.

[1410] “Populi Albenses.” It does not appear to be exactly known what is the force of this expression, but he probably means either colonies from Alba, or else nations who joined in the confederacy of which Alba was the principal. Niebuhr looks upon them as mere demi or boroughs of the territory of Alba.

[1411] “Accipere carnem.” Literally, “to take the flesh.” It appears that certain nations, of which Alba was the chief, were in early times accustomed to meet on the Alban Mount for the purposes of sacrifice. The subject is full of obscurity, but it has been suggested that this minor confederacy co-existed with a larger one including all the Latin cities, and there can be little doubt that the common sacrifice was typical of a bond of union among the states that partook therein. It does not necessarily appear from the context that more than the thirty-one states after mentioned took part therein, though the text may be so construed as to imply that the Latin nations previously mentioned also shared in the sacrifice; if so, it would seem to imply that Alba was the chief city of the whole Latin confederacy. See this subject ably discussed in Dr. Smith’s Dictionary of Ancient Geography, under the article Latini.

[1412] The people of Æsulæ. Of this Latin city nothing is known. The territory is mentioned by Horace, and Gell places its site on the Monte Affiliano.

[1413] The people of Bubentum. Nothing is known of this Latin city or of the preceding ones.

[1414] Bola was an ancient city of Latium, taken successively by Coriolanus and M. Postumius. Its site is supposed to have been five miles from the modern Palestrina, at the modern village of Lugnano.

[1415] The people of Corioli. It was probably a Latian town, but fell into the possession of the Volsci, from whom it was taken by Cn. Marcius, who thence obtained the name of “Coriolanus.” Monte Giove, nineteen miles from Rome, has been suggested as its site.

[1416] Pliny is supposed to be in error in representing Fidenæ, the early antagonist of Rome, as being extinct in his time, and he will be found in the sequel reckoning it in the Fourth Region. This ancient Latian town never lost its municipal rank, though it had no doubt in his time become a mere country town. The present Castel Giubilco is supposed to be situate on its site.

[1417] The people of Horta, a town of Etruria, now Horte. Many Etruscan remains have been discovered there.

[1418] The people of Longula, a Volscian town. Buon Riposo now occupies its site.

[1419] The people of Pedum; nothing is known of it. The rest of these nations are either almost or entirely unknown.

[1420] This was an ancient town between Pompeii and Surrentum. After its overthrow, as mentioned by Pliny, it was in some measure rebuilt, possibly after this passage was penned. It was finally destroyed by the great eruption of Vesuvius in the year A.D. 79, and it was here that our author breathed his last.

[1421] A town three miles west of Capua. It was of much importance as a military position, and played a considerable part in the second Punic war. The period of its final destruction is unknown; but modern Capua is built on its site.

[1422] This city took the lead in the war of the Latin cities against Tarquinius Priscus. Gell and Nibby think that it was situate about eleven miles from Rome, a mile to the south of the Appian way, where there are some remains that indicate the site of an ancient city, near the stream called the Fosso delle Fratocche. Livy tells us that with the spoils thence derived, Tarquinius celebrated the Ludi Magni for the first time.

[1423] Opposite Capreæ, and situate on the Promontory of Minerva. Sorrento now stands on its site.

[1424] The modern Silaro; it was the boundary between Lucania and Campania, and rises in the Apennines.

[1425] A town in the south of Campania, at the head of the Gulf of Pæstum. In consequence of the aid which they gave to Hannibal, the inhabitants were forced to abandon their town and live in the adjoining villages. The name of Picentini was given, as here stated, to the inhabitants of all the territory between the Promontory of Minerva and the river Silarus. They were a portion of the Sabine Picentes, who were transplanted thither after the conquest of Picenum, B.C. 268. The modern Vicenza stands on its site.

[1426] The Argonaut. Probably this was only a vague tradition.

[1427] By using the genitive ‘Salerni,’ he would seem to imply that the Roman colony of Salernum then gave name to the district of which Picentia was the chief town. Ajasson however has translated it merely “Salernum and Picentia.” ‘Intus’ can hardly mean “inland,” as Picentia was near the coast, and so was Salernum.

[1428] This was an ancient town of Campania, at the innermost corner of the Gulf of Pæstum, situate near the coast, on a height at the foot of which lay its harbour. It attained great prosperity, as Salerno, in the middle ages, and was noted for its School of Health established there; which issued periodically rules for the preservation of health in Latin Leonine verse.

[1429] “Græciæ maxime populi.” This may also be rendered “a people who mostly emigrated from Greece,” in reference to the Siculi or Sicilians, but the other is probably the correct translation.

[1430] A town of Lucania, colonized by the Sybarites about B.C. 524. In the time of Augustus it seems to have been principally famous for the exquisite beauty of its roses. Its ruins are extremely magnificent.

[1431] Now the Golfo di Salerno.

[1432] A Greek town founded by the Phocæans. It was the birth-place of the philosophers Parmenides and Zeno, who founded a school of philosophy known as the Eleatic. Castell’ a Mare della Brucca stands on its site.

[1433] Now Capo di Palinuro; said to have received its name from Palinurus, the pilot of Æneas, who fell into the sea there and was murdered by the natives. See Virgil, Æneid, B. vi. l. 381 et seq.

[1434] Now the Golfo di Policastro.

[1435] This tower or column was erected in the vicinity of Rhegium on the Straits of Sicily. It was 100 stadia, or about eight miles, from the town, and at it passengers usually embarked for Sicily. The spot is now called Torre di Carallo.

[1436] Now the Faraone.

[1437] A Greek colony. The present Policastro occupies very nearly its site. It seems to have received its name from the cultivation of box trees in its vicinity.

[1438] Or more properly Laos, originally a Greek colony. In the vicinity is the modern town of Laino, and the river is called the Lao.

[1439] Ptolemy mentions it as an inland town, and Livy speaks of it as a Lucanian city. It probably stood near the modern Maratea, twelve miles south-east of Policastro.

[1440] The modern Bato.

[1441] The bay of Bivona, formerly Vibo, the Italian name for the Greek city of Hippo or Hippona. On its site stands the modern Bivona.

[1442] “Locus Clampetiæ.” Clampetia or Lampetia stood in the vicinity of the modern Amantia. From other authors we find that it was still existing at this time. If such is the fact, the meaning will be “the place where the former municipal town of Clampetia stood,” it being supposed to have lost in its latter years its municipal privileges.

[1443] One of the ancient Ausonian towns, and afterwards colonized by the Ætolians. Like its namesake in Cyprus it was famous for its copper. Its site is now occupied by Torre di Lupi.

[1444] A Greek city, almost totally destroyed by Hannibal; Santa Eufemia occupies its site.

[1445] One of the cities of the Bruttii; now Cosenza.

[1446] The part which now constitutes the Farther Calabria.

[1447] Supposed to be the same as the Arconte, which falls into the Crathis near Consentia. Nothing is known of the town here alluded to, but it must not be confounded with Acherontia, the modern Acerenza, in Apulia, which was a different place.

[1448] Supposed to have been the same as the modern port of Tropea.

[1449] The modern Marro.

[1450] Its ruins are supposed to be those seen near Palmi.

[1451] Probably the modern Melia stands on its site.

[1452] A town on the promontory of the same name, now called Scilla or Sciglio, where the monster Scylla was fabled to have dwelt.

[1453] Homer says (Odyssey, xii. 124), that it had its name from the nymph Cratæis, the mother of Scylla. It is probably the small stream now called Fiume di Solano or dei Pesci.

[1454] The modern Capo di Cavallo, according to the older commentators; but more recent geographers think that the Punta del Pezzo was the point so called.

[1455] Now called Capo di Faro, from the lighthouse there erected.

[1456] Originally a Greek colony; a Roman colony was settled there by Augustus. The modern city of Reggio occupies its site.

[1457] it extended south of Consentia to the Sicilian Straits, a distance of 700 stadia. It produced the pitch for which Bruttium was so celebrated. Its site still has the name of Sila.

[1458] Or White Rock, now Capo dell’ Armi. It forms the extremity of the Apennine Chain.

[1459] The site of the city of Locri is supposed to have been that of the present Motta di Burzano.

[1460] He says that they were called Epizephyrii, from the promontory of Zephyrium, now the Capo di Burzano; but according to others, they had this name only because their colony lay to the west of their native Greece. Strabo says that it was founded by the Locri Ozolæ, and not the Opuntii, as most authors have stated.

[1461] This expression is explained by a reference to the end of the First Chapter of the present Book.

[1462] Called by some the Canal de Baleares.

[1463] Or Southern Sea.

[1464] The modern Iviza and Formentera.

[1465] The Greek for which is πίτυς.

[1466] Less than two leagues in width.

[1467] The real distance is 34 miles from the northern point of Iviza, called Punta de Serra, to the southern point of Formentera, namely—across Iviza 22 miles, across the sea 5, and across Formentera 7.

[1468] Now Denia.

[1469] This is not correct: the distance is but 45 miles.

[1470] This is incorrect: taken at the very greatest, the distance is only 522 stadia, eight to the mile.

[1471] The Xucar in Spain.

[1472] We more generally find it stated that the isle of Formentera, one of the Pityussæ, was called Colubraria. He probably refers to the islands of the group about twenty leagues from the coast of Spain, now known by the name of Columbrete; but they are not near the Xucar, from which, as well as from the Pityussæ, they are distant about seventy miles. The latter islands are now generally considered as part of the group of the Baleares.

[1473] Now Majorca and Minorca, with the ancient Pityussæ.

[1474] They served as mercenaries, first under the Carthaginians and afterwards under the Romans. The ancient writers generally derive the name of the people from their skill as archers—βαλεαρεῖς, from βάλλω, “to throw”; but Strabo assigns to the name a Phœnician origin, as being equivalent to the Greek γυμνῆται, “light-armed soldiers.” It is probably from their light equipment that the Greeks gave to the islands the name of Γυμνησίαι. Livy says that they used to go naked during the summer.

[1475] Seventy miles is the real length of Majorca, and the circumference is barely 250 miles.

[1476] Still called Palma. This and Pollentia were Roman colonies settled by Metellus.

[1477] Now Pollenza.

[1478] Now Sineu on the Borga.

[1479] The circumference is about 110 miles, the length 32.

[1480] Now Ciudadela.

[1481] Now Port Mahon. The site of Sanisera, which was probably more inland, is unknown.

[1482] Now Cabrera. The distance is not twelve, but nine miles.

[1483] Now called the Malgrates.

[1484] Now Dragonera.

[1485] Now El Torre.

[1486] As already mentioned he seems to confound Formentera, which was called Ophiusa, with the present group of Columbrete, which islands were probably called Colubraria.

[1487] The former editions mostly omit “nec”; and so make it that Ebusus does produce the rabbits. Certainly, it does seem more likely that he would mention that fact than the absence of it, which even to Pliny could not appear very remarkable.

[1488] D’Anville thinks that this is Metapina, but D’Astruc thinks that the flat islands, called Les Tignes, are meant.

[1489] Now called Brescon, near Agde, according to D’Anville.

[1490] Who were of Greek origin, and so called them, because they stood in a row, στοῖχος.

[1491] Now called Porqueroles. Prote signifies the first, Mese the middle one, and Hypæa the one below the others.

[1492] Now Port Croz. D’Anville considers that Pliny is mistaken in identifying this island with Pomponiana or Pompeiana, which he considers to be the same with the peninsula now called Calle de Giens, which lies opposite to Porqueroles.

[1493] Now called the Ile du Levant or du Titan. The group is called the Islands of Hières or Calypso.

[1494] These are probably the little islands now known as Ratoneau, Pomègue, and If. It has however been suggested that these names belong to the islands of Hières already mentioned in the text, and that Sturium is the present Porquerolles, Phœnice Port-Croz, and Phila, Levant or Titan.

[1495] Now Antibes, or Antiboul in the Provençal idiom.

[1496] Now Saint Honorat de Lérins. The island of Lero is the present Sainte Marguerite de Lérins, and is nearer to Antibes than Lerina. The Lerinian monastery was much resorted to in the early ages of Christianity.

[1497] In ancient Etruria, now Torre di Vada. The distance is, in reality, about ninety miles.

[1498] Mariana was situate in the northern part of the island, and the ruins of Aleria are still to be seen on the banks of the river Tavignano, near the coast.

[1499] Probably near the present Monte Cristo.

[1500] He probably means the group of islands called Formicole, which are situate only thirty-three miles from Corsica, and not near sixty.

[1501] Now La Gorgona.

[1502] Both of these names meaning “Goat island.” It is now called Capraia.

[1503] The modern Giglio.

[1504] Now Gianuto, opposite Monte Argentaro on the main-land.

[1505] These are probably the small islands now called Formiete or Formicole di Grossetto, Troja, Palmajola, and Cervoli.

[1506] The modern Elba.

[1507] Now Pianosa.

[1508] Astura still retains its ancient name, Palmaria is the present Palmarola, Sinonia is now Senone, and Pontiæ is the modern Isola di Ponza.

[1509] Now Ventotiene.

[1510] Deriving its name from the Greek word προχυτὸς, meaning “poured forth.”

[1511] The present island of Ischia, off the coasts of Campania. The name of Pithecusæ appears to have been given by the Greeks to the two islands of Ænaria and Prochyta collectively.

[1512] Ovid, like many other writers, mentions Inarime as though a different island from Pithecusæ. See Met. B. xiv. l. 89. As is here mentioned by Pliny, many persons derived the name “Pithecusæ” from πίθηκος “an ape,” and, according to Strabo, “Aremus” was the Etrurian name for an ape. Ovid, in the Metamorphoses, loc. cit., confirms this tradition by relating the change of the natives into apes. The solution of its name given by Pliny appears however extremely probable, that it gained its name from its manufacture of πιθηκὰ, or earthen vessels. Virgil is supposed to have coined the name of “Inarime.”

[1513] Now Posilippo. It is said to have derived its name from the Greek παυσίλυπον, as tending to drive away care by the beauty of its situation. Virgil was buried in its vicinity.

[1514] The modern Castel del’ Ovo.

[1515] Now Capri. Here Tiberius established his den of lustfulness and iniquity. He erected twelve villas in the island, the remains of several of which are still to be seen.

[1516] The distance between is hardly five miles.

[1517] These rocks appear at the present day to be nameless. The old name seems to mean, the “Rabbit Warrens.”

[1518] Phintonis, according to Hardouin, is the modern Isola di Figo, according to Mannert, Caprera. Cluver makes Fossæ to be the present Isola Rossa, while Mannert considers it to be the same with Santa Maddalena.

[1519] Ταφρὸς being the Greek for the Latin word “fossa,” the ordinary meaning of which is an “excavation.”

[1520] Probably the Cape of Carbonara, from which however Africa is distant only 121 miles, and the gulf of Gades or Cadiz 980.

[1521] Now Capo Falcone.

[1522] Now Asinara or Zavara, and Isola Piana.

[1523] Now called Santo Antiocho, off La Punta dell’ Ulga.

[1524] According to Cluver, the modern Coltelalzo.

[1525] The “Baths of Juno.” The identity of these islands does not appear to have been ascertained.

[1526] Said by Pausanias to have been descended from persons who escaped on the fall of Troy under the command of Iolaüs.

[1527] Of the town of Sulcis. Its ruins are probably those seen at the village of Sulci, near the port Palma di Solo.

[1528] Their town was probably on the site of the present Iglesias.

[1529] Their town was probably either the present Napoli or Acqua di Corsari.

[1530] Their town is probably indicated by the ruins on the river Gavino.

[1531] Their town was Caralis, the present Cagliari.

[1532] Their town was probably Nora, the present Torre Forcadizo.

[1533] “At Libyso’s Tower.”

[1534] From the Greek ἴχνος, “a footstep.”

[1535] Now La Licosa, a small rocky island.

[1536] Now Torricella, Praca, and Brace, with other rocks.

[1537] Posidonius, quoted by Strabo, says 550.

[1538] Meaning that it comes from the Greek verb ῥηγνύμι, “to break.” This is probably only a fanciful origin of the name.

[1539] The present Garofalo. At the present day small boats approach it without danger.

[1540] In Chap. x. Pelorus is the modern Capo di Faro.

[1541] Now Capo di Passaro.

[1542] The present Capo di Boco Marsala.

[1543] Now Cape Bon. The real distance is but seventy-eight miles.

[1544] The following are more probably the correct distances: 150, 210, and 230 miles.

[1545] Now Messina.

[1546] The modern Capo di Santo Alessio.

[1547] Now called Taormini; the remains of the ancient town are very considerable.

[1548] Probably the present Alcantara.

[1549] The present Madonia and Monte di Mele.

[1550] Now called I Fariglioni.

[1551] In modern times called “Lognina Statione,” according to Hardouin.

[1552] The modern city of Catania stands on its site.

[1553] The Fiume di Santo Leonardo, according to Hardouin, but Mannert says the river Lentini. Ansart suggests the Guarna Lunga.

[1554] Now Lentini. The ruins of Megaris are still to be seen, according to Mannert.

[1555] Now the Porcaro.

[1556] The modern city of Siracosa.

[1557] See B. xxxi. c. 30, for particulars of this fountain.

[1558] According to Mirabella, these springs are in modern times called Fonte di Canali, Cefalino, Fontana della Maddalena, Fonte Ciane, and Lampismotta.

[1559] The modern Fonte Bianche. The Elorus, according to Hardouin, is the modern Acellaro, according to Mannert, the Abisso.

[1560] The southern side.

[1561] Now the Maulo, or Fiume di Ragusa.

[1562] Still called Camarina. Scarcely any vestiges of the ancient city now remain.

[1563] According to Hardouin the Fiume Salso; but according to D’Anville and Mannert, the Fiume Ghiozzo.

[1564] Now Girgenti. Gigantic remains of the ancient city are still to be seen.

[1565] See note [1572] in this page.

[1566] The Achates is the modern Belice, the Mazara retains its name, and the Hypsa is now the Marsala.

[1567] So called by the Greeks from its abundant growth of parsley, called by them σέλινον. Its remains are still to be seen at the spot called Selenti.

[1568] Now Trapani. Some vestiges of its ancient mole are to be seen.

[1569] The present Monte San Juliano.

[1570] The great city of Palermo stands on its site. It was founded by the Phœnicians.

[1571] The modern Solunto.

[1572] Himera was destroyed by the Carthaginians, B.C. 408, upon which its inhabitants founded Thermæ, so called from its hot springs. This was probably the colony of Thermæ mentioned above by Pliny, though wrongly placed by him on the southern coast between Selinus and Agrigentum. The modern town of Termini stands on the site of Thermæ; remains of its baths and aqueduct are still to be seen. Himera stood on a river of the same name, most probably the present Fiume Grande, and Fazello is of opinion that the town was situate on the site now occupied by the Torre di Bonfornello. Himera was the birth-place of the poet Stesichorus.

[1573] Or Cæphalœdium. Some remains of it are to be seen at the spot called Cefalu.

[1574] Probably on the site now occupied by the town of San Marco. Fazello and Cluver however place Aluntium near San Filadelfo, where some ruins were formerly visible, and regard San Marco as the site of Agathyrna or Agathyrnum.

[1575] Probably situate near the church of Santa Maria at Tindari, now the Capo di Mongioio.

[1576] Now called Melazzo.

[1577] Their city was Centuripa, on a hill S.W. of Ætna. The modern Centorbi occupies its site, and some of its ruins may still be seen.

[1578] Netum probably stood on the spot now known as Noto Anticho.

[1579] The ruins of Segesta are supposed to be those near the river San Bartolomeo, twelve miles south of Alcamo.

[1580] Asaro occupies its site.

[1581] A people dwelling at the foot of Mount Ætna, according to D’Anville, at a place now called Nicolosi.

[1582] The people of Agyrium; the site of which is now called San Filippo d’Argiro. Diodorus Siculus was a native of this place.

[1583] Acræ occupied a bleak hill in the vicinity of the modern Pallazolo, where its ruins are still to be seen.

[1584] Their town was Bidis near Syracuse. The modern Bibino or San Giovanni di Bidini is supposed to stand on its site.

[1585] The people of Cetaria, between Panormus and Drepanum. Its site is unknown.

[1586] The people of Cacyrum, supposed to have stood on the site of the modern Cassaro. The Drepanitani were so called from living on the promontory of Drepanum.

[1587] The ruins near La Cittadella are probably those of Ergetium.

[1588] The people of Echetla. According to Faziello and Cluver its ruins were those to be seen at the place called Occhiala or Occhula, two miles from the town of Gran Michele.

[1589] The inhabitants of the city of Eryx, on the mountain of that name, now San Giuliano. The ancient city stood probably half-way down the mountain.

[1590] The town of Entella survived till the thirteenth century, when it was destroyed by the Emperor Frederic II. The ruins were formerly to be seen near Poggio la Reale.

[1591] Perhaps the people of Enna, once a famous city. According to the story as related by Ovid and Claudian, it was from this spot that Proserpine was carried off by Pluto. It stood on the same site as the town of Castro Giovanni. This note may however be more applicable to the Hennenses, mentioned below.

[1592] The ruins of Enguinum are probably those in the vicinity of the modern town of Gangi.

[1593] The people of Gela, one of the most important cities of Sicily. Its site was probably the modern Terranova, near the river Fiume di Terranova.

[1594] The people probably of Galata or Galaria; on the site of which the modern village of Galata is supposed to stand.

[1595] The people probably of Halesa; its ruins are supposed to be those near the village of Tysa, near the river Pettineo.

[1596] The people of Hybla. There were three cities of this name in Sicily, the Greater, the Less, and Hybla Megara. The name was probably derived from the local divinity mentioned by Pausanias as being so called.

[1597] The people of Herbita; the site of which was probably at Nicosia, or else at Sperlinga, two miles south of it.

[1598] There were two places in Sicily known as Herbessus or Erbessus—one near Agrigentum, the other about sixteen miles from Syracuse, on the site, it is supposed, of the present Pantalica.

[1599] The people of Halicyæ, in the west of Sicily. The modern town of Salemi is supposed to occupy its site.

[1600] The people of Adranum or Hadranum, a town famous for its temple of the Sicilian deity Adranus. Its site is occupied by the modern town of Aderno. The ruins are very considerable.

[1601] The people of Ietæ; the site of which town is said by Fazello to be the modern Iato. The sites of the places previously mentioned cannot be identified.

[1602] The site of their town is situate at the modern Mistretta, where some ruins are still to be seen.

[1603] The site of their town was probably the present village of Mandri Bianchi on the river Dittaino.

[1604] Probably the people of Motuca, mentioned by Ptolemy, now Modica.

[1605] Their town probably stood on the site of the present Mineo.

[1606] It has been suggested that these are the same as the people of Tauromenium, said to have been a Naxian colony.

[1607] They are supposed to have dwelt on the site of the present Noara.

[1608] The ruins of the town of Petra are supposed to have been those to be seen near Castro Novo, according to Mannert.

[1609] Fazello is of opinion that the present Colisano occupies the site of the ancient Paropus.

[1610] The city of Phthinthias was peopled by the inhabitants of Gela, by command of Phthinthias the despot of Agrigentum. Its ruins are probably those seen in the vicinity of the modern Alicata.

[1611] The people of Selinus previously mentioned in p. 218.

[1612] Randazzo, at the foot of Ætna, is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Tissa.

[1613] The people of Triocala, now Troccoli, near Calata Bellota.

[1614] Zancle was the ancient Greek name of Messina, which was so called from its similarity in shape to a sickle. The Messenian colony of the Zanclæi probably dwelt in its vicinity.

[1615] Gaulos is the present Gozo, and Melita the important island of Malta. The distance here mentioned is in reality only sixty-one miles from Camerina.

[1616] Now Pantellaria.

[1617] The modern island of Maretimo.

[1618] Probably the present island of Limosa.

[1619] Galata still has the name of Calata, Lopadusa is the present Lampedosa, and Æthusa, according to Mannert, is called Favignana.

[1620] Now Levanzo.

[1621] According to Mannert, this is the island Alicur, to the west of the Æolian or Liparian islands. Ustica still retains its ancient name.

[1622] The least distance between these localities is forty-five miles.

[1623] There are now eleven, some of which are supposed to have risen from the sea since the time of Pliny.

[1624] From Vulcan the god of fire, the Greek Hephæstus.

[1625] Now called the Great Lipara.

[1626] According to Solinus, c. vi., Æolus succeeded him. Its name Melogonis was by some ascribed to its great produce of honey.

[1627] The shortest distance between these localities is forty-six miles.

[1628] Now called Volcano.

[1629] Now Strongoli and Stromboli. It is the only one of these mountains that is continually burning. Notwithstanding the dangers of their locality, this island is inhabited by about fifty families.

[1630] Strabo makes the same mistake; the distance is twenty miles.

[1631] According to Hardouin and D’Anville this is the modern Saline, but Mannert says Panaria. The geographers differ in assigning their ancient names to the other three, except that Euonymos, from its name, the “left-hand” island, is clearly the modern Lisca Bianca.

[1632] These are the Gulf of Locri, the Gulf of Scyllacium, and the Gulf of Tarentum.

[1633] Now called the Sagriano, though some make it to be the modern Alaro. The site of the town of Caulon does not appear to be known: it is by some placed at Castel Vetere on the Alaro.

[1634] Said by Hardouin to be the modern Monasteraci or Monte Araci.

[1635] Supposed to have been situate on a hill near the modern Padula.

[1636] The modern Punta di Stilo, or “Point of the Column.”

[1637] The modern Gulf of Squillace.

[1638] Now Squillace.

[1639] Now the Gulf of Saint Eufemia.

[1640] “Hannibal’s Camp.” This was the seaport of Scyllacium, and its site was probably near the mouth of the river Corace.

[1641] According to Strabo, B. vi., he intended to erect a high wall across, and so divide it from the rest of Italy; but if we may judge, from the use by Pliny of the word “intercisam,” it would seem that it was his design to cut a canal across this neck of land.

[1642] According to Hardouin, the Carcines is the present river Corace, the Crotalus the Alli, the Semirus the Simari, the Arocas the Crocchio, and the Targines the Tacina.

[1643] The present Strongolo, according to D’Anville and Mannert.

[1644] The present Monte Monacello and Monte Fuscaldo are supposed to form part of the range called Clibanus.

[1645] Meaning that it was sacred to Castor and Pollux. Such are the changes effected by lapse of time that these two islands are now only bleak rocks. The present locality of the other islands does not appear to be known.

[1646] Now Capo di Colonne.

[1647] The real distance from Acroceraunium, now Capo Linguetta, is 153 miles, according to Ansart.

[1648] Or Crotona, one of the most famous Greek cities in the south of Italy. No ruins of the ancient city, said by Livy to have been twelve miles in circumference, are now remaining. The modern Cotrone occupies a part of its site. Pythagoras taught at this place.

[1649] The modern Neto.

[1650] Now called Turi, between the rivers Crati and Sibari or Roscile.

[1651] A Greek town, famous for the inordinate love of luxury displayed by its inhabitants, whence a voluptuary obtained the name of a “Sybarite.” It was destroyed by the people of Crotona, who turned the waters of the Crathis upon the town. Its site is now occupied by a pestilential swamp.

[1652] A famous Greek city founded on the territory of the former Ionian colony of Siris. The foundations of it may still be seen, it is supposed, near a spot called Policoro, three miles from the sea. The rivers are now called the Sinno and the Agri.

[1653] The modern Salandra or Salandrella, and the Basiento.

[1654] So called from its lying between the two seas. It was once a celebrated Greek city, but was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. The place called Torre di Mare now occupies its site.

[1655] The site of Aprustum is supposed to be marked by the village of Argusto, near Chiaravalle, about five miles from the Gulf of Squillace. Atina was situate in the valley of the Tanager, now the Valle di Diano. The ruins of Atina, which are very extensive, are to be seen near the village of Atena. Livy and Acron speak of Bantia as in Apulia, and not in Lucania. An ancient abbey, Santa Maria di Vanze, still marks its site.

[1656] The ruins of Eburi are supposed to be those between the modern Eboli and the right bank of the Silarus. The remains of Grumentum, a place of some importance, are still to be seen on the river Agri, half a mile from the modern Saponara. Potenza occupies the site of ancient Potentia.

[1657] The Sontini were probably situate on the river Sontia, now the Sanza, near Policastro. The Sirini probably had their name from the river Siris.

[1658] Volcentum was situate near the Silarus, probably on the spot now called Bulcino or Bucino. The site of Numistro appears to be unknown.

[1659] In his work “De Originibus.”

[1660] Livy, B. viii., and Justin mention how that Alexander I. (in the year B.C. 326) was obliged to engage under unfavourable circumstances near Pandosia, on the Acheron, and fell as he was crossing the river; thus accomplishing a prophecy of Dodona which had warned him to beware of Pandosia and the Acheron. He was uncle to Alexander the Great, being the brother of Olympias. The site of Pandosia is supposed to have been the modern Castro Franco.

[1661] This word is understood in the text, and Ansart would have it to mean that the “Gulf of Tarentum is distant,” &c., but, as he says, such an assertion would be very indefinite, it not being stated what part of the Gulf is meant. He therefore suggests that the most distant point from Lacinium is meant; which however, according to him, would make but 117 miles straight across, and 160 by land. The city of Tarentum would be the most distant point.

[1662] Messapus, a Bœotian, mentioned by Strabo, B. ix.

[1663] A son of Lycaon.

[1664] Of Lacinium and Acra Iapygia. About seventy miles seems to be the real distance; certainly not, as Pliny says, 100.

[1665] The modern Taranto to Brindisi.

[1666] Probably situate at the further extremity of the bay on which Tarentum stood.

[1667] According to D’Anville and Mannert, the modern Oria. Messapia is the modern Mesagna.

[1668] The modern Santa Maria dell’ Alizza, according to D’Anville.

[1669] The modern Gallipoli, in the Terra di Otranto. The real distance from Tarentum is between fifty and sixty miles.

[1670] The “Iapygian Point,” the present Capo di Santa Maria di Leuca.

[1671] Its site is occupied by the little village of Vaste near Poggiordo, ten miles S.W. of Otranto. In the sixteenth century considerable remains of Basta were still to be seen.

[1672] The modern Otranto stands on its site. In the fourth century it became the usual place of passage from Italy to Greece, Apollonia, and Dyrrhachium. Few vestiges of the ancient city are now to be seen.

[1673] Anciently Apollonia, in Illyria, now called Pallina or Pollona.

[1674] This was M. Terentius Varro, called “the most learned of the Romans.” His design, here mentioned, seems however to have evinced neither learning nor discretion.

[1675] Now called Soleto. The ruins of the ancient city, described by Galateo as existing at Muro, are not improbably those of Fratuertium, or, perhaps more rightly, Fratuentum.

[1676] The modern Lecce is supposed to occupy its site.

[1677] Called Valetium by Mela. Its ruins are still to be seen near San Pietro Vernotico, on the road from Brindisi to Lecce. The site is still called Baleso or Valesio.

[1678] Ansart takes this to be the modern village of Cavallo, on the promontory of that name; but it is more probably the modern Ceglie, situate on a hill about twelve miles from the Adriatic, and twenty-seven miles west of Brindisi. Extensive ruins still exist there. There was another town of the same name in the south of Apulia.

[1679] Now Brindisi. Virgil died here. The modern city, which is an impoverished place, presents but few vestiges of antiquity. The distance to Dyrrhachium is in reality only about 100 miles.

[1680] They occupied probably a portion of the modern Terra di Bari.

[1681] Said by Hardouin to be the modern Carouigna or Carovigni; but Mannert asserts it to be the same as the modern Ruvo.

[1682] Or Gnatia, called by Strabo and Ptolemy a city of Apulia. It was probably the last town of the Peucetians towards the frontiers of Calabria. Horace, in the account of his journey to Brundusium (I. Sat. i. 97-100), makes it his last halting-place, and ridicules a pretended miracle shown by the inhabitants, who asserted that incense placed on a certain altar was consumed without fire being applied. The same story is referred to by Pliny, B. ii. c. 111, where he incorrectly makes Egnatia a town of the Salentini. Its ruins are visible on the sea-coast, about six miles S.E. of Monopali, and an old town still bears the name of Torre d’Agnazzo.

[1683] Now Bari, a considerable city. In the time of Horace it was only a fishing town. It probably had a considerable intercourse with Greece, if we may judge from the remains of art found here.

[1684] It is difficult to identify these rivers, from the number of small torrents between Brindisi and the Ofanto or Aufidus. According to Mannert, the Pactius is the present Canale di Terzo.

[1685] An important city of Apulia, said to have been founded by Diomedes. Horace alludes to its deficiency of water. The modern Canosa is built on probably the site of the citadel of the ancient city, the ruins of which are very extensive.

[1686] The ruins of this place are still to be seen at some little distance from the coast, near the village of Salpi. The story about Hannibal was very probably of Roman invention, for Justin and Frontinus speak in praise of his continence and temperance. Appian however gives some further particulars of this alleged amour.

[1687] The present Manfredonia has arisen from the decay of this town, in consequence of the unhealthiness of the locality. Ancient Uria is supposed to have occupied the site of Manfredonia, and the village of Santa Maria di Siponto stands where Siponti stood.

[1688] Probably the Cervaro. Hardouin says the Candelaro.

[1689] The present Porto Greco occupies its site.

[1690] Still known as Gargano.

[1691] Probably the present Varano.

[1692] Now Lago di Lesina. The Frento is now called the Fortore.

[1693] To distinguish it from Teanum of the Sidicini, previously mentioned.

[1694] Between the Tifernus and the Frento. Its remains are said to be still visible at Licchiano, five miles from San Martino. The Tifernus is now called the Biferno.

[1695] A people of Central Italy, occupying the tract on the east coast of the peninsula, from the Apennines to the Adriatic, and from the frontiers of Apulia to those of the Marrucini.

[1696] Strabo (B. vi.) refers to this tradition, where he mentions the oracle of Calchas, the soothsayer, in Daunia in Southern Italy. Here answers were given in dreams, for those who consulted the oracle had to sacrifice a black ram, and slept a night in the temple, lying on the skin of the victim.

[1697] The modern Lucera in the Capitanata.

[1698] The birth-place of Horace; now Venosa in the Basilicata.

[1699] The modern Canosa stands on the site of the citadel of ancient Canusium, an Apulian city of great importance. The remains of the ancient city are very considerable.

[1700] So called, it was said, in remembrance of Argos, the native city of Diomedes. It was an Apulian city of considerable importance. Some slight traces of it are still to be seen at a spot which retains the name of Arpa, five miles from the city of Foggia.

[1701] The names of these two defunct cities were used by the Romans to signify anything frivolous and unsubstantial; just as we speak of “castles in the air,” which the French call “châteaux en Espagne.”

[1702] Livy and Ptolemy assign this place to Samnium Proper, as distinguished from the Hirpini. It was a very ancient city of the Samnites, but in the year B.C. 268, a Roman colony was settled there, on which occasion, prompted by superstitious feelings, the Romans changed its name Maleventum, which in their language would mean “badly come,” to Beneventum or “well come.” The modern city of Benevento still retains numerous traces of its ancient grandeur, among others a triumphal arch, erected A.D. 114 in honour of the emperor Trajan.

[1703] The remains of Æculanum are to be seen at Le Grotte, one mile from Mirabella. The ruins are very extensive.

[1704] There were probably two places called Aquilonia in Italy; the remains of the present one are those probably to be seen at La Cedogna. That mentioned by Livy, B. x. c. 38-43, was probably a different place.

[1705] These are supposed by some to be the people of Abellinum mentioned in the first region of Italy. Nothing however is known of these or of the Abellinates Marsi, mentioned below.

[1706] Æcæ is supposed to have been situate about nineteen miles from Herdonia, and to have been on the site of the modern city of Troja, an episcopal see. The Compsani were the people of Compsa, the modern Conza; and the Caudini were the inhabitants of Caudium, near which were the Fauces Caudinæ or “Caudine Forks,” where the Roman army was captured by the Samnites. The site of this city was probably between the modern Arpaja and Monte Sarchio; and the defeat is thought to have taken place in the narrow valley between Santa Agata and Moirano, on the road from the former place to Benevento, and traversed by the little river Iselero. The enumeration here beginning with the Æclani is thought by Hardouin to be of nations belonging to Apulia, and not to the Hirpini. The Æclani, here mentioned, were probably the people of the place now called Ascoli di Satriano, not far from the river Carapella. Of the Aletrini and Atrani nothing appears to be known.

[1707] Probably the people of Affilæ, still called Affile, and seven miles from Subiaco. Inscriptions and fragments of columns are still found there.

[1708] The people of Atinum, a town of Lucania, situate in the upper valley of the Tanager, now the Valle di Diano. Its site is ascertained by the ruins near the village of Atena, five miles north of La Sala. Collatia was situate on the Anio, now called the Teverone.

[1709] The ruins of the town of Canuæ are still visible at a place called Canne, about eight miles from Canosa. The Romans were defeated by Hannibal, on the banks of the Aufidus in its vicinity, but there is considerable question as to the exact locality. The ruins of the town are still considerable.

[1710] Forentum was the site of the present Forenza in the Basilicate. It is called by Horace and Diodorus Siculus, Ferentum. The ancient town probably stood on a plain below the modern one. Some remains of it are still to be seen.

[1711] On the site of Genusium stands the modern Ginosa. The ruins of the ancient city of Herdonea are still to be seen in the vicinity of the modern Ordona, on the high road from Naples to Otranto. This place witnessed the defeat by Hannibal of the Romans twice in two years.

[1712] The mention of the Hyrini, or people of Hyrium or Hyria, is probably an error, as he has already mentioned Uria, the same place, among the Daunian Apulians, and as on the sea-shore. See p. 228. It is not improbably a corrupted form of some other name.

[1713] From the Frento, on the banks of which they dwelt.

[1714] Viesta, on the promontory of Gargano, is said to occupy the site of the ancient Merinum.

[1715] According to Mannert, the modern town of Noja stands on the site of ancient Netium.

[1716] They inhabited Ruvo, in the territory of Bari, according to Hardouin.

[1717] Their town was Silvium; probably on the site of the modern Savigliano.

[1718] According to D’Anville their town was Strabellum, now called Rapolla.

[1719] Their town is supposed to have been on the site of the modern Bovino, in the Capitanata.

[1720] The people of Apamestæ; probably on the site of the modern San Vito, two miles west of Polignano.

[1721] The people of Butuntum, now Bitonto, an inland city of Apulia, twelve miles from Barium, and five from the sea. No particulars of it are known. All particulars too of most of the following tribes have perished.

[1722] D’Anville places their city, Sturni, at the present Ostuni, not far from the Adriatic, and fourteen leagues from Otranto.

[1723] The people of Aletium already mentioned.

[1724] Their town possibly stood on the site of the present village of Veste, to the west of Castro. The Neretini were probably the people of the present Nardo.

[1725] Probably the people of the town which stood on the site of the present San Verato.

[1726] They occupied what is now called the Abruzzo Inferiore.

[1727] Now the Trigno.

[1728] On the site of the present Vasto d’Ammone, five miles south of the Punta della Penna. There are numerous remains of the ancient city.

[1729] According to Strabo Buca bordered on the territory of Teanum, which would place its site at Termoli, a seaport three miles from the mouth of the Biferno or Tifernus. Other writers, however, following Pliny, have placed it on the Punta della Penna, where considerable remains were visible in the 17th century. Ortona still retains its ancient name.

[1730] Now the Pescara.

[1731] The sites of their towns are unknown; but D’Anville supposes the Higher or Upper Carentum to have occupied the site of the modern Civita Burella, and the Lower one the Civita del Conte.

[1732] Teate is supposed to be the present Chieti.

[1733] The people of Corfinium, the chief city of the Peligni. It is supposed to have remained in existence up to the tenth century. Its ruins are seen near Pentima, about the church of San Pelino.

[1734] The site of Superæquum is occupied by the present Castel Vecchio Subequo.

[1735] The people of Sulmo, a town ninety miles from Rome. It was the birth-place of Ovid, and was famous for the coldness of its waters, a circumstance mentioned by Ovid in his Tristia, B. iv. ch. x. l. 4. It is now called Sulmona.

[1736] The people of Anxanum or Anxa, on the Sangro, now known as the city of Lanciano; in the part of which, known as Lanciano Vecchio, remains of the ancient town are to be seen.

[1737] The people probably of Atina in Samnium, which still retains the same name.

[1738] They probably took their name from the Lake Fucinus, the modern Lago Fucino, or Lago di Celano.

[1739] They dwelt in a town on the verge of Lake Fucinus, known as Lucus.

[1740] The ruins of Marruvium may still be seen at Muria, on the eastern side of Lake Fucinus.

[1741] It has been suggested, from the discovery of a sepulchral inscription there, that Capradosso, about nine miles from Rieti in the upper valley of the Salto, is the site of ancient Cliternia. The small village of Alba retains the name and site of the former city of Alba Fucensis, of which there are considerable remains.

[1742] The modern town of Carsoli is situate three miles from the site of ancient Carseoli, the remains of which are still visible at Civita near the Ostoria del Cavaliere. Ovid tells us that its climate was cold and bleak, and that it would not grow olives, though fruitful in corn. He also gives some other curious particulars of the place.—Fasti, B. iv. l. 683 et seq.

[1743] The modern Civita Sant Angelo retains nearly its ancient name as that of its patron saint. It is situate on a hill, four miles from the Adriatic, and south of the river Matrinus, which separated the Vestini from the territories of Adria and Picenum.

[1744] The village of Ofena, twelve miles north of Popoli, is supposed to retain the site of ancient Aufina. Numerous antiquities have been found here.

[1745] Cato in his ‘Origines’ stated that they were so called from the fact of their being descended from the Sabines.

[1746] The site of the town of Bovianum is occupied by the modern city of Bojano; the remains of the walls are visible. Mommsen however considers Bojano to be the site of only Bovianum Undecumanorum, or “of the Eleventh Legion,” and considers that the site of the ancient Samnite city of Bovianum Vetus is the place called Piettrabondante, near Agnone, twenty miles to the north, where there appear to be the remains of an ancient city.

[1747] The people of Aufidena, a city of northern Samnium, in the upper valley of the Sagrus or Sagro. Its remains, which show it to have been a place of very great strength, are to be seen near the modern village of Alfidena, on a hill on the left bank of the modern Sangro.

[1748] The people of Esernia, now Isernia.

[1749] The people of Ficulia or Ficolea, a city of ancient Latium on the Via Nomentana. It is supposed that it was situate within the confines of the domain of Cesarini, and upon either the hill now called Monte Gentile, or that marked by the Torre Lupara.

[1750] Sæpinum is supposed to be the same with the modern Supino or Sipicciano.

[1751] The ruins of the ancient Sabine city of Amiternum are still visible at San Vittorino, a village about five miles north of Aquila. Considerable remains of antiquity are still to be seen there.

[1752] The people of Cures, an ancient city of the Sabines, to the left of the Via Salaria, about three miles from the left bank of the Tiber, and twenty-four from Rome. It was the birth-place of Numa Pompilius. Its site is occupied by the present villages of Correse and Arci, and considerable remains of the ancient city are still to be seen.

[1753] Nothing is known of this place; but it has been suggested that it stood in the neighbourhood of Forum Novum (or ‘New Market’), next mentioned, the present Vescovio.

[1754] This Interamna must not be confounded with Interamna Lirinas, mentioned in C. 9, nor Interamna Nartis, mentioned in C. 19. It was a city of Picenum in the territory of the Prætutii. The city of Teramo stands on its site; and extensive remains of the ancient city are still in existence.

[1755] From their town, Norsia in the duchy of Spoleto is said to derive its name.

[1756] The people of Nomentum, now La Mentana.

[1757] The people of Reate, now Rieti, below Mursia.

[1758] The people of Trebulæ Mutuscæ, said to have stood on the site of the present Monte Leone della Sabina, below Rieti. This place is mentioned in the seventh Æneid of Virgil, as the “Olive-bearing Mutuscæ.”

[1759] Their town was Trebula Suffena, on the site of the present Montorio di Romagna. The Tiburtes were the people of Tibur, the modern Tivoli; and the Tarinates were the inhabitants of Tarinum, now Tarano.

[1760] The people of Cominium, the site of which is uncertain. It is supposed that there were three places of this name. One Cominium is mentioned in the Samnite wars as being about twenty miles from Aquilonia, while Cominium Ceritum, probably another place, is spoken of by Livy in his account of the second Punic War. The latter, it is suggested, was about sixteen miles north-west of Beneventum, and on the site of the modern Cerreto. The Comini here mentioned by Pliny, it is thought, dwelt in neither of the above places. The sites of the towns of many of the peoples here mentioned are also equally unknown.

[1761] Solinus, B. ii., also states, that this place was founded by Marsyas, king of the Lydians. Hardouin mentions that in his time the remains of this town were said to be seen on the verge of the lake near Transaco.

[1762] From the Greek σέβεσθαι “to worship.”

[1763] The river Velinus, now Velino, rising in the Apennines, in the vicinity of Reate, overflowed its banks and formed several small lakes, the largest of which was called Lake Velinus, now Pie di Lugo or Lago, while a smaller one was called Lacus Reatinus, now Lago di Santa Susanna. In order to carry off these waters, a channel was cut through the rocks by Curius Dentatus, the conqueror of the Sabines, by means of which the waters of the Velinus were carried through a narrow gorge to a spot where they fall from a height of several hundred feet into the river Nar. This fall is now known as the Fall of Terni or the Cascade Delle Marmore.

[1764] Still called Monte Fiscello, near the town of Civita Reale. Virgil calls the Nar (now the Nera), “Sulphureâ Nar albus aquâ,” “The white Nar with its sulphureous waters.”—Æneid, vii. 517.

[1765] A Sabine divinity said to have been identical with Victory. The Romans however made her the goddess of leisure and repose, and represented her as being worshiped by the husbandmen at harvest home, when they were “vacui,” or at leisure. She is mentioned by Ovid in the Fasti, B. vi. l. 307. The grove here alluded to was one of her sanctuaries.

[1766] The modern Teverone, which rises near Tervi or Trevi.

[1767] A town of the Æqui, now known as Subiaco. In its vicinity was the celebrated villa of Claudius and Nero, called the Villa Sublacencis.

[1768] This was a town of the Sabines between Reate and Interocrea, in the vicinity of a small lake of the same name. It was a mere pool, according to Dionysius, being but 400 feet in diameter. It is supposed that the floating island was formed from the incrustations of carbonate of lime on the banks, which, becoming detached, probably collected in the middle. The lake still exists, but the floating island has disappeared. There are some fine ruins of Roman baths in the vicinity of the lake.

[1769] It was a custom with the early Italian nations, especially the Sabines, in times of danger and distress, to vow to the deity the sacrifice of all the produce of the ensuing spring, that is, of the period from the first day of March till the last day of April. It is probable that in early times human sacrifices were the consequence; but at a later period the following custom was adopted instead. The children were allowed to grow up, and in the spring of their twentieth or twenty-first year were with covered faces driven across the frontier of their native country, to go whithersoever chance or the guidance of the deity might lead them. The Mamertini in Sicily were said to have had this origin.

[1770] Now the Aterno, which falls into the sea at Atri or Ortona.

[1771] A famous city of Etruscan origin, which still retains its name of Adria or Atri. It had very considerable intercourse with Greece, and there are extensive remains of antiquity in its vicinity, towards Ravegnano. The river is still called the Vomano.

[1772] These places are again mentioned in B. xiv. c. 8.

[1773] Or “New Castle.” It probably occupied the site of the now deserted town of Santo Flaviano, near the banks of the river Tordino, the Batinus of Pliny, and below the modern town of Giulia Nova.

[1774] The river still has the name of Tronto; Porto di Martin Scuro occupies the site of the town.

[1775] Who had crossed over as colonists from the opposite coast of Illyricum.

[1776] According to Mannert the river Tesino is the same as the Albula, and Tervium is the modern town of Grotte a Mare; but D’Anville makes the latter to be the town of Cupra next mentioned.

[1777] This was called Cupra Maritima, to distinguish it from the town of the Cuprenses Montani, afterwards mentioned. It is said by Strabo to have had its name from the Tyrrhenian name of Juno. From the discovery of an inscription belonging to her temple here, there is little doubt that D’Anville is right in his suggestion that the site of Cupra is at Grotte a Mare, eight miles from the mouth of the Truentus or Tronto.

[1778] “The Fortress of the Firmani,” five miles from Firmum, an important city of Picenum. The Fortress was situate at the mouth of the Leta, and was the port of the city. It is still called Porto di Fermo.

[1779] Often called “Asculum Picenum” to distinguish it from Asculum in Apulia. It was a place of considerable strength, and played a great part in the Social War. It is unknown at what period it became a Roman colony. The modern city of Ascoli stands on its site.

[1780] Now called Monte Novano, according to D’Anville and Brotier.

[1781] Its site is supposed to have been that of the small town called Santo Elpidio a Mare, four miles from the sea, and the same distance north of Fermo. The remains of Potentia are supposed to be those in the vicinity of the modern Porto di Recanati. Numana is supposed to be the modern Umana, near the Cuscione, where, in the seventeenth century, extensive ruins were to be seen.

[1782] It still retains its ancient name, which was derived from the Greek ἀγκὼν “the elbow,” it being situate on a promontory which forms a curve, and almost encloses the port. The promontory is still called Monte Comero. A triumphal arch, erected in honour of Trajan, who constructed a new mole for the port, is still in fine preservation, and there are remains of an amphitheatre.

[1783] The modern city of Osimo stands on the site of Auximum, about twelve miles south-west of Ancona. Numerous inscriptions, statues, and other remains have been found there.

[1784] Cluver conjectures that Beregra stood at Civitella di Tronto, ten miles north of Teramo; but nothing further relative to it is known. Cingulum was situate on a lofty mountain; the modern town of Cingoli occupies its site.

[1785] “The mountaineers.” They inhabited Cupra Montana, which is supposed to have stood on the same site as the modern Ripa Transone.

[1786] The people of Falaria or Faleria. There are considerable remains of this town about a mile from the village of Falerona, among which a theatre and amphitheatre are most conspicuous. The remains of Pausula are supposed to be those seen on the Monte dell’ Olmo. The town of the Ricinenses is supposed to have been on the banks of the Potenza, two miles from Macerata, where some remains were to be seen in the seventeenth century.

[1787] Septempeda is supposed to have occupied the site of the modern San Severino, on the river Potenza. Tollentinum or Tollentura was probably on the site of the modern Tolentino. The town of the Treienses is supposed to have occupied a site near the modern San Severino, in the vicinity of Montecchio.

[1788] A colony of the people of Pollentia was established at Urbs Salvia, occupying the site of the modern Urbisaglia on the bank of the Chiento.

[1789] Cisalpine Gaul was so called because the inhabitants adopted the use of the Roman toga.

[1790] This fanciful derivation would make their name to come from the Greek ὄμβρος “a shower.”

[1791] Now the Esino.

[1792] So called from the Galli Senones. The modern city of Sinigaglia occupies its site. The river Metaurus is still called the Metauro.

[1793] “The Temple of Fortune.” At this spot the Flaminian Way joined the road from Ancona and Picenum to Ariminum. The modern city of Fano occupies the site, but there are few remains of antiquity.

[1794] The modern Pesaro occupies the site of the town; the river is called the Foglia.

[1795] This was a flourishing town of Umbria. Augustus showed it especial favour and bestowed on it the Grove and Temple of Clitumnus, though at twelve miles’ distance from the town. The modern town of Spello occupies its site, and very extensive remains of antiquity are still to be seen. It probably received two Roman colonies, as inscriptions mention the “Colonia Julia Hispelli” and the “Colonia Urbana Flavia.” It is considered probable that Hispellum, rather than Mevania, was the birth-place of the poet Propertius. Tuder is supposed to have occupied the site of the modern Todi, on the Tiber.

[1796] The people of Ameria, an important and flourishing city of Umbria. There are still remains of the ancient walls; the modern town of Amelia occupies its site.

[1797] The site of Attidium is marked by the modern village of Attigio, two miles south of the city of Fabriano, to which the inhabitants of Attidium are supposed to have migrated in the middle ages.

[1798] The people of Asisium. The modern city of Assisi (the birth-place of St. Francis) occupies its site. There are considerable remains of the ancient town.

[1799] The people of Arna, the site of which is now occupied by the town of Civitella d’Arno, five miles east of Perugia. Some inscriptions and other objects of antiquity have been found here.

[1800] The people of Æsis, situate on the river of the same name. It is still called Iesi. Pliny, in B. xi. c. 97, mentions it as famous for the excellence of its cheeses.

[1801] The people of Camerinum, a city of Umbria. The present Camerino occupies its site. Its people were among the most considerable of Umbria. The site of the Casuentillani does not appear to be known.

[1802] The people of Carsulæ, an Umbrian town of some importance. Its ruins are still visible about half way between San Germino and Acqua Sparta, ten miles north of Narni. Holsten states that the site was still called Carsoli in his time, and there existed remains of an amphitheatre and a triumphal arch in honour of Trajan. Nothing seems to be known of the Dolates.

[1803] The people of Fulginium. From Cicero we learn that it was a municipal town. The modern city of Foligno has risen on its site. An inscription discovered here has preserved the name of Fulginia, probably a local divinity.

[1804] The people of Forum Flaminii, situated on the Flaminian Way, where it first entered the Apennines, three miles from Fulginium. It was here that the Emperors Gallus and Volusianus were defeated and slain by Æmilianus, A.D. 256. The ruins at the spot called Giovanni pro Fiamma mark its site. The site of Forum Julii appears to be unknown, as also that of Forum Brentani.

[1805] The people of Forum Sempronii, the only town in the valley of the Metaurus. The modern city of Fossombrone, two miles distant, has thence taken its name. Considerable vestiges of the ancient town are still to be seen. The battle in which Hasdrubal was defeated by the Roman consuls Livius and Nero, B.C. 207, was probably fought in its vicinity.

[1806] The people of Iguvium, an ancient and important town of Umbria. Its site is occupied by the modern city of Gubbio. Interamna on the Nar has been previously mentioned.

[1807] The people of the town of Mevania, now called Bevagna, in the duchy of Spoleto. The Mevanionenses were the people of Mevanio, or Mevaniolæ, in the vicinity of Mevania, and thought by Cluver to be the modern Galeata.

[1808] Their town was Matilica, which still retains that name. It is situate in the Marches of Ancona.

[1809] Their town still retains the name of Narni.

[1810] Their town was surnamed Favonia and Camellaria, to distinguish it from several others of the same name. The present Nocera stands on its site.

[1811] The people of Ocriculum, now Otricoli, previously mentioned.

[1812] According to Hardouin, the ruins of Ostra are those near Monte Nuovo, now Sinigaglia, but D’Anville thinks that the modern Corinaldo marks its site.

[1813] Nothing is known of the Plestini, nor yet of the Pitulani, who seem to have been a different people to those mentioned in the First Region.

[1814] The town of Sentis, according to D’Anville and Mannert, was in the vicinity of the modern town of Sasso Ferrato.

[1815] The people of Sarsina, an important town of Umbria, famous as being the birth-place of the comic poet Plautus. It is now called Sassina, on the Savio.

[1816] The people of Spoletum, now Spoleto. It was a city of Umbria on the Via Flaminia, colonized by the Romans B.C. 242. In the later days of the Empire it was taken by Totilas, and its walls destroyed. They were however restored by Narses.

[1817] The people of Suasa; the remains of which, according to D’Anville and Mannert, are those seen to the east of the town of San Lorenzo, at a place called Castel Leone.

[1818] The monastery of Sestino is supposed to stand on the site of Sestinum, their town, at the source of the river Pesaro.

[1819] The site of their town is denoted by the modern Sigello in the Marches of Ancona.

[1820] Their town is supposed to have been also situate within the present Marches of Ancona, where they join the Duchy of Spoleto.

[1821] Their town was Trebia. The modern Trevi stands on its site.

[1822] The people of Tuficum, which Holsten thinks was situate between Matelica and Fabrianum, on the river called the Cesena.

[1823] The site of Tifernum Tiberinum is occupied by the present Citta di Castello, and that of Tifernum Metaurense, or “on the Metaurus,” by Sant Angelo in Vado in the Duchy of Urbino. The first-named place was in the vicinity of the estates of the Younger Pliny.

[1824] D’Anville and Mannert are of opinion that Urbania on the Metaurus, two leagues south-east of Urbino, marks the site of their town. The Hortenses probably dwelt on the site of the present Urbino.

[1825] The site of their town was probably the present Bettona. The site of the towns of the peoples next mentioned is unknown.

[1826] Nothing is known of its position. There were cities in Campania and Cisalpine Gaul also called Acerræ. The first has been mentioned under the First Region. Of the other places and peoples mentioned in this Chapter no particulars seem to have come down to us.

[1827] Now the Conca. It is called “rapax Crustumium” by Lucan, B. ii. l. 406.

[1828] One of the most important cities of Umbria. It played a conspicuous part in most of the internal wars of the Romans. The modern city of Rimini which stands on its site, still retains two striking monuments of its grandeur; the Roman bridge of marble, which crosses the river Ariminus, erected by Augustus and Tiberius, and a triumphal arch of marble, erected in honour of Augustus. The river Ariminus is now called the Marocchia, and the Aprusa is the Ausa.

[1829] A papal decree, issued in 1756, declared the river Lusa to have been the ancient Rubicon, but the more general opinion is that the Pisatello, a little to the north of it, has better claims to that honour. On the north bank of the Rubicon a pillar was placed by a decree of the Senate, with an inscription giving notice that whoever should pass in arms into the Roman territory would be deemed an enemy to the state. It is especially celebrated in history by Cæsar’s passage across it at the head of his army, by which act he declared war against the republic. See Lucan, B. i. l. 200-230.

[1830] The Sapis is the modern Savio, or Rio di Cesena; the Vitis is the Bevano, and the Anemo is the Roncone.

[1831] Strabo and Zosimus however state that it was first founded by the Thessalians. Ravenna first came into notice on being made one of the two chief stations of the Roman fleet. The harbour which was made for it was called “Classes,” and between it and Ravenna sprang up the town of Cæsarea. Though not deemed unhealthy, it lay in a swampy district. Theodoric made it the capital of the kingdom of the Goths. The modern city stands on the site of the ancient town. The river Bedesis is now called the Montone.

[1832] No remains of it are extant; but it is supposed that it stood near the entrance of the Lagunes of Comacchio.

[1833] The modern Bologna stands on its site, and there are but few remains of antiquity to be seen.

[1834] He probably means only the Etruscan cities north of the Apennines.

[1835] The modern town of Brescello occupies its site. Here the Emperor Otho put an end to his life on learning the defeat of his troops by Vitellius. It appears to have been a strong fortress in the time of the Lombard kings.

[1836] The modern Modena stands on its site. It was famous in the history of the civil wars after Cæsar’s death. Decimus Brutus was besieged here by M. Antonius, in the years B.C. 44 and 43, and under its walls the consuls Hirtius and Pansa were slain. Its vicinity, like that of Parma, was famous for the excellence of its wool.

[1837] This was a Roman colony, which was enlarged by Augustus, and from him received the name of Colonia Julia Augusta. It was called, after the fall of the Western Empire, Chrysopolis or the “Golden City.” The modern city of Parma occupies its site.

[1838] A Roman colony. The present city of Piacenza stands on its site.

[1839] It still retains the name of Cesena, and is a considerable place. After the fall of the Western Empire it was used as a fortress of great strength. We shall find Pliny again mentioning it in B. xiv. c. 6, as famous for the goodness of its wines, a reputation which it still maintains. The name of Claterna, once a municipal town of importance, is still retained in part by a small stream which crosses the road nine miles from Bologna, and is called the Quaderna. An old church and a few houses, called Santa Maria di Quaderna, probably mark the site of the vicinity of the town, which was situate on the high road.

[1840] This Forum Clodii is said by D’Anville to be the modern Fornocchia. Forum Livii is supposed to have occupied the site of the present city of Forli. Forum Popili or Forli Piccolo occupies the site of Forum or Foro Popili.

[1841] This place is supposed to have stood on the spot where the episcopal town of Bertinoro now stands. In inscriptions it is called Forodruentinorum. Forum Cornelii, said to have been so called from the Dictator Sylla, occupied the site of the modern town of Imola. The poet Martial is said to have resided for some time in this town.

[1842] The people of Faventia, now Faenza. Pliny, B. xix. c. i., speaks of the whiteness of its linen, for the manufacture of which it was celebrated. At this place Carbo and Norbanus were defeated with great loss by Metellus, the partisan of Sylla, in B.C. 82.

[1843] The people of Fidentia. The present Borga di San Donnino stands on its site, which is between Parma and Placentia, fifteen miles from the former city.

[1844] Cluver thinks that their town was on the site of the modern Castel Bondino.

[1845] So named after Æmilius Lepidus. The people of Regium Lepidum, the site of whose town is occupied by the modern Reggio.

[1846] Solonatium is supposed to have had the site of the modern Citta di Sole or Torre di Sole.

[1847] Nothing certain is known of this people or their town, but it is thought by Rezzonico that by this name were meant those who occupied the wood-clad heights of the Apennines, above Modena and Parma. Cicero mentions a Saltus Gallicanus as being a mountain of Campania, but that is clearly not the spot meant here.

[1848] Their town is thought to have stood on the same site as the modern Tenedo.

[1849] Their town was perhaps on the same site as the modern Villac, on the river Nura.

[1850] The modern city of Ombria probably stands on the site of Urbana, their town, of which considerable remains are still to be seen.

[1851] These and the Senones were nations of Cisalpine Gaul. The Boii emigrated originally from Transalpine Gaul, by the Penine Alps, or the Pass of Great St. Bernard. They were completely subdued by Scipio Nasica in B.C. 191, when he destroyed half of their population, and deprived them of nearly half of their lands. They were ultimately driven from their settlements, and established themselves in the modern Bohemia, which from them takes its name. The Senones, who had taken the city of Rome in B.C. 390, were conquered and the greater part of them destroyed by the Consul Dolabella in B.C. 283.

[1852] The Po, which rises in Monte Viso in Savoy.

[1853] Already mentioned in C. 7 of the present Book.

[1854] Ovid in his account of the adventure of Phaëton (Met. B. ii.) states that he fell into the river Padus.

[1855] The Tanarus is still called the Tanaro. The Trebia, now the Trebbia, is memorable for the defeat on its banks of the Romans by Hannibal, B.C. 218. The Incia is the modern Enza or Lenza, the Tarus the Taro, the Gabellus the Secchia, the Scultenna the Panaro, and the Rhenus the Reno.

[1856] The Stura still has the same name; the Orgus is the modern Orco. The streams called Duriæ are known as the Dora Baltea and the Dora Riparia; the Sessites is the Sesia, the Ticinus the Tessino, the Lambrus the Lambro, the Addua the Adda, the Ollius the Oglio, and the Mincius the Menzo.

[1857] This seems to be the meaning of “gravis terræ,” unless it signifies “pressing heavily upon the land,” and so cutting out channels for its course. He has previously stated that, though rapid, it is not in the habit of carrying away its banks. See a very able article on the question whether the name Eridanus belonged originally to this river or to some other in the north of Europe, in Dr. Smith’s Dictionary of Ancient Geography under the word “Eridanus.”

[1858] That is to say, the canal made by Augustus was so called.

[1859] It was on this occasion that, after a stay of only a few days in Britain, he quitted the island, returned to Rome, and celebrated a splendid triumph. This outlet of the Po has now the name of Po di Primero.

[1860] Now the Santerno, noted for the sluggishness of its waters.

[1861] The Ostium Caprasiæ is now called the Porto Interito di Bell’ Ochio, the Ostium Sagis the Porto di Magnavacca; Volane, or Volana, is the south main branch of the river. The Ostia Carbonaria, mentioned below, was the north main branch, subdivided into several small branches; and the Fossæ or Fossiones Philistinæ connected the river, by means of the Tartarus, with the Athesis.

[1862] The reading is doubtful here, and even this, which is perhaps the best, appears to be corrupt; for it is difficult to conceive how all the mouths previously mentioned could have been upon one canal, and besides it would seem that Olane was one of the natural mouths of the river.

[1863] More generally Adria, from which, as Pliny says, the Adriatic takes its name. Either a Greek, or, what is more probable, as Pliny states, an Etruscan colony, it became the principal emporium of trade with the Adriatic, in consequence of which it was surrounded with canals and other works to facilitate its communications with other rivers. It is still called Adria, and in its vicinity to the south, considerable remains of the ancient city are still to be seen.

[1864] So called from the Philistæi, said to have been the ancient inhabitants of the spot. They are now called the Bocca della Gnoca, the Bocca della Scovetta, the Busa delle Tole, the Sbocco dell’ Asinino, &c. The Ostia Carbonaria and the Fossæ Philistinæ were to the north of the ones previously mentioned.

[1865] He seems to confound the Fosses of Philistina with the Tartarus (now Tartaro). That river however connected the Fosses of Philistina with the Athesis, now the Adige.

[1866] Now the Bacchiglione.

[1867] The modern Brondolo.

[1868] Now Chioggia, formed by the rivers Brenta and Brentella. Hardouin thinks the Clodian Canal to be the same as the modern Fossa Paltana.

[1869] Now Monteu di Po, below Chevasso, mentioned in the 7th Chapter.

[1870] This place is supposed to have been situate in the vicinity of the modern Saluzzo, on the north bank of the Po. Segusio occupied the site of the modern Susa.

[1871] Augusta of the Taurini. The present city of Turin stands on its site. It was made a Roman colony by Augustus. With the exception of some inscriptions, Turin retains no vestiges of antiquity.

[1872] The present city of Aosta occupies its site. This was also a Roman colony founded by Augustus, after he had subdued the Salassi. It was, as Pliny says in C. 5, the extreme point of Italy to the north. The remains of the ancient city are of extreme magnificence.

[1873] The Grecian pass of the Alps was that now known as the Little St. Bernard; while the Penine pass was the present Great St. Bernard. Livy in his History, B. xxi. c. 38, points out the error of taking these mountains to have derived their name from the Pœni or Carthaginians. There is no doubt that they took their name from the Celtic word signifying a mountain, which now forms the “Pen” of the Welsh and the “Ben” of the Scotch.

[1874] Now called Ivrea or Lamporeggio, at the entrance of the valley of the Salassi, the present Val d’Aosta. There are some remains of the ancient town to be seen.

[1875] The present town of Vercelli stands on its site.

[1876] Now called Novara, in the Duchy of Milan.

[1877] It became a Roman municipal town, but owes its greatness to the Lombard kings who made it their capital, and altered the name to Papia, now Pavia.

[1878] “Pompey’s Praises.” The present Lodi Vecchio marks its site.

[1879] It was the capital of the Insubres, a Gallic nation, and was taken by the Romans in B.C. 222, on which it became a municipium and Roman colony. On the division of the empire by Diocletian, it became the residence of his colleague Maximianus, and continued to be the abode of the Emperors of the West till it was plundered by Attila, who transferred the seat of government to Ravenna. It afterwards became the capital of the kingdom of the Ostro-Goths, and was again sacked by the Goths in A.D. 539, and its inhabitants put to the sword. The present city, known to us as Milan, contains no remains of antiquity.

[1880] The modern Como and Bergamo stand on their sites.

[1881] From its name, signifying the “market of Licinius,” it would appear to be of Roman origin. Its site is supposed to have been at a place called Incino, near the town of Erba, between Como and Lecco, where inscriptions and other antiquities have been found.

[1882] Deriving it from the Greek ὄρος, “a mountain,” and βίος, “life.”

[1883] “Etiamnum prodente se altius quam fortunatius situm.” Hardouin seems to think that “se” refers to Cato, and that he informs us to that effect; but to all appearance, it relates rather to the town, which even yet, by its ruins, showed that it was perched too high among the mountains to be a fertile spot.

[1884] The district of the Veneti. These people, taking refuge in the adjoining islands in the fifth century to escape the Huns under Attila, founded the modern city of Venice.

[1885] Now called the Sile, which flows past Trevigio or Treviso.

[1886] The mountainous district in the vicinity of Tarvisium, the modern Treviso.

[1887] Situate in a marsh or lagune on the river Sile. It became a Roman colony after Pliny’s time, under the Emperor Trajan. Its villas are described by Martial as rivalling those of Baiæ. The Emperor Verus died here A.D. 169. The modern village of Altino is a very impoverished place. The Liquentia is now called the Livenza.

[1888] Now called Oderzo, on the river Montegano, which flows into the Liquenza. The conduct of the people of this place, in the wars between Pompey and Cæsar, is mentioned by Lucan, in his Pharsalia, B. iv. l. 462.

[1889] From inscriptions we find that this place was called Colonia Julia Concordia, from which it seems probable that it was one of the colonies founded by Augustus to celebrate the restoration of peace. It rapidly rose into importance, and is often mentioned during the later ages of the Roman Empire, as one of the most important cities in this part of Italy. It is now a poor village, with the same name, and no remains of antiquity beyond a few inscriptions.

[1890] The Romatinum is the modern Lemene. Pliny seems to imply, (though from the uncertainty of the punctuation it is not clear,) that on the Romatinum there was a port of that name. If so, it would probably occupy the site of the present Santa Margherita, at the mouth of the Lemene.

[1891] The greater Tiliaventum is the modern Tagliamento; and Hardouin suggests that the smaller river of that name is the Lugugnana.

[1892] This river is supposed to be the same with the modern Stella, and the Varamus the Revonchi, which joins the Stella.

[1893] Now called the Ansa. The Natiso is the modern Natisone, and the Turrus the Torre; the former flowed past Aquileia on the west, the latter on the east, in former times, but their course is probably now changed, and they fall into the Isonzo, four miles from the city.

[1894] The capital of Venetia, and one of the most important cities of Northern Italy. In the year A.D. 452 it was besieged by Attila, king of the Huns, taken by storm, and plundered and burnt to the ground. On its site, which is very unhealthy, is the modern village of Aquileia, with about 1400 inhabitants. No ruins of any buildings are visible, but the site abounds with coins, shafts of columns, inscriptions, and other remains of antiquity.

[1895] Ptolemy states that Concordia and Aquileia were situate in the district of the Carni.

[1896] Still called the Timavo.

[1897] Castel Duino stands on its site. It will be found again mentioned in B. xiv. C. 8, for the excellence of its wines.

[1898] Now the Gulf of Trieste. Tergeste was previously an insignificant place, but made a Roman colony by Vespasian. The modern city of Trieste occupies its site.

[1899] Most probably the modern Risano. Cluver and D’Anville are of that opinion, but Walckenaer thinks that it was a small stream near Muja Yecchia; which seems however to be too near Trieste.

[1900] In the time of Augustus, and before Istria was added as a province to Italy.

[1901] He alludes to an old tradition that the Argonauts sailed into the Ister or Danube, and then into the Save, till they came to the spot where the modern town of Upper Laybach stands, and that here they built Nauportus, after which they carried their ship across the mountains on men’s shoulders into the Adriatic. He intends to suggest therefore that the place had its name from the Greek ναῦς “a ship” and πορθμὸς “a passage.”

[1902] The modern town of Laybach stands on its site. It is situate on the Save, and on the road from Aquileia to Celeia. The Roman remains prove that the ancient city exceeded the modern one in magnitude. According to tradition it was founded by the Argonauts. It subsequently became a Roman colony, with the title of Julia Augusta. It is again mentioned in C. 28.

[1903] Now the Golfo di Quarnaro. Liburnia was separated from Istria on the north-west by the river Arsia, and from Dalmatia on the south by the river Titus or Kerka, corresponding to the western part of modern Croatia, and the northern part of modern Dalmatia. Iapydia was situate to the north of Dalmatia and east of Liburnia, or the present military frontier of Croatia, between the rivers Kulpa and Korana to the north and east, and the Velebich mountains to the south. Istria consisted of the peninsula which still bears the same appellation.

[1904] This passage, “while others make it 225,” is omitted in many of the MSS. and most of the editions. If it is retained, it is not improbable that his meaning is, “and the circumference of Liburnia which joins it, with the Flanatic Gulf, some make 225, while others make the compass of Liburnia to be 180 miles.” It depends on the punctuation and the force of “item,” and the question whether the passage is not in a corrupt state; and it is not at all clear what his meaning really is.

[1905] He alludes to C. Sempronius Tuditanus, Consul B.C. 129. He gained his victory over the Iapydes chiefly through the skill of his legatus, D. Junius Brutus. He was a distinguished orator and historian. He was the maternal grandfather of the orator Hortensius.

[1906] This place is only mentioned by Pliny, but from an inscription found, it appears that the emperor Justin II. conferred on it the title of Justinopolis. It is thought that it occupied the site of the present town of Capo d’Istria.—Parentium stood on the site of the present Parenzo.

[1907] It still retains its name.

[1908] Supposed to have occupied the site of the modern Castel Nuovo, past which the Arsia, now the Arsa, flows.

[1909] Since Istria had been added to it by Augustus.

[1910] Livy seems to imply that Cremona was originally included in the territory of the Insubres. A Roman colony being established there it became a powerful city. It was destroyed by Antonius, the general of Vespasian, and again by the Lombard king Agilulfus in A.D. 605. No remains of antiquity, except a few inscriptions, are to be seen in the modern city.

[1911] The modern city of Este stands on the site of Ateste. Beyond inscriptions there are no remains of this Roman colony.

[1912] Asolo stands on its site.

[1913] It was said to have been founded by the Trojan Antenor. Under the Romans it was the most important city in the north of Italy, and by its commerce and manufactures attained great opulence. It was plundered by Attila, and, by Agilulfus, king of the Lombards, was razed to the ground. It was celebrated as being the birth-place of Livy. Modern Padua stands on its site, but has no remains of antiquity.

[1914] Now called Belluno. Vicetia has been succeeded by the modern Vicenza.

[1915] Mantua was not a place of importance, but was famous as being the birth-place of Virgil; at least, the poet, who was born at the village of Andes, in its vicinity, regarded it as such. It was said to have had its name from Manto, the daughter of Tiresias. Virgil, in the Æneid, B. x., alludes to its supposed Tuscan origin.

[1916] Led by Antenor, as Livy says, B. i.

[1917] The Cenomanni, a tribe of the Cisalpine Gauls, seem to have occupied the country north of the Padus, between the Insubres on the west and the Veneti on the east. From Polybius and Livy we learn that they had crossed the Alps within historical memory, and had expelled the Etruscans and occupied their territory. They were signalized for their amicable feelings towards the Roman state.

[1918] Their town was Fertria or Feltria, the modern Feltre.

[1919] The modern city of Trento or Trent occupies the site of Tridentum, their town. It is situate on the Athesis or Adige. It became famous in the middle ages, and the great ecclesiastical council met here in 1545.

[1920] It was a Roman colony under the name of Colonia Augusta, having originally been the capital of the Euganei, and then of the Cenomanni. It was the birth-place of Catullus, and according to some accounts, of our author, Pliny. Modern Verona exhibits many remains of antiquity.

[1921] D’Anville says that the ruins of this town are to be seen at the modern Zuglio.

[1922] Hardouin thinks that their town, Flamonia, stood on the site of the modern Flagogna.

[1923] Their town, Forum Julii, a Roman colony, stood on the site of the modern Friuli. Paulus Diaconus ascribes its foundation to Julius Cæsar.

[1924] Supposed by Miller to have inhabited the town now called Nadin or Susied.

[1925] Their town was probably on the site of the modern Quero, on the river Piave, below Feltre.

[1926] Probably the same as the Tarvisani, whose town was Tarvisium, now Treviso.

[1927] The conqueror of Syracuse. The fact here related probably took place in the Gallic war.

[1928] This must be the meaning; and we must not, as Holland does, employ the number as signifying that of the lakes and rivers; for the Ticinus is in the eleventh region.

[1929] Now the Adda, running through Lago di Como, the Tesino through Lago Maggiore, the Mincio through Lago di Garda, the Seo through Lago di Seo, and the Lambro now communicating with the two small lakes called Lago di Pusiano and Lago d’Alserio, which in Pliny’s time probably formed one large lake.

[1930] Now Vado in Liguria, the harbour of Sabbata or Savo. Using the modern names, the line thus drawn runs past Vado, Turin, Como, Brescia, Verona, Vicenza, Oderzo, Aquileia, Trieste, Pola, and the Arsa.

[1931] It is from this people that the group of volcanic hills between Padua and Verona derive their present name of Colli Euganei or the “Euganean Hills.” From the Triumpilini and the Camuni, the present Val Camonica and Val Trompia derive their names.

[1932] Probably meaning, that for a sum of money they originally acknowledged their subjection to the Roman power.

[1933] The Lepontii probably dwelt in the modern Val Leventina and the Val d’Osula, near Lago Maggiore; the Salassi in the Val d’Aosta.

[1934] Making it to come from the Greek verb λείπω, “to leave behind.”

[1935] As though being εὐγένειοι or εὐγενεῖς, “of honourable descent,” or “parentage.”

[1936] Strabo mentions the Stoni or Stœni among the minor Alpine tribes. Mannert thinks that they dwelt near the sources of the river Chiese, about the site of the modern village of Storo.

[1937] It has been suggested that from them the modern Valtelline takes its name.

[1938] Hardouin suggests that the Suanetes, who are again mentioned, are the people here meant.

[1939] They are supposed to have dwelt in the present canton of Martignac in the Valais, and the Vaudois.

[1940] They dwelt in the Tarantaise, in the duchy of Savoy. The village called Centron still retains their name.

[1941] The states subject to Cottius, an Alpine chief, who having gained the favour of Augustus, was left by him in possession of this portion of the Alps, with the title of Præfect. These states, in the vicinity of the modern Mount Cenis, seem to have extended from Ebrodunum or Embrun in Gaul, to Segusio, the modern Susa, in Italy, including the Pass of Mont Genèvre. The territory of Cottius was united by Nero to the Roman empire, as a separate province called the “Alpes Cottiæ.”

[1942] They dwelt in the vicinity of Ebrodunum or Embrun already mentioned.

[1943] The “mountaineers.” Some editions read here “Appuani,” so called from the town of Appua, now Pontremoli.

[1944] The Vagienni, and the Capillati Ligures, or “Long-haired Ligurians,” have been previously mentioned in Chap. 7.

[1945] The trophy or triumphal arch which bore this inscription is that which was still to be seen at Torbia near Nicæa in Illyria, in the time of Gruter, who has given that portion of the inscription which remained unobliterated, down to “gentes Alpinæ,” “the Alpine nations.” Hardouin speaks of another triumphal arch in honour of Augustus at Segusio or Susa in Piedmont, which appears to have commenced in a somewhat similar manner, but only the first twelve words were remaining in 1671.

[1946] Adopted son of his great uncle Julius Cæsar.

[1947] Most of the MSS. omit the figures XVII here, but it is evidently an accident; if indeed they were omitted in the original.

[1948] They are supposed to have occupied the Val Venosco, at the sources of the Adige. The Isarci dwelt in the Val de Sarra or Sarcha, near Val Camonica; and the Breuni in the Val Brounia or Bregna, at the source of the Tessino.

[1949] D’Anville thinks that they inhabited the Val d’Agno, near Trento, between Lake Como and the Adige. He also detects the name of the Focunates in the village of Vogogna.

[1950] They inhabited the banks of the river Lech, their town being, according to Strabo, Damasia, afterwards Augusta Vindelicorum, now Augsburg.

[1951] Probably the Sarunetes, already mentioned. The Brixentes inhabited the modern Brixen in the Tyrol. The Lepontii have been previously mentioned. The Seduni occupied the present Sion, the capital of the Valais. The Salassi have been already mentioned. According to Bouche, the Medulli occupied the modern Maurienne in Savoy. The Varagri dwelt in Le Chablais.

[1952] The Uceni, according to Hardouin, occupied Le Bourg d’Oysans in the modern Graisivaudan; the Caturiges, the modern Chorges according to Ansart; the Brigiani, probably Briançon, and the Nemaloni, as Hardouin thinks, the place called Miolans.

[1953] They probably dwelt in the Ville de Seyne, in Embrun; the Esubiani near the river Hubaye, in the Vallée de Barcelone in Savoy; the Veamini in Senez, the Triulatti at the village of Alloz, the Ecdini near the river Tinea, and the Vergunni in the vicinity of the district of Vergons.

[1954] The Eguituri probably dwelt near the modern town of Guillaumes, the Oratelli at the place now called Le Puget de Théniers, and the Velauni near the modern Bueil.

[1955] Or subjects of Cottius, previously mentioned.

[1956] A mistake for L. Æmilius Papus. He and C. Regulus were Consuls in B.C. 225. They successfully opposed the Cisalpine Gauls, who invaded Italy; but Regulus was slain in the engagement.

[1957] It is difficult to say what is the exact force of “parci” here; whether in fact it means that Italy shall be wholly exempted from such treatment, as an indignity offered to her soil, or whether her minerals were to be strictly kept in reserve as a last resource. Ajasson, in his Translation, seems to take the former view, Littré the latter.

[1958] From the river now called the Arsa to that called the Kerka.

[1959] Hardouin thinks that “Ismeni” is the proper reading here; but all the MSS. seem to be against him.

[1960] Mentioned in the next Chapter.

[1961] Their town was Aluus or Aloüs.

[1962] Their town was Flanona, which gave name to the Sinus Flanaticus or Golfo di Quarnero. The chief town of the Lopsi was Lopsica, and of the Varvarini, Varvaria.

[1963] The island of Fertina is supposed to have been the modern Berwitch or Parvich. Curicta is now called Karek or Veglia. The Illyrian snails mentioned by our author, B. ix. c. 56, are very numerous here. Caius Antonius, the brother of Marcus, acting under Julius Cæsar, was besieged here by Libo. See the interesting account in Lucan’s Pharsalia, B. iv. l. 402-464.

[1964] The places on their sites are now called Albona, Fianona, Tersact or Tersat near Fiume, Segna, Lopsico, Ortopia, and Veza.

[1965] Now Carin. Ænona is now called Nona, and the Tedanius is the modern Zermagna.

[1966] The whole of this group of islands were sometimes called the Absyrtides, from Absyrtus, the brother of Medea, who according to tradition was slain there. See the last Chapter, p. 266. Ovid, however, in his “Tristia,” states that, this took place at Tomi, on the Pontus Euxinus or Black Sea, the place of his banishment.

[1967] Said by D’Anville to be now called Arbe, and Crexa to be the modern Cherso. Gissa is thought to have been the modern Pago.

[1968] It was the capital of Liburnia. The city of Zara or Zara Vecchia stands on its site. There are but little remains of the ancient city.

[1969] Supposed to be the present Mortero.

[1970] The Titus or Kerka. Scardona still retains its name.

[1971] Now called the Cabo di San Nicolo.

[1972] This measurement would make it appear that the present Sabioncello is meant, but that it ought to come below, after Narona. He probably means the quasi peninsula upon which the town of Tragurium, now Trau Vecchio, was situate; but its circumference is hardly fifty miles. So, if Sicum is the same as the modern Sebenico, it ought to have been mentioned previously to Tragurium.

[1973] Spalatro, the retreat of Diocletian, was in the vicinity of Salona. Its ancient name was Spolatum, and at the village of Dioclea near it, that emperor was born. On the ruins of the once important city of Salona, rose the modern Spalato or Spalatro.

[1974] Its site is unknown, though D’Anville thinks that it was probably that of the modern Tain.

[1975] Clissa is supposed to occupy its site. Tribulium is probably the modern Ugliane.

[1976] The people of the island of Issa, now Lissa, off the coast of Liburnia. It was originally peopled by a Parian or a Syracusan colony. It was famous for its wine, and the beaked ships “Lembi Issaici,” rendered the Romans good service in the war with Philip of Macedon.

[1977] The modern Almissa stands on its site; and on that of Rataneum, Mucarisca.

[1978] Now called Narenta; the river having the same name.

[1979] The localities of all these peoples are unknown.

[1980] Or Epidaurus. It is not noticed in history till the civil war between Pompey and Cæsar, when, having declared in favour of the latter, it was besieged by M. Octavius. The site of it is known as Ragusa Vecchia, or Old Ragusa, but in the Illyric language it is called Zaptal. Upon its destruction, its inhabitants moved to Rausium, the present Ragusa. There are no remains extant of the old town.

[1981] It still retains the name of Risine, upon the Golfo di Cattaro, the ancient Sinus Rhizonicus.

[1982] In the former editions called “Ascrivium.” The modern Cattaro is supposed to occupy its site. Butua is the modern Budua, and Olcinium, Dulcigno. It is probable that the derivation of the name of this last place, as suggested by Pliny, is only fanciful.

[1983] Now called Drin and Drino.

[1984] Now called Scutari or Scodar, the capital of the province called by the Turks Sangiac de Scodar.

[1985] According to Hardouin, the modern Endero stands on the site of their capital.

[1986] Grabia, mentioned by Pouqueville, in his “Voyage de la Grèce,” seems to retain the name of this tribe.

[1987] Pouqueville is of opinion that they occupied the district now known as Musaché.

[1988] Dalechamp thinks that the two words “Retinet nomen” do not belong to the text, but have crept in from being the gloss of some more recent commentator. They certainly appear to be out of place. This promontory is now called Cabo Rodoni.

[1989] The modern Albania.

[1990] Pouqueville is of opinion that they inhabited the district about the present village of Presa, seven leagues N.E. of Durazzo.

[1991] From Ptolemy we learn that Lychnidus was their town; the site of which, according to Pouqueville, is still pointed out at a spot about four leagues south of Ochrida, on the eastern bank of the Lake of Ochrida.

[1992] Now called El Bassan; though Pouqueville says Tomoros or De Caulonias. Commencing in Epirus, they separated Illyricum from Macedonia. See Lucan’s Pharsalia, B. vi. l. 331.

[1993] The Romans are said to have changed its Greek name Epidamnum, from an idea that it was inauspicious, as implying “damnum” or “ruin.” It has been asserted that they gave it the name of Durrhachium or Dyrrhachium, from “durum,” rugged, on account of the ruggedness of its locality. This however cannot be the case, as the word, like its predecessor, is of Greek origin. Its unfortunate name, “Epidamnus,” is the subject of several puns and witticisms in that most amusing perhaps of all the plays of Plautus, the Menæchmi. It was of Corcyræan origin, and after playing a distinguished part in the civil wars between Pompey and Cæsar, was granted by Augustus to his veteran troops. The modern Durazzo stands on its site.

[1994] Now called the Voioussa.

[1995] The monastery of Pollina stands on its site. It was founded by the Corinthians and Corcyræans. There are scarcely any vestiges of it remaining.

[1996] See further mention of this spot in B. ii. c. 110.

[1997] Pouqueville states that the ruins of Amantia are to be seen near the village of Nivitza, on the right bank of the river Suchista. The remains of Bullis, the chief town of the Buliones, according to the same traveller, are to be seen at a place called Gradista, four miles from the sea.

[1998] The same writer states that Oricum was situate on the present Gulf De la Vallona or d’Avlona, and that its port was the place now called by the Greeks Porto Raguseo, and by the Turks Liman Padisha.

[1999] The “Heights of Thunder.” They were so called from the frequent thunderstorms with which they were visited. The range however was more properly called the “Ceraunii Montes,” and the promontory terminating it “Acroceraunii” or “Acroceraunia,” meaning “the end of the Ceraunii.” The range is now called the Mountains of Khimara, and the promontory, Glossa, or in Italian, Linguetta, meaning “the Tongue.”

[2000] In C. 15 of the present Book.

[2001] About 70 English miles is the distance.

[2002] The Donau or Danube.

[2003] Noricum corresponded to the greater part of the present Styria and Carinthia, and a part of Austria, Bavaria, and Salzburg.

[2004] According to D’Anville the modern Wolk-Markt, on the river Drau or Drave. Celeia is the modern Cilley in Carniola. Teurnia, according to Mannert, is the Lurnfelde, near the small town of Spital.

[2005] According to Mannert it was situate near the modern town of Innichen, near the sources of the Drave.

[2006] Supposed to be the same as the Vindobona or Vindomona of other authors, standing on the site of the modern city of Vienna.

[2007] According to Cluver, it stood on the site of the modern Clausen in Bavaria.

[2008] Mannert says that this place was the same with the modern Solfeld, near Klagenfurt.

[2009] D’Anville and other writers think that this is the Neusiedler See, not far from Vienna. Mannert, however, is of opinion that the name ought to be written Pelso, and that the modern Balaton or Platten See is meant.

[2010] The mountainous and woody tract in the vicinity of the Lake Balaton, on the confines of ancient Noricum and Pannonia.

[2011] Now Sarvar on the river Raab, on the confines of Austria and Hungary.

[2012] According to Hardouin, the modern Sopron or Œdenburg.

[2013] This province corresponded to the eastern part of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the whole of Hungary between the Danube and Saave, Slavonia, and part of Croatia and Bosnia. It was reduced by Tiberius, acting under the orders of Augustus.

[2014] Now Laybach, previously mentioned in c. 22. Sissia has been succeeded by the modern Sissek on the Saave.

[2015] The modern Draave or Drau.

[2016] Now the Sau or Saave.

[2017] According to Hardouin the Serretes and the Serrapilli inhabited the modern Carinthia on both sides of the Draave. The sites of the other nations here mentioned are unknown.

[2018] So called from the river Colapis. The other tribes are unknown.

[2019] Probably the same as the mountain range near Warasdin on the Draave. The nations mentioned here dwelt on the western and eastern slopes of this range.

[2020] Now known as Zagrabia.

[2021] Now the Culpa.

[2022] Dion Cassius, B. xix., says that the river Colapis or Colops flowed past the walls of the town of Siscia, but that Tiberius Cæsar caused a trench to be dug round the town, and so drew the river round it, leading it back on the other side into its channel. He calls the island Segetica.

[2023] Now the Bossut. Sirmium occupied the site of the present Sirmich.

[2024] The modern Tzeruinka, according to D’Anville and Brotier.

[2025] Now the Walpo and the Sarroiez, according to Hardouin; or the Bosna and the Verbas, according to Brotier and Mannert.

[2026] Corresponding to the present Servia and Bulgaria.

[2027] Of the Danube with the Saave or Savus just mentioned.

[2028] Now the Morava, which runs through Servia into the Danube. The Pingus is probably the Bek, which joins the Danube near Gradistic. The Timachus is the modern Timoch, and the Œscus is the Iscar in Bulgaria.

[2029] Now called the Vid, the Osma, and the Jantra, rising in the Balkan chain.

[2030] Ajasson remarks here that the name of Illyricum was very vaguely used by the ancients, and that at different periods, different countries were so designated. In Pliny’s time that region comprised the country between the Arsia and the mouth of the Drilo, bounding it on the side of Macedonia. It would thus comprehend a part of modern Carniola, with part of Croatia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, and Upper Albania. In later times this name was extended to Noricum, Pannonia, Mœsia, Dacia, Macedonia, Thessalia, Achaia, Epirus, and even the Isle of Crete.

[2031] Here meaning that part of the Mediterranean which lies between Italy and Greece south of the Adriatic. In more ancient times the Adriatic was included in the Ionian Sea, which was probably so called from the Ionian colonies which settled in Cephallenia and the other islands on the western coast of Greece.

[2032] More properly “Diomedeæ,” being a group of small islands off the coast of Apulia now called Isole di Tremiti, about eighteen miles from the mouth of the Fortore. They were so called from the fable that here the companions of Diomedes were changed into birds. A species of sea-fowl (which Pliny mentions in B. x. c. 44) were said to be the descendants of these Greek sailors, and to show a great partiality for such persons as were of kindred extraction. See Ovid’s Metamorphoses, B. xiv. l. 500. The real number of these islands was a matter of dispute with the ancients, but it seems that there are but three, and some mere rocks. The largest of the group is the island of San Domenico, and the others are San Nicola and Caprara. The small island of Pianosa, eleven miles N.E., is not considered one of the group, but is not improbably the Teutria of Pliny. San Domenico was the place of banishment of Julia, the licentious daughter of Augustus.

[2033] Now called the Bagni di Monte Falcone. See B. ii. c. 106.

[2034] Now called Cherso and Osero, off the Illyrian coast. Ptolemy mentions only one, Apsorrus, on which he places a town of that name and another called Crepsa. The Pullaria are now called Li Brioni, in the Sinus Flanaticus, opposite the city of Pola.

[2035] See p. 258.

[2036] In B. xxxvii. c. 11, he again mentions this circumstance, and states that some writers have placed them in the Adriatic opposite the mouths of the Padus. Scymnus of Chios makes mention of them in conjunction with the Absyrtides. This confusion probably arose from the fact previously noted that the more ancient writers had a confused idea that the Ister communicated with the Adriatic, at the same time mistaking it probably for the Vistula, which flows into the Baltic. At the mouth of this last-mentioned river, there were Electrides or “amber-bearing” islands.

[2037] “Vanitatis.”

[2038] Crexa, Grissa, and Colentum, in c. 25.

[2039] According to Brotier, these are situate between the islands of Zuri and Sebenico, and are now called Kasvan, Capri, Smolan, Tihat, Sestre, Parvich, Zlarin, &c. Some writers however suggest that there were no islands called Celadussæ, and that the name in Pliny is a corruption of Dyscelados in Pomponius Mela; which in its turn is supposed to have been invented from what was really an epithet of Issa, in a line of Apollonius Rhodius, B. iv. l. 565. Ἰσσά τε δυσκέλαδος, “and inauspicious Issa.” See Brunck’s remarks on the passage.

[2040] Now Brazza. According to Brotier the island is still celebrated for the delicate flavour of the flesh of its goats and lambs. Issa is now called Lissa, and Pharia is the modern Lesina. Baro, now Bua, lies off the coast of Dalmatia, and was used as a place of banishment under the emperors.

[2041] Now Curzola, or, in the Sclavonic, Karkar. It obtained its name of Nigra or Melæna, “black,” from the dark colour of its pine woods. Sir G. Wilkinson describes it in his “Dalmatia and Montenegro,” vol. i.

[2042] Now called Meleda or Zapuntello. It is more generally to the other island of Melita or Malta that the origin of the “Melitæi” or Maltese dogs is ascribed. Some writers are of opinion that it was upon this island that St. Paul was shipwrecked, and not the larger Melita.

[2043] So called from their resemblance to a stag, ἔλαφος, of which the modern Giupan formed the head, Ruda the neck, Mezzo the body, Calamotta the haunches, and the rock of Grebini or Pettini the tail. They produce excellent wine and oil, and are looked upon as the most valuable part of the Ragusan territory.

[2044] Still known as Sasino. It is ten miles from Ragusa, the port of Oricum, according to Pouqueville.

[2045] The original numbers are lost.

[2046] He was a Spaniard by birth, a native of Mellaria in Hispania Bætica. He is mentioned by Cicero as a man of great learning, and is probably the same person that is mentioned by Ovid in his Pontic Epistles, B. iv. ep. xvi. l. 29, as a distinguished tragic writer.

[2047] See end of B. ii.

[2048] See end of B. ii.

[2049] M. Porcius Cato, or Cato the Elder; famous as a statesman, a patriot, and a philosopher. He wrote “De Re Rustica,” a work which still survives, and “Letters of Instruction to his Son,” of which only some fragments remain. He also wrote a historical work called “Origines,” of which Pliny makes considerable use. Of this also only a few fragments are left. His life has been written by Cornelius Nepos, Plutarch, and Aurelius Victor.

[2050] M. Vipsanius Agrippa, the distinguished partisan of Augustus, to whose niece Marcella he was married, but he afterwards divorced her for Julia, the daughter of Augustus by Scribonia, and the widow of Marcellus. He distinguished himself in Gaul, at Actium, and in Illyria. He constructed many public works at Rome, and among them the Pantheon; he also built the splendid aqueduct at Nismes. He died suddenly in his 51st year. His body was buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus, who pronounced his funeral oration. He wrote memoirs of his own life. Pliny often refers to the “Commentarii” of Agrippa, by which are meant, it is supposed, certain official lists drawn up by him in the measurement of the Roman world under Augustus. His map of the world is also mentioned by Pliny in c. 3 of the present Book.

[2051] See end of B. ii.

[2052] From Servius, Suetonius and Plutarch we learn that Augustus wrote Memoirs of his Life, in thirteen books; from Suetonius, that he composed a Summary of the Empire (which was probably that referred to in the above note on Agrippa); and from Quintilian, Aulus Gellius, and Pliny, B. xviii. c. 38, that he published Letters written to his grandson Caius.

[2053] P. Terentius Varro, surnamed Atacinus, from the Atax, a river of Gallia Narbonensis, in which province he was born, B.C. 82. Of his “Argonautica,” his “Cosmographia” (probably the same with his “Iter”), his “Navales Libri,” and his Heroic and Amatory Poems, only a few fragments now exist. Of his life nothing whatever is known.

[2054] Valerias Antias. See end of B. ii.

[2055] C. Julius Hyginus, a native of Spain, and freedman of Augustus, by whom he was placed at the Palatine Library. He lived upon terms of intimacy with Ovid. He wrote works on the sites of the cities of Italy, the Nature of the Gods, an account of the Penates, an account of Virgil (probably the same as the work called “Commentaries on Virgil”), on the Families of Trojan descent, on Agriculture, the “Propempticon Cinnæ,” the Lives of Illustrious Men (quoted by John of Salisbury in his “Polycraticon”), a book of Examples, and a work on the Art of War, also mentioned by John of Salisbury. A book of Fables, and an Astronomical Poem, in four books, are ascribed to him, but they are probably productions of a later age.

[2056] L. Antistius Vetus, Consul with Nero, A.D. 55. While commanding in Germany he formed the project of connecting the Moselle and the Saone by a canal, thus establishing a communication between the Mediterranean and the Northern Ocean. Nero having resolved on his death, he anticipated his sentence by opening his veins in a warm bath. His mother-in-law Sextia, and his daughter Pollentia, in a similar manner perished with him.

[2057] He was born, it is supposed, at Tingentera, or Cingentera, on the bay of Algesiras, and probably flourished in the reign of Claudius. He was the first Roman author who wrote a treatise on Geography. It is still extant, and bears marks of great care, while it is written in pure and unaffected language.

[2058] C. Scribonius Curio, the third known of that name. He was the first Roman general who advanced as far as the Danube. Like his son of the same name, he was a violent opponent of Julius Cæsar. He was eloquent as an orator, but ignorant and uncultivated. His orations were published, as also an invective against Cæsar, in form of a dialogue, in which his son was introduced as one of the interlocutors. He died B.C. 53.

[2059] L. Cælius Antipater. See end of B. ii.

[2060] L. Arruntius, Consul, A.D. 6. Augustus declared in his last illness that he was worthy of the empire. This, with his riches and talents, rendered him an object of suspicion to Tiberius. Being charged as an accomplice in the crimes of Albucilla, he put himself to death by opening his veins. It appears not to be certain whether it was this person or his father who wrote a history of the first Punic war, in which he imitated the style of Sallust.

[2061] Statius Sebosus. See end of B. ii.

[2062] Licinius Crassus Mucianus. See end of B. ii.

[2063] Of this writer no particulars whatever are known.

[2064] In most editions this name appears as L. Ateius Capito, but Sillig separates them, and with propriety it would appear, as the name of Capito the great legist was not Lucius. Ateius here mentioned was probably the person surnamed Prætextatus, and Philologus, a freedman of the jurist Ateius Capito. For Sallust the historian he composed an Abstract of Roman History, and for Asinius Pollio he compiled precepts on the Art of Writing. His Commentaries were numerous, but a few only were surviving in the time of Suetonius.

[2065] C. Ateius Capito, one of the most famous of the Roman legists, and a zealous partisan of Augustus, who had him elevated to the Consulship A.D. 5. He was the rival of Labeo, the republican jurist. His legal works were very voluminous, and extracts from them are to be found in the Digest. He also wrote a work on the Pontifical Rights and the Law of Sacrifices.

[2066] A distinguished grammarian of the latter part of the first century B.C. He was entrusted by Augustus with the education of his grandsons Caius and Lucius Cæsar. He died at an advanced age in the reign of Tiberius. He wrote upon antiquities, history, and philosophy: among his numerous works a History of the Etruscans is mentioned, also a treatise on Orthography. Pliny quotes him very frequently.

[2067] See end of B. ii.

[2068] He is mentioned in c. 17, but nothing more is known of him.

[2069] Nothing is known of him. The younger Pliny addressed three Epistles to a person of this name, B. ii. Ep. 15, B. v. Ep. 4, 14.

[2070] See end of B. ii.

[2071] Also called by Pliny Cornelius Alexander. Suidas states that he was a native of Ephesus and a disciple of Crates, and during the war of Sylla in Greece was made prisoner and sold as a slave to C. Lentulus, who made him the tutor of his children, and afterwards restored him to freedom. Servius however says that he received the franchise from L. Cornelius Sylla. He was burnt with his house at Laurentum. Other writers say that he was a native of Catiæum in Lesser Phrygia. The surname of “Polyhistor” was given to him for his prodigious learning. His greatest work seems to have been a historical and geographical account of the world, in forty-two books. Other works of his are frequently mentioned by Plutarch, Photius, and other writers.

[2072] The historian of the Peloponnesian war, and the most famous, perhaps, of all the ancient writers in prose.

[2073] Of Eresus in Lesbos; the favourite disciple of Aristotle, and designated by him as his successor in the presidency of the Lyceum. He composed more than 200 works on various subjects, of which only a very few survive.

[2074] See end of B. ii.

[2075] See end of B. ii.

[2076] He is frequently mentioned by Cicero, and was famous for his eloquence. Pliny informs us in his 34th book, that from his hatred of the Romans he was called the “Roman-hater.” It is probable that he was the writer of a Periegesis, or geographical work, from which Pliny seems to quote.

[2077] No particulars of this author are known. He probably wrote on geography.

[2078] He is again mentioned by Pliny in B. iv. c. 13, and B. vi. c. 31, and by Solinus, c. xxii. 60. It is supposed that he was the author of a Periplus or Circumnavigation of the Earth, mentioned by Pliny B. vii. c. 48; but nothing further is known of him.

[2079] Diodorus Siculus was a native of Agyra or Agyrium, and not of Syracuse, though he may possibly have resided or studied there. It cannot be doubted that he is the person here meant, and Pliny refers in his preface by name to his Βιβλιοθήκη, “Library,” or Universal History. A great portion of this miscellaneous but valuable work has perished. We have but few particulars of his life; but he is supposed to have written his work after B.C. 8.

[2080] Of Syracuse; an historian probably of the time of Philip and Alexander. He was the author of a Periplus of Asia, and an account of Sicily and Sardinia. From his stories in the last he obtained the name of “Thaumatographus” or “writer of wonders.”

[2081] Of Calliphanes the Geographer nothing is known.

[2082] Probably Timagenes, the rhetorician of Alexandria. He was taken prisoner and brought to Rome, but redeemed from captivity by Faustus, the son of Sylla. He wrote many works, but it is somewhat doubtful whether the “Periplus,” in five Books, was written by this Timagenes. He is also supposed to have written a work on the Antiquities of Gaul.

[2083] Now called Monti della Chimera, or Mountains of Khimara. See p. 262.

[2084] The Ægean Sea, the present Archipelago.

[2085] This country contained, according to Pouqueville, the present Sangiacs of Janina, Delvino, and Chamouri, with the Vavodilika or Principality of Arta. This name was originally given to the whole of the west of Greece, from the Promontory of Acroceraunia to the entrance of the Corinthian Gulf, in contradistinction to Corcyra and the island of Cephallenia.

[2086] This district, according to Pouqueville, occupied the present Cantons of Chimera, Iapouria, Arboria, Paracaloma, and Philates.

[2087] They occupied the site of the present Paramythia, according to Pouqueville.

[2088] Antigonia was about a mile distant, Pouqueville says, from the modern town of Tebelen.

[2089] From Ἀ “not,” and ὄρνις “a bird.” Its site is now unknown. There were many places of this name. Avernus or Aornos in Campania has been previously mentioned.

[2090] The remains of Cestria are still to be seen at Palea Venetia, near the town of Filiates. Pouqueville calls the place Chamouri.

[2091] According to Pouqueville, the modern Zagori stands on the site of Perrhæbia. Pindus is sometimes called Grammos, but is still known by its ancient name.

[2092] Cassiope or Cassope stood near the sea, and near the present village of Kamarina. Its extensive ruins are still to be seen.

[2093] Their district, according to Pouqueville, was in the present Canton of Drynopolis.

[2094] The Selli or Sellæ lived in the vicinity of the temple of Jupiter at Dodona, in the modern canton of Souli, according to Pouqueville.

[2095] The country about Dodona is called Hellopia by Hesiod. By some the Helli or Hellopes are considered the same as the Selli. Pouqueville thinks that the Hellopes dwelt in the modern cantons of Janina, Pogoniani, Sarachovitzas, and Courendas, and that the temple of Jupiter stood at the spot now called Proskynisis, near Gardiki, the town of Dodona being near Castritza. Leake is of the same opinion as to the site of the town; but, as has been a subject of remark, it is the only place of celebrity in Greece of which the situation is not exactly known. Leake however thinks that the temple stood on the peninsula now occupied by the citadel of Joanina.

[2096] Pouqueville thinks that this is the hill to be seen at the modern village of Gardiki. He is also of opinion that the springs here mentioned are those at the modern village of Besdounopoulo. His opinions however on these points have not been implicitly received.

[2097] B. iii. c. 26. The Dardani, Triballi, and Mœsi are mentioned in c. 29. The localities of the other tribes here mentioned are not known with any exactness.

[2098] It retains the same name or that of Khimara, and gives its name to the Acroceraunian range. It was situate at the foot of the chain, which begins at this spot.

[2099] “Aquæ regiæ.” Pouqueville suggests, without good reason, as Ansart thinks, that this spring was situate near the modern Drimodez or Dermadez.

[2100] The place called Palæo-Kistes now stands on its site, and some remains of antiquity are to be seen.

[2101] Now the Calama.

[2102] Its ruins are to be seen near the modern Butrinto. It was said to have been founded by Helenus, the son of Priam. Pomponius Atticus had an estate here.

[2103] This corresponds to the present Gulf of Arta, and was especially famous for being the scene of the battle of Actium. The city of Ambracia lay to the north of it. The present Arta is generally believed to occupy its site.

[2104] Pouqueville has shown that Pliny is in error here, and he says that the Acheron is the modern Mavro Potamos; but according to Leake, the name of it is Gurla, or the river of Suli. It flows into the Port Fanari, formerly called Glykys Limen, or Sweet Harbour, from the freshness of the water there. The Acherusian Lake is probably the great marsh that lies below Kastri.

[2105] It is now called the Arta, and gives name to the Gulf.

[2106] The site of Anactoria or Anactorium, like that of its neighbour Actium, has been a subject of much dispute; but it is now pretty generally agreed that the former stood on the modern Cape Madonna, and Actium on the headland of La Punta.

[2107] Pouqueville takes the ruins in the vicinity of Turco Palaka, eight miles from Margariti, to be those of Pandosia.

[2108] This district probably occupied the present cantons of Vonitza and Xeromeros. It was called Curetis from the Curetes, who are said to have come from Ætolia and settled in Acarnania after their expulsion by Ætolus and his followers.

[2109] The modern Vonitza is supposed to stand on its site.

[2110] Leake places its site at Ai Vasili, where some ruins are to be seen.

[2111] “The city of Victory.” Founded by Augustus on the spot where he had pitched his camp before the battle of Actium.

[2112] Now called Capo Ducato or Capo tis Kiras. It is situate at the extremity of the island of Leucas, and opposite to Cephallenia. Sappho is said to have leapt from this rock on finding her love for Phaon unrequited: the story however is devoid of all historical truth.

[2113] Now the island of Santa Maura. It was originally a peninsula, and Homer speaks of it as such; but the Corinthians cut a canal through the isthmus and converted it into an island. After the canal had been choked up for some time with sand, the Romans reopened it. It is at present dry in some parts.

[2114] Probably from its town Nericus, mentioned by Homer.

[2115] From the Greek word διορυκτὸς, a “foss” or “trench.”

[2116] It probably had this name from the circumstance of the inhabitants of Nericus being removed thither by the Corinthians under Cypselus. The remains of Leucas, which was ravaged by the Romans B.C. 197, are still to be seen.

[2117] Its remains are still to be seen in the valley of Kandili, south of Vonitza.

[2118] Pouqueville says that very extensive and perfect ruins of this place are to be seen near the village of Lepenou.

[2119] This famous city was deserted on the foundation of Nicopolis by Augustus. The place of its site has been a subject of much dispute, but it is considered most probable that Leake has rightly suggested that the ruins in the plain of Vlikha, at the village of Neokhori, are those of this city.

[2120] Now the Aspropotamo.

[2121] One of the group of the Echinades; small islands off the coast of Acarnania, which are mentioned by Pliny, in C. 19 of the present Book. It is now quite united to the mainland.

[2122] Pouqueville says that Athamania occupied the localities now known as Djoumerca and Radovitch. It properly belonged to Epirus, and Pliny makes a mistake in considering it as a part of Ætolia.

[2123] According to Pouqueville the ruins of Tymphæa are to be seen near the village of Paliouri, four miles from Janina.

[2124] Ephyre, a town of the Agræi, is also mentioned by Strabo, but nothing whatever is known of it.

[2125] The main body of the Perrhæbi were a people of Thessaly.

[2126] Dolopia, now called Anovlachia, was properly reckoned part of Epirus.

[2127] They are probably not the same people as the inhabitants of Atrax in Thessaly, which will be found mentioned in the 15th Chapter of this Book.

[2128] The most famous city of Ætolia in its day, and the residence of Œneus, father of Meleager and Tydeus, and grandfather of Diomedes. The greater part of its inhabitants were removed by Augustus to his new city of Nicopolis. Leake supposes its ruins to be those seen by him at Kurt-Aga, to the east of the river Evenus.

[2129] Now called the Fidaris.

[2130] Pouqueville supposes the site of Macynia to have been that of the modern Koukio-Castron, and that of Molycria the present Manaloudi.

[2131] Probably the present Varassova; there was a town called Chalcis, or Hypochalcis, at its foot. The present Kaki-Skala was probably the mountain of Taphiassus.

[2132] Opposite the Promontory of Rhium, at the entrance of the Corinthian Gulf. It is now called the Castle of Roumelia, or the Punta of the Dardanelles of Roum Ili.

[2133] Leake and Dodwell make it a mile and a half.

[2134] Or Rhium. It is now called the Castle of the Morea.

[2135] The modern Enebatché or Lepanto; whence the Corinthian Gulf takes its modern name.

[2136] Proschium was built at a later period on the site of Pylene. Its site appears to be unknown. The modern Kyra-tis-Irinis is thought to occupy the site of Pleuron.

[2137] Leake supposes some ruins between Kurt-aga, the site of Chalcedon, and the east end of the Lagoon of Missolonghi, to be the remains of Halicyrna.

[2138] Leake supposes it to be identical with the high mountain now called Kelberini. Others again identify it with Gribovo.

[2139] Pliny erroneously places this mountain in Acarnania. It was a range of Ætolia, now called Zygos.

[2140] Perhaps the modern Djourmerca.

[2141] Either the present Plocopari, or perhaps, more probably, Viena.

[2142] A part of Mount Taphiassus. It is mentioned only by Pliny.

[2143] They are supposed to have inhabited the modern districts of Malandrino and Salone. They were called “Ozolæ” or ‘strong-smelling,’ either from the undressed skins worn by them, or from the quantities of asphodel that grew in their country; or else from the vapours thrown off by the mineral springs in those parts.

[2144] Pouqueville imagines its ruins to be those seen about two leagues from the modern Galaxidi.

[2145] Lapie marks this in his map as the modern port of Ianakhi.

[2146] So called from the ancient town of Crissa, which stood on it. It is the same as the modern Gulf of Salona.

[2147] Or Eupalium. Leake supposes it to have stood in the plain of Marathia, opposite the islands of Trazonia, where some ruins still exist.

[2148] Pausanias makes this town to be the same with the Homeric Crissa, but Strabo distinguishes the two places, and his opinion is now generally followed; Cirrha being thought to have been built at the head of the Crissæan gulf, as the port of Crissa. Its ruins are thought to be those which bear the modern name of Magula.

[2149] Or Chalæum. Pliny erroneously calls it a town of Phocis, it being on the coast of the Locri Ozolæ. He is wrong also in placing it seven miles from Delphi, and not improbably confounded it with Cirrha. Leake suggests that its site was the present Larnaki.

[2150] The modern village of Kastri stands on part of the site of ancient Delphi. Its ruins have been explored by Chandler, Leake, and Ulrichs.

[2151] The two highest summits of the range of Parnassus in the vicinity of Delphi were Tithorea, now Velitza, to the N.W., and Lycorea, now Liakura, to the N.E. Its rocks above Delphi were called the Phædriades or “Resplendent.”

[2152] The famed Castalian spring is now called the Fountain of St. John, from the chapel of that saint which stands close to its source.

[2153] Now the Mavro-Potamo.

[2154] Its ruins are still to be seen about three leagues from Kastri.

[2155] Or Crisso. It was situate inland to the S.W. of Delphi. Its ruins are to be seen at a short distance from the modern village of Chryso.

[2156] It is supposed that the few ruins seen near the modern Aspra Spitia are those of this place. It was famous for its hellebore, which was extensively used for the cure of madness. There were two other places of the same name.

[2157] The people of Bulis, near the Crissæan Gulf. Its ruins are situate at a short distance from the monastery of Dobé.

[2158] Ansart suggests that this was the present port of Agio-Sideri or Djesphina.

[2159] It occupied the site of the modern Salona; the walls of its ancient Acropolis are still to be seen. It was the chief town of the Locri Ozolæ.

[2160] Pouqueville thinks that the ruins seen near Moulki are those of Tithrone, and that Tritea stood on the site of the present Turcochorion.

[2161] Or Amphrysus, famous for the strength of its fortifications and its scarlet berries for dyeing. Some remains of it are to be seen at the modern village of Dhistomo.

[2162] On the frontiers of Doris and Phocis. Leake thinks that its ruins are those seen midway between Kamares and Glamista. Daulis was also the name of an ancient town of Phocis, the ruins of which are to be seen at the modern village of Dhavlia.

[2163] Probably the present Palæo Kastro, at the Port de Dobrena or Polaca.

[2164] Leake thinks that the Corsian Thebes, a port of Bœotia, is represented by the modern Khosia.

[2165] Helicon is a range of mountains with several summits, the loftiest of which is now called Paleovuni. Helicon was a grove of the Muses, and the fountain of Aganippe was supposed to impart poetic inspiration to those who drank of it.

[2166] See p. 288.

[2167] From Apis, the son of Phoroneus, or Telchines, according to Pausanias. After the arrival of Pelops, it took from him its name of Peloponnesus, or the “Island of Pelops.”

[2168] The Ionian from the north, and the Ægean, or rather, Myrtoan, Sea from the east.

[2169] That part of Greece proper which lies to the north of the Isthmus.

[2170] Now the Gulfs of Lepanto and Egina.

[2171] Lecheæ was the harbour of Corinth on the Corinthian, and Cenchreæ on the Saronic Gulf. The name of the latter is still preserved in the modern appellation Kechries, which is given to its ruins.

[2172] Demetrius Poliorcetes, king of Macedonia, son of Antigonus, king of Asia.

[2173] Caius Caligula, the Emperor.

[2174] The Emperor Nero actually commenced the work, having opened the undertaking with great pomp, and cut away a portion of the earth with his own hands. He had advanced four stadia, when the work was interrupted by the insurrection of Julius Vindex in Gaul.

[2175] We cannot agree with Hardouin that “exitus” here means “death,” in allusion to the unfortunate end of all those who had made the attempt. The opinion of Spanheim seems rather deserving of support (though censured by Hardouin), that it merely means “the result” in each case; it being the fact, that in all the instances the contemplated undertaking was interrupted by some unforeseen event. Periander and Herodes Atticus also contemplated the formation of this channel.

[2176] It is not known when it exchanged this name for that of Corinth; being called by both names in Homer. Scarcely any remains of it are now to be seen. The small town on its site is called Gortho, a corruption of its ancient name. The water of the famed spring of Pirene is now only used for washing clothes.

[2177] Now Patras. There are few remains of the ancient city, which was one of the twelve cities of Achaia. It was made a Roman colony by Augustus.

[2178] See C. 3 of the present Book, p. 275.

[2179] Originally a district in the south of Thessaly had this name; but to distinguish it from that in the Peloponnesus, its people were called the Phthiotian Achæi.

[2180] From the Greek word αἰγιαλὸς, “the sea-shore.”

[2181] Situate on the coast, about five miles from the present Vostitza.

[2182] In the interior. The modern Trikala stands on its site.

[2183] Helice was the place of meeting of the Achæan league; when, in B.C. 373, together with Bura, it was swallowed up by an earthquake, and their sites were covered by the sea. Such of the people as escaped fled to the places mentioned above by Pliny. Pouqueville says that some remains of these places may still be seen emerging from the sea.

[2184] The modern Basilico or Vasilika stands on its site.

[2185] The places called Palæo-Kastro and Vostitza are supposed to occupy the sites of Ægira and Ægium. To the east of Vostitza considerable ruins are still to be seen.

[2186] Supposed to be the present Artotina.

[2187] Towns of Roman Argolis. The ruins of the former are supposed to be those at a spot still called Klenes, near the village of Curtesi. The remains of Hysiæ, on the road from Argos to Tegea, stand on a hill above the plain of Achladokampos.

[2188] Now called Tekieh; fifteen stadia from Rhium.

[2189] Or Pharæ; 150 stadia from Patræ.

[2190] The modern Kato-Achaia.

[2191] Its remains are to be seen near the modern village of Karavostasi. Pliny is mistaken probably in calling it a colony, as we know that it was placed under the authority of the colony of Patræ, which alone was allowed to enjoy the privilege of self-government.

[2192] Pouqueville thinks that it was situate on the river now called the Verga. Leake supposes that the town of Hyrmine stood on the site of the present Kastro Tornese on the peninsula of Khlemutzi; but Boblaye and Curtius place it further north, at the modern harbour of Kunupeli, where there are some ancient ruins.

[2193] Now Capo Papa.

[2194] The locality of Cyllene is doubtful. Most writers place it at Glarentza but Pouqueville suggests Andravida or Andravilla, and Mannert places it near Clarenza. Chelinates or Chelonatas was probably the name originally of the whole peninsula of Khlemutzi, but the point here mentioned was most probably the modern Cape Tornese.

[2195] It lay in the interior, south of Sicyonia, and north of Argos. Pouqueville found its ruins on the banks of the Asopus.

[2196] Strabo says that this was the name of the most ancient town of Phliasia, and that the inhabitants afterwards deserted it for Phlius.

[2197] Some small ruins of it are to be seen at the foot of the hill of Kaloskopi, its ancient Acropolis.

[2198] By Olympiads, which were reckoned according to the order of celebration of the Olympic games: they were established in the year B.C. 776, and were celebrated every fourth year.

[2199] It was destroyed in the year B.C. 572 by the Eleans, not a vestige of it being left. The Alpheus retains the name of Alfio.

[2200] Or “the Fish,” from its peculiar shape. It is now called Katakolo.

[2201] Probably situate in the valley between Elis and Messenia, which was so called. It is not elsewhere mentioned; and its ruins are thought to be those near the sea, on the right bank of the river Cyparissus. Leprion is again mentioned in c. x.

[2202] Or Platamodes. Supposed to be the present Aja Kyriaki.

[2203] This city survived through the middle ages, when it was called Arkadia. In 1525 it was destroyed by the Turks, and when rebuilt resumed nearly its ancient name as Cyparissia, by which it is now called. The bay or gulf is called the Gulf of Arkadia.

[2204] Messenian Pylos probably stood on the site of the modern Erana; Pouqueville says however that it is still called Pilo, and other writers place it at Zonchio. It stood on the modern Bay of Navarino.

[2205] Its site was at the spot called Palæo Kastro, near the modern town of Modon. The site of Messenian Helos, so called from its position in the marshes, τὸ ἕλος, is now unknown.

[2206] Now Capo Gallo.

[2207] It stood on the western side of the Messenian Gulf, which from it was called the Asinæan Gulf. Grisso, or, according to some, Iaratcha, occupies its site. Koroni however is most probably the spot where it stood, the inhabitants of ancient Corone having removed to it. Petalidhi stands on the site of Corone. A small portion of the Messenian Gulf was probably called the Coronean.

[2208] Now Cape Matapan.

[2209] Now the Pyrnatza.

[2210] Its ruins, which are extensive, are to be seen in the vicinity of the modern village of Mavromati. Ithome was the citadel of Messene, on a mountain of the same name, now called Vourcano.

[2211] It is supposed that in ancient times it occupied the site of the more modern Samos or Samia in Triphylia. The modern Sareni is thought to occupy its site.

[2212] Dorion or Dorium, the spot where, according to Homer, the Muses punished Thamyris with blindness, is supposed to have been situate on the modern plain of Sulima.

[2213] Nothing seems to be known of this place; but it is not improbable that it gave its name to the place so called in Sicily, originally a Messenian colony.

[2214] Or Tænarus, afterwards called Cænopolis. The present town of Kisternes, or Kimaros, occupies its site.

[2215] Its site is generally placed at Sklavokhori, six miles from Sparta; but Leake supposes it to have been situate on the hill called Aghia Kyriaki, between that place and Sparta.

[2216] Or Pharis. The present Chitries occupies its site.

[2217] Or Leuctrum, on the river Pamisus, now called Levtros. It must not be confounded with the town in Bœotia where the Thebans defeated the Spartans, B.C. 371.

[2218] Or Lacedæmon. Its site is occupied by the modern villages of Magula and Psykhiko. The principal modern town in the vicinity is Mistra.

[2219] Or Therapnæ, on the left bank of the Eurotas. Some ruins of it are still to be seen.

[2220] Considerable ruins of it are still to be seen to the N.E. of the modern town of Skarhamula.

[2221] Authors are not agreed as to the site of this town and that of Anthea or Anthene.

[2222] Memorable for the pitched battle between 300 Argives and 300 Spartans,—Othryades being the sole survivor of the Spartans, and Alcenor and Chromius of the Argives.

[2223] By Homer called Enope.

[2224] Pente Dactylon, or Pente Dactyli, the “Five Fingers,” is the present name of the range of Taygetus. Its principal summits are now St. Elias and Paixamadhi. The river Eurotas is now called Iris and Niris in its upper and middle course, and Basili-potamo from the Spartan plain to the sea.

[2225] Ægila, according to Leake, occupied the site of the present Scutari; if so, this gulf was probably the Gulf of Scutari. Psamathus was near the point of Tænarum.

[2226] Or Gythium, near the mouth of the Eurotas. It was famous for its cheeses. The ruins are called Paleopoli, a little to the north of Marathonisi.

[2227] Now Capo Santo Angelo.

[2228] Now Capo Skillo.

[2229] Or BϾ. Its ruins are to be seen at the head of the Gulf of Vatika.

[2230] It stood on the site of the place called Palæ-Emvasia, above Monembasia.

[2231] Its site is the modern Porto Kari, according to Ansart.

[2232] Leake places Cyphanta either at Cyparissi, or farther north, at Lenidhi. Ansart makes it the modern Porto Botte, or Stilo.

[2233] Now the Banitza. The Erasinus is the modern Kephalari.

[2234] So called from its breed of horses. It is now also called Argos; three leagues from Napoli di Romania.

[2235] Its site is now called Milos. In the marshes in its vicinity Hercules was said to have killed the Lernæan Hydra.

[2236] Karvata is the name of the place on its site. Its ruins are numerous, and of great magnificence.

[2237] Its ruins are of the most interesting nature, presenting enormous masses of stone, of Cyclopian architecture. The spot is at the present day called Palæ-Nauplia.

[2238] It must not be confounded with the place in Arcadia, where Epaminondas fell. Its site appears to be unknown.

[2239] Or Apesas, in the territory of Cleonæ, now called Fuka. Artemius is probably the present Malvouni, or Malcyo.

[2240] A river of the same name rose in this mountain; its identity is unknown.

[2241] So called from Niobe, the sister of Pelops and wife of Amphion, king of Thebes. The spring of Amymone ran into the lake of Lerna.

[2242] Its ruins are to be seen in the vicinity of the modern village of Castri: they are very extensive.

[2243] The modern Dhamala occupies the site of Trœzen.

[2244] The identity of this Coryphasium seems to be unascertained. There was a promontory of that name in Messenia; but it cannot be the place here spoken of.

[2245] It is supposed that Pliny here alludes to Argos Hippium, which he has previously mentioned; but only in connection with the rivers Inachus and Erasinus, and not as included in the list of the towns of Argolis. The origin of the term “Dipsian” is probably unknown. It could hardly allude to drought, as Argos was abundantly supplied with water. But see B. vii. c. 57.

[2246] Ansart says that this is the modern Porto Estremo, at the mouth of the Saronic Gulf.

[2247] Hesychius says that oaks were called σαρωνιδὲς in the language of ancient Greece. This gulf is now called the Gulf of Egina, or of Athens.

[2248] He was worshipped here under the form of a serpent; and his temple, five miles from Epidaurus, was resorted to by patients from all parts of Greece for the cure of their diseases. The ruins of this temple are still to be seen, and those of the theatre at Epidaurus are very extensive. The village of Pidharvo stands in the midst of the ruins.

[2249] The modern Capo Franco.

[2250] Lapie takes Anthedus, or Anthedon, to be the place now called Porto d’Athene.

[2251] This appears to have been a port of Corinth, on a promontory of the same name, meaning, probably from its shape, the “Bull’s Head Point.”

[2252] Called the ‘Posideium’; in its vicinity the games were celebrated. The Isthmian Sanctuary was especially famous as a place of refuge.

[2253] From δρυμωδὴς, “woody,” it being filled with groves and forests.

[2254] Now called the Khan of Tripotamo.

[2255] Now called Paleopoli. Here Epaminondas fell, fighting against the Spartans, B.C. 362.

[2256] In the N.E. of Arcadia. Its ruins are supposed to be those seen near the modern Chionia. It was in the vicinity of the lake of the same name, the scene of one of the labours of Hercules.

[2257] An important city: the modern Piali marks its site.

[2258] Built upon the ruins of the ancient Mantinea.

[2259] An ancient town mentioned by Homer, N.W. of Mantinea. The modern Kalpaki stands on its site.

[2260] Or Pheneus, on the N.W. of Arcadia. Phonia stands on its site.

[2261] Near Tegea; said to have been the birth-place of Evander. On the foundation of Megalopolis, it was nearly deserted, but was restored by Antoninus Pius. Its ruins are supposed to be those seen near the modern village of Thana, according to Ansart.

[2262] It being said to have been so called in compliment to Evander, a native, as above stated, of Palantium.

[2263] Founded by the advice of Epaminondas, after the battle of Leuctra, B.C. 371, near the frontiers of Messenia. The ruins of its theatre, once the largest in Greece, are the only remains of it now to be seen, near the modern village of Sinano.

[2264] It contained a famous temple of Æsculapius. Its ruins are to be seen near the village of Atzikolo. The exact site of Bucolion, which was near Megalopolis, is probably unknown, though Ansart says that the spot is called Troupiais. Of Carnion nothing is known.

[2265] The town of Parrhasia, which is mentioned by Homer, seems to have given name to the Parrhasian district. Leake thinks it to be the same as Lycosura.

[2266] On the river Ladon: its ruins are seen near the modern Vanena.

[2267] In the west of Arcadia, on the river Alpheus.

[2268] Or “Juno’s Town.” It was a place of great importance, situate on the lower Alpheus. Its remains are to be seen on a hill west of the village of Aianni, or St. John. They are very inconsiderable. Its wine was highly esteemed, and still maintains its ancient celebrity.

[2269] Of Pylæ, Pallene, Agræ, and Epium, nothing appears to be known.

[2270] Or Cynætha, in the north of Arcadia, upon the Aroanian mountains, beyond the natural boundaries of Arcadia. The modern village of Kalavryta occupies its site; but there are scarcely any traces of its remains.

[2271] Or Lepreum, so called to distinguish it from Lepreum in Elis.

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